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Training materials for local communities on rainwater harvesting irrigation

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scale irrigation in arid and...
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An ACP-EU Technology-Transfer Network on Rainwater Harvesting
Irrigation Management for Sustainable Dryland Agriculture, Food
Security and Poverty Alleviation in sub-Saharan Africa
TRAINING MATERIALS FOR LOCAL COMMUNITIES

ON RAINWATER HARVESTING IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
Capacity building on the use of rainwater for off-season small-scale irrigation

in arid and semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa
Register to the AFRHINET network at: www.afrhinet.eu/transnational-network.html

Visit the virtual AFRHINET Research and Technology Transfer Centres at: www.rainwatertechcentres.net
www.AFRHINET.eu Implemented by the ACP Group of States Funded by the European Union
The AFRHINET Project is funded by ACP-EU Cooperation Programme in Science and Technology
(ACP-S&T II).A programme of the ACP Group of States, with the financial assistance of the European Union.
LEAD PARTNER Hamburg University of Applied Sciences
Josep de Trincheria, Prof. Dr. Walter Leal
Ulmenliet 20, 21033 Hamburg, Germany
Tel.: +49-40-42875-6107, Fax: +49-40-42875-6079
E-Mail: afrhinet@ls.haw-hamburg.de
Web: www.afrhinet.eu

Capacity building on the use of rainwater

for off-season small-scale irrigation
AFRHINET: A technology transfer network on rainwater harvesting irrigation management

in rural arid and semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa
Publisher Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Hamburg, Germany. Financed
by the ACP-EU Cooperation Programme in Science and Technology
(ACP-S&T II). A programme implemented by the ACP Group of States,
with the financial assistance of the European Union.
Authors De Trincheria*, J., Oduor, A., Ngigi, S., Oremo, F.O., Ngondi, J., van
Steenbergen, F., Nyawasha, R.W., Dawit, D., Mussera, P.V., Woldearegay, K.,
Koelman, E.M., Malesu, M., Famba, S., Simane, B., Wuta, M., Oguge, N.O., Leal
Filho, W.
* The AFRHINET project is coordinated at Hamburg University of Applied

Sciences. E-mail: afrhinet@ls.haw-hamburg.de
Citation: De Trincheria, J., Oduor, A., Ngigi, S., Oremo, F.O., Ngondi, J.,
van Steenbergen, F., Nyawasha, R.W., Dawit, D., Mussera, P.V., Woldearegay, K.,
Koelman, E.M., Malesu, M., Famba, S., Simane, B., Wuta, M., Oguge, N.O., Leal
Filho, W. (2017). Training materials for local communities on rainwater harvesting
irrigation management: Capacity building on the use of rainwater for off-season
small-scale irrigation in arid and semi-arid areas of sub-saharan Africa.
AFRHINET Project. Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Hamburg, Germany.
Copyright © 2017 by the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences

All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this
product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorised
without any prior written permission from the copyright holder provided
the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this product
for commercial purposes and/or monetary gain is prohibited.
Disclaimer The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors of
this report and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the ACP
Group of States or the European Union.
2
CONTENTS
PROJECT BACKGROUND...............................................................................................................................................9
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................................11
1.1 Background......................................................................................................................................................11
1.2 Goals and objectives........................................................................................................................................12
1.3 Structure...........................................................................................................................................................12
2. USING RAINWATER FOR OFF-SEASON SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID AREAS...........15
2.1 Rainwater harvesting management for food security.......................................................................................15
2.2 Rainwater harvesting management for off-season small-scale irrigation.........................................................15
2.2.1 Examples of macro-catchment RWH systems.................................................................................................16
2.2.2 Examples of micro-catchment RWH systems..................................................................................................18
2.2.3 Examples of in-situ RWH systems.....................................................................................................................18
2.2.4 Examples of off-season small-scale irrigation systems......................................................................................19
3. RUNOFF ON-FARM PONDS......................................................................................................................................21
3.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................21
3.2 Siting ................................................................................................................................................................23
3.3 Design .............................................................................................................................................................23
3.3.1 Storage requirements.......................................................................................................................................23
3.3.2 Collecting runoff water in the pond...................................................................................................................24
3.4 Construction.....................................................................................................................................................25
3.4.1 Farm pond layout and excavation....................................................................................................................25
3.4.2 Lining of the farm pond.....................................................................................................................................25
3.4.3 Roofing the farm ponds....................................................................................................................................26
3.5 Monitoring and maintenance............................................................................................................................28
3.6 Scalability of the farm ponds............................................................................................................................28
3.7 A champion on on-farm pond irrigation in Kenya..............................................................................................28
4. ROOF CATCHMENT SYSTEMS.................................................................................................................................31
4.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................31
4.2 Siting.................................................................................................................................................................32
4.3 Design..............................................................................................................................................................32
4.4 Operational requirements.................................................................................................................................32
4.4.1 Roof water harvesting system with a floating ball foul flush mechanism..........................................................33
4.4.2 Roof water harvesting system with a separator pipe foul flush mechanism.....................................................33
4.6 Upscaling potential and best-practices.............................................................................................................33
3
5. GROUNDWATER DAMS IN SEASONAL SANDY STREAMS....................................................................................35
5.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................35
5.2 Potential............................................................................................................................................................36
5.2.1 Storage of water in sandy dry riverbeds...........................................................................................................36
5.2.2 Water yield capacity of sand sediments...........................................................................................................36
5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of groundwater dams ....................................................................................36
5.4 Key performance factors..................................................................................................................................38
5.5 Subsurface dams..............................................................................................................................................38
5.5.1 Key working principles......................................................................................................................................38
5.5.2 Strengths and weaknesses..............................................................................................................................38
5.6 Sand storage dams..........................................................................................................................................39
5.6.1 Key working principles......................................................................................................................................39
5.6.2 Strengths and weaknesses..............................................................................................................................39
5.6.3 A focus on siltation............................................................................................................................................39
5.6.4 A focus on seepage..........................................................................................................................................40
5.7 Practical recommendations for groundwater dams..........................................................................................41
5.7.1 Tapping into the natural capacity of alluvial shallow reservoirs........................................................................41
5.7.2 Siting.................................................................................................................................................................41
5.7.2.1 Identifying suitable catchments and/or riverbeds............................................................................................42
5.7.2.2 Identifying cost-efficient construction sites......................................................................................................42
5.8 Specific practical recommendations for subsurface dams...............................................................................44
5.8.1 Siting.................................................................................................................................................................44
5.8.2 Design and construction...................................................................................................................................44
5.8.3 Monitoring and Maintenance............................................................................................................................45
5.9 Specific practical recommendations for sand storage dams............................................................................45
5.9.1 Siting.................................................................................................................................................................45
5.9.2 Design..............................................................................................................................................................45
5.9.2.1 Reducing costs and free storage capacity......................................................................................................46
5.9.2.2 Height of the final spillway capable of discharging overflow safely.................................................................46
5.9.2.3 ALDEV design.................................................................................................................................................46
5.9.2.4 Methodology to build by stages of reduced height..........................................................................................46
5.9.2.5 Minimisation of seepage losses......................................................................................................................49
5.9.3 Construction.....................................................................................................................................................49
5.9.4 Maintenance requirements...............................................................................................................................49
4
6. SMALL EARTH DAMS................................................................................................................................................51
6.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................51
6.2 Siting.................................................................................................................................................................51
6.3 Design and construction...................................................................................................................................51
6.5 A champion on small earth dams built manually..............................................................................................52
7. ROCK CATCHMENTS................................................................................................................................................55
7.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................55
7.2 Siting.................................................................................................................................................................55
7.3 Design..............................................................................................................................................................55
7.3.1 The rock catchment..........................................................................................................................................56
7.3.2 The conveyance mechanism............................................................................................................................56
7.3.3 The reservoir for the rock dam.........................................................................................................................56
7.3.4 Application of water from the rock catchment...................................................................................................56
7.5 Scalability.........................................................................................................................................................57
8. ROADWATER HARVESTING FOR OFF-SEASON SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION.....................................................59
8.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................59
8.2 Advantages and disadvantages.......................................................................................................................59
8.3 Design and implementation..............................................................................................................................60
8.3.1 Landscape: mountain, flatland or floodplains...................................................................................................60
8.3.2 Categories of road water harvesting techniques..............................................................................................61
8.3.2.1 Combining cross drainage/side drains with recharge and storage.................................................................61
8.3.2.2 Borrow pits and dugout ponds........................................................................................................................61
8.3.2.3 Clever road foundations..................................................................................................................................62
8.3.2.4 Spring capture.................................................................................................................................................62
8.3.2.5 Water spreading weirs/sand dams combined with river crossings..................................................................62
9. SHALLOW GROUNDWATER RECHARGE FOR OFF-SEASON SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION...............................63
9.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................63
9.2 Siting.................................................................................................................................................................63
9.3 Design and construction...................................................................................................................................63
10. OFF-SEASON SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ........................................................................................69
10.1 Water pumping systems...................................................................................................................................69
10.2 Manual pumping...............................................................................................................................................69
10.2.1 Rope and washer pump...................................................................................................................................70
5
10.2.2 The Money Maker pumps................................................................................................................................70
10.2.3 The Brazilian Pump .........................................................................................................................................70
10.3 Mechanised pumping systems........................................................................................................................71
10.3.1 Gravity-fed irrigation........................................................................................................................................71
10.3.2 Solar pumping.................................................................................................................................................71
10.3.3 Petrol/diesel-powered portable and stationary pumps....................................................................................71
10.4 Irrigation water application systems................................................................................................................71
10.4.1 Low-cost drip irrigation systems......................................................................................................................71
10.4.2 Manual irrigation..............................................................................................................................................72
10.4.3 Low-Tech automatic irrigation systems...........................................................................................................72
10.4.4 Surface irrigation.............................................................................................................................................72
10.4.5 Sprinkler irrigation...........................................................................................................................................72
10.4.6 Greenhouses for weather-sensitive crops.......................................................................................................74
10.4.7 Enhancing RWHI management.......................................................................................................................75
11. REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................................................79
6
7
8
PROJECT BACKGROUND 2. Research and technology transfer centres: The
centres serve as hubs of knowledge and expertise in
AFRHINET was a three-year project which focused on the field of RWHI management and dryland agriculture
fostering the knowledge and use of rainwater harvesting in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, they
technologies for off-season small-scale irrigation in rural afford improved capitalisation and dissemination of
arid and semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa. The project innovative and effective RWHI management practices.
specifically focused on the implementation of integrated ca-
pacity-building activities, the development of research and 3. Demonstration of innovative RWHI management:
technology transfer activities, namely technology transfer Effective demonstrations relative to RWHI management
centres and demonstration trials, and the setting-up did not only support, but also reinforced, the idea of
of a transnational network of multivariate relevant actors. alternative concepts to manage rainwater to local
The AFRHINET project was part of the ACP Science and community groups, academic and scientific institutions,
Technology Programme, an EU cooperation programme businesses/ micro-enterprises, and non-governmental
which was funded by the European Union and implemented and public organisations. The trials showcased the fact
by the ACP Group of States. The actions as part of the that implementing cost-effective RWHI projects for im-
project took place in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and proved food security and poverty alleviation was feasible.
Zimbabwe. The project was coordinated by the Research
and Transfer Centre “Applications of Life Sciences” at 4. Networking activities: Strengthening the networking
Hamburg University of Applied Sciences in Germany. capacity of academic and scientific institutions with other
The African partners were Addis Ababa University and relevant stakeholders at national and international level,
WaterAid-Ethiopia in Ethiopia, University of Nairobi and in the field of RWHI management. This was coupled with
Searnet-ICRAF in Kenya, Eduardo Mondlane University regular international and national dissemination events.
in Mozambique, and University of Zimbabwe and ICRI-
SAT-Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe. Various relevant contribu-
tions to specific outputs of the project have been provided
by Dabane Trust (Zimbabwe), Kenya Rainwater Associa-
tion (Kenya) and MetaMeta (the Netherlands).
The four main core activities of the AFRHINET project

were as it follows:
1. Development of self-replicable capacities on RWHI

management: A two-phase capacity-building pro-
gramme focusing on the scientific basis and the practical
implementation of RWHI management. This was coupled
with the development of training materials highlighting
practical experiences and lessons learnt.
9
10
1. INTRODUCTION are several factors responsible for the poor performance
of rainfed agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa, water scarcity
1.1 Background is a major factor constraining its potential (Mutabazi et al.,
2005; Hatibu et al., 2006; Malesu et al., 2012).
Food insecurity have negative economic impacts, increase
poverty and poses today a problem to hundreds of millions One of the main causes of water scarcity in arid and se-
only in the African continent, especially in rural commu- mi-arid areas is rainfall variability (IWMI, 2015; Nicol et
nities of arid and semi-arid regions (UN, 2015). By mid- al., 2015; Rockström and Falkenmark, 2015). Thus, irre-
century, it is estimated that 9 billion people will require a gular rainfall patterns result in high risk of droughts and
steep increase in food production (Tesfaye et al., 2016). intra-seasonal dry spells, which in turn recurrently lead
Much of this production will have to be derived from small- to unpredictable and depressed crop yields, perennial
holder crop production systems in rural areas (Nicol et food shortages, rampant poverty levels and disruptive
al., 2015). Figure 1 shows current freshwater resources conflicts over use and access to existing water supplies
withdrawn by agriculture. (Ngigi, 2003), especially during dry periods. In addition,
Figure 1: Freshwater resources withdrawn by agriculture (percent, 1999-2013).

Source: (FAO, 2015).
The expansion of the economy in sub-Saharan African this situation is currently aggravated by climate change
countries as a whole, and the eradication of poverty in (Pachauri et al., 2014), which increases rainfall variability,
rural areas in particular, are critically dependent on agri- water scarcity, soil degradation and food insecurity,
culture (UNDP, 2016). Yet, rainfed agriculture continues to among others (Nicol et al., 2015). Climate change and
bear the largest burden of generating food in sub-Saharan variability is already reducing agricultural productivity and
Africa (Falkenmark and Rockström, 2004). While there opportunities for employment, pushing up food prices, and
affecting food security and health (UNDP, 2016).
11
1
These challenges can be alleviated by capturing, sto- key working principlies of RWHI technologies and practi-
ring and reusing as much as locally-available rainwater ces, and they can effectively implement and/or contribute
when and where it falls (Nicol et al., 2015; Rockström and to the implementation of RWHI systems, and where pos-
Falkenmark, 2015). For example, it has been estimated sible, introduce local innovations to fit particular circum-
that if 15% of the rainwater in sub-Saharan Africa were stances and preferences. This can contribute to the repli-
harvested, it would be enough to meet all water-related cation and scale up of RWHI technologies and ultimately
food security needs of the continent (Malesu et al., 2006). increase the resilience of small-scale farmers in arid and
Also, upgrading rainfed agriculture by means of rainwater semi-arid areas (Rockström et al., 2004).
harvesting techniques can double crop yields in drought-
prone regions (Oweis et al., 1999; Dile et al., 2013). The technical capacity of public and private practitioners,
scientists and academics also needs to be strengthened
Off-season small-scale irrigation can contribute to impor- in order to soundly replicate and scale up RWHI manage-
tant agricultural productivity growth with a large potential ment. However, the information and know-how they re-
for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (Oweis et quire should be tailored to their demands and needs. Due
al., 1999; Biazin et al., 2012; Xie et al., 2014). This group to this fact, the AFRHINET project has developed a set of
of techniques are innovative low-cost and easy-to-main- training materials that specifically focus on these target
tain technologies which are operated and managed by groups. The materials are accessible at http://afrhinet.eu/
individuals or in small self-initiated groups (De Fraiture materials.html.
and Giordano, 2014). The main objective is to grow high-
value, high-nutritious and multi-purpose crops and trees
during dry periods for direct consumption and/or the lo- 1.2 Goals and objectives
cal market (Malesu et al., 2006). Furthermore, off-season
small-scale irrigation has the specific advantage of facili- These training materials have been produced to foster the
tating additional income during dry periods, when income- capacity of key members of local communities to practi-
generation opportunities are usually very low (Malesu et cally implement RWHI systems in a cost-efficient manner.
al., 2006, De Fraiture and Giordano, 2014; Nicol et al., The specific target group of these capacity building materi-
2015). In addition, it allows the diversification of agricultu- als are local community members who are directly involved
ral outputs and income activities. Thus, Nicol et al. (2015) in the replication and scale-up of RWHI technologies and
found that off-season small-scale irrigation in Kenya gi- practices, i.e. local artisans and small-scale enterpreneurs
ves good profits: compared with farm incomes from rain- in the field of rural water supply management and off-
fed land, which average less than USD 750/ha per year, season small-scale irrigation on one hand, and educated
off-season irrigated land can produce three crops a year smallholder farmers with previous knowledge and experi-
worth USD 1,400/ha (snow peas, French beans), USD ence in this field who are interested to replicate and scale-
450/ha (kale) or USD 600/ha (onions). up RWHI systems. Whereas these training materials are
specifically tailored to members of local communities, the
Off-season small-scale irrigation in arid and semi-arid know-how and language used in this manual may not be
areas of sub-Saharan Africa can greatly benefit from the suitable for uneducated readers.
implementation of rainwater harvesting technologies and
practices (Awulachew et al., 2005; Mutabazi et al., 2005; Therefore, these training materials intend to provide a
Mati, 2007; Malesu et al., 2012). Thus, RWHI manage- selection of key information and know-how that can be
ment is defined from a technical viewpoint as a sub-set used to support proper planning, design and construction
of rainwater harvesting technologies and practices that of cost-efficient RWHI technologies and practices in arid
allows concentrating and storing rainwater to be used for and semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Further, this
off-season small-scale irrigation of high-value crops in arid manual also suggests other relevant technical manuals
and semi-arid areas. RWHI technologies and practices for local communities which specifically focus on each of
can contribute increasing food production and diversifying the RWHI technologies and practices. It is strongly recom-
income-generation activities in rural areas, which would mended that reference is also made to these materials
improve the livelihood potential in rural areas and alleviate with the help of experienced professionals in this field of
poverty. knowledge.
However, the use of rainwater for off-season small-scale

irrigation in arid and semi-arid areas is not exploited suf- 1.3 Structure
ficiently in terms of agricultural and livelihood improve-
ments on one hand, and technological development and The training materials are divided in 10 chapters which
market/institutional adoption on the other. One of the key specifically address all relevant technologies and practi-
factors which is contributing to poor adoption, replication ces that can be used to collect, store and reuse rainwater
and transfer of RWHI technologies and practices is a for off-season small-scale irrigation. Therefore, other uses
lack of an on-the-ground technical capacity to adequa- of rainwater to enhance rainfed agriculture, especially
tely build, operate and maintain these systems in a cost- rainwater for supplemental irrigation, or among others,
efficient manner. Therefore, there is a need to increase the in-situ and micro-catchment RWH systems that are not
technical of local communities in rural arid and semi-arid specifically designed to be used for off-season small-scale
areas, especially local artisans, smallholer farmers and irrigation, are not considered. The manual contains some
enterpreneurs, in order that that they can understand the pictures and technical drawings which are borrowed from
12
relevant scientific and technical literature. In addition,
some of the content materials included in this manual
have been used with the courtesy of ASAL Consultants
(http://www.waterforaridland.com/), Dabane Trust (http://
www.dabane.org/), Kenya Rainwater Association (http://
www.kenyarainwater.org/), the Roads for Water Learning
Alliance (http://roadsforwater.org/) and SEARNET-ICRAF
(http://www.searnet.net/), among others.
It is not necessary to use the entire manual, although

chapter 2 has been designed to be of interest to all RWHI
technologies. Chapters 3 to 10 can be used as a reference
guidelines for each of the specific RWHI technologies and
practices that are highlighted in this manual. Further, com-
plementary training materials linked to this manual are the
presentations given as part of a the 3-day train-the-trainer
capacity building course on RWHI management for
local communities in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and
Zimbabwe. The course materials are accessible through the
AFRHINET website at http://afrhinet.eu/materials.html
or the specific country sections of the AFRHINET virtual
Technology Transfer Centres at http://www.rainwater-
techcentres.net/.
13
1
14
2. USING RAINWATER FOR As it is shown in Figure 2, RWH technologies for food
security can be classified in three main categories (Biazin
OFF-SEASON SMALL- et al., 2012):
SCALE IRRIGATION IN ARID 1.

