JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU.

EMILE;
OR,

CONCERNING EDUCATION.

Extracts
CONTAINING T H E PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS O F PEDAGOGY F O U N D I N T H E FIRST

T H R E E BOOKS. W I T H AN I N T R O D U C T I O N .AND N O T E S B Y

JULES STEEG, DEPUTE, PARIS, F R A N C E .

TRANSLATED BY
ELEANOR WORTHINGTON,
FORMERLY OF THE COOK CO. NORMAL SCHOOL, I L L .

BOSTON:
D . C. H E A T H & COMPANY.

1889.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by
GINN, H E A T H , & CO.,
I» the Office of the Library of Congress, at Washington.
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

"A/I"" JULES STEEGr has rendered a real service to

_±_T_J_. French and American teachers b y his judicious
selections from Rousseau's Smile. For the three-volume
novel of a h u n d r e d y e a r s a g o , with its l o n g disquisitions a n d
d i g r e s s i o n s , so d e a r t o t h e h e a r t of o u r p a t i e n t a n c e s t o r s ,
is n o w d i s t a s t e f u l t o all b u t lovers of t h e c u r i o u s in b o o k s .
' ' S m i l e " is like a n a n t i q u e m i r r o r of b r a s s ; it reflects t h e
f e a t u r e s of e d u c a t i o n a l h u m a n i t y n o less faithfully t h a n o n e
of m o r e m o d e r n c o n s t r u c t i o n . I n t h e s e few p a g e s will b e
f o u n d t h e g e r m of all t h a t is useful in p r e s e n t s y s t e m s of
e d u c a t i o n , a s well as m o s t of t h e e v e r - r e c u r r i n g m i s t a k e s of
well-meaning zealots.
The eighteenth century translations of this wonderful
b o o k h a v e for m a n y r e a d e r s t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of a n E n g ­
lish s t y l e l o n g d i s u s e d . I t is hopped t h a t t h i s a t t e m p t a t a
new translation may, with all its d e f e c t s , have the one
m e r i t of b e i n g in t h e d i a l e c t of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d
m a y t h u s r e a c h a w i d e r circle of r e a d e r s .
 INTRODUCTION.

