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This paper discusses some recent advances in spectrometric methods and approaches for
mercury speciation analysis of environmental samples with focus on isotope dilution
techniques for determination of mercury species' concentrations in gaseous samples and
reaction rates in soils and sediments. Such analytical data is important inter alia in
fundamental research on mercury biogeochemistry and for risk assessments of mercury-
contaminated soils and sediments and for designing effective remedial actions. The paper
describes how the use of enriched stable isotope tracers in mercury speciation analysis
can improve the traceability and accuracy of results, facilitate rational method
developments, and be useful for studying biogeochemical processes, i.e. rate of reactions
and fluxes, of mercury species. In particular the possibilities to study and correct for
unwanted species transformation reactions during sample treatment and to study
"natural" transformations of species in environmental samples, or micro- and mesocosm
ecosystems, during incubations are highlighted. Important considerations to generate
relevant data in isotope tracer experiments as well as reliability and quality assurance of
mercury speciation analysis in general are also discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The chemical forms in which any element (either a major constituent or a trace element)
is present dictates its chemical and physical properties and thereby its impact in the
environment and effects on organisms. Thus, there is a clear need for reliable analytical
techniques that can quantify different forms of trace elements, including mercury.
This paper discusses spectrometric methods and approaches for mercury speciation
analysis that can provide appropriate data for risk assessments of mercury-contaminated
soils and sediments and for designing effective remedial actions. The paper focuses on
isotope dilution techniques for speciation analysis of mercury in gaseous samples and the
determination of transformation rates of mercury species in soils and sediments. It is not
intended to provide a review of state-of-the-art technologies for mercury speciation
analysis but does discuss selected examples. The collection, conservation, and storage of
samples are not considered.
DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this paper, the IUPAC definition of a trace element is also useful to
consider: an element having an average concentration of < 100 parts per million atoms
(ppma) or <100 μg per g.
fractionation. However, from the users' perspective the main issue is whether the
available data for mercury in a specific system are adequate or not for a given application
and not if, per definition, it was a speciation or a fractionation method that was used to
generate the data.
In addition to speciation data, the total concentration of the element in a sample should
always be determined to verify the speciation analysis by mass balance. Fractionation and
total concentration determinations are thus important complements to speciation analysis
but are not discussed further in this paper.
In terms of redox speciation, there are 3 forms of mercury: elemental, Hg(0); mercurous,
Hg(I); and mercuric, Hg(II). Hg(II) is of particular environmental interest because it can
form mineral phases, solid phase or water soluble complexes (including complexes with
proteins and peptides), semivolatile compounds, and mono- or disubstituted
organomercury compounds. The monosubstituted organomercury compounds can also
form numerous complexes and semivolatile compounds. In this paper Hg(II) refers to the
inorganic, mercuric form of mercury. The biogeochemistry of mercury is complex, and the
element is usually found in all compartments of an environmental system: mineral and
organic solid phases in soils and sediments, pore water and pore gas of soils and
sediments, the "free" water phase, biota, and air (15-20). Biota is only exposed to
relatively few forms of mercury. Humans are mainly exposed to Hg(0) by inhalation
(primarily in specific industries, such as small-scale gold mining [21]) and to methyl
mercury, CH^sub 3^Hg(II), by consumption of predatory fish (22). The exposure to Hg(II)
can also be relatively high because it is present at higher levels than CH^sub 3^Hg(II) in
drinking water and several foodstuffs other than fish, but the uptake of Hg(II) is much less
efficient. In aquatic ecosystems, organisms at low trophic levels are believed to be
exposed to certain water-soluble Hg(II) and CH^sub 3^Hg(II) complexes (23-25). As
illustrated in other papers in this special issue, certain environmental conditions may
result in net production of mobile and bioavailable forms of mercury, thereby increasing
exposure and complicating risk assessments. To assess the risk fully and identify
remediation actions for mercury-contaminated sites, it is necessary to consider several
environmental compartments, and it is therefore desirable to be able to measure the
dominant complex and/or binding forms of mercury in all sample types.
Currently only some of the mercury species present in the environment can be measured,
and only for some species can the partitioning be predicted by equilibrium models.
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
Therefore, both measurement techniques and modeling must be applied and improved if
we are to obtain a detailed understanding of mercury's biogeochemical processes.
To date much attention has been focused on CH^sub 3^Hg(II), because this species has
both high toxicity and high tendency for biomagnification, the latter of which is illustrated
in Table 1. As mentioned above, most analytical speciation methods for mercury include
the selective quantification of CH^sub 3^Hg(II). The formation of CH^sub 3^Hg(H) is
mainly a biotic process (26), and consequently it is not relevant to model a chemical
equilibrium between Hg(II) and CH^sub 3^Hg(II). The processes whereby CH^sub 3^Hg(II)
is formed are described in other articles in this special issue. To support the discussion
later in this paper, it should be noted that sulphate-reducing bacteria are believed to be
the most important microorganisms involved in the formation of CH^sub 3^Hg(II) from
Hg(II) (27-30). These bacteria require a chemically reducing environment and access to
sulphate and high-quality carbon as electron acceptor and donor, respectively, for their
metabolism.