Micro-catchment RWH systems: Collection of
surface runoff from small catchment areas with water
AND SEMI-ARID AREAS storage in the soil for rainfed agriculture and/or
dry-spell mitigation.
2.1 Rainwater harvesting management 2. Macro-catchment RWH systems: Collection of

surface runoff from large catchment areas with water
for food security storage for supplementary and/or off-season irrigation,
spate irrigation, and/or livestock watering.
The term rainwater harvesting and management for food
security is used to encompass all practices of rainwa- 3. In-situ RWH systems: Techniques applied in the crop
ter collection, storage and reutilisation for agriculture, area in order to maximise infiltration, reduce surface
especially crop and livestock production (Rockström et al., runoff and soil evaporation, and improve soil fertility
2001; Ngigi et al., 2005; Biazin et al., 2012). Among them, and water availability.
supplemental and off-season small-scale irrigation, spate
irrigation, and other practices to increase soil moisture and
shallow groundwater recharge. 2.2 Rainwater harvesting management
for off-season small-scale irrigation
Rainwater harvesting management for off-season small-
scale irrigation (RWHI) is defined as a set of technologies
Rainwater
and practices that allows concentrating and storing rain-
Harvesting
water and runoff from a larger catchment area (land, river,
Techniques
road, roof, rock, etc.) to be used for irrigation of high-value
crops during dry periods. RWHI management is specifically
meant to conduct small-scale agricultural activities during
dry periods, especially kitchen gardens, trees, and high-
value horticultural crops along riverbanks, by means of the
Micro- Macro- use of mainly macro-catchment RWH technologies con-
In-situ nected to a low-cost irrigation system.
catchment catchment
RWHI is predominantly designed to sustain subsistence

agricultural activities at the smallholder level. It is suited to
be practiced in arid and semi-arid regions, where rainwater
Figure 2: Classification of RWH systems for food security. often has an intermittent character. Due to the irregular
Source: (De Trincheria et al., 2016a). distribution of rainfall, storage is an integral part of a RWHI
15
2
system. Water is therefore stored directly in surface and/or clearly site-specific. Therefore, their adoption, applicability
shallow groundwater reservoirs, either artificially built or and scalability are limited to biophysical and hydrological
naturally available. In addition, the low-cost irrigation com- characteristics. This basically implies that each technology
ponent to provide water to the crop area during dry periods is applicable only under specific circumstances on a case-
has also a pivotal importance. Figure 3 shows a diagram by-case basis, among them, topography, landscape char-
of a RWHI system. acteristics, and the financial and technical capacity of the
community. Further, RWHI technologies and practices have
A RWHI system has three main components: different capital investment costs and cost-efficiency de-
pending on multivariate factors, among others, the volume
1. Rainwater/runoff collection catchment. of water stored, and the costs and reliability of the water
supply. Chapters 3 to 10 give a detailed overview of the
2. Rainwater/runoff storage facility by means of an most relevant suitability and cost-efficiency factors.
artificial and/or natural surface and/or undergroud
reservoir, usually around 25 m3 to 1,000 m3.
2.2.1 Examples of macro-catchment
3. A low-cost irrigation system that applies water to
the crop area during dry periods. RWH systems
The specific set of technologies that can be used to link This type of technologies collect surface runoff from ex-
rainwater to off-season small-scale irrigation range from ternal catchments and store it for further use during dry
systems to collect and store rainwater (i.e. on-farm ponds, periods (Hatibu et al., 2000; Biazin et al., 2012). Rainwa-
road, rock and rooftop catchments, earth dams, groundwater/runoff is collected from existing paved surfaces (e.g.
ter dams) to off-season small-scale rainwater irrigation sys- roads and/or rooftops) and natural slopes and/or streams,
tems (i.e. gravity, manual and mechanised pumping sys-
tems connected to manual or mechanised water delivery
systems) (De Trincheria et al., 2016a).
It is worth considering that micro-catchment and/or in-situ

RWH systems show potential for off-season small-scale
irrigation if there is a direct or indirect shallow ground-
water recharge, which can in turn be used as a water
source for off-season irrigation during dry periods. Also,
these systems inherently increase the soil moisture of the
crop rooting zone during wet periods. Thereby, potentially
enhancing off-season irrigation during dry periods.
The impacts of RWHI management revolve around facil-

itating higher crop yields and access to income options
during dry periods, and ensuring better nutrition and Figure 4: A sand storage dam connected to a small-scale irrigation system in
health. However, RWHI technologies and practices are Kenya. Photo: J. de Trincheria.
Figure 3: An example of a RWHI system showcasing a macro-catchment RWH system linked to a pumping and small-scale irrigation system.
Source: (Studer and Liniger, 2013).
16
Table 1: Potential of macro-catchment RWHI systems to be used for off-season small-scale irrigation. Potential: High (+++), Medium (++), Low (+).
Source: Adapted from De Trincheria et al. (2016a).
RWH Storage Technology Ethiopia Kenya Mozambique Zimbabwe
On-farm ponds +++ +++ +++ +++
Rooftop catchments + on-farm ponds +++ +++ +++ +++
Road catchments + on-farm ponds +++ +++ +++ +++
Shallow groundwater recharge with +++ +++ +++ +++

micro-catchment and in-situ RWHI systems
Small earth dams ++ ++ ++ ++
Groundwater dams: subsurface dams ++ ++ ++ ++

and sand storage dams
Rock outcrops + earth dams ++ ++ ++ ++
Surface dams and perennial riverbeds + + + +
and at a lower extent from purpose-built structures (Biazin

et al., 2012). The components of the system, the storage
volume, and the catchment type and area, depend on
the local rainfall pattern and soil types (Studer and Lin-
iger, 2013). Table 1 shows a selection of relevant mac-
ro-catchment RWHI technologies coupled with a storage
system that are currently implemented in Ethiopia, Kenya,
Mozambique and Zimbabwe. These technologies, at a
lower or larger extent, show the potential to be efficiently
linked with small-scale irrigation systems to irrigate crops
during dry spells. Figures 4 and 5 show two examples of
macro-catchment systems, a sand storage dam connected
to a gravity low-cost irrigation system and an on-farm pond
RWHI system, respectively.
Figure 5: A RWHI system based on a farm pond is complemented by other

micro-catchment and in-situ RWH management technologies in Kenya.
Photo: A. Oduor.
Figure 6: Micro-catchment RWH systems (terraces -left- and trenches -right-) that are infiltrating rainwater and higher shallow groundwater levels in Ethiopia.
Photo. B. Simane.
17
2
Figure 7: Mulching (right) and runoff collection with furrows (left). Source: (Studer and Liniger, 2013).
2.2.2 Examples of micro-catchment in Ethiopia and Kenya as compared to Zimbabwe and

Mozambique. Figure 6 shows two examples of micro-
RWH systems catchment systems, i.e. terraces and infiltration trenches.
According to Biazin et al. (2012), a micro-catchment rain-

water harvesting system collects runoff within the farm 2.2.3 Examples of in-situ RWH systems
boundary from relatively small catchment areas from 10 m2
to 500 m2. The most commonly applied micro-catchment In-situ systems involve the use of practices that increase
rainwater harvesting techniques in sub-Saharan Africa infiltration, reduce runoff and evaporation, and improve soil
include pitting, contouring, terracing and micro-basins moisture directly in the crop rooting zone by trapping and
(Motsi et al., 2004; Nyamangara and Nyagumbo, 2010; Biazin holding the rain where it falls (Hatibu et al., 2000; Ngigi,
et al., 2012; Malesu et al., 2012; Nyamadzawo et al., 2013). 2003; Gebreegziabhert et al., 2009; Nyamangara and
These type of technologies are more widely implemented Nyagumbo, 2010). These techniques do not generally need
Table 2: Relevant small-scale irrigation technologies commonly practiced in the countries under study. Distribution: High (+++), Medium (++), Low (+).
Source: (De Trincheria et al., 2016a).
Small scale RWHI Technology Ethiopia Kenya Mozambique Zimbabwe
Watering can / bucket +++ +++ +++ +++

Surface irrigation ++ + + ++
Manual pumping ++ ++ ++ ++
Mechanised pumping ++ ++ ++ ++
Sprinkler system (single drag hose) + + + +
Drag Hose irrigation (no sprinklers) + + + +
Low-Cost drip irrigation kits + + + +
Ox-drawn / tractor-drawn bowsers + + + +
Figure 8: A bucket irrigation system connected to a sub-surface dam in Kenya.

Photo: J. de Trincheria.
18
Figure 9: A low-cost drip irrigation system in Kenya.
Photo: J. de Trincheria.
Figure 10: Water is gravitated from a 50-year old sand storage dam to fields situated at lower elevations (left) and surface irrigation in Zimbabwe (right).
Photos: E. Nissen-Petersen and J. Nyamangara.
Figure 11: Manual pumping using a a hip pump in Kenya (left and middle left), a portable petrol-powered water pump in Kenya (middle right) and solar pumping in
Zimbabwe (right). Photos: J. de Trincheria, B. Gumbo and E. Nissen-Petersen.
a runoff-inducing catchment area. Instead, they are aimed 2.2.4 Examples of off-season small-scale
at enhancing rainfall infiltration and reducing soil evap-
oration. The most commonly applied in-situ rainwater irrigation systems
harvesting practices in sub-Saharan Africa include ridging,
mulching, various types of furrowing and hoeing, and The most widely practiced methods of irrigation in Ethiopia,
conservation tillage (Biazin et al., 2012). Figure 7 shows Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe are summarised in
two examples of in-situ systems. Table 2. The link between small-scale irrigation and RWH
comes when the rainwater stored during wet periods is
used for irrigation during dry periods. Figures 8 to 11 show
some examples of off-season small-scale irrigation systems.
19
2
20
3. RUNOFF ON-FARM The volume of water in the pond is limited by the following
factors:
PONDS
1. Size of the farm pond.
2. Amount of runoff generated.
3.1 The technology 3. Water losses.
4. Water usage.
An on-farm pond is an excavated pit which is constructed
to harvest runoff from the ground (Figure 12). The pond can be built in different shapes and sizes, i.e.
The runoff is usually conveyed through roads and/or foot- irregular, circular, or rectangular with vertical or slanted walls.
paths into the pond reservoirs. Thus, roads provide good The size of the farm ponds usually range from 10 m3 to
catchment areas in which runoff is generated in large vol- 1,000 m3 depending on financial capability and intended
umes during rainfall events and are commonly used in water uses (Ngigi, 2015). Table 3 gives an overview of
connection with on-farm ponds. sizes and corresponding available financing mechanisms.
Figure 12: An on-farm pond system with an off-season small-scale irrigation system.
Source: Pixiniti Studios.
21
3
Table 3: Farm pond sizes categorized based on land size, financing mechanism and construction approach.
Source: Adapted from Kenya Rainwater Association.
Land size Farm pond size Livelihood status Construction approach
Small size (0.2 - 0.4 ha) 50 - 100 m3 Safety net (grant-based) Manual
Medium size (0.4 - 0.8 ha) 100 - 250 m3 Subsidy (grant/credit) Manual/mechanisation
Large size (> 0.8 ha) 250 - 500 m3 Self-financing (credit) Mechanisation
Farm ponds have a high potential for small-scale Different storage capacities for the farm pond can be
irrigation purposes at the household level. However, their adopted up to 1,000 m3 depending on water demands and
success is limited by evaporation, seepage and siltation financial capability.
losses on one hand, and safety and health risks on the other,
as it is shown in Figures 13 and 14. Therefore, these train- The on-farm pond is also roofed with an iron sheet or a
ing materials describe an innovative on-farm pond system shade net. The roofing is intended to reduce evaporation,
that specifically takes into account these challenges. mosquito breeding and drowning risk for children and/or
domestic animals on one hand, and to protect the dam
The upgraded system is a runoff storage reservoir with liner from damage and deterioration from direct exposure
an inverted trapezoidal shape (Figure 16), which should be to sunlight on the other. On cost-effectiveness, the shade
connected to a road catchment. In addition, it is lined with net roofing is about 50% cheaper than iron sheets due
a ultra-violet protected dam liner (thickness: 0.8 mm) to to low unit costs per m2 and lighter roofing structure. In
control seepage losses. For small-scale irrigation purposes, addition, the roofing design is enhanced with fencing with
a minimum storage capacity of 50 m3 is recommended chain link for safety and security reasons. The upgraded
with top and bottom dimensions of 8 m x 6 m and 4 m x 2 m, on-farm pond system for off-season small-scale irrigation
respectively, and a depth of 2 m with 1:1 side slope. is shown in Figure 15.
Figure 13: On-farm ponds affected by poor workmanship.

Photos: S. Ngigi
Figure 14: On-farm ponds affected by siltation, evaporation and seepage.

Photos: S. Ngigi.
22
Figure 15: The evolution of farm pond roofing technology.
Photos: S. Ngigi.
3.2 Siting to 46 m3 for horticultural crops within the typical 100-day

off-season growing period (Ngigi, 2015). A 90-day storage
Siting of the household farm ponds can be implemented requirement responds to the need for an irrigator to be able
through the use of local knowledge. The specific location to meet the irrigation demands for the entire duration of a dry
of an on-farm pond can be selected by observing the runoff season of 90 days (MWI, 2015). However, other domestic
flow patterns on the farm, which require the long-term water uses should also be incorporated in the design to
experience of the farm owner. The observations entail ensure sufficient water storage for off-season irrigation.
assessment of the catchment area as well as potential
conveyance channels. The farmer can therefore identify Once the required storage capacity is determined, the
the potential site of the pond, depending on the available next step is to decide on the appropriate dimensions and
space and gravity flows. In addition, it is always recom- orientation of the farm pond. Table 4 shows typical dimen-
mended to seek advice from experienced technical exten- sions for different storage capacities of farm ponds. How-
sion officers and/or practitioners, who can perform a quick ever, the sizes and dimensions of farm ponds are flexible
and low-cost geological survey to complement the siting and can be tailor-made to suit different landscapes, water
observations of the farmer. demands, farmers’ preferences and financial resources.
3.3 Design
The main design considerations revolve around the pond
storage requirements and its impermeability, and the runoff
conveyance, i.e. inlet/ overflow structure which also incor-
porates a silt-trap.
3.3.1 Storage requirements

It usually takes a few rainfall events for a pond to be filled
up in normal rainfall years even in small runoff catchments
smaller than 4 ha. Assuming that the catchment area gener-
ates sufficient runoff to fill up the pond reservoir, the storage
capacity of the farm pond can be matched to the seasonal
crop water requirements computed from the size of the drip
irrigation system. For example, a 50 m3 farm pond usually
Figure 16: An on-farm with an inverted trapezoidal shape.
goes with a 230-L mini-tank drip irrigation system, which Source: Pixiniti Studios.
covers 250-300 m2 of land. Crop water requirements can
be assumed to be 230 L twice a day, which is equivalent
23
3
Table 4: Typical dimensions for different storage capacities of farm ponds.