J EAN" J A C Q U E S R O U S S E A U ' S book on education has had a

powerful influence throughout Europe, and even in the New
World*- I t was in its day a kind of gospel. I t had its share in
bringing about the Revolution which renovated the. entire aspect
of our country. Many of the reforms so lauded by it have since
then been carried into effect, and at this day seem every-day
affairs. I n the eighteenth century they were unheard-of daring;
they were mere dreams.
Long before that time the immortal satirist Rabelais, and, after
him, Michael Montaigne, had already divined the truth, had
pointed out serious defects in education, and the way to reform.
No one followed out their suggestions, or even gave them a
hearing. Routine went on its way. Exercises of memory,—the
science that consists of mere words, — pedantry, barren and vain­
glorious,—held fast their " b a d eminence." The child was treated
as a machine, or as a man in miniature,, no account being taken
of his nature or of his real needs; without any greater solici­
tude about reasonable method — the hygiene of mind — than
about the hygiene of the body.
Rousseau, who had educated himself, and very badly at that,
was impressed with the dangers of the education of his day. A
mother having" asked" his advice,^ he took up the pen t o write i t ;
and, little by little, his counsels grew into a book, "a large work,
a pedagogic romance.
 This romance, when it appeared in 1762, created a great noise
and a great scandal. The Archbishop of Paris, Christophe de
Beaumont, saw in it a dangerous, mischievous work, and gave
himself the trouble of writing a long encyclical letter in order
to point out the book to the reprobation of the faithful. This
document of twenty-seven chapters is a formal refutation of the
theories advanced in " E m i l e . "
The archbishop declares that the plan of education proposed
by the author, "far from being in accordance with Christianity,
is not fitted to form citizens, or even men." He accuses Rous­
seau of irreligion and of - bad f a i t h ; he denounces him to the
temporal power as animated " b y a spirit of insubordination
and of revolt." He sums up by solemnly condemning the book
"as containing an abominable doctrine, calculated to overthrow
natural law, and t a destroy the foundations of the Christian
religion; establishing maxims contrary to Gospel morality; hav­
ing a tendency to disturb the peace of empires, to stir up sub­
jects to revolt against their sovereign; as containing a great
number of propositions respectively false, scandalous, full of ha­
tred toward the Church and its ministers, derogating from the
respect due to Holy Scripture and the traditions of the Church,
erroneous, impious, blasphemous, and heretical."
I n those days, such a condemnation was a serious m a t t e r ; its
consequences to an author might be terrible. Rousseau had
barely time to flee. His arrest was decreed by the parliament
of Paris, and his book was burned by the executioner. A few
years before this, the author would have r u n the risk of being
burned with his book.
As a fugitive, Rousseau did not find a safe retreat even in
his own country. H e was obliged to leave Geneva, where his
book was also condemned, and Berne, where he_ had sought
refuge, but whence he was driven by intolerance. H e owed it
to the protection of Lord Keith, governor of Neufchatel, a
principality belonging to the King of Prussia, that he lived for
some time in peace in the little town of Motiers in the Yal de
Travers.
I t was from this place that he replied to the archbishop of
Paris by an apology, a long-winded work in which he repels,
one after another, the imputations of his accuser, and sets forth
anew with greater urgency his philosophical and religious prin­
ciples. This work, written on a rather confused plan but with
impassioned eloquence, manifests a lofty and sincere spirit. It
is said that the archbishop was deeply touched by it, and never
afterward spoke of the author of " E m i l e " without extreme
reserve, sometimes even eulogizing his character and his virtues.
The renown of the book, condemned by so high an authority,
was immense. Scandal, by attracting public attention to it,
did it good service. W h a t was most serious and most sugges­
tive in it was not, perhaps, seized upon; but the " c r a z e " of
which it was the object had, notwithstanding, good results.
Mothers were won over, and resolved to nurse their own infants;
great lords began to learn handicrafts, like Rousseau's imagi­
nary pupil; physical exercises came into fashion; the spirit of
innovation was forcing itself a way.
I t was not among ourselves, however, that the theories of
Rousseau were most eagerly experimented upon; it was among
foreigners, in Germany, in Switzerland, that they found more
resolute partisans, and a field more ready to receive them.
Three men above all the rest are noted for having popularized
the pedagogic method of Rousseau, and for having been inspired
in their labors by " E m i l e . " These were Basedow, Pestalozzi,
and Froehel.
 Basedow, a German theologian, had devoted himself entirely
to dogmatic controversy, until the reading of " E m i l e " had the
effect of enlarging his mental horizon, and of revealing to him
his true vocation. He wrote important books to show how
Rousseau's method could be applied in different departments of
instruction, and founded at Dessau, in 1774, an institution to
bring that method within the domain of experience.
This institution, to which he gave the name of " Philanthro-