In contaminated soils and sediments, the mercury species of primary interest are the main
pollutant forms: Hg(0) (from inter alia the chlor-alkali industry), phenyl mercuric mercury,
C^sub 6^H^sub 5^Hg(II), (from inter alia the pulp and paper industry) and mercuric
chloride, Hg(II)Cl^sub 2^, (from inter alia vinyl chloride monomer production) (31-33), and
their probable formation products in the environment: Hg(II) and subsequently CH^sub
3^Hg(II).
spectrometry (ICPMS) is frequently used, and it provides detection limits at the lowest
range among analytical techniques that are routinely used for trace element analysis.
Concerning reliability of speciation analysis, the main difficulty is often to maintain the
original species distribution in the sample during processing (34-37). It is difficult to
completely avoid species transformations, so it is important to monitor them to optimize
methods (by minimizing such reactions) and to correct for remaining transformations. The
cost of speciation analysis is generally rather high because the methods involved often are
relatively complex and time consuming, and, if ICPMS is used, the instrumental operating
costs are high. Many methods used for mercury speciation analysis cannot establish the
exact molecular or complex forms of mercury in environmental samples. Maximizing the
power of detection and maximizing molecular information require different techniques,
often resulting in compromises.
Indirect Techniques
During indirect analysis of solid samples (e.g. soils, sediments, biota), the target species
are extracted or the solid material is dissolved, such as by mild digestion. The analysis of
water and gas samples usually requires a preconcentration step because the analyte
concentrations are low. In addition, all types of samples may require further cleanup to
separate the analyte(s) from potentially interfering matrix components. Depending on the
instrumentation used for final determinations, a derivatization step may also be necessary
in which the analyte is reacted with a reagent to modify its chemical and physical
properties (e.g., boiling point, solubility). Discussion of various approaches to these
operations and comprehensive reviews are available in the literature (37-40).
atomization/ionization sources, the ICP is at present the dominant one (44). Inductively
coupled plasma mass spectrometry instruments can easily be coupled online to either GC
(45-47) or LC (48, 49) systems, as well as a number of other instruments capable of
separating species in various ways (5052). Although ICPMS leads the field in the analysis of
metallic trace elements, its performance is much dependent on the type of mass
spectrometer used (44). Most common are quadrupole or sector field spectrometers with
single collector detectors, although time-of-flight mass spectrometers and sector field
instruments with multicollector detectors are also used.
When softer ionization techniques than ICP are required, GC can be coupled to electron
impact or chemical ionisation sources and LC can be coupled to electrospray ionization
(ESI) or atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) sources. The mass spectrometers
used with these ion sources can contain one or more mass analyzers, in single or tandem
MS instruments, respectively (53).
Of the hyphenated systems, GC-ICPMS (45-47) gives the lowest detection limits, allows
isotope-selective detection, and is well suited to the determination of Hg(II) and CH^sub
3^Hg(II). Typical detection limits are 0.1-1 pg if the ionic Hg(II) and CH^sub 3^Hg(II) species
are converted to fully alkylated compounds by derivatization (54-56). The boiling points of
the resulting compounds are lower than those of the underivatized compounds, resulting
in shorter retention times, sharper Chromatographie peaks, and enhanced signal-to-noise
ratios. The major disadvantage of the derivatization procedure is that information about
species complexes is lost, because all Hg(II) and CH^sub 3^Hg(II) complexes are converted
to the same respective alkylated product. Derivatization may also cause changes in the
redox and alkylation speciation if experimental conditions are not carefully controlled (57,
58).
(61). Although tandem MS can normally provide high selectivity, for the analysis of trace
element compounds insufficient selectivity can be a concern. In tandem MS, the molecular
ion formed by initial ionization is isolated by the first MS and fragmented in a collision cell,
resulting in potentially characteristic "daughter" ions that are isolated by the second MS
and detected. Low-molecular-weight inorganic complexes may not form characteristic
fragments, in which case selectivity is reduced. Furthermore, quantification may be
difficult using these techniques because the ionization efficiency strongly depends on the
molecular structure of the analyte species and the composition of the sample matrix (59).
In contrast, with LC-ICPMS it is often possible to quantify eluting species by a continuous
postcolumn addition of an isotopically enriched inorganic standard compound, because in
ICPMS the sensitivity is normally independent of the chemical form of the element. It
should be realized that ESI/APCI-tandem MS was originally designed and developed for
applications other than trace element speciation analysis, and these techniques are state
of the art for their primary intended purposes (e.g., proteomic analysis) (62, 63).
Nevertheless, they are being increasingly used in trace element speciation analyses but
more so in "metallomic" (64) than in environmental applications (59, 60).
Direct Techniques
Although the direct measurement techniques available for mercury speciation analysis
typically do not involve the use of enriched isotope compounds and thereby are outside
the focus of this overview article, it is useful to consider the complementary type of
molecular information that direct techniques can provide compared with indirect
techniques. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (65) and X-ray spectroscopic
techniques (66), such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and in particular synchrotron-
based X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine-
structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy, are direct analytical techniques that, in principle, can be
applied to any type of sample.
X-ray absorption near-edge structure and EXAFS spectroscopy are being increasingly used
for mercury speciation analysis (66). These techniques can be used for all types of
samples. For solid phases, wet or dry samples can be used and their natural redox
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
potential can be maintained during data collection. Samples may be dried or freeze-dried,
ground, and pressed into pellets prior to measurement. After spectral fitting and modeling
procedures, the analysis provides information about oxidation states and the nearest
binding atom to the central atom (Hg). This information is required to assess the reactivity
(primary mobility) of mercury in soils and sediments. Mercury may be bound to sulphur,
oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen, with consequent changes in its reactivity and mobility.