Source: Kenya Rainwater Association.
Top dimensions Bottom dimensions Depth (m) Volume (m3)
a (m) b (m) c (m) d (m)
8 6 4 2 2.00 50
8 6 6 2 2.25 75
10 6 8 2 2.25 90
12 7.5 8 3.5 2.25 12
14 8 8 4 2.25 150
14 8 10 4 2.5 180
15 8 11 4 2.5 200
15 10 11 6 2.5 250
16 11 12 6 2.5 300
16 12 12 8 2.5 350
16 14 12 10 2.50 400
16 16 12 12 2.50 500
18 16 14 12 2.75 600
20 16 16 12 2.75 700
20 18 16 14 2.75 800
20 20 16 16 2.75 900
22 20 18 16 2.75 1,000
3.3.2 Collecting runoff water in the pond if the catchment is not well protected, e.g. drainage from
conventional roads and foot paths. As roads are a public
An inlet conveyance mechanism, which is shown in Figure utility that borders other landowners, it is recommended
17, is a system comprised of the channels along the road that farmers organize themselves and implement commu-
and waterways towards the pond, the silt traps and the nity works towards the conservation of roads in order to
mitre drains. Surface runoff collects a lot of silt especially reduce siltation.
Siltation can be further reduced in the conveyance channel

through a combination of stone pitching and/or planting
of indigenous grass and/or a tractor-tread design using
stones or pegs of tree branches, as it is shown in Figure 18.
In addition, silt traps can minimise siltation and also act

as a spillway. A silt trap has a double chamber (each of 60
cm x 60 cm x 60 cm) for sedimentation, where silt settles
as the water enters into the farm pond. However, for large
farm ponds, the size of the silt trap should be increased
accordingly based on the amount of expected runoff. In
addition, the silt trap acts as an inlet of the farm pond as
well as the overflow, as it is shown in Figure 19. The two
chambers are made of masonry (e.g. bricks or dressed
stones) and plastered for ease of maintenance. There are
two inlets fitted with 4-inch PVC pipes and a screen filter to
Figure 17: Runoff pond system from the catchment to storage. ensure that the runoff is well filtered. These are to prevent
Source: Pixiniti Studios. floating debris from entering the farm pond.
24
Figure 18: Type of treatments for channels and waterways.
3.4 Construction 3.4.1 Farm pond layout and excavation

The construction process is illustrated with a 50 m3 farm This involves excavating the pit, which should generally
pond. The top and bottom dimensions are 8 m x 6 m and have a trapezoidal shape in order to avoid the collapsing of
4 m x 2 m, respectively and the depth is 2 m with side the sides and to enhance the lining effect. After siting the
slopes of 1:1 (45°). The construction process entails three farm pond, the top and bottom dimensions are marked out
main steps: using strings or choke powder (Figure 20, left). Then, exca-
vation starts with the inner rectangular pit (4 m x 2 m), which
1. Layout and excavation of the pit. is dug up to the required depth of 2 m. Also, then the outer
rectangle (8 m x 6 m) is sloped to the required slope (1:1) in
2. Lining with 0.8 mm thick ultra-violet resistant (UVR) order to form the shape of the farm pond (Figure 20, right).
plastic sheet for seepage control. The farm pond slopes are smoothened to allow the instal-
lation of the UVR plastic lining material to control seepage.
3. Roofing with shade net (supported with either bow-
shaped simple metallic structures for smaller capacities
or flat meshed wire network), including anchoring 3.4.2 Lining of the farm pond
masonry works and fencing.
In areas with medium to high seepage, lining of the farm
ponds has always been carried out immediately after ex-
cavation. The excavated farm pond is lined with a 0.8 mm
thick UVR plastic sheet (dam liner) to prevent water losses
through seepage. Other lining options such as concrete
linings have also been implemented in other places. How-
ever, this is not recommended due to the high costs and
high labour involved. The dam liner is factory-made to fit
the dimensions of the farm pond, and includes 5% shrink-
age allowance and 0.5 -1.0 m overhang for anchoring to
the ground. After fixing the dam liner perfectly into the pit,
a one-course masonry layer (using brick, dresses or rubble
stone) is constructed along the upper boundary (perimeter)
of the farm pond. The masonry layer is laid about 20 cm
from the top dimensions along a shallow ditch (10 -20 cm
deep) to hold the dam liner firmly to the ground and prevent
side runoff from entering the reservoir (Figure 21). The
short perimeter wall is provided with gaps at predetermined
Figure 19: A silt trap division box. distances for fixing the anchors of the metallic roofing
25
3
Figure 20: Farm pond layout and excavation.

Photos: S. Ngigi.
structure. For flat roofing, gaps are not necessary since uniformity. The metallic structure also has provisions for
the holding wires are fixed to the fencing poles along the fixing binding/steel wires to prevent the net from sagging.
outer side of the masonry layer. The masonry work is done For larger farm ponds, the flat net roofing incorporates
by trained local artisans with labour and locally available fencing with chain-link to prevent damage by animals or
construction materials provided by the community or ben- reduce safety risks, i.e. drowning of children or domestic
eficiaries. animals. The shade net does not allow mosquito breeding,
as it is shown in Figure 23. Figure 24 shows a diagram of
a roof structure for an on-farm pond.
3.4.3 Roofing the farm ponds
The farm pond is roofed with a 80% shading net (to allow
entry of direct runoff), which is supported by a simple me-
tallic roofing structure. The metallic roofing structure is pre-
fabricated and transported to the site in easy-to-fix piec-
es. At the site, the roofing structure is assembled before
being mounted along the masonry wall with semi-circular
trusses being anchored by short metallic pieces, which are
then fitted permanently into the ring wall gap by concrete
(Figure 22, left). The assembly of the roofing structure is
easy and faster as all the members are fixed with bolts and
nuts. After the assembled roofing structure is installed, the
shade net is spread on the top and held tightly by binding
wire along the bottom side, which prevents the net from
being blown away by the wind (Figure 22, right). The net is
properly balanced on top of the farm pond to maintain the
Figure 21: Lining the farm pond including masonry layer for anchoring the dam liner.
Photos: S. Ngigi.
26
Figure 22: Farm pond roofing process.
Photos: S. Ngigi.
Figure 23: Farm pond with flat net roof.

Photo: A. Oduor.
Figure 24: Layout for roofing of a farm pond.

27
3
3.5 Monitoring and maintenance

The main issues with regard to the monitoring and mainte-
nance of on-farm ponds are described in Table 5.
Table 5: Key monitoring and maintenance issues for a pond reservoir and its water application system.
Pond reservoir Monitoring and maintenance aspects
Shade net Check for any signs of tear which may develop into holes in the future. If the torn places
are minor, the net can be removed and the torn places sawn with appropriate threads
before returning it back to cover the pond. Always keep extra shade net material that can
be used for patching up torn places. When the shade net appears worn out after some
years of use, replace it all together with a new set.
Pond lining The pond lining may be ruptured and result in seepage losses. If you suspect this is
happening, there is a need to carefully remove the shade net to access the lining. Let
it be repaired by an authorized person who will use a hot blower to merge the torn
spots
Fence Inspect the fence to ensure that no animal or child can pass through. The spaces must
be sealed as much as possible. For barbed wire or chain link, repair or replace as ap-
propriate. For live fence, plant more stems in open spaces.
Water application Monitoring and maintenance aspects
Overhead tank for irrigation If a cloth was placed at the entrance to the tank, remove and assess its condition. If it
is dirty, wash it and return it to the same place. If it is torn, replace it with a new one.
Monitor this at least once a month.
Irrigation filters The filters contain fine mesh that needs replacement whenever clogged. Test them by
pouring water through them. If the water cannot pass through, or passes with difficulty,
replace the filters. Check the manufacturer’s manual as a guide on how to replace the
filters.
Drippers If using drip irrigation, check on the drippers for any clogging. Do this by releasing water
from the overhead tank and observing how fast they pop out of the drippers. Those that
are completely blocked should be replaced.
3.6 Scalability of the farm ponds 3.7 A champion on on-farm pond irrigation
On-farm pond is highly adaptable to a wide range of small- in Kenya
holder-based farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa.
It is relatively simple to site and construct with minimal Mr. Nzioki is a young farmer from Machakos County in
technical skills, and also simple to operate and maintain. Kenya. He has implemented a runoff harvesting farm pond
The sizes are flexible and can be tailor-made for different with a capacity of 250 m3 with the support from the Billion
landscapes, water requirements and users, and farmers’ Dollar Business Alliance, which is implemented in Kenya
economic considerations. The technology is highly cost-ef- by SEARNET-ICRAF, Kenya Rainwater Association and
fective and can be obtained as one RWHI package includ- the AFRHINET Research and Transfer Centre at Univer-
ing a low-head low-cost drip irrigation system and a man- sity of Nairobi, among others. The runoff collected is used
ual pump. It has however several key challenges, among for off-season production of high-value vegetables such
them, the capital investment costs, which are not usually as tomatoes and kales in a greenhouse. The greenhouse
affordable by local communities. Yet, the on-farm pond is also used as a roof catchment to supply clean water to
RWHI system shows high potential: With a 50 m3 pond, a the pond. In addition, a treadle pump has been connected
smallholder farmer can recover the investment costs within to an overhead tank in order that releases water by gravity
2 cropping seasons depending on the type of crops and to a low-cost drip irrigation system. Mr. Nzioki also uses the
market scenario, as it is shown in Table 6. rainwater collected to keep 100 improved poultry for sale.
He earns USD 5,000 each season from these activities.
Figure 25 shows the system implemented by Mr. Nzioki.
28
Table 6: A cost-benefit analysis of on-farm ponds.
Source: Adapted from Kenya Rainwater Association.
Item Costs (USD, 2017)
Investment cost
1. Farm pond (50 m3) 1,000
2. Drip irrigation system with hand pump (0.5 ha) 2,000
3. Inputs (agro-chemical, labour, logistics) 500
Total Investment 3,500
Financing costs
4. Loan interest (12%) 480
Total annual financing cost 480
Income from annual horticultural production (2 wet periods)
5. Net return from tomatoes (6-9 months) 1,810
6. Net return from capsicum (6-9 months) 2,530
Total seasonal income Year 1 4,340
Capital investment costs + financing 3,980
Revenues Year 1 360
Payback period 12 months
Figure 25: A visit to Mr. Nzioki’s farm by extension officers and researchers.
Photos: A. Oduor.
29
3
30
4. ROOF CATCHMENT stitutions such as schools that have very big catchments.
SYSTEMS Roof catchment systems have a lot of storage options

given the fact that the catchment is well above the ground
in comparison to ground catchments. They are thus
4.1 The technology categorized into the following reservoir types:
Roof water harvesting is widely practiced among many 1. Roof catchments with surface reservoirs and/or surface
rural households in sub-Saharan Africa. It is a technique tanks, among them, on-farm farm ponds and plastic
where runoff generated on rooftops is captured, conveyed tanks.
and stored in reservoirs (i.e. on-farm ponds) and/or sur-
face or underground tanks. With a good design, this sys- 2. Roof catchments with underground tanks, i.e. spherical
tem can provide sufficient water for off-season small-scale or sausage tanks.
irrigation at household level, namely kitchen gardening.
The size of the roof catchment coupled with the finan- Figures 26, 27 and 28 show a roof catchment system
cial capability of the beneficiary determines the amount connected to an on-farm pond, a spherical underground
of water that can be harvested in a given area and thus, tank, and a surface water tank, respectively.
the tank size. The water harvested from the roof is the
product of the roof catchment area and the total rainfall
amount. Roof catchment rainwater harvesting systems
are particularly important in rural areas, especially for in-
Figure 26:A roof water harvesting system with an on-farm pond and a water tank (optional).
31
4
Figure 27: A roof water harvesting system under spherical tank.

Figure 28: A roof water harvesting system and a surface water tank.
4.2 Siting 4. When harvesting rainwater from large roofs of institu-

tions, i.e. schools, churches or government buildings,
The siting of a roof catchment system is influenced by the roof sections and gutters can be split to allow for
the nature and size of the roof catchment, the slope, and multiple placements of tanks.
the purpose for which the water is needed. The following
considerations should be taken into account:
4.3 Design
1. If the tank is on the surface and the rainwater collected
is also intended for domestic use, the tank should be SamSam Water has developed a web-based and Android
located behind or besides the house to improve its application called “Rainwater Harvesting Tool” that esti-
access and aesthetics. In addition, the tank must be mates the optimum size of a roof catchment system. The
located below the roof gutters in order to enable direct tool automatically provides data on monthly rainfall aver-
flow into the tank. ages according to a specific location. With this data coupled
with the roof catchment area and the surface type
2. If the tank is underground, it can be located anywhere (i.e. iron/metal sheets, tiles, flat roof or thatched), and the
but not close to a source of contamination such as a water requirements, the size of the roof catchment system
septic tank. can be estimated. The tool is accessible at http://www.
samsamwater. com/rain/ and the application can be
3. Water from grass-thatched huts can also be harvested downloaded at https://play.google.com/store/apps/de-
and conveyed to underground tanks. tails?id=com.b24.samsamwater.
32
4.4 Operational requirements Table 7 shows the main issues with regard to the moni-
toring and maintenance of roof catchment RWH systems.
In order to avoid cross-contamination of the storage tank
during the first rains, roof catchment systems should in-
corporate first flush-like systems that ensure that organic 4.6 Upscaling potential and best-practices
material accumulated during dry periods enters the tank.
Although water supply from roofs has usually been limited
to kitchen gardening due to the high costs and limited stor-
4.4.1 Roof water harvesting system with age capacity of tanks, using on-farm ponds as the storage
structure has the potential to expand their scope and ap-
a floating ball foul flush mechanism plicability to small-scale horticultural production using drip
irrigation and/or greenhouses. Thus, farm ponds are cheaper
The foul flush mechanism consists of a chamber designed than tanks, and hence make roof catchment systems more
to capture up to 2% volume of the heaviest storm event, cost-effective. For example, the cost of a 50 m3 farm pond
which is referred to as the foul flush. When runoff flows roofed with simple metallic structure and shade net is
from the roof goes first to the foul flush chamber until it USD 1,000 compared to the conventional costs of USD 1,500-
is full. Then, all the foul flush has been trapped as the 2,000 for a ferro-cement tank and USD 10,000 for a
ball rises and closes the entrance into the chamber. The plastic tank, both with the same storage capacity. However,
remaining runoff will then be re-routed towards the tank several key innovations have taken place in Honduras in
via the sand filtration system. Figure 29 shows in detail a the form of an elevated impluvium tank of 23 m3 which is
floating ball foul device. connected to a small roof with a gutter system that drives
water by gravity to a low pressure drip irrigation system for
EUR 1,000 (IDE, 2017) (Figure 30, left). Also in Honduras,
4.4.2 Roof water harvesting system with high-density geomembrane bags (1 mm with UV protection)
of storage capacity 25 m3 coupled with manual pumps and
a separator pipe foul flush mechanism low-cost drip irrigation kits for USD 910 have recently been
implemented (Kadet, 2017) (Figure 30, right).
An automated foul flush mechanism uses a separator pipe
and a sand filter. As in the previous case, the separator
pipe is designed to capture up to 2% volume of the heav-
iest storm event, which is referred to as the foul flush.
When runoff flows from the roof goes first to the separator
pipe. After the separator pipe has been filled with the foul
flush, the remaining runoff will be re-routed towards the
tank via the sand filtration system.

Before the onset of the rains, there is a need to remove any
organic material that may have been deposited in the gutters
and/or washed onto the mesh-box, mainly from surrounding
trees. It is also required to ensure that no foul water is still
stored in the foul flush chamber or separator pipe. To do this,
the gate valve (in the case of a floating ball chamber system)
or stopper (in the case of a separator pipe) must be opened
before it is closed again before the next rainfall event. Figure 29: A floating ball foul flush mechanism.
Table 7: Monitoring and maintenance of a roof water harvesting system.
System components Monitoring and maintenance aspects
Gutters Before the onset of rains, check the gutters by pouring water at the end opposite of
the downpipe. The water will flow through it. Get a plumber to repair any spot where
leakage is noticed.
Screen box Remove any material still stuck on top of the screen.
Overhead tank for irrigation If a cloth was placed at the entrance to the tank, remove and assess its condition. If it
is dirty, wash it and return it to the same place. If it is torn, replace it with a new one.
Monitor this at least once a month.
Gate valve below foul flush Check and ensure that the valve is closed so that the roof runoff is not all lost through
chamber the foul flush mechanism.
33
4
Figure 30: An impluvium tank (left) and a geomembrane bag (right) in Honduras.
Sources: (IDE, 2017) (left) and (Kadet, 2017) (right).
34
5. GROUNDWATER DAMS Petersen, 2006a). The main working principle of both
structures is to store water in the riverbed, using sand sed-
IN SEASONAL SANDY iments as a storage and supply reservoir (De Trincheria
et al., 2015; 2016a,b). Figure 31 shows local communities
STREAMS tapping into naturally available water on dry riverbeds (top
left), a subsurface dam, which lays underground the sur-
face (top right), and two small sand storage dams (bottom
5.1 The technology left and right).
There are 2 main types of groundwater dams, subsurface

dams and sand storage dams (Nilsson, 1988; Nissen-
Figure 31: Different types of interventions on seasonal sandy rivers.