pinum," was secular in the true sense of the word; and at that
time this was in itself a novelty. I t was open to pupils of
every belief and every nationality, and proposed to render study
easy, pleasant, and expeditious to them, by following the direc­
tions of nature itself. I n the first rank of his disciples may
be placed Campe, who succeeded him in the management of the
Philanthropinum.
Pestalozzi of Zurich, one of the foremost educators of modern
times, also found his whole life transformed by the reading of
"Emile," which awoke in him the genius of a reformer. He
himself also, in 1775, founded a school, in order to put in
practice there his progressive and professional method of teach­
ing, which was a fruitful development of seeds sown by Rous­
seau in his book. Pestalozzi left numerous writings,—romances,
treatises, reviews, — all having for sole object the popularization
of his ideas and processes of education. The most distin­
guished among his disciples and continuators is Froebel, the
founder of those primary schools or asylums known by the
name of "kindergartens," and the author "of highly esteemed
pedagogic wor.ks> _ • -
These various attempts, these new and - ingenious processes
which, step by step, have made their,, way among us, and are
beginning to make their workings felt, even in institutions most
stoutly opposed to progress, are all traceable to Rousseau's
"Emile."
I t is therefore not too much for Frenchmen, for teachers,
for parents, for every one in our country who is interested in
what concerns teaching,* to go back to the source of so great a
movement.
I t is true t h a t " E m i l e " contains pages that have outlived
their day, many odd precepts, many false ideas, many disputable
and destructive theories; but at the same time we find in it so
many sagacious observations, such upright counsels, suitable
even to modern times, so lofty an ideal, that, in spite of every­
thing, we cannot read and study it without profit. There is no
one who does not know the book by name and by reputation;
but how many parents, and even teachers, have never read i t !
This is because a large part of the book is no longer in
accordance with the actual condition of things; because its very
plan, its fundamental idea, are outside of the truth. W e are
obliged to exercise judgment, to make selections. Some of it
must be taken, some left untouched. This is what we have
done in the present edition.
W e have not, indeed, the presumption to correct Rousseau, or
to substitute an expurgated " E m i l e " for the authentic " E m i l e . "
W e have simply wished to draw the attention of the teachers
of childhood to those pages of this book which have least grown
old,.which can still be of service, can hasten the downfall of the
old systems, can emphasize, by their energy and beauty of lan­
guage, methods already inaugurated and reforms already under­
taken. These methods and reforms cannot be too often recom­
mended and set in a clear light. W e have desired to call to
the rescue this powerful and impassioned writer, who brings to
:
bear upon every subject h e approaches the magical attractiveness
of his style.
 There is absolutely nothing practicable in his system. I t con­
sists in isolating a child from the rest of the world; in creating
expressly for him a tutor, who is a phoenix among his k i n d ;
in depriving him of father, mother, brothers, and sisters, his
companions in s t u d y ; in surrounding him with a perpetual char­
latanism, under the pretext of following nature; and in showing
him only through the veil of a factitious atmosphere the society
in which.he is to live. And, nevertheless, at each step it is
sound reason by which we are m e t ; by an astonishing paradox,
this whimsicality is full of good sense; this dream overflows
with realities; this improbable and chimerical romance contains
the substance and the marrow of a rational and truly modern
treatise on pedagogy. Sometimes we must read ^between the
lines, add what experience has taught us since t h a t day, trans­
pose into an atmosphere of open democracy these pages, written
under the old order of things, but even then quivering with the
new world which they were bringing to light, and for which
they prepared the way.
R e a d i n g ' " E m i l e " in the light of modern prejudices, we can
see in it more than the author wittingly put into i t ; but not
more than logic and the instinct of genius set down there.
To unfold the powers of children in due proportion to their
age; not to transcend their ability; to arouse in them the sense
of the observer and of the pioneer; to make them discoverers
rather t h a n imitators; to teach them accountability to them­
selves and not slavish dependence upon the words of others; to
address ourselves more to the will than to custom, to the reason
rather than to the memory; to substitute for verbal recitations
lessons about t h i n g s ; to lead to theory by way of a r t ; to assign
to physical movements and exercises a prominent place, from
the earliest hours of life up to perfect m a t u r i t y ; such are the
principles scattered broadcast in this book, and forming a happy-
counterpoise to the oddities of which Rousseau was perhaps most
proud.
He takes the child in its cradle, almost before its b i r t h ; he
desires that mothers should fulfil the sacred duty of nursing
them at the breast. If there must be a nurse, he knows how
to choose her, how she ought to be treated, how she should be
fed. He watches over the movements of the new born child,
:

over its first playthings. All these counsels bear the stamp of
good sense and of experience; or, rather, they result from a
power of divination singular enough in a man who was not
willing to take care of his own children. I n this way, day
by day, he follows up the physical and moral development of
the little being, all whose ideas and feelings he analyzes, whom
he guides with wisdom and with tact throughout the mazes of
a life made up of convention and artifice.
We have carefully avoided suppressing the fictions of the
gardener and of the mountebank; because they are characteristic
of his manner, and because, after all, these pre-arranged scenes
which, as they stand, are anything in the world rather than
real teaching, contain, nevertheless, right notions, and opinions
which may suggest to intelligent teachers processes in prudent
education. Such teachers will not copy the form; they will
not imitate the awkward clap-trap; but, yielding to the inspi­
ration of the dominant idea, they will, in a way more in
accordance with nature, manage to thrill with life the teaching
of facts, and will aid the mind in giving birth to its ideas.
This is the old method of Socrates, the eternal method of
reason, the only method which really educates.
W e have brought this volume to an end with the third book
of "Emile." The fourth and fifth books which follow are not
within the domain of pedagogy. They contain admirable pages,
which ought to be r e a d ; which occupy one of the foremost
places in our literature; which deal with philosophy, with
ethics, with theology; but they concern themselves with the
manner of directing young men and women, and no longer
with childhood. The author conducts his Emile even as far as
to his betrothal; he devotes an entire book to the betrothed
herself, Sophie, and closes his volume only after he has united
them in marriage.
W e will not go so far. W e will leave Emile upon the con­
fines of youth, at the time when he escapes from school, and
when he is about beginning to feel t h a t he is a man. At this
difiicult and critical period the teacher no longer suffices. Then,
above all things, is needed all the influence of the family; the
father's example, the mother's clear-sighted tenderness, worthy
friendships, an environment of meritorious people, of upright
minds animated by lofty ideas, who attract within their orbit
this ardent and inquisitive being, eager for novelty, for action,
and for independence.
Artifices and stratagems are then no longer good for any­
thing; they are very soon laid open to the light. All t h a t
can be required of a teacher is that he shall have furnished
his pupils with a sound and strong education, drawn from the
sources of reason, experience, and n a t u r e ; that he shall have
prepared them to learn to form judgments, to make use of
their faculties, to enter valiantly upon study and upon life. It
seems to us that the pages of Rousseau here published may be
a useful guide in the pursuit of such a result.

JULES STEEG.
 EMILE;
OR,

OONOEKNTETG E D U C A T I O N .
 BOOK FIEST.