However, their need for synchrotron radiation with a small cross-section and very high
intensity constrains the applicability of these techniques. In addition, the sensitivity is
often inadequate to measure natural concentrations of mercury. In EXAFS several
standard additions of increasing concentration are therefore often made to each sample.
The added mercury binds preferentially to sites with the strongest affinity (usually
reduced sulphur groups), until all such binding sites are occupied. This has been shown for
both Hg(II) (67, 68) and CH^sub 3^Hg(II) (69). Further addition of mercury will result in
binding to other sites with a weaker affinity. The additions are extended to concentrations
at which this effect can be observed by the EXAFS measurements. It is then assumed that
the native mercury is bound to the same sites as identified with the lower standard
additions. Through use of state-of-the-art facilities, it is possible to measure
concentrations as low as ~50-100 μg g^sup -1^, which can be found in heavily field-
contaminated soils and sediments.
Isotope dilution analysis was initially developed for elemental analysis in the 1950s (70)
and was extended into the field of organic compound analysis in the 1970s (71). In the
early 1990s, the research group of Klaus Heumann applied this powerful approach to trace
element speciation analysis (72, 73). Usually the central atom (Hg in this case) is labeled
with an enriched isotope, enabling the identification and quantification of Hg
transformation products if such reactions occur. The lack of certified isotopically enriched
standards has been a primary obstacle to applying this technique to mercury speciation
analysis. Isotopically enriched mercury is usually purchased in the form of Hg(0)(l) or
Hg(II)O(s), and other compounds must be synthesized in-house from these materials.
However, isotopically enriched CH^sub 3^Hg(II) standards have recently become
commercially available. The isotope-enriched compounds can be used to study and
correct for unwanted species transformation reactions during sample treatment (34, 58,
74-76) and to study "natural" transformations of species in environmental samples, or
micro- and mesocosm ecosystems, during incubations (77, 78). Because mercury has 7
stable isotopes, it is possible, in the same experiment, to add several different mercury
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
When applying the system on the sediment-brackish water microcosm systems (85), it was
found that 2 wk after addition of a ^sup 199^Hg(II) isotopically enriched standard to the
sediment sample, ^sup 199^Hg(0), (CH^sub 3^)^sub 2^ ^sup 199^Hg(II), and CH^sub
3^^sup 199^Hg(II)X were all emitted to the gas phase at detectable rates of 0.03-7.5 pg
min^sup -1^. The magnitude of species transformation reactions during sample treatment
(collection, derivatization, desorption, and analysis) was determined for the isotope
tracers emitted from the permeation tube system. A higher degree of transformation was
obtained in gaseous samples emitted from brackish water sediments (21 ± 6% and 8 ± 5%
for Hg[II]X^sub 2^ and CH^sub 3^Hg[II]X, respectively) than in pure argon collected from
the permeation tube system (11 ± 10% and 1±1% for Hg[II]X^sub 2^ and CH^sub 3^Hg[II]X,
respectively). The common end product of the transformation reactions was Hg(0). Hg(0)
and (CH^sub 3^)^sub 2^Hg(II) did not undergo measurable transformations. These results
demonstrate the need to quantify species transformations in order to minimize them by
method optimization and correct for unavoidable transformations. With the permeation
tube system and the multilabeling species-specific IDA, correction can be done for each
individual sample.
The system has also been used to assess risks in the working environment during the
remediation of mercury-contaminated soil (unpublished results), because there was
concern that staff might be exposed to mercury, especially organomercury compounds,
during such work. Initial measurements of solid samples showed that mercury was
present in the soil mainly as inorganic Hg(II) with low volatility. However, measurements
of the gas phase above soil samples after they had been stored in sealed containers for 4
mo revealed average mercury concentrations of 0.18 mg Hg(0) m^sup -3^ air at 24°C. This
is 6 times higher than the Swedish hygienic threshold value for elemental mercury in the
work environment (0.03 mg Hg[0] m^sup -3^ for exposure during a working day).
Speciation analysis of mercury in the gas phase showed that 98%-99% was present as
Hg(0), l%-2% as Hg(II), and a negligible amount (0.003%) as CH^sub 3^Hg(II).
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
After release of the headspace, the mercury concentration initially decreased and then
slowly increased again after resealing. It was therefore concluded that dilution of the
evaporated pore gas from the soil would result in low mercury exposure of working staff
during remediation. Cooling the samples to 0°C reduced the concentration of mercury in
the air by 17%-80%. Therefore, it was recommended that remediation be carried out
during cold weather and that working staff wear masks with carbon and particle filters to
minimize mercury exposure from dust.
The described methodology may be suitable for other complex gaseous matrices as well,
because the added isotopically enriched standards provide efficient correction for
matrixinduced losses (e.g., reduced efficiency of analyte species sorption, desorption, or
derivatisation efficiency in the presence of a certain matrix) and transformations of
analyte species. Their use as model compounds for native mercury species can improve
the traceability and accuracy (Reliability and Quality Assurance of Speciation Analysis
section below) of results, facilitate rational method development, and be useful for
studying biogeochemical processes involving volatile mercury species, for which the
reliability of current methods is unclear.