Photos: J. de Trincheria.
35
5
5.2 Potential 5.2.1 Storage of water in sandy dry riverbeds

Water from sandy dry riverbeds is not only a traditional A specific section of a seasonal sandy stream can sup-
water source well-known and accepted for rural commu- ply water during dry periods if a natural underground dike
nities but also a vital water source in arid and semi-arid prevents the water flow seeping downstream through the
areas, especially during dry periods, poor rainfall years sand (Nissen-Petersen, 2000; 2006a), as it is shown in
and droughts. Thus, when all other water sources have Figure 33.
dried up, water can still be found in dry riverbeds (Nissen-
Petersen, 2006a). This is shown in Figure 32, which
shows rural communities tapping into water in sandy dry 5.2.2 Water yield capacity of sand sediments
riverbeds far beyond the peak of the dry season in rural
Ukambani in Kenya in 2012. The reason why there is wa- Sand has the capacity to store and yield water. This ca-
ter in the riverbed long after the rainy season is because pacity can also be called the specific yield. Table 8 shows
runoff gets naturally accumulated in the riverbed. Also, typical values of specific yield for a range of sediments
because sand can store and yield water. that are usually found in dry riverbeds. However, if it is not
Figure 32: Seasonal sandy streams have the capacity to yield water during dry periods in arid and semi-arid areas.
Photos: J. de Trincheria.
possible to measure the specific yield of the sediments,

the specific yield of medium and coarse sand should be
considered to be 20-25%. For silt and/or clay, the specific
yield should be considered to be 0.5-3% (De Trincheria et
al. 2015, 2016b). From these values, it is clear that silty
and/or clayey sediments yield low volumes of water.
5.3 Advantages and disadvantages

of groundwater dams
Table 9 shows a summary of key advantages and disad-
vantages of groundwater dams.
Figure 33: Storage of water in sandy dry riverbeds by means of underground

dykes. Source: (Nissen-Petersen, 2000).
Table 8: Usual lab-based specific yield values for typical alluvial sediments.
Source: (Brassington, 2007).
Material Specific yield (%)
Coarse sand 27
Medium sand 28
Fine sand 23
Silt 8
Clay 3
36
Table 9: Key advantages and disadvantages of groundwater dams.
Sources: (Wipplinger, 1958; Hellwig, 1973; Helweg and Smith, 1978; Nilsson, 1988; Ertsen et al., 2005, 2006; Nissen-Petersen, 2006a; Aerts et al., 2007; Hussey,
2007; Hut et al., 2008; Lasage et al., 2008; Lasage and Verburg, 2015; De Trincheria et al., 2015, 2016a,b; Avis, 2016).
Advantages Disadvantages
Strategic water supply: Potential to provide large High site-specificity: Groundwater dams cannot be
volumes of water during dry periods, dry spells implemented everywhere and several important siting
and droughts. requirements need to be at hand.
Income-generation potential: Potential to support vital High capital investment costs: Usual construction costs
activities during dry periods: domestic, livestock, agrofor- from EUR 1,000 to EUR 30,000 (average costs around
estry and horticulture. This is key for a sustainable income 8,000 EUR) cannot be afforded by local communities.
and livelihood in these areas.
High cost-efficiency: Potential to provide relatively high High external dependency: Local communities cannot
volumes of water at low costs over many years taking into usually implement groundwater dams without external aid.
account their construction costs.
Robustness to evaporation: Evaporation losses are Low self-replication: Few examples of groundwater
negligible below 0.6 m-1 m depth of sand. dams have spontaneously been replicated.
Robustness to siltation: They are less vulnerable to Limited usability: Only communities living close to the
siltation, as compared to surface reservoirs. For sand riverbed can easily implement income-generating activi-
storage dams, the spillway must be built by stages of ties, especially small-scale irrigation.
reduced height in order to avoid siltation.
Increase of shallow groundwater levels: Caused by the Conveyance requirements: Benefits of the system de-
retention of the subsurface flow of shallow groundwater. pends on implementing pumping systems.
This is caused by the foundations of the dam.
Reduction of erosion: Well-designed sand storage dams Weak link with income-generating activities: Currently
reduce erosion and increase retention and infiltration groundwater dams are not usually used for irrigated agri-
of water, mainly due to the reduction of the slope of the culture and other income-generating activities.
original riverbed.
Riverbed reclamation potential: It does not occupy land
as surface reservoirs. The land above the stored water
can be used for other purposes.
Robustness to cross-contamination: Contamination of
the water by insects, birds and animals is reduced be-
cause the sand acts as a barrier.
Robustness to mosquito breeding: As water is stored
in the sand, there is no surface stagnant water, so breed-
ing of mosquitoes is minimised, as compared to surface
reservoirs.
Reduction of microbial contamination: Filtration of
water through the sand voids reduces the occurrence
of microbial contamination.
High water quality: The quality of the stored rainwater
is high and readily available for any use, as compared to
surface reservoirs.
Low downstream impacts: Runoff is not severely
affected because the flow of water is not blocked, if it
well designed.
Acceptability: They are socially acceptable as they
improve traditional sources of water.
37
5
5.4 Key performance factors riverbed much closer to the surface during dry periods
and being able to have more water during the entire dry
The minimum volume of a well-functioning groundwa- season.
ter dam is 1.000 m3/dry season (De Trincheria et al.,
2017a,b). This is equivalent to 50,000 jerry cans. In addi-
tion, a groundwater dam should always yield water during 5.5.2 Strengths and weaknesses
the entire dry season and meet all the water needs of the
community. If this does not happen, the groundwater dam The strengths of subsurface dams revolve around their
is not working adequately. underground position and the fact that they do not block
the surface runoff of the riverbed but the flow of shal-
Key performance factors that are common for both sub- low groundwater. Thus, Nissen-Petersen (2013) and De
surface dams and sand storage dams basically refer to Trincheria et al. (2015) stated that subsurface dams are
siting factors. These relate to the presence of a sandy the most cost-efficient type of groundwater dam due to the
ephemeral stream (i.e. there is only flowing water during following factors:
and shortly after rainfall but it remains dry most of the
rainy season, De Trincheria et al., 2016a), the existence 1. Subsurface dams are not vulnerable to siltation.
of an impermeable bedrock at a depth not higher than 3
m, a riverbed width not higher than 25 m to 50 m, and the 2. Subsurface dams are not vulnerable to the erosive
presence of medium and/or coarse sand sediments in the action of floods.
riverbed.
3. They do not need reinforcement and can be built of
clayey soil, which reduces the construction costs and
5.5 Subsurface dams the technical complexity of the structure.
5.5.1 Key working principles 4. No maintenance and operation activities required.
A subsurface dam is a wall which is built across the width 5. High lifespan.
and below the surface of a sandy dry riverbed. The wall
can be made of concrete, rubble masonry, or clayey soil 6. They do not require the presence of high riverbanks.
with or without plastic lining.
The wall must always be built on the underground dyke

closest to the surface of the riverbed and reach the imper-
meable layer in order to avoid seepage, i.e. water seeping
downstream the wall (Nissen-Petersen, 2013). A subsur-
face dam is designed to increase the volume of water in
the sandy dry riverbed (Figure 35) by blocking the shallow
groundwater flow. Thereby, creating a shallow groundwa-
ter reservoir which is invisible to the eyes, as it is shown
in Figure 34. Thus, even though it is not possible to see
a subsurface dam because lays below the surface, the
higher volume of water in the riverbed should be clearly
noticed as compared to before the implementation of the
subsurface dam. Among others, by having water in the
Figure 35: The increase of shallow groundwater in the riverbed reservoir

caused by a subsurface dam is shown by water closer to the surface during
dry periods.
Source: (Nissen-Petersen, 2013).
However, subsurface dams are not indicated for sites

which present shallow sand depths, especially at the upper
head of the catchment area. Further, a major weakness of
this type of groundwater dam is the fact that the structure
is invisible to the eye. Therefore, it is difficult to relate to a
water structure that cannot be seen and it is easy to forget
that there is actually a dam which is causing the riverbed
to have more water. Table 10 shows the constructions costs
of a subsurface dam.
Figure 34: A diagram of a subsurface dam across a seasonal sandy stream in

arid and semi-arid areas.
Source: (VSF, 2006).
38
Table 10: Construction costs of a subsurface dam.
Dimensions (length x height) Construction material USD (2013)
24 m x 2.1 m Clayey soil from a nearby riverbank 1,777
24 m x 2.1 m Dam liner (Geomembrane) 2,188
24 m x 2.1 m Reinforced rubble stone masonry 8,762
24 m x 2.1 m Reinforced concrete in timber shuttering 21,105
Figure 36: The increase in sand sediments on the original riverbed caused by the construction of a sand storage dam: a real-life example (right) and a diagram (left).
Photo: J. de Trincheria. Source: Pixiniti Studios.
5.6 Sand storage dams 40-60% of sand storage dams implemented in arid and
semi-arid areas (De Trincheria et al., 2016b, 2017a). Silta-
tion is predominantly caused by the accumulation of large
5.6.1 Key working principles volumes of low-permeability fine grain-size sediments in
the reservoir (Fan and Morris, 1992; Brandt, 1999; Ste-
A sand storage dam is a subsurface dam whose wall has phens, 2010). The main causes are building the sand
been extended above the surface of the riverbed (De storage dam in riverbeds without sand or not building the
Trincheria et al., 2016a). One of the key objectives of a spillway by stages of reduced height in sandy dry river-
sand storage dam is to artificially increase the volume of beds. Sand storage dams affected by siltation do not yield
sand sediments in the original riverbed, as it is shown enough water to meet the water needs of the local com-
in Figure 36. This is specifically meant to create a sand munities during the entire dry season. Figure 37 shows a
reservoir that has enough water to continuously fulfil the sand storage dam affected by siltation.
water needs of beneficiaries during the entire dry season.
5.6.2 Strengths and weaknesses

The real-life performance and cost-efficiency of a sand
storage dam can be severely reduced by siltation and
seepage problems. To avoid siltation and seepage requires
an adequate understanding of the hydrogeology and sed-
iment transport dynamics of the catchment area. Howev-
er, to understand these dynamics is complex, time-con-
suming and expensive. Table 11 shows an overview of
key performance factors affecting the cost-efficiency
of sand storage dams.
5.6.3 A focus on siltation

Sand storage dams are highly vulnerable to siltation. Es- Figure 37: A sand storage dam severely affected by siltation.
timates suggest that siltation may be affecting between Photo: J. de Trincheria.
39
5
Table 11: Key performance factors affecting the cost-efficiency of sand storage dams.
Source: (De Trincheria et al., 2015).
Performance factor Description and causes
Siting: Type of catchment area and the sediments transported by the runoff.
Catchment areas producing none High variability of rainfall, runoff and sediment transport during the
or low volumes of coarse sand filling up of the reservoir.
Specific position of the sand dam in the catchment area, i.e. close to
the head of the valley.
Siting: Nissen-Petersen (2006a) recommended avoiding riverbeds wider than
Width of the riverbed 25 m because of high construction costs required to assure robustness
to flood damage.
Siting: In sand dams sited on steep slopes, the volume of sand sediments
Throwback accumulated behind the dam will be lower.
Siting: Upstream sand storage dams can limit the effective accumulation of
Upstream sand storage dams sand and/or increase siltation for a downstream sand storage dam, if
the reservoir of the upstream one is not completely filled up.
Siting: Sites with fine sand should be avoided because this type of sand pro-
Catchment areas producing large volumes duces little water.
of fine sandy alluvium sediments
Siting: This type of sites should be always strictly avoided as sand storage
Catchment areas producing large volumes dams with silty and/or clayey sediments do not yield water.
of silty and / or clayey alluvium sediments
Siting: Sand storage dams built in sites with many large stones in the riverbed
Seepage losses produce little water. Also, if the foundations of the dam are on rock
outcrops instead of being keyed to the impermeable layer, the sand
storage dam will produce low volumes of water.
Siting: Evaporation does take place but it is negligible below 0.6 m-1.0 m.
Evaporation losses
Design: Sand storage dams must always be built by stages of reduced height in
One-stage spillways order to minimise siltation and ensure that there will be enough water to
meet the water needs of the beneficiaries during the entire dry season.
5.6.4 A focus on seepage

The main causes leading to seepage (Figure 38), and
therefore, low volume of water produced by the sand
storage dam, are as it follows (Nissen-Petersen and De
Trincheria, 2015):
1. Building the wall on boulders.
2. Permeable bedrocks.
3. Predominance of boulders on the riverbed.
4. Fractured sedimentary rocks on the riverbed.
However, seepage can be beneficial for shallow/deep Figure 38: A sand storage dam with severe problems of seepage.
hand-dug wells on the riverbanks. Photo: J. de Trincheria.
40
5.7 Practical recommendations abstraction systems connected to the riverbed and/or
improving the water access for local communities,
for groundwater dams especially the link with small-scale irrigation (Figure 39).
An overview of these water abstraction options is
There is comprehensive and exhaustive information and shown in Table 12.
know-how on how to site, design and build cost-efficient
groundwater dams for local communities on the technical 2. If the specific section of the sandy dry riverbed can
guidelines produced by Nissen-Petersen (2000, 2006a, not yield enough water to meet local community
2013). Therefore, it is recommended to use these guide- needs, a subsurface dam then needs to be first consid-
lines with the support of an experienced extension officer ered always before than a sand storage dam because
or practitioner. of higher cost-efficiency, simplicity and robustness to
erosion and siltation.
5.7.1 Tapping into the natural capacity 3. If a subsurface dam cannot yield enough water to
meet local community needs, then a sand storage dam
of alluvial shallow reservoirs is the most cost-efficient groundwater option to meet
the needs of the beneficiaries.
Before building a groundwater dam, it is always necessary
to take into account the following key recommendations:
5.7.2 Siting
1. If the specific section of the sandy seasonal stream
can yield enough water to meet local community If building a groundwater is required, siting is a vital step to
needs, to build a groundwater dam is not cost-efficient. carry out this process cost-efficiently. Siting should always
Instead, efforts should be directed to improve the water be carried out after a 1-day field survey (Nissen-Petersen,
Table 12: Structures for tapping into the natural water yield capacity of dry riverbeds.
Source: (Nissen-Petersen, 2006a).
Description
Waterholes Shallow waterholes are the most popular extraction method for pas-
toralists and agro-pastoralists, because the lifting height is low and
the investment consists only of a shovel, a discarded tin and either a
few jerry cans for domestic water or a hollow tree trunk for watering
livestock.
Shallow hand-dug wells in riverbeds A hand-dug well is a well dug manually, where the only piece of ma-
or riverbanks chinery eventually used is a water pump to enable the workers to do
their job in relatively dry conditions.
Wells should always be sunk in the inner bends of riverbeds where
sand deposited by former water courses provides natural infiltration
and recharge of water to the wells.
Naturally, wells and intakes should be sunk where the water-saturated
sand is deepest for the purpose of extracting a maximum of water.
Hand-dug wells sunk in the riverbanks are protected from damage by
floodwater.
To enhance access to water, a shallow well fitted with a hand pump is
constructed along the river bank upstream of the dam, which improves
water abstraction and quality.
Outlet pipe with tap An outlet can be installed as a perforated pipe at the bottom of the dam
just above the impermeable layer. The pipe should be covered fully
with filter material and geomembrane to prevent entry of sand and silt.
Disadvantages are that outlets can weaken the dam structure, their
maintenance is complicated and it is an expensive option.
Intakes in riverbanks River-intakes are similar to hand-dug wells except for an infiltration
pipe that drains water into a well sunk in a riverbank.
Intakes are only constructed where there is insufficient inflow or re-
charge of water to a well sunk in a riverbed.
41
5
1. Hilly and rocky watersheds and gullies originating from

stony hills have the potential to produce large volumes
of coarse sand from where up to 25-20% of water can
be extracted (Figure 40, left).
2. Watersheds with flat farm land have the potential to

produce large volumes of fine sand coupled with clayey
and silty materials, from where 0.5%-5% can only be
extracted. This is independently of the fact, that in
many cases, these catchment areas have also the
capacity to produce low volumes of medium and
coarse sand sediments (Figure 40, right).
3. Seasonal sandy streams with abundance of rock out-

crops on the surface of the riverbed and/or across the
Figure 39: A manual pumping system connected to a shallow groundwater thickness of the riverbed, have a high potential to
reservoir in Zimbabwe. seepage water (Nissen-Petersen, 2013).
Photo: R. Nyawasha
2006a; De Trincheria et al. 2015, 2017b). Key siting steps 5.7.2.2 Identifying cost-efficient
are as it follows:
construction sites
1. Identify suitable catchments with the capacity to
produce large volumes of sand sediments. This step is important in order to achieve the following
objectives:
2. Identify suitable sandy seasonal riverbeds in suitable
catchment areas. a) To tap into the natural capacity of the riverbed in a
cost-efficient manner.
3. Locate underground reservoirs and dykes on suitable
riverbeds. b) To disregard sites with low potential before the imple-
mentation takes place (seepage, evaporation, and
4. Evaluate sand storage capacity, water yield, supply siltation).
and cost-efficiency, and water needs of beneficiaries.
c) To select best sites: natural deep layers of sand sedi-
5. Select the most cost-efficient, simple and robust inter- ments and/or alluvial aquifers laterally extending.
vention.
According to Nissen-Petersen (2013) and Nissen-Peters-
en and De Trincheria (2015), this can be carried out with
5.7.2.1 Identifying suitable catchments quick and simple yet accurate methods by taking into ac-
count the following factors:
and/or riverbeds
a) Location and types of water indicating trees.
In order to identify suitable catchment areas and river-
beds, the following recommendations need to be taken b) Location of waterholes and hand-dug wells.
into account:
c) Location and types of rocks and boulders
Figure 40: A suitable (left) and unsuitable (right) catchment.

42
d) Coarseness of sand sediments. and their presence in conjunction with A. robusta confirms
a good site. Also, the absence of termite mounds with
e) No calcrete. Sterculia rhynch and Acaccia mellifera are a good indica-
tor of water in the riverbed. Finally, the presence of trees
f) Avoid building in bends of the river. with green cover during the dry season is a good indicator
as well.
g) Finding suitable places to build the dam is harder
when the river is wider. Physical survey at the site level
To measure depth and width of sand sediments of the spe-
h) In general the topographical gradient of the construction cific section (500 m-1,000 m) of the riverbed where the
sites is between 0.2% and 4% but in extreme cases groundwater dam is to be built is required in order to tap
slopes of 10%-16% can be used (Nilsson, 1988). into the natural capacity of the riverbed in a cost-efficient
manner. This means to be able to build the spillway at the
i) Drawing a sketch of the potential sections identified. shallowest point where there is an underground dyke and
to place the spillway downstream of the maximum depth
Once suitable specific sections have been identified, it is of sand. Also, the evaluation allows to disregard specific
necessary to locate underground reservoirs and dykes sites with low potential before the implementation takes
using a combination of 3 quick and simple methods: place (seepage, evaporation, siltation), and therefore, to
optimise performance, cost-efficiency and benefit to local
1. Waterholes with water during dry periods. communities. In addition, with the data collected, the po-
tential water yield and supply capacity can be estimated,
2. Natural indicators, especially, water-indicating trees. and therefore, the groundwater dam can be designed in
the most cost-efficient manner. The height of the stages
3. 1-day probing of the width and depth of sand sedi- and potential construction costs can also be obtained as a
ments in the riverbed. result of the on-the-ground evaluation.
A detailed overview of these methods is as it follows: The simplest method to survey the riverbed is to hammer
iron rods of 2-4 m (14-16 mm) into the ground along 500 m -
Waterholes in the riverbed during the dry season 1,000 m at sub-sections of intervals of 20 m or 10 m (Fig-
Waterholes in riverbeds and tall trees on riverbanks indicate ure 42). At each probing point, the depth of sand and water
shallow groundwater suitable for sinking hand-dug wells is measured at least once in the middle of the sub-section.
in the inner curve of riverbanks, as it is shown in Figure There is also the need to record other key variables, i.e.
41. The yield of water from a well can be increased by a slope of the riverbed, texture of sand, type of floor under
subsurface dam or a sand dam built onto an underground the sand, height of the riverbanks, relevant siting variables
dyke downstream of the well where there are no trees on the banks, and the specific yield of the alluvial sedi-
or waterholes. Also, the time length and volume of water ments. Nissen-Petersen (2006a) provides a template to
used for the beneficiaries give a first indication of the orig- record these variables.
inal volume of water produced by the site.
The objective of the probing is to be able to develop a
Natural indicators of shallow groundwater longitudinal profile and plan, as it is shown in Figure 43.
Woodhouse (1991) found that the most successful natu-
ral indicator of good-quality groundwater at shallow depth The analysis of the data collected serves to select the
was Acacia robusta. Thus, in sites with this type of tree, most cost-efficient, simple and robust intervention on the
groundwater can be obtained at depths of less than 10 m. riverbed. The objective is to gain free storage capacity
In addition, Acacia gerrardii, Acacia xanthophloea and and reduce costs by building on underground dykes. In
Fikus sur are all useful indicators of shallow groundwater addition, the probing allows conducting a hydrological
Figure 41: Waterholes indicating where water is naturally accumulating in the riverbed.
43
5
> Where YS is the volume of drained water (L) and VS is

the volume of sand (L)
The volume of drained water is found by saturating a jerry

can with water and measuring how much water the jerry
can is able to yield after 12h.
For example:
25 % of water can be extracted from 5,000 m3 sand

= 1,250 m3 water.
5 % of water can be extracted from 5,000 m3 sand

= 250 m3 water.
Figure 42: A probing procedure.