TPIE first book, after some general remarks upon education, treats
especially of early infancy; of the first years of life; of the care to
be bestowed upon very young children; of the nursing of t h e m ; of
the laws of health.
He makes education begin at birth; expresses himself on the sub­
ject of the habits to be given or to be avoided; discusses the use and
meaning of tears, outcries, gestures, also the language that should
be used with young children, so that, from their tenderest years,
the inculcating of false ideas and the giving a wrong bent of mind
may be avoided.

G E N E R A L REMARKS.

The Object of Education.

C O M I N G from t h e h a n d of t h e A u t h o r of all t h i n g s ,
e v e r y t h i n g is g o o d ; in t h e h a n d s of m a n , e v e r y t h i n g
d e g e n e r a t e s . M a n obliges one soil t o n o u r i s h t h e p r o d u c t i o n s
of a n o t h e r , o n e t r e e t o ' b e a r t h e fruits of a n o t h e r ; he m i n g l e s
a n d c o n f o u n d s c l i m a t e s , e l e m e n t s , s e a s o n s ; h e m u t i l a t e s his
d o g , his h o r s e , his s l a v e . H e o v e r t u r n s e v e r y t h i n g , disfig­
u r e s e v e r y t h i n g ; h e loves deformity, m o n s t e r s ; he desires
t h a t n o t h i n g s h o u l d be a s n a t u r e m a d e it, n o t even m a n h i m ­
self. T o p l e a s e h i m , m a n m u s t b e b r o k e n in like a h o r s e ;
m a n m u s t b e a d a p t e d t o m a n ' s own fashion, like a t r e e in
1
his g a r d e n .
1
It is useless to enlarge upon the absurdity of this theory, and upon the
flagrant contradiction into which Rousseau allows himself to fall. If he is
 W e r e it n o t for all t h i s , m a t t e r s would b e still w o r s e . No
o n e wishes* t o b e a half-developed b e i n g ; a n d in t h e p r e s e n t
condition of t h i n g s , a m a n left to himself a m o n g o t h e r s from
his b i r t h would be t h e m o s t d e f o r m e d a m o n g t h e m all.
P r e j u d i c e s , a u t h o r i t y , necessities, e x a m p l e , all t h e social
i n s t i t u t i o n s in which we a r e s u b m e r g e d , w o u l d stifle n a t u r e
in him, a n d w o u l d p u t n o t h i n g in i t s p l a c e . I n such a m a n
n a t u r e w o u l d b e like a s h r u b s p r u n g u p b y c h a n c e in t h e
m i d s t of a h i g h w a y , a n d j o s t l e d from all s i d e s , b e n t in every
direction, b y t h e p a s s e r s - b y .
P l a n t s are improved by cultivation, and men by education.
I f m a n w e r e b o r n l a r g e a n d s t r o n g , his size a n d s t r e n g t h
would be useless t o h i m until h e h a d l e a r n e d t o u s e t h e m .
T h e y would b e prejudicial t o h i m , b y p r e v e n t i n g o t h e r s f r o m
t h i n k i n g of assisting him ; a n d left t o himself he w o u l d die of
w r e t c h e d n e s s before he h a d k n o w n his own n e c e s s i t i e s . We
p i t y t h e s t a t e of i n f a n c y ; we clo n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e h u m a n
r a c e w o u l d h a v e p e r i s h e d if m a n h a d n o t b e g u n b y b e i n g a
child.
W e a r e b o r n w e a k , we n e e d s t r e n g t h ; w e a r e b o r n desti­
t u t e of all t h i n g s , w e n e e d a s s i s t a n c e ; w e a r e b o r n s t u p i d ,
we n e e d j u d g m e n t . A l l t h a t we h a v e n o t a t o u r b i r t h , a n d
t h a t w e n e e d w h e n g r o w n u p , is given u s b y e d u c a t i o n .
T h i s e d u c a t i o n c o m e s t o u s from n a t u r e itself, or from
o t h e r m e n , o r from c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p ­
m e n t of o u r faculties a n d of o u r o r g a n s is t h e education^
n a t u r e gives u s ; t h e u s e we a r e t a u g h t t o m a k e of t h i s devel­
o p m e n t is t h e e d u c a t i o n we g e t from o t h e r m e n ; a n d w h a t
we l e a r n , b y o u r own e x p e r i e n c e , a b o u t t h i n g s t h a t i n t e r e s t
u s , is t h e e d u c a t i o n of c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