Net production and net flow of certain chemical species between different compartments
are continuous processes in most environmental systems, and these fluxes must be
quantified in many applications (e.g., risk assessments).
The process of methylation of Hg(II) species leading to the formation of CH^sub 3^Hg(II)
has been intensively studied (76-78, 96), and 3 approaches have been applied to
determine its rate of formation. In each case Hg(II) was added to the sample/system
studied in its natural isotopic abundance (97), enriched in a stable isotope (78), or as a
radioactive isotope (98). Methylation of Hg(II) and demethylation of CH^sub 3^Hg(II) are
both processes of interest, and they should preferably be studied in the same experiment
to establish which reaction predominates. It is also desirable to add the minimum of
mercury to avoid changes in biological or chemical processes of the studied system. Only
multilabeling with stable isotopically enriched tracers fulfills both these requirements.
additions have been used (99). After incubation, processes in the sample are terminated
(usually by freeze-drying for sediment and soil samples) and the sample is prepared for
analysis. The theory behind use of stable isotopically enriched mercury tracers for this
type of study is similar to IDA. If an isotopically enriched Hg(II) tracer, such as ^sup
199^Hg(II), is added to a sediment, the isotopic abundance ratio between ^sup 199^Hg
and a reference isotope (normally ^sup 202^Hg) for the added species will be shifted from
the natural ratio to a higher value that reflects the amounts of added tracer and native
mercury. The CH^sub 3^Hg(II) produced during incubation will then also display an
increased 199/202 ratio. The amount of CH^sub 3^^sup 199^Hg(II) produced is
proportional to the increase in the 199/202 ratio above the natural ratio. This value can
usually be measured with high accuracy and precision.
Even though the 2 processes are determined in the same experiment, the strategy used to
determine the CH^sub 3^Hg(II) demethylation rate is different. Demethylation rates are
indirectly measured, based on the decrease in concentration of the added CH^sub 3^Hg(II)
isotope tracer during the incubation period. This is because demethylation can occur via at
least 2 different mechanisms: reductive (100) and oxidative (101). These 2 processes
produce different end products, Hg(0) and Hg(II) respectively, of which the former is lost
to the head space and is thereby normally not detected. Furthermore, because CH^sub
3^Hg(H) generally comprises 1%-5% of the Hg(II) concentration, detection limits would be
very high if measurement was based on an increase of the Hg(II) tracer/reference isotope
ratio due to CH^sub 3^Hg(II) tracer demethylation. Consequently, only the isotopic
composition of CH^sub 3^Hg(II) is measured to determine the rates of both methylation
and demethylation. The procedure used in our laboratory (79, 102) for such
determinations is illustrated in Figure 2 and utilizes acid leaching of CH^sub 3^Hg(II) from
the sediment or soil using a mixture of KBr/CuSO^sub 4^/ H^sub 2^SO^sub 4^, followed
by partitioning to an organic phase (CH^sub 2^Cl^sub 2^) and subsequent back extraction
to water. The back extraction is accomplished by purging the combined water-CH^sub
2^Cl^sub 2^ sample extract with nitrogen to evaporate the organic solvent. The remaining
aqueous extract is buffered to pH 4.9, and the ionic CH^sub 3^Hg(II) complexes are
reacted with sodium tetraethylborate to form an ethylated derivative, CH^sub
3^Hg(II)C^sub 2^H^sub 5^. The alkylated product is partitioned into 0.6 mL of hexane and
injected into a GC-ICPMS. This method (79) provides a detection limit for CH^sub 3^Hg(II)
of 0.02 ng g^sup -1^ and a relative standard deviation of 2%-3% for ambient CH^sub
3^Hg(II) concentration and methylation/ demethylation determinations of replicate
subsamples (carried through all the steps in Fig. 2) from homogenized samples with
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
Although the stable isotope enriched multilabeling approach is very powerful, there are
several important factors that should be considered to generate relevant data. It is
important to differentiate between species transformations occurring during incubation
and during subsequent sample work-up and analysis. In our laboratory procedure
(described above and in reference [79]), this is accomplished by adding a second set of
isotopically enriched CH^sub 3^Hg(II) and Hg(II) standards before acid leaching (Fig. 2).
These standards are enriched with 2 mercury isotopes different from the standards
applied before incubation. This second set of isotope standards are used to enable IDA of
CH^sub 3^Hg(II) and to quantify and correct for possible CH^sub 3^Hg(II) formation from
Hg(II) during sample work-up and analysis. An additional reference isotope is also
measured, so a total of 5 mercury isotopes are monitored in the analysis.
Incubation time is another important consideration. Typically, after an initial delay, the
conversion of an added isotope tracer progresses linearly, levels out, and finally decreases
(79, 103). To assess the transformation rate (amount transformed per unit of time), the
converted amount should be quantified during the linear phase. This linear period must
therefore be established at the start of the study.
Incubation conditions should also be considered. Sediments are usually mixed with natural
water from the sampling site, and isotope tracers are added to the slurry, which is then
incubated at a defined temperature in the dark in an inert (nitrogen) atmosphere. The
time of year for sample collection must be considered because the rate of mercury species
transformations can vary considerably over a 12-mo cycle (103) and is often highest in late
summer-early autumn when the sedimentation of dead bacteria and phytoplankton (and
thus the activity of sulphate-reducing bacteria) is maximal. Sulphate-reducing bacteria are
strongly associated with the biotic formation of CH^sub 3^Hg(II) from Hg(II), and these
bacteria require access to sulphate and high-quality carbon for their metabolism.