Source: (Nissen-Petersen, 2013). 5.8 Specific practical recommendations
for subsurface dams
5.8.1 Siting
Subsurface dams require natural deep layers of sand sed-
iments (>2 m) in the riverbed. In addition, the optimum
zone for constructing a subsurface dam is generally found
on gentle slopes in the transition zone between hills and
plains.
5.8.2 Design and construction

Figure 43: Longitudinal and profile plan of a seasonal sandy stream. There are not specific design requirements associated to
subsurface dams other than conventional issues common
to building a dam wall below the ground of a riverbed.
evaluation of the reservoir. This is meant to evaluate if
the water yield of the reservoir can meet the water needs For both sand storage dams and subsurface dams, min-
of the beneficiaries, and therefore, to identify the most imising lateral seepage is a priority. Reducing leakage is
cost-efficient option to implement, i.e. waterholes and/or achieved by compacting clay soil at the base of the dam,
hand-dug wells, pumping and conveyance systems, sub- or lining it with impermeable material such as plastic lining,
surface dams or sand storage dams. in the case of subsurface dams (Nissen-Petersen, 2013).
Water seepage is minimised if the foundations are not
A simple and quick method to estimate sand storage ca- built on fractured rocks or large boulders. Instead, it is
pacity and water yield was developed by Hudson (1975) necessary to build on solid bedrocks or key at least 1 me-
and proposed by Nissen-Petersen (2006a) to estimate the ter in solid and impermeable soil, i.e. clayey soil.
yield of a groundwater dam. Thus, the extractable volume
of water from a sand reservoir can be estimated using As it is shown in Figure 44, the construction of a subsur-
Formula 1. face dam requires to dig a trench until the impermeable
foundations of the riverbed and fill it with rubble stones
L x T x D
C = Formula 1 and/or clayey soil, which can be covered by plastic. Alter-
6
natively, concrete can also be used but the construction
> Where C is the total sand storage capacity (m3), L is the costs are much higher. The crest of the weir should be
maximum length of sand sediments in the reservoir (m), 0.6 m to 1.0 m below the surface of the riverbed but it is
T (is the maximum throwback) and D is the maximum recommended to keep it to 1 m to effectively minimise
depth of sand sediments. evaporation losses.
The throwback is the length of influence of the groundwater The most clayey soil is determined by filling soil samples
and it is found on the point where the final height of the into plastic containers and saturating them with water (Nis-
spillway intersects the depth of sand sediments (subsurface sen-Petersen, 2013). The soil sample that has the slowest
dam) or the slope of the riverbed (sand storage dam) (De infiltration rate and the lowest yield is the most clayey soil
Trincheria et al., 2017a,b). that can prevent water in the dam reservoir from seeping
through the dam wall.
n = YS / VS Formula 2
44
According to Nissen-Petersen (2006a, 2013), when a suit- ditional siting criteria to find a suitable site to implement a
able site has been identified, all the sand in the riverbed cost-efficient sand storage dam. The key siting criteria are:
is removed in a 3-m wide stretch between the two river-
banks, so that the floor under the sand is fully exposed. 1. Catchment capable of supplying large volumes of coarse
Then, a 1-m wide trench, called a key, is excavated into and/or medium sand.
the floor right across the riverbed and into the two river
banks. The depth of the key must be at least 60 cm into 2. Suitable riverbeds must have two high river banks to
solid soil to prevent seepage under the dam wall. enable the wing walls.
The best clay soil identified by testing is transported to 3. Riverbeds with fine textured sand are not suitable
the dam site. First the whole length of the key is filled with because water extraction rate is low.
a 20 cm thick layer of the clay soil, which is moisten with
water and compacted using either tree trunks or driven 4. Wide riverbeds (>25m) are too expensive for building
forth and back until all air is forced out of the soil. There- sand dams.
after, other 20 cm thick layers of soil are laid out along the
whole length of the key and dam wall, and moistened and
compacted, until the top of the dam wall has reached to at 5.9.2 Design
least 60 cm below the surface of the sand in the riverbed.
Most sand storage dams degenerate and become dys-
The upstream and downstream sides of the dam wall, hav- functional due to poor technical design. The major techni-
ing a slope of about 45°, are smoothened using shovels cal failures are as it follows:
and wooden floats. The upstream side of the dam wall
should be plastered with clay or cow dung to prevent water 1. Selecting wrong sites in terms of the underground foun-
from seeping through the dam wall. Finally, the excavated dations (seepage) and/or the performance/cost-effi-
sand is back-filled against both sides and the top of the ciency of the reservoir (i.e. siltation and/or fine sand
dam wall. Two short iron bars should be hammered into with low yield).
the riverbanks at each end of the dam wall, to locate the
dam wall in the future. 2. Not adequately considering runoff and sediment trans-
port dynamics, especially the variability of the bedload
transport, and therefore, the different volumes of sand
5.8.3 Monitoring and Maintenance sediments transported in the runoff at inter- and intra-
annual level.
If a subsurface dam is properly constructed, it requires no
maintenance. 3. Not considering the water needs of the beneficiaries
and the natural yield capacity of the seasonal sandy
stream.
5.9 Specific practical recommendations
4. Building final spillway heights which are too high for the
for sand storage dams historical water column of the runoff. Thereby, leading
to damage of the spillway and/or low infiltration capacity.
5.9.1 Siting 5. Building spillways in one stage which inherently have a

higher vulnerability and risk of siltation
According to Nissen-Petersen (2006a) and De Trincheria et
al. (2015), there is a need to take into account several ad- 6. Poor construction procedures that lead to seepage or
damage in the spillway.
Figure 44: Design parameters of a subsurface dam (left) and construction of a subsurface dam (right).
Source: Adapted from Nissen-Petersen (2013) (left). Photo: E. Nissen-Petersen (right).
45
5
7. Poor construction procedures that lead to excessive 5.9.2.3 ALDEV design

costs and/or use of construction materials.
The ALDEV design (Figure 45) is based on the total final
Most of the design parameters are site-specific and based maximum spillway height that allows a safe discharge of
on the dimensions of the sandy seasonal stream and flood overflow water (Nissen-Petersen, 2006a). Taking this into
characteristics. Thus, key design criteria for sand storage account, Table 13 highlights the ALDEV recommendations
dams are: to design cost-efficient sand storage dams.
1. To build the foundation of the wall onto a dyke to reduce

cost and gain free storage. 5.9.2.4 Methodology to build by stages
2. Height of the final spillway should be capable of dis- of reduced height
charging overflow safely.
It is recommended to use a range of fixed stage heights
3. To always use the ALDEV design. from 20 cm to 60 cm on a case-by-case basis. These
heights have been obtained from relevant literature fo-
4. The spillway should always be raised by stages of cusing on long-term scientific and empirical analysis of
reduced height. sedimentation in sand storage dams in arid and semi-arid
areas (Wipplinger, 1958; Nissen-Petersen, 2000, 2006a,
5. To prevent seepage by building foundations in murram 2011; Ochieng et al., 2008). The methodology to build by
or clay. fixed stages of reduced height on a case-by-case basis is
further elaborated in Figures 46 and 47.
5.9.2.1 Reducing costs Table 13: ALDEV recommendations for cost-efficient sand storage dams.
and free storage capacity ALDEV variables (m)

Even though there is a clear relationship between the Base of dam h x 0.75
capacity of a dam and the spillway height, increasing the
spillway height causes a direct impact on the construction
Slope of front wall h x 0.125
costs and cost-efficiency, technical complexity and the
robustness of the structure. Among others, one fun-
damental design principle should be to yield as much Base of key h x 0.55
water as possible without increasing the construction
costs. Thus, it is also important to always consider the Vertical back wall h x 0.2
following recommendations:
Width of apron h x 0.75
1. To always build the dam wall on an underground dyke
to reduce costs and gain free storage. Width of crest h x 0.2
2. Gentler slopes will produce higher throwbacks.
Depth of key 1-2 m
3. Prioritise medium/coarse sand sediments and natural
deep layers of sand ¨ higher yield capacity and
robustness to evaporation. De Trincheria et al. (2016b) found that in ephemeral
streams (i.e. flow of water only appears during and shortly
after a rainfall event and it dries quickly afterwards) with
5.9.2.2 Height of the final spillway capable stage heights from 20 cm to 30 cm, it is usually possible
to reach conventional final spillway heights (> 3 m) un-
of discharging overflow safely der conventional project cycles of 1-3 years. In addition,
in intermittent streams (i.e. continuous flow of water during
To determine the final spillway height at a specific loca- most of the rainy season) with stage heights from 20 cm to
tion, it is required that the water level and the maximum 60 cm in normal rainfall years, it is required at least project
flood level remain below the riverbanks after construction cycles of 3-5 years.
of the dam. This is to prevent the floodwater spilling over
the riverbank and creating a new river. Thus, the maxi- Building by stages is not more expensive than building in
mum height of a spillway is dictated by Formula 3: one-stage because most of construction process takes
place in one go. Thus, average construction costs of a
LR – EFL Formula 3 multi-stage spillway construction process are USD 4,000
in Zimbabwe (De Trincheria et al., 2016b). In fact, a multi-
> Where LR is the height of the lowest riverbank (m) and stage spillway construction process that uses the ALDEV de-
EFL is the height of the maximum flood level (m). sign and the key recommendations included in this manual
can be significantly less expensive than building in one
46
Figure 45: The Aldev design.
Stage 1: Spillway is 50 cm above the sand level. Stage 2: Flood has brought sand to the level of the Stage 3: Spillway is raised to 50 cm above new
spillway. sand level
Stage 4: Flood has deposited sand to the new level Stage 5: Spillway is raised to 50 cm above new Stage 6: This procedure is repeated until the spill-
of the spillwy sand level. way is fully closed.
Figure 46: A multi-stage spillway construction process in an ephemeral sandy stream during the rainy season in Kenya using a fixed stage height of 50 cm.
47
5
Yes A sand storage dam is

Does the natural
NOT cost-efficient.
capacity of the riverbed
Upgrade water
meet local community
abstraction systems Yes
water needs?
from the riverbed
No
Does a subsurface dam
meet local community
water needs?
Build a sand storage

No
dams ALWAYS by
stages of reduced height
Do you assume
Do not build. The
the next rainy Yes
risk of siltation is
season to be
too high 1. High siltation risk and high
exceptionally low?
total construction times to reduce
vulnerability to siltation. If it is
No, I assume possible, do not build.
it to be good No, but I assume
or normal it to be low 2. If you want to maximise coarse
and / or medium grain-size sedi-
ments, build always by stages
Is Fine Sand the of 0.2 m.
Build always by
predominant particle- Yes 3. If you accept even a higher
stages of 0.2 m or
size of the original vulnerability to siltation and
find another site
riverbed? accumulation of fine sand, build
by stages of 0.3 m.
No, it is silty and / or

clayey sediments 1. If you want to maximise coarse
Find another site
and / or medium grain-size sedi-
ments, and minimise vulnerability
to siltation, build by stages of
0.2 m.
2. With 0.2 m you maximise
No, it is Coarse and /or performance, minimise siltation
Medium Sand
Is the river Yes and reach a final spillway height
an ephemeral higher than 5 m in 3 years.
stream?
3. If you accept a higher vulnera-
bility to siltation and accumulation
of fine sand, build by stages of
No, it is an 0.3 m.
intermittent stream
1. Use 0.2 m if this stage height suffices to reach the required final spillway height
within the project period.
2. If it does not, if you want to maximise coarse and/or medium grain-size sediments, build by stages
of 0.3 m. If you accept a higher vulnerability to siltation and accumulation of fine sand, build by stages
of up to 0.5 m.
3. If you can accept even a higher vulnerability to siltation, build by stages of 0.6 m.
4. With these stage heights you maximise performance, minimise siltation and reach a final spillway height
higher than 3 m in 3-5 years for bimodal rainfall seasons. For unimodal rainfall seasons, with a period
of 3-5 years, you can reach 1.5-3 m.
Figure 47: Practical recommendations to use a fixed stage height on a case-by-case basis.
Source: (De Trincheria et al., 2016b).
48
stage using current construction procedures (Nissen- because flooding carries large volumes of runoff with
Petersen and De Trincheria, 2015). abrasive particles, which fall over the spillway and onto
the apron below. In addition, flood water can also spill
over the wing walls and erode and undermine the river
5.9.2.5 Minimisation of seepage losses banks. Further, privately owned sand dams can be re-
paired quickly but maintenance and repairs of commu-
Foundation built onto boulders and fractured rocks often nity-owned dams takes longer, because the community
drain water out of the dam reservoir, as it is shown in Figure needs to meet and decide what to do and how to pay for it.
48. Thus, it is required to build foundations in murram,
clay or solid bedrock.
5.9.3 Construction
A sand dam is built using rubble stone masonry or rein-
forced concrete. It is recommended to use always rubble
stone masonry which is cheaper than concrete. In addi-
tion, reinforcement should only be considered if a final
spillway height is required. In addition, to build by stages
of reduced height reduces the vulnerability of the dam wall
to floods. Thereby, reducing the need of reinforced struc-
tures. Table 14 shows an overview of key construction
issues.
5.9.4 Maintenance requirements

Sand storage dams need careful maintenance and im-
mediate repair of the spillover apron and the wing walls
Figure 48: Sand storage dam affected by seepage losses.
Table 14: Construction and monitoring of different parts of the sand dam. Photo: J. De Trincheria.
Item Materials required Process brief description Monitoring
Trench Mattocks, shovels, Human aided digging Ensure hard pan or rock
wheelbarrows. or mechanized digging. is reached.
Reinforcement Columns Y10, Y8, binding wire, Characteristics of the Ensure all sizes
Concrete 1:2:4 ratios of reinforced columns, if of reinforced bars
cement: Sand: Ballast. necessary. are placed and bound.
Nails, Timber.
Foundation Blinding slab Mortar 1:2:4, Cement Sand: Mix well with enough Ensure correct mixtures,
Ballast. water and fill into watering and curing.
constructed space.
Foundation 1:4:6, Cement: Sand: Mix well with enough water Ensure mixture ratios and
Ballast. Y6 bars at 400 mm and construct appropriately. reinforcement is done.
spacing. Water for best curing.
Dam For the upstream wall Ram strongly, reinforce from Ensure ratios are followed,
use plaster 30 mm thick end to end, and finish finely reinforcement is continuous
1: 3 Cement to sand. and allow complete curing. and watering.
Spillway 1:2:4, Cement: Sand: Ram strongly, reinforce from Ensure ratios are followed,
Ballast; BRC/wire mesh, end to end, and finish finely reinforcement is continuous
nil cement for finish. and allow complete curing. and watering is sufficient,
with curing.
Concrete Water Landing 1:4:6, Cement: Sand: Did the landing position to Ensure enough sink space
Rumble stones /Ballast. hard pan and fill down- is dug and mixtures are
stream on spillway. correct, and allow curing.
49
5
50
6. SMALL EARTH DAMS 2. If a catchment is larger than 4 ha, or if it is a steep
hillside or a steep road, the runoff water might be so
much that the dam will be damaged by the floodwater.
6.1 The technology
3. If the site has higher land on each side, the sides can
Earth dams are excavated water reservoirs as farm ponds be used for the two spillways and part of the dam
but with a storage capacity significantly higher, and there- wall, thereby reducing soil works and construction
fore, are built to be used at community level. According costs.
to Nissen-Petersen (2015), these dams present storage
capacities up to about 10,000 m3 and have embankments 4. Where there is a natural depression just upstream of
up to a height of about 5 m. Earth dams can be built man- the two higher points of land, the depression can be
ually, using animal draught, a farm tractor, a crawler or used for the water reservoir, thereby reducing soil
bulldozer. There are three main types of earth dams de- work and construction costs.
pending on the specific location where the earth dam is
to be implemented: 5. If a selected site contains tree or scrubs, big stones,
boulders or rocks, or ant hills or any other underground
1. Charco dams for predominantly flat lands. excavation made by people or animals, these must be
removed.
2. Hillside dams for rolling and hilly lands.
3. Valley dams for seasonal water courses and valleys. 6.3 Design and construction
Nissen-Petersen (2015) has developed a comprehensive Earth dams have the following components that should be
training manual on implementing small earth dams considered in the design of the system: Runoff production
specifically designed for local communities. The reader factors on one hand, i.e. watershed area, surface cover,
recommended to use the materials developed by Nissen- rainfall distribution and slope, volume of soil to be exca-
Petersen (2015) with the help of experienced extension vated and water yield of the earth dam, and evaporation,
officers and/or practitioners. seepage and siltation factors on the other.
Nissen-Petersen (2015) states that the surface of the