right, man ought to be left without education, and the earth without culti­
vation. This would not be even the savage state. But want of space forbids
lis to pause at each like statement of-our author, who at once busies himself
in nullifying it.
 E a c h of lis is therefore f o r m e d by t h r e e k i n d s of t e a c h e r s .
T h e pupil in w h o m t h e i r different l e s s o n s c o n t r a d i c t one
a n o t h e r is b a d l y e d u c a t e d , a n d will n e v e r be in h a r m o n y with
himself; t h e o n e in w h o m t h e y all t o u c h u p o n t h e samo
p o i n t s a n d t e n d t o w a r d t h e s a m e object a d v a n c e s t o w a r d
t h a t g o a l o n l y , a n d lives accordingly. H e alone is well edu­
cated.
N o w of t h e s e t h r e e different e d u c a t i o n s , t h a t of n a t u r e d o e s
n o t d e p e n d u p o n us ; t h a t of c i r c u m s t a n c e s d e p e n d s u p o n u s
o n l y in c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s ; t h a t of m e n is t h e only o n e of
which we a r e really m a s t e r s , a n d t h a t solely b e c a u s e w e
t h i n k we a r e . F o r w h o can hope t o direct entirely t h e s p e e c h
a n d c o n d u c t of all who s u r r o u n d a child ?
A s soon, therefore, as education b e c o m e s a n a r t , its suc­
cess is almost impossible, since t h e a g r e e m e n t of circum­
s t a n c e s n e c e s s a r y t o this success is i n d e p e n d e n t of p e r s o n a l
effort. A l l t h a t t h e u t m o s t care c a n d o is t o a p p r o a c h
m o r e or less n e a r l y our o b j e c t ; b u t , for a t t a i n i n g it, special
g o o d f o r t u n e is n e e d e d .
W h a t is t h i s o b j e c t ? T h a t of n a t u r e itself, as h a s j u s t
b e e n p r o v e d . Since t h e a g r e e m e n t of t h e t h r e e e d u c a t i o n s
is n e c e s s a r y t o t h e i r p e r f e c t i o n , it is t o w a r d t h e one for which
we ourselves c a n d o n o t h i n g t h a t we m u s t direct b o t h , t h e
o t h e r s . B u t p e r h a p s t h i s word " n a t u r e " h a s t o o v a g u e a
m e a n i n g ; we m u s t h e r e t r y t o define it.
I n t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r of t h i n g s , all m e n b e i n g e q u a l , t h e
v o c a t i o n c o m m o n t o all is t h e s t a t e of m a n h o o d ; a n d who­
ever is well t r a i n e d for t h a t , c a n n o t fulfil b a d l y a n y v o c a t i o n
which d e p e n d s u p o n it. W h e t h e r m y p u p i l b e d e s t i n e d
for the- a r m y , . t h e c h u r c h , or t h e b a r , m a t t e r s little t o rne.
B e f o r e h e c a n t h i n k of a d o p t i n g t h e v o c a t i o n of his p a r e n t s ,
n a t u r e calls u p o n h i m t o b e a m a n . H o w t o live is t h e
business* I wish t o t e a c h h i m . O n l e a v i n g m y h a n d s h e will
n o t , I a d m i t , b e a m a g i s t r a t e , a soldier, or a p r i e s t ; first of
all h e will b e a m a n . A l l t h a t a m a n o u g h t to b e h e c a n
b e , a t n e e d , a s well as a n y o n e else c a n . F o r t u n e will in
v a i n alter his position, for he will a l w a y s o c c u p y his o w n .
O u r r e a l s t u d y is t h a t of t h e s t a t e of m a n . H e a m o n g u s
w h o b e s t k n o w s how t o b e a r t h e g o o d a n d evil fortunes of
t h i s life is, in m y opinion, t h e b e s t e d u c a t e d ; w h e n c e it fol­
lows t h a t t r u e e d u c a t i o n consists less in p r e c e p t t h a n in p r a c ­
tice. W e b e g i n t o i n s t r u c t ourselves w h e n we b e g i n t o live ;
o u r e d u c a t i o n c o m m e n c e s with t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t of o u r
life ; o u r first t e a c h e r is o u r n u r s e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e w o r d
" e d u c a t i o n " h a d a m o n g t h e a n c i e n t s a n o t h e r m e a n i n g which
we n o longer a t t a c h t o i t ; it signified n u t r i m e n t .
W e m u s t t h e n t a k e a b r o a d e r view of t h i n g s , a n d consider
in our pupil m a n in t h e a b s t r a c t , m a n e x p o s e d t o all t h e acci­
d e n t s of h u m a n life. If m a n were b o r n a t t a c h e d t o t h e soil
of a c o u n t r y , if t h e s a m e season c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
y e a r , if e v e r y one held his f o r t u n e b y s u c h a t e n u r e t h a t he
could n e v e r c h a n g e it, t h e established c u s t o m s of t o - d a y
would b e in c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s good. T h e child e d u c a t e d for
his p o s i t i o n , a n d n e v e r l e a v i n g it, could n o t b e e x p o s e d t o t h e
i n c o n v e n i e n c e s of a n o t h e r .
B u t seeing t h a t h u m a n affairs a r e c h a n g e a b l e , seeing t h e
r e s t l e s s a n d d i s t u r b i n g spirit of t h i s c e n t u r y , which over­
t u r n s e v e r y t h i n g once in a g e n e r a t i o n , c a n a m o r e senseless
m e t h o d b e i m a g i n e d t h a n t o e d u c a t e a child a s if he were
n e v e r t o l e a v e his r o o m , a s if h e were obliged t o b e c o n s t a n t l y
s u r r o u n d e d b y his s e r v a n t s ? If t h e p o o r c r e a t u r e t a k e s b u t
o n e s t e p o n t h e e a r t h , if h e c o m e s d o w n so m u c h a s o n e s t a i r ,
h e is r u i n e d . T h i s is n o t t e a c h i n g h i m t o e n d u r e p a i n ; it is
t r a i n i n g him t o feel it m o r e k e e n l y .
W e t h i n k only of p r e s e r v i n g t h e child : t h i s is n o t enough.
W e o u g h t t o t e a c h h i m t o p r e s e r v e himself w h e n h e is a m a n ;
t o b e a r t h e b l o w s of fate ; t o b r a v e b o t h w e a l t h a n d w r e t c h e d ­
n e s s ; t o live, if n e e d b e , a m o n g t h e s n o w s of I c e l a n d or u p o n
t h e b u r n i n g r o c k of M a l t a . I n v a i n y o u t a k e p r e c a u t i o n s
a g a i n s t his d y i n g , — h e m u s t die after a l l ; a n d if his d e a t h b e
n o t i n d e e d t h e result of t h o s e very p r e c a u t i o n s , t h e y a r e n o n e
t h e .less m i s t a k e n . I t is less i m p o r t a n t t o k e e p him from
d y i n g t h a n it is t o t e a c h him how t o live. T o live is n o t
m e r e l y t o b r e a t h e , it is t o a c t . I t is t o m a k e use of o u r
o r g a n s , of our s e n s e s , of o u r faculties, of all t h e p o w e r s
which b e a r w i t n e s s t o u s of our o w n e x i s t e n c e . H e w h o h a s
lived m o s t is n o t he w h o h a s n u m b e r e d t h e m o s t y e a r s , b u t
h e who h a s b e e n m o s t t r u l y conscious of w h a t life is. A m a n
m a y h a v e himself b u r i e d a t t h e a g e of a h u n d r e d y e a r s , w h o
died from t h e h o u r of his b i r t h . H e w o u l d h a v e g a i n e d
s o m e t h i n g b y g o i n g t o his g r a v e in y o u t h , if u p t o t h a t t i m e
h e h a d only lived.