Therefore, depending on the purpose of the study, it may be appropriate to add sulphate
and high-quality carbon (usually glucose) to the sample before incubation to maximize the
activity of sulphate-reducing bacteria (104).
Another consideration is the chemical form of the isotopically enriched tracer and its
availability for reaction. In methylation/demethylation studies, tracers are normally added
as chloride or nitrate complexes, whereas in sediments Hg(II) and CH^sub 3^Hg(II) are
usually bound to reduced sulphur groups. Because mercury binds strongly to reduced
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
sulphur, the added tracers should be more readily available for reaction than the native
mercury in the sediment. When quantifying transformation rates of added isotope
standards, the results are therefore usually expressed as transformation potentials,
acknowledging the possibility that the added isotope species are more readily available
than the native Hg for such reactions as methylation/ demethylation. It is, however, not
known how much higher the measured transformation rates of isotope tracers are
compared with in situ rates (77). The equilibration of standards added to solid samples is a
general problem that is difficult to study at natural concentrations, because available
methods for direct measurements are not sufficiently sensitive.
This type of tracer experiment has nevertheless given invaluable knowledge about
mechanisms and factors controlling the rate of Hg species reactions. Further, several
studies have shown a significant correlation between Hg methylation rate, determined by
added isotope tracers, and concentration of native CH3Hg(II) in the sample. Results from a
recent experiment, carried out in connection to the MCN consortium
(MarksaneringsCentrum Norr, North Sweden Soil Remediation Center, EU Structural Funds
and New Objective 1, Contract 113-12534-00, a consortium of academic scientists,
companies, and authority representatives cooperating on issues related to remediation of
contaminated soils and sediments) and using the isotope tracer technique, indicated that
methylating bacteria utilize neutral Hg(II)-sulphide complexes in sediment pore waters
(105). An isotope tracer corresponding to 50% of ambient Hg was added, and the
potential methylation rate was found to be significantly correlated to ambient
concentrations of neutral Hg(II)-sulphides. Correction of the concentration of Hg(II)-
sulphides for the concentration of added Hg(II)-isotopes did not change this relationship.
Further applications of mercury isotope tracer techniques are discussed in other papers in
this special issue.
The risk for errors and the possibilities for method validation in speciation analysis are
diverse depending on species and sample types. As mentioned above, speciation analysis
of mercury has, to date, focused on the determination of CH^sub 3^Hg(II). For such
determinations in solid samples, and to some extent water samples, most standard quality
assurance measures have been applied, including use of i) a range of certified reference
materials, (106-113) ii) standard methods (e.g., US Environmental Protection Agency
Methods 1630 and 6800), iii) accredited laboratories, iv) commercially available
isotopically enriched standards (114), and v) proficiency testing from which promising
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
results have been obtained (115). The determination of CH^sub 3^Hg(II) in soil, sediment,
and biota can therefore be conducted with satisfactory quality assurance and
demonstrable reliability, and mercury limit values based on CH^sub 3^Hg(II)
concentrations have been incorporated in legislation (107).
For other mercury species, the reliability of measurements is less demonstrable because
few quality assurance tools are available. Detailed knowledge is therefore required of
potential error sources (e.g., instability, transformation reactions, extraction efficiency
[37]), and specially designed experiments are needed to develop optimized methods. At
present the best available approach is to use isotopically enriched compounds (74, 116).
The purpose of generating results that are traceable to widely available standards is to
ensure comparability of analytical results obtained at different times and/or at different
laboratories. The ultimate international standard to which results should be traceable is
the SI unit mole or kilogram. For the determination of total trace element concentrations,
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
IDA is considered to provide results traceable to the mole (120). For trace element
speciation analysis of solid samples with indirect methods, IDA can provide traceability for
the sample extract but not for the original solid sample (121). The reason for the broken
chain of comparison is that the added isotope standards are not equilibrated with the
sample until after the initial extraction and the efficiency of extraction cannot be explicitly
determined. However, results from speciation analysis may be traceable to reference
points other than SI units. CRMs, standard methods, and proficiency testing are other
accepted traceability standards (122). Finally, traceability should not be confused with
accuracy, which is defined by IUPAC as the "closeness of the agreement between the
result of a measurement and a true value of the measurand." Analytical results may be
accurate even if they are not traceable to widely available standards.
Developments in analytical techniques and methods for mercury speciation analysis in the
last decade have, inter alia, substantially increased our understanding of mercury
biogeochemistry. Some technical advances have been of particular importance. The
development of ICPMS has provided a means of isotope-selective detection (with high
power of detection) and thus the possibility to use isotopically enriched tracers. Certified
reference materials and standards have contributed to the quality assurance of analytical
data. However, current techniques have poor reliability and limited power of detection for
the determination of dissolved mercury complexes. The difficulty of verifying that
speciation has been maintained from sampling to analysis remains a confounding factor.
Such complexes are relatively unstable, and IDA cannot easily be applied to account for
consequent changes during handling. Ideally, therefore, measurements should be
conducted in situ using nondestructive techniques. Concerning in-laboratory methods for
the determination of dissolved complexes, there is an increasing tendency to use
molecular MS techniques, alone or in combination with ICPMS. Improvements in the
sensitivity of molecular MS techniques to small inorganic complexes would certainly boost
this development.