6.2 Siting catchment determines how much rainwater will infiltrate
the soil and how much rainwater will run off as rainwater
According to Nissen-Petersen (2015), the following three runoff. Thus, the hard surface of roads produces about
site criteria ensure that the construction of an earth dam on 80% runoff while sandy soils may only produce about 10%
a selected site will produce maximum water storage at runoff. Black cotton soil may give about 60% runoff if the
minimum costs: land is bare, and some 40% if the land is covered with
vegetation.
1. Lower parts of a catchment area of around 4 ha with
a slight slope, which can be grazing land and/or 0.5 Km According to Nissen-Petersen (2015), the design of a
of road, to ensure that the dam will get sufficient runoff semi-circular hillside dam is one of the safest dam de-
water. signs, as it has a natural spillway at each end of the dam
51
6
wall to discharge overflowing runoff from a full water res- 3. Designing and building the spillways.
ervoir. In addition, a hillside dam is relatively easy to con-
struct using a farm tractor with a disc plough to loosen the 4. Designing and building the freeboard.
soil and push it towards the dam wall by driving in con-
tinuous circles. Also, an additional advantage of a hillside 5. Designing and building the crest.
dam is that it can be enlarged every dry season when the
water reservoir is dry, until it may hold water throughout Evaporation, seepage and siltation need to be considered
the year. Enlargement consists of deepening the water and minimised. Table 15 shows strategies to minimise their
reservoir while using the excavated soil to raise the height negative effects.
of the dam wall and the two spillways.
The catchment area can be deducted using Google Earth 6.4 Monitoring and maintenance
as recommended by Nissen-Petersen (2013). For a rough
estimate of the runoff volumes generated in each land use The main issues with regard to the monitoring and mainte-
domain, get the product of catchment area (m2), runoff nance of earth dams are highlighted in Table 16.
coefficient (dimensionless) and seasonal rainfall amount
(m). Thus, the sum of all the volumes generated from each
domain is what constitutes approximate ground runoff vol- 6.5 A champion on small earth dams
ume.
built manually
In addition, according to Nissen-Petersen (2015), the con-
struction of a small earth dam follows 5 key steps. This Nissen-Petersen (2015) reports the training of 38 young
author gives specific guidelines to carry out each step and Maasai men in the survey, design, construction and main-
the reader is referred to these training materials with the tenance of one small earth dam built manually during
help of expert advice. training at Kumpa Village in Kajiado County (Kenya) dur-
ing three weeks in February 2015.
1. Setting out the dam site.
The earth dam constructed was 3 m high and 40 m
2. Building the dam wall. long, with a base of 10 m width and a crest width of 1 m.
Table 15: Strategies to minimise evaporation, seepage and siltation in earth dams.
Variable Strategy
Evaporation needs to be taken into account and minimised by deepening the centre part
Evaporation
of a dam reservoir as much as possible to reduce evaporation losses. Also, by making a
windbreak of thorny branches and bushes along the sides of a dam reservoir.
Such thorny fences can be inter-planted with cactus to function as an effective fence,
keeping out unwanted people, livestock and wildlife. Evaporation losses can be further
reduced by covering a water reservoir with empty and closed plastic water bottles, which
float on the water surface. Although it will take many empty water bottles to cover the
whole water surface of an earth dam, it requires fewer bottles to cover only the deepest
part of a reservoir when the shallow parts have dried up.
Seepage under dam walls in clay soil is stopped by ploughing the base. In sandy soil a
Seepage ditch is filled with clayey soil.
Seepage through dam walls can be stopped by covering the back toe of dam walls with
an apron of rubble stones.
Seepage through dam floors consisting of sandy soil can be reduced by a layer of clayey
soil, or soil mixed with animal dung, which is compacted by livestock or a heavy vehicle
driven back and forth, or by the natural siltation of fine soil particles brought in by runoff
water.
Seepage under earth dams can be utilized by sinking a hand-dug well, from where clean
water can be drawn as it has been filtered by passing through the soil.
Siltation Low degree of siltation is good for earth dams because it seals seepage through the floor,
but if siltation is unchecked, a dam reservoir may be silted up completely within a few
years, thereby leaving no storage for water. Siltation of earth dams can be prevented by
constructing a series of silt traps made of scrubs, stones and/or brush wood inter-planted
with vegetation disliked by livestock, in the inflow to earth dams. Silt accumulating in the
silt traps must be removed.
52
Excavated soil from the dam floor was moved by some wall, using 5 wheelbarrows and 15 shovels. The volume
6,500 wheelbarrow loads to manually construct the crest. of soil used for the construction amounted to 403 m3. The
As the soil was not compacted, a settlement allowance of first phase of the water reservoir contains 788 m3 water.
1 m of height was added to the crest. The final height of A second phase can double the water storage capacity of
the middle of the convex crest was 2 m and the two ends the earth dam. The capital investment costs of this earth
of the convex crest are at the same level as the 1 m high small dam were USD 3,055 using manual labour which is
freeboard, which was supported with sand bags along the equivalent to a cost-efficiency of 3.4 USD/m3.
edge with the two spillways, each being 6 m wide in the
first phase.
A farm tractor with a disc plough loosened the dry hard

black cotton soil that was used for constructing the dam
Table 16: Monitoring and maintenance requirements of an earth dam.
Always open and clear of any obstacles that can slow down the flow and speed of surplus
Spillways water flowing over the spillways, e.g. during floods. If spillways are blocked, the water
level will rise, thereby rendering safety features useless and the dam prone to washout.
However, never raise the height of the spillways without an expert’s advice. If raised in
the wrong way, floodwater will flow over the crest and wash out a large section of the dam
wall, which is costly to repair.
Freeboards With plastic bags filled with soil along their sides, to protect the ends of dam walls from
erosion by floodwater passing over the spillways. In case of flood damage to these sand
bags, they must be repaired to avoid damage to the dam wall.
Crests In places where large soil clumps were used for building the dam wall, freeboard and
crest must be filled and compacted with soil.
Dam walls Protect against livestock grazing on the batters, because livestock will erode the dam
wall, thereby making the wall prone to flood damage.
Silt traps The inflow must be maintained and the upper layer of the accumulated silt must be
removed from the traps to avoid the water reservoir being filled up with silt.
Catchment area Check on the catchment and assess whether there is need for afforestation and soil
conservation measures. If this is the case, mobilize the community accordingly.
Ensure that trees are not planted on the earth dam wall or water pan walls. If there are
any, cut them out.
53
6
54
7. ROCK CATCHMENTS 1. A catchment area of clean rock surface from where
rainwater can be collected without obstruction. Rocks
can be cleaned by removing soil, vegetation, stones
7.1 The technology and loose parts from the surface. Large fissures can
be sealed with cement mortar or concrete. Smaller
A rock catchment uses natural rock surfaces to divert rain- cracks can be sealed with bitumen.
water to a central storage area, i.e. a rock dam, a small earth
dam or a surface or underground tank (Nissen-Petersen, 2. Garlands of gutters divert runoff from a catchment to
2006b). Rock catchments can collect up to 90% of the total a water reservoir. Gutters can also be used to increase
rainfall in the catchment area, which provides a valuable the catchment area of rocks. Aqueducts can deliver
water supply even when rains are below normal levels. water from gutters to water tanks and/or runoff from
For off-season small-scale irrigation, rainwater should be adjacent rock surfaces to the main catchment area.
stored as a surface reservoir with capacities from 50 m3
to 4,000 m3 (Akvo, 2015a). 3. A water reservoir that can be a water tank, a rock
catchment dam or an earth dam.
To facilitate the collection of runoff into the storage res-
ervoir or tank, a stonewall (garlands of gutters) is built 4. Application of water from the rock catchment to the
with stones and mortar around the outer edge of the rock crop area.
catchment. In addition, rainwater is gravitated into the res-
ervoir following the conveying lines of garlands made of
rocks mortared onto the rock surface (Nissen-Petersen, 7.3 Design
2006b). In addition, the gutters should follow the contour
but have a minimum slope of 3% and be high enough to According to Nissen-Petersen (2006b), runoff from a rock
direct water (Nissen-Petersen, 2006b). surface is gravitated to a reservoir by long lines of gar-
lands made of rocks mortared onto the rock surface. The
Nissen-Petersen (2006b) has developed a comprehen- water reservoir must always be located at a lower level
sive training materials on implementing rock catchment than the catchment area in order to facilitate the flow of
systems specifically designed for local communities. The water by gravity. The water reservoir can be a tank lo-
reader is strongly recommended to reference to the mate- cated near the rock catchment, or a surface dam built of
rials developed by Nissen-Petersen (2006b) with the help rubble stone masonry on the rock itself or on the ground.
of experienced extension officers and/or practitioners. Figure 49 shows a tank (left) and a rock dam (right) con-
nected to a rock catchment.
7.2 Siting
According to Nissen-Petersen (2006b), most arid and
semi-arid areas have rock catchments that are suitable for
rainwater harvesting. However, some rock catchments are
exposed while others are covered by soil and/or vegetation.
When selecting a suitable site for rock catchments, it is
important to always consider the four components of rock
catchments:
55
7
Figure 49: A rock catchment with a tank (left) and a dam on the rock itself (right).
Source: E. Nissen-Petersen.
7.3.1 The rock catchment 7.3.3 The reservoir for the rock dam
The rock catchment is the area of continuous rock outcrop The reservoir can either be constructed within the lowest
where runoff is generated from incoming rainfall. It has section of the rock catchment, or outside the rock catch-
irregular shape that is usually difficult to ascertain unless ment. If the reservoir is built on the rock catchment itself,
geographic information systems (GIS) are used. There- then it should be made of stones collected from the vicin-
fore it is recommended to seek expert support. The supply ity of the rock catchment. The reservoir built on the rock
capacity of a rock catchment is a product of the rain falling catchment should be sited in the section that is deep and/
over the rock catchment, the rock catchment area and or with a gentle slope or even as flat as possible in order
the catchment roughness condition, which determines the to acquire the highest volume (Figure 50). However, if the
runoff coefficient. reservoir is to be constructed outside the rock catchment,
then it could either be a tank, i.e. concrete ferro-cement
tank, a rubble stone ferro-cement tank, PVC tank or a
7.3.2 The conveyance mechanism ground-surface tank, or an earth dam.
Design and installation of a conveyance mechanism for

runoff generated over a rock catchment is fairly simple. It 7.3.4 Application of water from the
entails cleaning the rock surface and constructing stone
gutters on the lowest areas of the rock catchment. Gutters rock catchment
made of stones are built at a gradient of 0.5% are sufficient
to convey runoff flowing from the upper sections of the Given the massive storage capacity of rock catchments,
catchment. the runoff harvested can be used for off-season small-
scale irrigation and other purposes like domestic or live-
stock uses. However, to use a rock catchment system for
small-scale irrigation, the water reservoir should be a rock
dam on the rock itself or an earth dam.
Figure 50: A rock catchment in Kitui, Kenya.

Photos: L. Ojwang.
56
Just before the onset of rains, the rock catchment should
be cleaned in a bid to remove any debris or organic trash.
According to Nissen-Petersen (2006b), the following issues
should be checked to ensure that the entire system will
operate efficiently:
1. Ensure that conveyance mechanisms (i.e. gutters

and pipes) are free from debris and trash. This can be
achieved through cleaning using brooms.
2. Check on any cracks along the concrete gutters

and the reservoir in order to seal them using water proof
cement plaster before the onset of rains.
3. If water is to be conveyed via pipes to other tanks,

examine the pipes and repair or replace as appropriate.
7.5 Scalability
Most drylands in sub-Saharan Africa have suitable sites
with large rock outcrops for rock catchment systems, which
can collect large volumes of runoff from rains. Some rock
surfaces are exposed/bare while others are invisible due
to being covered by soil and vegetation (Nissen-Petersen,
2006b). The capacity of rocks to supply water is signifi-
cant because a rock surface of 1 ha can provide 1,000 m3
(i.e. 50,000 jerry cans) from every 100 mm of rain, which
is a significant low volume of rainfall. This means that even
in poor rainfall years, a rock catchment has the capacity
to collect satisfactory volumes of water if the rock area is
sufficiently large (Akvo, 2015a).
In addition, rock catchments are the most economical and

reliable water source in desert regions with saline ground-
water, low rainfalls, no rivers and large rock outcrops. This
is because small rain showers falling on large rocks can
provide huge volumes of runoff water (Nissen-Petersen,
2006b). The construction process is labour-intensive but
community participation and contributions make it a cost-ef-
fective and viable option in most rural areas. Further, rock
catchment systems have no negative environmental im-
pacts. A positive impact is that rock catchments harvest
rainwater that otherwise would create soil erosion and
flooding problems for people living close to the rocks (Nis-
sen-Petersen, 2006b).
The potential for replicating and scaling up rock catchment

system for off-season small-scale irrigation is high. However,
rock catchment present also challenges, which limit their
applicability and scalability. Among them, rock catchments
offer a limited water supply for small-scale irrigation if
coupled with tanks. However, they can still support kitchen
gardening and micro-scale horticultural production under
drip irrigation and greenhouses. Instead, water for off-sea-
son small-scale irrigation should be provided from earth
dams situated at the foot or near the rock catchment. In
addition, construction costs are potentially high especially
for building tanks that store water directly.
57
7
58
8. ROADWATER HARVESTING 8.2 Advantages and disadvantages
FOR OFF-SEASON The main reasons to create water-wise roads and connect
them to off-season small-scale irrigation are:
SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION
1. Turning runoff on roads into an asset for off-season
small-scale irrigation: The water generated from
8.1 The technology road drainage, i.e. springs opened up by road con-
struction or the water and soil moisture retained by
Without affecting transport and communication servic- fords and road surfaces, provides a valuable resource
es, roads can be transformed for better use of runoff that can be stored and subsequently used for off-season
for off-season small-scale irrigation (Figure 51). In addi- small-scale irrigation. In addition, this can also contribute
tion, flood control and erosion can be reduced as well. to shallow groundwater recharge, soil moisture and
This chapter intends to serve as a guideline on how to controlling water tables, which can directly or indirectly
combine roads with RWHI management. Thus, once benefit off-season small-scale irrigation.
roads are converted in catchment areas that effectively
collect runoff during wet periods, different storage systems, 2. No damage to landscape, i.e. less erosion and gully
especially on-farm ponds (chapter 3) and earth dams formation (Figure 52): Roads disrupt natural drains
(chapter 6) connected with low-cost irrigation systems and creeks and change runoff patterns, often concen-
(chapter 10) can be implemented. trating them across drains. Combining road design and
water harvesting structures can tackle these issues
and enhance irrigated agriculture.
3. Preventing floods: If runoff from roads is not managed,

local flooding and uncontrolled sand deposition results,
affecting the livelihood of those that live close to the
roads. Managing runoff from road can contribute to
change and slow down runoff patterns and attenuate
floods, which also enhances rainfed and irrigated
agriculture.
Figure 51: A borrow pit connected to a road acts as a small earth dam.
Photo: MetaMeta.
59
8
Figure 52: Damage from roads: gullying (left), water logging (middle) and sink holes (right).
Photos: MetaMeta.
8.3 Design and implementation 8.3.1 Landscape: mountain, flatland

Depending on landscape typology and land use, roadwater or floodplains
harvesting techniques for off-season small-scale irrigation
vary. Roads are major interventions in the landscape. Thus,
roads dissect surface and subsurface flows and concen-
trate runoff flows through side-drains, cross-drains and
culverts. Therefore, factors like road location in relation to
the topography, the steepness of cut slopes, the orienta-
Table 17: Overview of different landscape factors affecting the use of roads for off-season small-scale irrigation.
Construction- Drainage Vulnerability Water harvesting

Maintenance characteristics to erosion potential
Flatland Low construction More difficult to drain Waterlogging and Borrow pits, rolling
costs if materials are but depends on soil scouring of road dips, cross-drainage
available and soils characteristics. pavements can be a to infiltration areas,
are stable. Infiltration structures problem. Side-drains hand dug wells, man-
on waterlogged soils and embankment ually drilled shallow
are appropriate. stability depend on boreholes, among
design standards. others.
Mountain-Valley Depending on soil Easier to drain at Depends on rough- Spring capture,

characteristics, toeslopes with moder- ness of surface, soil recharge of borrow
north oriented roads ate cross slopes characteristics and pits, water cisterns,
normally have deeper (less than 40%). slope. Portable soils side-drains leading
soils. Thereby, Ridge tops and valley and steep slopes are runoff to nearby
making it easier to bottoms are harder to prone to trigger fields.
construct and carry drain. erosion issues,
out maintenance especially side-drain
work. scouring / gullying.
Floodplain Elevated subgrades Laminar flows through Waterlogging on Shallow groundwa-

and embankments floodplains require buffer areas between ter: hand-dug wells
can increase costs as wide drainage sys- road embankments and manual drilled
construction material tems, flood control and floodplain. boreholes as well as
in floodplains can be mechanisms such as Flood interception: dugout ponds and
scarce. flap gates or surface less moisture on borrow pits.
drainage outlets. downstream areas.
This can have major
impacts on flood plain
agriculture but also on
rangeland conditions.
60
tion and the grade of road pavements, and the roughness In addition, if water is also applied to the field directly
of slope (rock, soil, vegetation, etc.) are factors to take for rainfed agriculture by means of moisture storage
into account. techniques common in spate irrigation, this will not
only ensure the availability of water later in the grow-
As a general rule, road alignments should be set at toe- ing season (van Steenbergen et al., 2010) but will
slopes less than a 40% gradient, thus making it easier to also increase the performance of the irrigated crop system.
drain. If roads are set high on the slope, they may not catch
large part of the runoff but if roads are set too low, drainage
will be more difficult and road flooding may occur. Roads
facing south will dry up quicker than roads facing north.
However, soils facing north are deeper which facilitates
road construction and maintenance work. Table 17 shows
an overview of different landscape factors affecting the
use of roads for off-season small-scale irrigation.
8.3.2 Categories of roadwater

harvesting techniques
Table 18 shows a sets of techniques that can optimise the
use of roads for small-scale irrigation.
8.3.2.1 Combining cross drainage/side drains Figure 53: Cross drainage/side drains with recharge and storage.
Source: MetaMeta.
with recharge and storage