The New-born Child.

T H E n e w - b o r n child n e e d s t o s t r e t c h a n d t o m o v e his l i m b s
so a s t o d r a w t h e m o u t of t h e t o r p o r in which, rolled into a
ball, t h e y h a v e so long r e m a i n e d . W e d o s t r e t c h his l i m b s ,
it is t r u e , b u t we p r e v e n t h i m from m o v i n g t h e m . W c even
c o n s t r a i n h i s h e a d i n t o a b a b y ' s c a p . I t s e e m s a s if we w e r e
afraid he m i g h t a p p e a r t o b e alive. T h e i n a c t i o n , t h e con­
s t r a i n t in which we k e e p his l i m b s , c a n n o t fail t o i n t e r f e r e
with t h e circulation of t h e blood a n d of t h e s e c r e t i o n s , t o
p r e v e n t t h e child from g r o w i n g s t r o n g a n d s t u r d y , a n d t o
c h a n g e his c o n s t i t u t i o n . I n r e g i o n s w h e r e t h e s e e x t r a v a g a n t
precautions are not taken, the men are all large, strong, and
well p r o p o r t i o n e d . C o u n t r i e s in which children a r e s w a d d l e d
s w a r m with h u n c h b a c k s , with c r i p p l e s , with p e r s o n s crook-
T
k n e e d , s t u n t e d , r i c k e t y , d e f o r m e d in all k i n d s of wa} s. F o r
fear t h a t t h e b o d i e s of children m a y be- deformed b y free
m o v e m e n t s , we h a s t e n t o deform t h e m b y p u t t i n g t h e m i n t o
a p r e s s . Of o u r o w n a c c o r d we cripple t h e m t o p r e v e n t
their l a m i n g t h e m s e l v e s .
M u s t n o t such a cruel c o n s t r a i n t h a v e a n influence u p o n
t h e i r t e m p e r a s well a s u p o n their c o n s t i t u t i o n ? T h e i r first
feeling is a feeling of c o n s t r a i n t a n d of suffering. To* all
their n e c e s s a r y m o v e m e n t s t h e y find only o b s t a c l e s . M o r e u n ­
f o r t u n a t e t h a n c h a i n e d criminals, they m a k e fruitless efforts,
t h e y fret t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y c r y . D o y o u tell me t h a t t h e first
s o u n d s t h e y m a k e are cries ? I can well* believe i t ; you
t h w a r t t h e m from t h e time t h e y are b o r n . T h e first gifts
t h e y receive from you are c h a i n s , t h e first t r e a t m e n t t h e y
u n d e r g o is t o r m e n t . H a v i n g n o t h i n g free b u t t h e voice, w h y
should t h e y n o t use it in c o m p l a i n t s ? T h e y cry o n a c c o u n t
of t h e suffering you cause t h e m ; if y o u w e r e p i n i o n e d in t h e
s a m e w a y , }^our own cries would b e l o u d e r .
W h e n c e arises this u n r e a s o n a b l e c u s t o m of s w a d d l i n g chil­
dren? F r o m an unnatural custom. Since the time when
m o t h e r s , despising their first d u t y , n o l o n g e r wish t o n u r s e
t h e i r o w n children a t t h e b r e a s t , it h a s been n e c e s s a r y t o in­
t r u s t t h e little o n e s t o h i r e d w o m e n . T h e s e , finding t h e m ­
selves in this w a y t h e m o t h e r s of s t r a n g e c h i l d r e n , c o n ­
c e r n i n g w h o m t h e voice of n a t u r e is silent to t h e m , seek
o n l y t o s p a r e t h e m s e l v e s a n n o y a n c e . A child a t l i b e r t y
w o u l d require i n c e s s a n t w a t c h i n g ; b u t after h e is well
swaddled, they throw him into a corner without troubling
t h e m s e l v e s a t all on a c c o u n t of his cries. P r o v i d e d t h e r e a r e
n o p r o o f s of t h e n u r s e ' s c a r e l e s s n e s s , p r o v i d e d t h a t - t h e
n u r s l i n g d o e s n o t b r e a k his legs or his a r m s , . w h a t does it
m a t t e r , a f t e r all.,, t h a t h e is p i n i n g , a way,Lor t h a t h e c o n t i n u e s
feeble for t h e r e s t of his life? H i s l i m b s a r e . p r e s e r v e d a t
t h e e x p e n s e of his life, a n d w h a t e v e r h a p p e n s , t h e n u r s e is
held free from b l a m e .
 I t is p r e t e n d e d t h a t children, w h e n left free, m a y p u t t h e m ­
selves i n t o b a d p o s i t i o n s , a n d m a k e m o v e m e n t s liable t o
injure t h e p r o p e r c o n f o r m a t i o n of their l i m b s . T h i s is o n e
of t h e w e a k a r g u m e n t s of o u r false wisdom, which n o e x p e r i ­
ence h a s ever confirmed. Of t h a t m u l t i t u d e of children w h o ,
a m o n g n a t i o n s m o r e sensible t h a n o u r s e l v e s , a r e b r o u g h t u p
in t h e full freedom of their l i m b s , n o t o n e is seen t o w o u n d
or l a m e himself. T h e y c a n n o t give their m o v e m e n t s force
e n o u g h t o m a k e t h e m d a n g e r o u s ; a n d when t h e y a s s u m e a
hurtful p o s i t i o n , p a i n soon w a r n s t h e m t o c h a n g e it.
W e h a v e n o t y e t b r o u g h t ourselves t o t h e point of s w a d ­
d l i n g p u p p i e s or k i t t e n s ; d o we see t h a t a n y i n c o n v e n i e n c e
r e s u l t s t o t h e m from t h i s negligence ? Children are h e a v i e r ,
i n d e e d ; b u t in p r o p o r t i o n t h e y a r e w e a k e r . They can
scarcely m o v e t h e m s e l v e s a t a l l ; h o w can t h e y l a m e t h e m ­
selves? If laid u p o n t h e b a c k t h e y would die in t h a t
p o s i t i o n , like t h e t o r t o i s e , w i t h o u t b e i n g able ever t o t u r n
themselves again.
[ T h i s w a n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e in the care b e s t o w e d u p o n y o u n g chil­
dren is s e e n particularly in t h o s e m o t h e r s w h o g i v e t h e m s e l v e s n o
c o n c e r n a b o u t their o w n , do n o t t h e m s e l v e s nurse t h e m , intrust
t h e m t o h i r e l i n g nurses. T h i s c u s t o m is fatal t o all; first to the
children and finally t o f a m i l i e s , w h e r e barrenness b e c o m e s the rule,
w h e r e w o m a u sacrifices t o her o w n c o n v e n i e n c e t h e j o y s and the
duties o f m o t h e r h o o d . ]