Nuclear magnetic resonance, EXAFS, and XANES are constrained by their limited detection
power. The instrumentation is costly and thus of limited availability (especially
synchrotron-based EXAFS and XANES systems). For both NMR and X-ray techniques, the
power of detection is gradually improving, a development that can be expected to
continue, whereas it is more difficult to predict if or when improvements of orders of
magnitude can be expected.
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
For indirect methods, the ability to assess the true efficiency of extraction of species from
solid samples would be major progress. It is difficult to predict how this could be achieved
without sufficiently sensitive techniques for direct measurements of species in solid
materials. Methods for determining how closely transformation potentials determined
using isotope-enriched tracers and "true" in situ transformation rates agree would also be
valuable. Such data are scarce (77), and more knowledge would facilitate fine-tuning of
the methods, improving the possibilities of obtaining a more detailed understanding of
mercury's biogeochemical processes and better risk assessments of contaminated soils
and sediments.
The evolution of mercury analysis has progressed stepwise from the determination of
total mercury concentration, to the inclusion of mercury species determinations, primarily
Hg(II) and CH^sub 3^Hg(II), and more recently species transformation rates. The
complexity and quality of information have thereby greatly increased. However, with the
possible exception of total mercury determination, substantial scope remains for
improvement in all methodologies.
References
Recent Advances in Mercury Speciation Analysis with Focus on
Spectrometric Methods and Enriched Stable Isotope Applications
Traducción
Las técnicas analíticas pueden clasificarse ya sea como técnicas indirectas o directas. Los
primeros incluyen los procedimientos de tratamiento de varias etapas de muestreo, tales
como extracción, limpieza y preconcentración, antes del análisis instrumental. El término
"directa" implica que la medición instrumental se realiza sin los procedimientos de
tratamiento de muestra. En este trabajo, las técnicas indirectas se debatió principalmente,
en particular la determinación de las especies de mercurio en las muestras de gases
mediante el análisis de dilución isotópica (AIF) y la determinación de las tasas de
transformación de las especies de mercurio en suelos y sedimentos que utilizan trazadores
estables isotópicamente enriquecidos.
Técnicas y métodos analíticos están convenientemente caracterizados por su poder de
detección, la confiabilidad, el costo y la calidad de la información molecular que pueden
proporcionar. Análisis de especiación de elementos traza, como el mercurio, en muestras
ambientales por lo general requiere muy altas potencias de detección (Tabla 1). Con
plasma acoplado inductivamente espectrometría de masas (ICP-MS) se utiliza con
frecuencia, y proporciona los límites de detección en el rango más bajo entre las técnicas
analíticas que se utilizan habitualmente para el análisis de elementos traza. En cuanto a la
fiabilidad de los análisis de especiación, la principal dificultad es a menudo para mantener
la distribución original de la especie en la muestra durante el procesamiento (34-37). Es
difícil evitar completamente transformaciones de las especies, por lo que es importante
para controlar a optimizar los métodos (por minimizar las reacciones de este tipo) y para
corregir las transformaciones restantes. El coste del análisis de la especiación es
generalmente bastante alta debido a que los métodos implicados a menudo están
consumiendo relativamente complejo y el tiempo, y, si se utiliza ICPMS, los gastos de
funcionamiento instrumentales son altos. Gran cantidad de métodos para el análisis de la
especiación de mercurio no se puede establecer las formas exactas moleculares o
complejas de mercurio en muestras ambientales. Maximizar el poder de detección y la
maximización de la información molecular se requieren técnicas diferentes, a menudo
resulta en compromisos.
Técnicas indirectas
Durante el análisis indirecto de muestras sólidas (por ejemplo, suelos, sedimentos, biota),
las especies objetivo se extraen o el material sólido se disuelve, como por digestión suave.
El análisis de muestras de agua y de gas por lo general requiere una etapa de
preconcentración, porque las concentraciones de analito son bajos. Además, todos los
tipos de muestras pueden requerir una limpieza más profunda para separar el analito (s)
de interferir potencialmente componentes de la matriz. Dependiendo de la
instrumentación empleada para las determinaciones finales, un paso de derivatización
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También puede ser necesario en el que el analito se hace reaccionar con un reactivo para
modificar sus propiedades químicas y físicas (por ejemplo, punto de ebullición,
solubilidad). Discusión de los diversos enfoques de estas operaciones y revisiones
completas están disponibles en la literatura (37-40).
Para la determinación definitiva de las especies particulares de mercurio, con guión
instrumentos de análisis son de uso común en el que un sistema de separación
Chromatographie está acoplado en línea a un sistema de detección de espectrometría (41,
42). Gas o líquido (43) Chromatographie (GC, LC) técnicas de separación son los más
comúnmente aplicado, aunque otros también han sido utilizados (37-41). La
espectrometría de masas se considera que es la mejor técnica de detección debido a que
puede proporcionar los límites de detección muy bajos y el alcance de detección de
isótopos selectiva, facilitando así el uso de estándares estables isotópicamente
enriquecidos. Otros de los atractivos de la EM son su amplia gama de respuesta lineal y
múltiple entre la capacidad de detección. Dos categorías de MS que se utilizan para el
análisis de la especiación de elementos traza se pueden distinguir: i) los instrumentos con
atomización muestra eficiente y modos difíciles de ionización que detectan iones
elementales, y los instrumentos ii) con atomización casi no más suaves y modos de
ionización que detectan molecular y / o iones de fragmentos moleculares. De los duros de
atomización / ionización fuentes, el PCI es en la actualidad el dominante (44). De plasma
acoplados inductivamente instrumentos de espectrometría de masas puede ser acoplado
en línea a cualquiera de GC (45-47) o LC (48, 49) los sistemas, así como una serie de otros
instrumentos capaces de separar las especies de diversas maneras (5052). Aunque ICPMS
lleva el campo en el análisis de elementos traza metálicos, su rendimiento es mucho
depende del tipo de espectrómetro de masas utilizado (44). Las más comunes son los
espectrómetros de campo o sector cuadrupolo con detectores de colectores individuales,
aunque el tiempo de vuelo de los espectrómetros de masas y los instrumentos del sector
sobre el terreno con detectores de multicolector también se utilizan.