8.3.2.2 Borrow pits and dugout ponds
The purpose of cross-drains and side-drains (Figure 53) is
to evacuate water away from road structures. This is often Borrow pits (Figure 54) can be systematically used as
done without taken into cosideration water recharge, re- recharge, storage or seepage ponds. Borrow pits are
tention and storage principles. Culverts (under-pavement excavations done to collect materials, i.e. sand, gravel, soil,
cross-drainage structures) play a mayor role in this re- for road construction and are usually located very near to
gard. The location, size and number of culverts determine the road itself. After the road is finished, if not refilled, bor-
drainage patterns and, if done properly, can gear water row pits are left unused. However, these pits may be filled
harvesting from roads. Erosion and siltation issues can with water after rains. The shape and size of the ponds are
be avoided as well. Equally important are side-drains and relevant: Whereas round shapes maximize effective stor-
lead-out ditches (also know as mitre drains). age, deeper ponds have less evaporation losses.
Collection of water in side-drains and later diversion to Depending on the soil conditions and geology, borrow pits
recharge structures for off-season small-scale irrigation is can also be used as recharge ponds for off-season small-
an alternative to take into consideration. Road drains may scale irrigation at no additional cost (Nissen-Petersen,
be routed directly to the land (a practice that is common 2006c). In areas with permanent shallow groundwater,
but not universal) on one hand, or to soak pits, small borrow pits also serve as dug-out ponds filled with water
reservoirs and ditches, or other improved structures seeping in from adjacent shallow aquifers. Such ponds have
on the other (Kubbinga, 2012). The advantage of using become an important source of water for irrigation or
such recharge and storage systems along the road drain is livestock in dry flood plain areas in Ghana or South
that they help accommodate and store peak discharges, Sudan.
which can be used then for off-season small-scale irrigation.
Table 18: Road harvesting techniques.
1 Combining cross drainage/side drains with recharge and storage.
2 Borrow pits and dugout ponds - beneficial use of excavation material.
3 Clever road foundations.
4 Spring capture.
5 Water spreading weirs/ sand dams combined with river crossings.
61
8
8.3.2.5 Water spreading weirs/sand dams

combined with river crossings
When dirt roads cross seasonal streams, it is common
to construct fords (also known as low causeways, drifts
or Irish bridges). These road crossings can help retain
groundwater upstream of the road crossing and can in-
crease bank infiltration.
These structures can have multiple functions. The first is

to allow road traffic to cross the stream. The fords can
however also double up as a proxy sand storage dam,
trapping coarse sediment behind them and creating an
artificial shallow groundwater reservoir that can store and
Figure 54: A borrow pit made from the excavated soil of a road construction. retain water, as it is shown in Figure 55. However, the
Photo: MetaMeta.
spillway of the sand storage dam should be built by stag-
es of reduced height between 20 cm to 60 cm in order to
8.3.2.3 Clever road foundations ensure accumulation of sand sediments. In addition, the
foundations should reach the impermeable layer so as
Road foundations may interfere with the base subsurface to minimise seepage losses. Fords combined with roads
flows that feed shallow wells. The road foundation de- also have another function, which is to stabilize the sea-
pends on the road type and the traffic which is designed sonal stream as a result of the deposition of the sediments
to support. Tarmac roads may have impervious bases transported by the stream upstream of the ford.
2-5 m thick but such compacted road foundations are not
common for dirt roads. Impermeable subgrades and road
foundations can block subsurface flows altering the avail-
ability of shallow groundwater and drying up shallow wells
on the lower end of the road while increasing water tables
on the upper end of the road.
Groundwater drainage systems and cross-drains can

help revert this situation. Permeable subgrades or lateral
drains (water table lowering, e.g. trench drains and Cali-
fornia drains), transverse drains in rigid pavements, earth-
works drains (e.g. drainage spurs and cut-off drains), and
pavement under-drains can be used to control flows en-
tering the road subgrade and foundation (Santinho Faisca
et al., 2008). These structures have the primary objec-
tive to protect the road from water intrusion in the road
structure. However, careful placement of these structures
allows control of water tables and by-pass road blocking Figure 55: A diagram of a sand storage dam.
from upstream to the downstream. With a higher control of Source: MetaMeta.
water tables, shallow-hand dug wells can be better used
for off-season small-scale irrigation purposes.
8.3.2.4 Spring capture

When roads cross hilly areas and the roads are laid in
deep cut-slopes of terrain, excavation may open springs
in mountain aquifers. These newly opened springs can
damage cut slopes and erode land. Drainage masks pro-
tect cut slopes from spring flows infiltrating water to the
road drainage system. Likewise, protection boxes for new-
ly opened springs collect the spring water and can either
be diverted to infiltration structures (such as soakaways)
or used directly in surface storage structures, either open
ponds or cisterns, which can then be used for off-season
small-scale irrigation purposes. It is important to estimate
the discharge of these spring flows so as to properly di-
mension the collection tanks and create spill-over struc-
tures. The newly opened springs can be used as water
supply sources, especially in semi-arid regions.
62
9. SHALLOW GROUNDWATER 9.3 Design and construction
RECHARGE FOR OFF- There are two group of methods used for recharging shal-
low groundwater, namely direct and indirect techniques.
SEASON SMALL-SCALE Direct techniques are among the simplest and most wide-
ly applied, where runoff moves from the land surface to
IRRIGATION the shallow aquifer by means of percolation through the
soil. Examples of direct surface techniques include flood-
ing, percolation pits, infiltration trenches, water spreading
9.1 The technology weirs, check dams and groundwater dams, among others.
Natural shallow groundwater recharge occurs when runoff Due to their suitability for RWHI management, this chap-
infiltrates the ground into an underlying aquifer. This only ter focuses on a selected set of direct surface techniques
happens when there are no impermeable surfaces such to increase shallow groundwater. These techniques are
as pavements, tarmacked roads, clay layers or build-up basically micro-catchment and/or in-situ RWH systems
areas. Artificial recharge is the planned human activity of that can be used to directly or indirectly recharge shal-
increasing the amount of groundwater through works de- low groundwater which can in turn be used for off-season
signed to increase the percolation of surface waters into small-scale irrigation, usually by means of hand-dug wells.
shallow groundwater. The selected techniques are highlighted in Table 20. Fig-
ure 56 shows infiltration trenches and percolation ponds
In addition to recharging shallow groundwater, there in Ethiopia as an example of practices that can be used
are other beneficial purposes of shallow groundwater to increase shallow groundwater levels. In addition, it is
recharge: worth considering that the implementation at watershed
level of surface and groundwater dams, water spreading
1. Increasing water available for agriculture. weirs and other relevant spate irrigation techniques, and
different types of check dams, among others, have been
2. Increasing soil moisture and soil fertility. shown to recharge shallow and deep groundwater lev-
els (Woldearegay, 2016). Similarly, by controlling sand
3. Decreasing runoff, flooding, erosion, and and gravel mining in seasonal streams, it is possible to
sedimentation. enhance the capacity to absorb high flows and feed the
surrounding aquifer systems.
4. Increasing deep groundwater levels.
The increase in groundwater levels is basically due to
5. Storing excess surface water for future use. the direct or indirect higher infiltration of runoff as a re-
sult of the implementation of these technologies. Further,
these type of natural recharge technologies inherently in-
9.2 Siting crease the soil moisture in the crop rooting zone during
wet periods, induce capillary rise causing water to rise
Table 19 shows key factors that should be considered into the root zone during colder dry periods and contribute
in the selection of shallow groundwater recharge tech- fixating nitrogen to the soil. Thereby, potentially enhanc-
niques. ing off-season irrigation during dry periods. At a larger
63
9
Table 19: key siting factors for the selection of shallow groundwater recharge techniques. scale, effective watershed management technologies and
practices, among them, upper catchment treatment prac-
Overall topography Availability of land and present use: Determining if there is tices, early treatment of gullies and minimization of gully
land that can be used for recharge. heads, and rehabilitation of affected areas through sim-
Type of top soil: Determining the capacity to absorb rainfall ple, cheap, flexible and local available materials, are in-
and feed the underlying aquifers. terventions that increase groundwater levels, and in turn,
Presence of streams that can serve as high recharge enhance RWHI management.
zones.
Geologic structure and capacity of the aquifer Transmissivity (the rate at which water flows horizontally
through an aquifer).
Storability (thickness of the aquifer and the amount of
water that can be stored in an aquifer).
Presence / absence of impermeable layers that can
impede percolation (aquitards).
Existing depths to water table and groundwater flow
directions.
Water sources available for recharge Amount and pattern of rainfall in the selected area.
Availability of catchment areas (such as rock outcrops
or road catchments).
Availability of non-conventional water sources for reuse,
in particular treated municipal and industrial wastewa-
ters.
Water quality Recharge water must meet quality standards and be
chemically compatible with existing groundwater and
have a suitable temperature. Figure 56: Infiltration trenches (left) and a percolation pond (right) in Ethiopia.
Photos: : K. Woldearegay and MetaMeta.
Table 20: Overview of technologies and practices that can be used for shallow groundwater recharge.
Source: (Knoop et al., 2012).
Types Key function Land Use Slope Soil Complementary technologies Constraints
Contour bunds: Soil moisture Usually Maximum All soils except Trenches of moisture and soil conservation is needed; Compared to stone bunds they take more land; requires
Level soil bunds, storage. Cultivated. 20 %. heavy black cotton need stabilized with suitable grass / legume for forage – regular maintenance; the benching speed is low b / c
Fanya chini soils. also making it productive; maintenance according to deposited soil in the upper channel is removed for
fanya juu principle for quick benching. maintaining and upgrading the bund; too close spacing
takes up land.
Contour bunds: Soil moisture Cultivated Maximum All soils except Graded is in high rainfall areas or for soils with poor infil- The gradient is sensitive and difficult to maintain it. When
Graded soil bunds storage. land. 20 %. heavy black cotton tration; need to be stabilized with suitable grass / legume small there is water logging and when large erosion /
soils. for forage - also making it productive; cut and carry of the scouring occurs. Integration With waterways is a must.
grass / legume than free grazing.
Contour bunds: Soil moisture Cultivated. Maximum Deep soil. Trenches if moisture and soil conservations is needed; Not possible on steep slopes; cannot be crossed by
Level fanya juu storage. 15 %. need to be stabilized with suitable grass / legume for livestock; more labour b/c throwing the soil up; close
forage – also making it productive; cut and carry of the spacing takes up land.
grass/legume than free grazing.
Contour bunds: Soil moisture Cultivated. Maximum Deep soil. Biological stabilization; fodder source; integration with With a maximum gradient of 1 % discharges excess run-
Graded fanya juu storage. 15 %. a waterway is a must. off generated from the inter terrace spaces to the adjoin-
ing natural or artificial waterway at a non-erosive velocity.
Vertical intervals: flexible and quality oriented approach.
• Slope 3 - 8 % VI = 1-1.5 m
• Slope 8 -15 % VI = 1-2 m
Layout along the contours but is 1 % gradient using line
level – discuss spacing with farmers.
Contour bunds: Soil moisture All land uses. In all slopes. All soils. Is also good for destoning fields; the stone takes less In low temperature areas could harbour rodents;
Stone, trapezoidal storage. space compared to soil bunds and fanya juu. frequent maintenance and attendance needed as it
and soil bunds. cannot be stabilized with plants; need to stop free
movement of livestock.
64 65
9
Table 20 (cont.): Overview of technologies and practices that can be used for shallow groundwater recharge.
Source: (Knoop et al., 2012).
Types Key function Land Use Slope Soil Complementary technologies Constraints
Cut-off drains Soil moisture In all land uses but 0.5 to 1 % gradient All soils. Stabilizing the embankment / dike with plants; apron or Erosion risk at the outlet due to improper attention for
storage. constructed be- (but done across al drop structure is needed at the outlet; expert / engineer provision of drop structures.
tween two different the natural slopes). designed – need estimation of peak runoff.
land uses or slope
breaks.
Waterways Soil moisture Along the natural or All slopes because it All soils. The channel bed and the side should be stabilized with No limitation, however, on artificially constructed one
storage. artificial waterway follows natural slope. vegetation; pitching required depending on slope and more stabilization effort is needed.
(can be constructed vegetation cover. For higher slope drop structures are
by adjoining mix of needed.
one or more land
uses).
Grass strips Soil moisture All land uses. Gentle slopes All soils. Sterile grass that do not expand sideways is required. Not used on steeper slopes; farmers reluctant to leave a
storage. up to 8 %. strip of land.
Gully plugging Soil moisture All land uses. All slopes. All soils. Biological Stabilization is a must; area closure of Need of upper Catchment treatment is a must; it is heavy
storage. fencing; maintenance; benefit sharing mechanism as investment requiring huge labour.
usually gullies are located either at boundaries or
communal ownership.
Terracing: Soil moisture Cultivated fields On average Deep soils. Bank stabilization inward; outward sloping depending Heavy labour.
Bench terracing. storage. and unused steep 12 - 58 % on runoff; good for perennial crops on steep slopes.
hillsides. Considering the vari-
ous land use types.
Terracing: Hillside Soil moisture On degraded lands; Steep hillsides Shallow soils Can be combined with trenches for maximum runoff Heavy labour; area closure is a must.
terracing. storage. forest lands; grazing (20 - 50 %). usually <50 cm harvesting; b / n terraces pitting and planting; area
lands; communal depth. closure; avoid free grazing and cut and carry.
grazing lands.
Tied ridges, Demi Soil moisture Cultivated Gentle Loamy soils with Good for row crops between the furrows. Unless contoured can be easily overtopped. Used on
lunes storage. lands. Slopes. good water holding gentle slopes and flat lands only.
capacity; not good
on sandy soils.
Percolation ponds Shallow groundwater Degraded Maximum Soils of good Infiltra- Can be combined with other measures such as hillside Labour Intensive.
and contour trenches recharge. hillsides. of 100 %. tion need some terraces, stone bunds, and trenches based upon soil,
50 cm of top soil to slope and stoniness, and also in large gully areas for tree
be applied. planting.
66 67
9
68
10. OFF-SEASON SMALL-SCALE 10.1 Water pumping systems
IRRIGATION SYSTEMS Several types of energy sources exist for delivering or op-
erating water pumps for off-season small-scale irrigation.
Off-season small-scale irrigation is a group of technol- Thus, pumps are usually categorised according to the
ogies operated and managed by individuals or in small energy used to lift the water, i.e. manual pumps or mech-
self-initiated groups, which usually have been initiated anised pumps (gravity-fed, animal-powered, solar, wind,
and funded by the farmers themselves in areas lower electric, petrol/diesel pumps).
than 2 ha, and that use low-cost and easy-to-maintain
technologies in order to grow high-value crops during dry
periods for direct consumption and/or the local market (De 10.2 Manual pumping
Fraiture and Giordano, 2014).
A manual pumping system is any simple device powered
Key factors that determine the success of an off-season by human power (i.e. hand or foot) (Bruni and Spuhler,
small-scale irrigation system are (Ngigi, 2009): 2010). The capital costs and the discharge of these sys-
tems are generally low. However, their use is suitable for
1. The irrigation system, i.e. water lifting and application small-scale irrigation.
technology.
Small-scale irrigation has traditionally been fed in sub-Sa-
2. Farmers’ participation, skills and capacity. haran Africa through the arduous lift-and-bucket method,
which requires high physical input and limited well-depth.
3. Type of water source. Further, different types of hand pumps (e.g. rope and
washer pump) are in use in sub-Saharan Africa for lifting
4. Type of crop. water from shallow boreholes (up to 60 m) and hand-dug
shallow wells, and used for small-scale irrigation systems
5. Market demands and accessibility. (Akvo, 2015b). Innovative manual pumps are currently
under development (e.g., Afripump/BluePump, with a life
6. Provision of back-up services to sustain production. span of 25 years with low maintenance requirements)
(van Beers, 2008).
This chapter intends to give basic information and know-
how with regard to pumping systems on one hand, and A system which shows high performance and suitability is
water application systems on the other, as these systems a treadle pump (IPTRID, 2000; Kay and Brabben, 2000).
can be used in combination to facilitate off-season small- The system comes from a basic adaptation of the hand
scale irrigation. Additional information and know-how can pump with the transfer of power supply to the feet (Kay
be found as part of the Sustainable Sanitation and Wa- and Brabben, 2000). Using low physical input and capital,
ter Management Toolbox in the section “Optimisation of the treadle pump outperforms traditional methods by lifting
Water Use in Agriculture” at http://www.sswm.info/cat- 7 m3/h from wells (conventionally up to 7 m deep) and
egory/implementation-tools/water-use#. The toolbox surface water. For treadle pumps and micro-irrigation sys-
also includes a detailed list of technical reports which are tems, the performance is encouraging. Further, a treadle
accessible directly on the toolbox. pump can be produced locally at relatively low costs rang-
69
10
ing from USD 50 to USD 120 motorised pumps often cost Pump (SMP) and the Moneymaker Hip Pump (MHP).
over USD 300) and have been shown to increase income Thus, at costs of USD 100, the SMP can pump water from
by over USD 100 per season (Postel, 2001). Also, trea- a source up to 10 m in depth and pressurise water up to
dle pumps can provide as much as an eightfold increase 13 m, and can irrigate about 0.75 ha using a hose length
in irrigation capacity on small-scale irrigation schemes over 330 m (Akvo, 2016b). In addition, the MHP was
(FAO, 2001). However, traditional limiting factors of the developed to create a lower cost (USD 35) portable pump.
treadle pump include accessibility (i.e. costs are not within The MHP pump is a modified treadle pump which the user
the farmers’ means in many areas) (Ngigi, 2009), labour, operates through a rocking motion (Haskins, 2008). It is
scale, limited crop use, and water depths lower than 7 m light (4.5 kg) and can irrigate 0.4 ha. Like the SMP, the
(FAO, 2001). MHP can pull water from 7 m and push water an additional
14 m above the pump. The adoption of MHP is growing
fast, and over 16,000 units were sold by 2008 (Kinaga,
10.2.1 Rope and washer pump 2008). The money-maker pumps are ideal for pumping
water from on-farm ponds into drip irrigation system (Figure
Figure 57 shows a rope and washer pump. This is a pump 59) or from small earth dams into the cropland.
with a rope tied in a loop through a PVC pipe and a rope
guide. The pump is used for drawing water from ponds,
shallow wells, underground tanks or any other reservoirs 10.2.3 The Brazilian Pump
whose depths range from 11 m to 60 m. The rope and
washer is composed of the following components; ny- The Brazilian pump (Figure 60) is an improvised version
lon rope, rubber washers, rope guide and pulley wheel. of a rope and washer pump or a hip pump. The stroking
Figure 58 shows a rope and washer pump being operated. movement of the handles (whether through cranking or
back and forth motions) draws the rope and washer or
the piston upwards. This creates a vacuum in the cham-
10.2.2 The Money Maker pumps ber that results in suction of water from the pond along
the inlet pipe. Just before this water is released to the
In eastern and southern Africa, Kickstart has been distrib-
uting two models of treadle pumps: the Super Moneymaker
Figure 57: A rope and washer pump. Figure 58: Operation of the rope and washer pump.
Source: Pixiniti Studios. Photo: A. Oduor.
Figure 59: Hip-pump for lifting water from a farm pond into drip irrigation in Makueni, Kenya. Photos: S. Ngigi.
70
greater water supply efficiency often with low mainte-
nance costs (van Campen et al., 2000). Thus, with careful
planning and proper implementation, PVP systems have
proven successful. In the Kalale District of Benin, for ex-
ample, the Solar Electric Light Fund has implemented a
series of micro-irrigation systems that provide between
19,000 and 30,000 L of water per day for storage and use
during dry periods.
In addition, an innovative battery-less solar PVP irrigation