Cuando las técnicas más suaves de ionización que el PCI se requieren, GC puede ser
acoplado a un impacto de electrones o fuentes químicas de ionización y LC puede ser
acoplada a la ionización electrospray (ESI) o ionización química atmosférica presión (APCI)
fuentes. Los espectrómetros de masa utilizados con estas fuentes de iones puede
contener uno o más analizadores de masas, en una sola o instrumentos en tándem MS,
respectivamente (53).
De los sistemas de guiones, GC-ICPMS (45-47) da los límites de detección más bajos,
permite isótopo selectivo de detección, y se adapta bien a la determinación de Hg (II) y CH
$ ^ sub 3 ^ Hg (II). Límites de detección son típicos 0.1-1 pg si el iónico Hg (II) y CH ^ sub 3
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proteómico) (62, 63). Sin embargo, se están utilizando cada vez más en el análisis de
trazas de especiación de elementos pero más aún en "metallomic" (64) que en las
aplicaciones ambientales (59, 60).
Las técnicas directas
Aunque las técnicas de medición directa disponible para el análisis de la especiación de
mercurio por lo general no implican el uso de compuestos de isótopos enriquecidos y por
lo tanto están fuera del foco de este artículo de síntesis, es útil tener en cuenta el tipo de
información complementaria molecular que las técnicas directas pueden ofrecer en
comparación con el indirecto técnicas. Resonancia magnética nuclear (RMN) (65) y de
rayos X técnicas espectroscópicas (66), tales como espectroscopía de rayos X de
fotoelectrones y, en particular sincrotrón basado absorción de rayos X cerca de punta
estructura (XANES) y la absorción prolongada de rayos X estructura fina (EXAFS)
espectroscopia, son de particular técnicas analíticas que, en principio, se pueden aplicar a
cualquier tipo de muestra.
Espectroscopía de resonancia magnética nuclear es una potente técnica para evaluar
conformaciones ligando y la geometría compleja de especies de mercurio. Ha sido
principalmente utilizado para estudiar los complejos disueltos mercurio. Un gran número
de tales complejos se han caracterizado (65), pero, debido a sus límites de detección de
alta, la técnica es, por lo que sabemos, no se aplica a las muestras ambientales naturales.
Absorción de rayos X cercanos a la estructura y el borde de la espectroscopia EXAFS están
siendo cada vez más utilizado para el análisis de la especiación de mercurio (66). Estas
técnicas se pueden utilizar para todos los tipos de muestras. Para las fases sólidas, las
muestras húmedas o secas pueden ser utilizados y su potencial redox natural puede ser
mantenida durante la recogida de datos. Las muestras pueden ser secadas o liofilizada
suelo, y se presiona en gránulos antes de la medición. Después de ajuste espectral y
procedimientos de modelado, el análisis proporciona información acerca de los estados
de oxidación y el más cercano átomo de unión al átomo central (Hg). Esta información es
necesaria para evaluar la reactividad (movilidad primaria) de mercurio en suelos y
sedimentos. El mercurio puede ser obligado a azufre, oxígeno, carbono o nitrógeno, con
los consiguientes cambios en su reactividad y movilidad. Sin embargo, su necesidad de
radiación sincrotrón con una intensidad pequeña sección transversal y muy alta limita la
aplicabilidad de estas técnicas. Además, la sensibilidad es a menudo insuficiente para
medir las concentraciones naturales de mercurio. En EXAFS varias adiciones estándar de
concentración creciente, por lo tanto hacen a menudo para cada muestra. El mercurio
agregado se une preferentemente a los sitios con mayor afinidad (por lo general grupos
reducidos de azufre), hasta que todos los sitios de unión de estas están ocupadas. Esto se
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ha demostrado tanto para Hg (II) (67, 68) y CH ^ sub 3 ^ Hg (II) (69). La adición adicional de
mercurio se traducirá en la unión a otros sitios con una afinidad más débil. Las adiciones
se extienden a concentraciones a las que puede observarse este efecto por las mediciones
EXAFS. Entonces se supone que el mercurio nativo está enlazado a los mismos sitios
identificados con las adiciones menores estándar. A través del uso de las instalaciones del
estado de la técnica, es posible medir concentraciones tan bajas como 50 a 100 g ~ g ^ sup
-1 ^, que se pueden encontrar en el campo fuertemente contaminados por los suelos y
sedimentos.
MÉTODOS PARA EL ANÁLISIS de dilución de isótopos especiación del mercurio
Análisis de dilución isotópica fue desarrollado inicialmente para el análisis elemental en
los años 1950 (70) y se extendió en el campo del análisis de compuestos orgánicos en los
años 1970 (71). En la década de 1990, el grupo de investigación de Klaus Heumann
aplicado este enfoque de gran alcance para el análisis de elementos traza de especiación
(72, 73). Por lo general, el átomo central (Hg en este caso) está marcada con un isótopo
enriquecido, lo que permite la identificación y cuantificación de los productos de
transformación de Hg, si se producen tales reacciones. La falta de certificados estándares
isotópicamente enriquecidos ha sido un obstáculo fundamental para la aplicación de esta
técnica para el análisis de mercurio especiación. Isotópicamente enriquecido mercurio
generalmente se compró en forma de Hg (0) (l) o Hg (II) S (s), y otros compuestos deben
ser sintetizados en el local de estos materiales. Sin embargo, enriquecimiento isotópico
CH ^ sub 3 ^ Hg (II) las normas se han convertido recientemente en el comercio. Los
compuestos de isótopos enriquecidos se pueden utilizar para estudiar y corregir las
reacciones no deseadas especies de transformación durante el tratamiento de la muestra
(34, 58, 74-76) y el estudio de "naturales" las transformaciones de las especies en las
muestras del medio ambiente, los ecosistemas o las micro y meso-cosmos, durante
incubaciones (77, 78). Debido a que el mercurio tiene 7 isótopos estables, es posible, en el
mismo experimento, para añadir varios compuestos de mercurio diferentes, cada uno
enriquecido en un isótopo diferente, para estudiar las reacciones múltiples de
transformación (79). Este procedimiento se conoce como "multilabeling específico de la
especie de dilución de isótopos". Además, la AIF utilizando isótopo enriquecido con CH $ ^
sub 3 ^ Hg (II) se ha aplicado en un estudio único para determinar la resistencia de unión
de CH ^ sub 3 ^ Hg (II) a la materia orgánica en ng g ^ sup -1 ^ concentraciones, mostrando
que CH ^ sub 3 ^ Hg (II) se une a los grupos tiol en estas muestras (80).
La cuantificación de las especies en muestras gaseosas
Análisis de dilución isotópica se está convirtiendo en una técnica establecida para el
análisis de la especiación de mercurio (81-83) y ya ha sido aplicado al suelo, los
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exposición al mercurio de baja de trabajo del personal durante la rehabilitación. Enfriar las
muestras a 0 ° C redujo la concentración de mercurio en el aire en un 17% -80%. Por lo
tanto, se recomienda que la reparación se llevó a cabo durante el tiempo frío y que el
trabajo del personal de desgaste máscaras con filtros de carbón y partículas para
minimizar la exposición de mercurio a partir de polvo.
La metodología descrita puede ser adecuado para otras matrices complejas gaseosos
como así, porque las normas añadidos isotópicamente enriquecidos proporcionar
corrección eficiente de las pérdidas matrixinduced (por ejemplo, la eficiencia reducida de
analito especies sorción, desorción, o eficiencia derivatización en la presencia de una
matriz determinada) y transformaciones de las especies de analito. Su uso como
compuestos modelo para las especies nativas de mercurio puede mejorar la trazabilidad y
la exactitud (fiabilidad y garantía de la calidad de la sección Análisis de especiación más
adelante) de los resultados, facilitar el desarrollo del método racional, y ser de utilidad
para el estudio de los procesos biogeoquímicos que afectan a especies volátiles de
mercurio, por lo que la fiabilidad de los métodos actuales no está claro.
Determinación de las tasas de transformación de las especies en Sistemas Ambientales
La producción neta y el flujo neto de ciertas especies químicas entre los diferentes
compartimentos son procesos continuos en la mayoría de los sistemas ambientales, y
estos flujos deben ser cuantificados en muchas aplicaciones (por ejemplo, las evaluaciones
de riesgo).
El proceso de la metilación de Hg (II) las especies que conducen a la formación de CH ^ sub
3 ^ Hg (II) se ha estudiado intensamente (76-78, 96), y 3 enfoques han sido aplicados para
determinar su velocidad de formación. En cada caso Hg (II) se añadió al sistema de
muestra / estudiado en su abundancia natural del isótopo (97), enriquecido en un isótopo
estable (78), o como un isótopo radiactivo (98). La metilación de Hg (II) y desmetilación de
CH ^ sub 3 ^ Hg (II) son los dos procesos de interés, y que de preferencia debe ser
estudiado en el mismo experimento para establecer que la reacción predominante.
También es deseable añadir el mínimo de mercurio para evitar cambios en los procesos
biológicos o químicas del sistema estudiado. Sólo multilabeling con el enriquecimiento
isotópico estable trazadores cumple ambos requisitos.
En un experimento para evaluar multilabeling metilación neta, Hg (II) y CH3 ^ ^ sub Hg (II)
trazadores, enriquecido en 2 isótopos de mercurio diferentes, se añaden al sistema. Las
concentraciones de trazadores añadidos son de un 10% -100% de los nativos de Hg (II) y
CH ^ sub 3 ^ Hg (II) las concentraciones, aunque hay ejemplos en los que las adiciones
sustancialmente más bajos han sido utilizados (99). Después de la incubación, los procesos
de la muestra se terminan (por lo general mediante secado por congelación para
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