system has been developed and implemented in northern
Senegal (SEL, 2015). The centralized 6.8 kW solar array
provides distributed 3-phase AC power to seven horticul-
ture farmers that have their own shallow wells and 1-HP
AC pumps. The pre-paid smart-control system distrib-
utes energy to individual pumps as it becomes available
throughout the day, enabling the system to meet irrigation
demand without the high capital and recurring costs of
battery storage. Thus, the pay-as-you-go metering aspect
allows capital costs to be recovered over time, reducing
the initial investment hurdle for the farmer.
10.3.3 Petrol/diesel-powered portable

and stationary pumps
Figure 60: An improvised Brazilian hip pump with an inclusion of a plastic bottle.
Photo: A. Oduor. Petrol/diesel pumps can be operated independently at
remote sites, and hence they are appropriate for RWHI
systems. Small and efficient motor pumps refer to die-
delivery pipe, some of it enters a 1.5 L plastic bottle. sel or kerosene fuelled motor pumps that have a typical
During the movement that pushes the piston inwards, size between 0.5 and 2.5 HP, and have been optimized to
pressure is created in the bottle. This pressure increases use as little fuel as possible (Akvo, 2016a). Diesel/petrol
with continued push of the piston inwards. The result is pumps can supply water under pressure in PVC/PE pipes
a counter-pressure along the outlet pipe that culminates or lay flat hoses directly connected to the outlet of the
in the discharge of water to very high heads. Such pump for the water needs of vegetables and/or fruit crops.
pressure can be used for sprinkler or drip irrigation. Innovative cost-efficient irrigation pumps are available in
the market for less than 100 USD depending on size and
capacity. Chinese 4 HP diesel-pumps pump 20 -30 L/s and
10.3 Mechanised pumping systems can irrigate 5 ha up to heads of 6 m, consuming 0.45 L
of fuel/h (Akvo, 2016a). A 1.5 HP model pumps 2- 4 L/s
and consumes less than 0.3 L of gasoline/h (Akvo, 2016a).
10.3.1 Gravity-fed irrigation
Gravity is a reliable, low-cost and renewable energy 10.4 Irrigation water application systems
source for off-season small-scale irrigation systems. How-
ever, it strictly depends on the topographical location of The capacity of an irrigation system to apply water uni-
the RWHI system relative to the crop application area. formly and efficiently to the irrigated area is a major factor
Most smallholder irrigation schemes in sub-Saharan Af- influencing the agronomic and economic viability of the
rica are gravity-fed with the conveyance system being irrigation system. Even though water application efficien-
unlined/lined canals or pipes that deliver water from the cy varies greatly with the irrigation system type, Table 21
source to the point of use. The water application systems gives an indication of the efficiency related to different
can be surface (furrows and bunds) or pressurised irri- water application systems.
gation technologies (sprinkler and drip irrigation). Pumps
that use free energy from either the flow of water or water
head to lift water should be considered due to the energy 10.4.1 Low-cost drip irrigation systems
costs of other types of pumping systems (Ngigi, 2009).
Contrary to conventional drip irrigation systems, simple
self-made systems can be low-cost and highly efficient
10.3.2 Solar pumping (Staufer, 2010). This type of irrigation systems are usually
referred to as micro-irrigation systems and involve low-
PVPs generally require high initial capital investments. head low-cost drip (LHLCD) irrigation kits for smallholder
However, PVPs show high cost-effectivity and provide farmers, mainly for vegetable production (Figure 63). LHL-
71
10
CD kits range from 20-L bucket kits (Figure 61) to 200-L hler, 2010a) (Figure 64). These systems are low-cost, easy
drums or mini-tank systems (Figure 62) and operate at to install and simple to use (Staufer and Spuhler, 2010a).
0.5 -1.0 m water head. Larger systems that can irrigate Table 22 shows an overview of three selected systems.
from 1,000-2,000 m2 to 4,000 m2 are also available (Ngigi,
2008).
10.4.3 Low-tech automatic irrigation systems
Several types of LHLCD irrigation systems are in use in
many parts of sub-Saharan Africa and their costs usually According to Staufer and Spuhler (2010b), a low-tech
range from USD 20 to USD 200 (for bucket and drum kits, automatic irrigation system refers to the operation of the
respectively). In addition, LHLCD irrigation is one of the system with no or just a minimum of manual intervention
complementary technologies for RWHI systems due to its beside the surveillance. The types of low-cost automated
flexibility in size and simplicity (in installation, operation irrigation systems which are suitable for RWHI manage-
and maintenance) making it adaptable by smallholder ment are shown in Table 23 and Figure 65.
farmers. Water from the RWHI storage reservoirs can be
lifted by simple hand-pumps or small petrol/diesel pumps
into the drip irrigation supply tank at 1-2 m above the 10.4.4 Surface irrigation
ground. The typical LHLCD irrigation system has simple
operation procedures determined by the volume of the These methods involve the diversion of water from dams
water supply tank, which is synchronised with daily crop by gravity or mechanised pumping. The water is then
water demands. For example, a 200-L kit is filled twice per conveyed by means of mainly open channels or pipes to
day, early in the morning and late in the evening to reduce the cropped area. Canals, which are lined or unlined, are
evaporation water losses. Additional irrigation water may be also used to direct water into the fields. Unlined canals
applied when it is too hot based on crop growth stage. This are popular among resource-poor farmers because of low
implies on average 400 L and 600 L of water application initial costs. Water can also be conveyed to the fields by
per day under normal and extreme conditions respectively. using pipes fitted with or without sprinklers. However, the
water distribution is uncontrolled and therefore, inherently
inefficient. The major types of surface irrigation are basin,
10.4.2 Manual irrigation furrow and border strip.
Manual irrigation systems are technically simple and

easy-to-handle effective irrigation methods for making 10.4.5 Sprinkler irrigation
water available to crops (Staufer and Spuhler, 2010a).
However, if not controlled, manual irrigation can lead to A sprinkler irrigation system distributes water through a
over-irrigation, leaching of nutrients and poor water man- system of pipes usually by pumping or gravity in order to
agement. In addition, they are labour-intensive and need spray it into the air through sprinklers in the form of water
to be constructed correctly in order to avoid water loss drops.
and crop shortfall (Staufer and Spuhler, 2010a).
For RWHI systems, locally-available movable low-head
The application of manual irrigation systems is usual- sprinklers and micro-sprinklers are more appropriate but
ly limited to kitchen gardening or small-scale vegetable their applicability depends on the area under irrigation,
production along streams or nearby surface water res- water availability and type of pumping system.
ervoirs. Traditionally, a bucket is used for hand-watering,
but where gravity or pumped water supply is available,
a garden hose or a portable sprinkler can also be used.
Hand watering with a hose is common, but it is difficult to
apply water evenly and consistently to mature plantings.
Manual irrigation is especially suitable for watering seeds.
A very water-efficient type of manual irrigation system

revolves around implementing small-scale drip irrigation
using porous clay jars, bottles or pipes (Staufer and Spu-
Table 21: Typical water application efficiencies for different irrigation technologies.
Source: (FAO, 2001).
Irrigation methods Field application efficiency
Surface irrigation (border, furrow, basin) 60 %
Sprinkler irrigation 75 %
Drip irrigation 90 %
72
Figure 61: 20-litre bucket kit LHLCD irrigation system (Ngigi, 2009).
Figure 62: A typical 200-litre mini-tank (drum) LHLCD irrigation system (Ngigi, 2009).
Figure 63: LHLCD irrigation system for horticulture production in Ethiopia (left) and Kenya (right).
Photos: S. Ngigi.
73
10
Table 22: Manual drip irrigation systems. Adapted from Staufer and Spuhler (2010a).
System Description
Pitcher irrigation Consists in placing porous clay jars in shallow pits dug for this purpose. Soil is then
packed around the necks of the jars so that their rims protrude a few cm above the
ground surface. Water is poured into the jars either by hand or by means of a flex-
ible hose connected to a water source. Since the walls of the pots are porous (i.e.
unglazed pots), the water can seep slowly out and reach the roots of the plants.
Bottle Irrigation Pitcher irrigation can also be done using a bottle. The bottle is first filled and then
placed with its neck into the soil next to a plant, so it stands upside down. The
dense soil hinders the water from leaving the bottle immediately. Instead, it gets
released slowly and directly besides the roots, so it is available to the plant for a
longer time and the water cannot evaporate directly.
Porous and Sectioned Pipes Another variation of pitcher irrigation uses porous pipes to spread water along a
continuous horizontal band in the soil, rather than at discrete locations. As such,
the porous pipe method is more suitable for closely spaced row crops grown in
beds, such as vegetable crops. One end of the porous pipe is made protrude above
ground in order that the operator is able to refill it with water as soon as it is necessary.
Figure 64: A low-cost manual drip irrigation system using clay pots (left) and bottles (right).
Source: (Staufer and Spuhler, 2010a from INFONET-BIOVSION, 2010).
10.4.6 Greenhouses Greenhouses are compatible with RWHI systems. Thus,

their incorporation as complementary technology add
for weather-sensitive crops value to the investments through assured and increased
horticultural production (Ngigi and Oremo, 2015). The
To grow high-value crops under controlled conditions en- greenhouses have greatly intensified crop and water pro-
sures quick returns to the investment because under ductivity: In 1 season, a smallholder farmer can recover
optimal growing conditions, vegetables and fruits can the total investment costs for an on-farm pond system
produce up to ten times more than rainfed conditions (USD 1,000) coupled with a 120 m2 greenhouse (USD
(Ngigi, 2009). However, most smallholder farmers cannot 1,200) because the total seasonal revenue that can be
afford the high investment costs for greenhouses. To generated is USD 2,000-2,500 (Ngigi et al., 2012). With-
address this challenge, farmers are either opting for out a greenhouse, seasonal return ranges from USD 250-
simple locally constructed structures (Figure 66) or 600 depending on type of crops.
taking credit from local banks or micro-finance institutions
to acquire high-tech greenhouses.
74
Figure 65: A clay pot and porous capsule irrigation network (left) and a syphon (right).
Source: (Staufer and Spuhler, 2010b from UNEP, 1998).
Table 23: Low-cost automated irrigation systems. Source: Adapted from Staufer and Spuhler (2010b).
System Description
Clay Pot and Porous Capsule This irrigation systems is based on the manual pitcher irrigation system. It is based
Irrigation Network on storing and distributing water to the soil, using clay pots and porous capsules
interconnected by plastic piping. A constant-level reservoir is used to maintain a
steady hydrostatic pressure.
Automatic Surge Flow This is an intermittent gravity-flow irrigation system. It has been used almost exclu-
sively for small-scale agriculture and domestic gardening. The system consists of a
storage tank equipped with one or more siphons. The water in the tank flows to the
field because of the siphon effect. As soon as the tank is empty, the flow stops.
Gravitational Tank Irrigation A storage tank with a bottom discharge can also be used as a low-cost automated
System irrigation system. It is equipped with a floater, which allows the cyclical opening and
closing of a gate at the bottom of the tank. The materials normally used in the
construction of the water storage tanks are gravel and cement, reinforced concrete
or plastic.
In sub-Saharan Africa, there are a number of private com- 10.4.7 Enhancing RWHI management
panies that are promoting various designs of greenhouses
ranging from 6 m x 12 m to 8 m x 60 m. In addition, there A variety of innovative complementary technologies and
are private companies marketing different components of practices can be coupled with off-season small-scale
the greenhouse technology such as plastic sheets and irrigation systems in order to improve their performance,
shade nets. However, construction works for the green- efficiency and positive effects. Table 24 shows a summary
houses require experienced and a technically-qualified of these systems.
person to ensure quality control. Further, most smallholder
greenhouses incorporate a low-head drip irrigation system
using water from different sources.
75
10
Figure 66: Locally made wooden and metallic greenhouses for horticulture production.
Photos: S. Ngigi.
76
Table 24: innovative complementary technologies to enhance off-season small-scale irrigation.
Technology Description
Reduced inputs
Product quality
Water saving
Employment
Security
Yields
Low-cost water Animal-driven dozers can accelerate the development
storage ponds of storage ponds in a variety of settings: The most
x x x x
by animal-driven appropriate is the Fresno scraper that has a tipping
excavation bucket and gliders.
Water storage Sealing agents have been developed to make imper-
with sealing vious and weather-proof low volume roads. The same
x x x
agents technology can be used as a sealing agent for water
ponds. This is an alternative for clay or geotextile.
Hydroponics in Affordable greenhouses and hydroponics with specialist
greenhouses nutrient supply. The greenhouses have self-regulating
temperature control and safe up to 80 % of power and x x x
water, whereas the nutritious value of the grown prod-
ucts is up to 140 % of the commonly grown crops.
Biodegradable Plastic films can come in different colours (transparent,
plastic mulch black, white) to control soil moisture evaporation, soil x
temperature and suppress weed growth.
Reel farming Strips with nutrients and plant seeds to be introduced for
x x
school farming and homestead farming.
Compost Different types of compost to improve soil structure, x x x
water holding capacity and increase nutrient availability.
Vermicomposting With the use of earth worms, organic waste materials
can be converted in high quality compost that improve x x x
fertility and moisture holding capacity.
Sanitation link Reuse of human manure and struvite in agriculture. x
Bokashi Biofertilizer with good water holding

x x x x
capacities can add micronutrients.
Rock dust Biofertilzier mixed with rock dust or zeolite increases
biofertilizer the supply of micronutrients and fertiliser, and (though x x x
modestly) moisture holding capacity.
Tal-ya dew Plates made of a special plastic that concentrates runoff
plates and causes dew formation (in altitude areas) and sup- x x
presses the growth of weeds.
Water pads Combination of water absorbing polymers with layers
of jute and paper: Creating a localized water buffer for
x x x
plants, increasing chance of survival of young trees and
plants.
Groasis Water storage and dew collection device especially in
x
waterboxx water-stressed areas.
Buried diffuser Pressure system to be connected to a drip system in
x x
order to bring water into the root zone.
Subsurface Root zone irrigation though buried drip lines.
x x x
irrigation
Lay flat hoses Polyethylene hoses connected to groundwater systems
x x
to reduce conveyance losses and increase extra head.
Mulchers and Different techniques to improve water absorption
harrowers capacity of soil, regulating soil temperature and soil x x x
evaporation.
77
10
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Training materials for local communities on rainwater harvesting irrigation

Technical Report · May 2017

Josep De Trincheria Stephen Ngigi

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Francis Oremo Frank Steenbergen

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CoCoon Groundwater in the `Political Domain View project

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TRAINING MATERIALS FOR LOCAL COMMUNITIES

Capacity building on the use of rainwater for off-season small-scale irrigation

Register to the AFRHINET network at: www.afrhinet.eu/transnational-network.html

Register to the AFRHINET network at: www.afrhinet.eu/transnational-network.html

Capacity building on the use of rainwater

AFRHINET: A technology transfer network on rainwater harvesting irrigation management

* The AFRHINET project is coordinated at Hamburg University of Applied

Copyright © 2017 by the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences

1.2 Goals and objectives........................................................................................................................................12

2.1 Rainwater harvesting management for food security.......................................................................................15

2.2 Rainwater harvesting management for off-season small-scale irrigation.........................................................15

2.2.1 Examples of macro-catchment RWH systems.................................................................................................16

2.2.2 Examples of micro-catchment RWH systems..................................................................................................18

2.2.3 Examples of in-situ RWH systems.....................................................................................................................18

2.2.4 Examples of off-season small-scale irrigation systems......................................................................................19

3. RUNOFF ON-FARM PONDS......................................................................................................................................21

3.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................21

3.2 Siting ................................................................................................................................................................23

3.3 Design .............................................................................................................................................................23

3.3.1 Storage requirements.......................................................................................................................................23

3.3.2 Collecting runoff water in the pond...................................................................................................................24

3.4.1 Farm pond layout and excavation....................................................................................................................25

3.4.2 Lining of the farm pond.....................................................................................................................................25

3.4.3 Roofing the farm ponds....................................................................................................................................26

3.5 Monitoring and maintenance............................................................................................................................28

3.6 Scalability of the farm ponds............................................................................................................................28

3.7 A champion on on-farm pond irrigation in Kenya..............................................................................................28

4. ROOF CATCHMENT SYSTEMS.................................................................................................................................31

4.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................31

4.4 Operational requirements.................................................................................................................................32

4.5 Monitoring and maintenance............................................................................................................................33

4.6 Upscaling potential and best-practices.............................................................................................................33

5.1 The technology.................................................................................................................................................35

5.2.1 Storage of water in sandy dry riverbeds...........................................................................................................36

5.2.2 Water yield capacity of sand sediments...........................................................................................................36

5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of groundwater dams ....................................................................................36

5.4 Key performance factors..................................................................................................................................38

5.5 Subsurface dams..............................................................................................................................................38

5.5.1 Key working principles......................................................................................................................................38

5.5.2 Strengths and weaknesses..............................................................................................................................38

5.6 Sand storage dams..........................................................................................................................................39

5.6.1 Key working principles......................................................................................................................................39

5.6.2 Strengths and weaknesses..............................................................................................................................39

5.6.3 A focus on siltation............................................................................................................................................39

5.6.4 A focus on seepage..........................................................................................................................................40

5.7 Practical recommendations for groundwater dams..........................................................................................41

5.7.1 Tapping into the natural capacity of alluvial shallow reservoirs........................................................................41

5.7.2.1 Identifying suitable catchments and/or riverbeds............................................................................................42

5.7.2.2 Identifying cost-efficient construction sites......................................................................................................42

5.8 Specific practical recommendations for subsurface dams...............................................................................44

5.8.2 Design and construction...................................................................................................................................44

5.8.3 Monitoring and Maintenance............................................................................................................................45

5.9 Specific practical recommendations for sand storage dams............................................................................45

5.9.2.1 Reducing costs and free storage capacity......................................................................................................46