W o u l d y o u recall e v e r y one t o his h i g h e s t d u t i e s ? B e g i n

with t h e m o t h e r s ; y o u will b e a s t o n i s h e d a t t h e c h a n g e s you
will effect. F r o m t h i s first d e p r a v i t y all o t h e r s come in suc­
cession. T h e entire m o r a l o r d e r is c h a n g e d ; n a t u r a l feeling
is e x t i n g u i s h e d in all h e a r t s . W i t h i n o u r h o m e s t h e r e is
less cheerfulness ; t h e t o u c h i n g sight of a g r o w i n g family
n o l o n g e r a t t a c h e s t h e h u s b a n d or a t t r a c t s t h e a t t e n t i o n
of s t r a n g e r s . T h e m o t h e r whose children a r e n o t seen is
less r e s p e c t e d . T h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g a s a family living
t o g e t h e r ; h a b i t n o l o n g e r s t r e n g t h e n s t h e ties of b l o o d .
T h e r e a r e n o l o n g e r f a t h e r s a n d m o t h e r s a n d children a n d
b r o t h e r s a n d s i s t e r s . T h e y all scarcely k n o w one a n o t h e r ;
how t h e n should t h e y love o n e a n o t h e r ? E a c h one t h i n k s
only of himself. W h e n h o m e is a m e l a n c h o l y , lonely p l a c e ,
we m u s t i n d e e d g o elsewhere t o enjoy o u r s e l v e s .
1
B a t let m o t h e r s only vouchsafe t o n o u r i s h their c h i l d r e n ,
a n d our m a n n e r s will reform t h e m s e l v e s ; t h e feelings of n a ­
t u r e will r e - a w a k e n in all h e a r t s . T h e S t a t e will b e r e p e o -
p l e d ; this chief t h i n g , t h i s o n e t h i n g will b r i n g all t h e r e s t
i n t o o r d e r a g a i n . T h e a t t r a c t i o n s of h o m e life p r e s e n t t h e
b e s t a n t i d o t e t o b a d m o r a l s . T h e b u s t l i n g life of little chil­
d r e n , considered so t i r e s o m e , b e c o m e s p l e a s a n t ; it m a k e s
t h e father a n d the m o t h e r m o r e n e c e s s a r y t o one a n o t h e r ,
m o r e d e a r t o o n e a n o t h e r ; it d r a w s closer b e t w e e n t h e m t h e
c o n j u g a l t i e . W h e n t h e family is s p r i g h t l y a n d a n i m a t e d ,
d o m e s t i c c a r e s f o r m t h e d e a r e s t o c c u p a t i o n of t h e wife a n d
t h e s w e e t e s t r e c r e a t i o n of t h e h u s b a n d . T h u s t h e correction
of this one a b u s e would soon r e s u l t in a g e n e r a l r e f o r m ;
1
n a t u r e would r e s u m e all h e r r i g h t s . W h e n w o m e n a r e once
m o r e t r u e m o t h e r s , m e n will b e c o m e t r u e f a t h e r s a n d h u s ­
bands.
If m o t h e r s a r e n o t r e a l m o t h e r s , children a r e n o t r e a l chil­
d r e n t o w a r d t h e m . T h e i r d u t i e s t o one a n o t h e r a r e recipro­
cal, a n d if these be b a d l y fulfilled on t h e one side, t h e y
.will b e n e g l e c t e d on t h e o t h e r side. T h e child o u g h t to
1
The voice of Rousseau was lieard. The nursing of children by their
own mothers, which had gone into disuse as vulgar and troublesome, be­
came a fashion. Great ladies prided themselves upon returning to the
usage of nature, and infants were brought in with the dessert to give an
exhibition of maternal tenderness. This affectation died out, but in most
families the good and wholesome custom of motherhood was retained.
This page of Rousseau's contributed its share to the happy result.
love his m o t h e r before he k n o w s t h a t it is his d u t y to love
h e r . I f t h e voice of n a t u r a l affection b e n o t s t r e n g t h e n e d b y
h a b i t a n d b y c a r e , it will g r o w d u m b even in c h i l d h o o d ; a n d
t h u s t h e h e a r t dies, so t o s p e a k , before it is b o r n . Thus
from t h e o u t s e t we a r e b e y o n d t h e pale of n a t u r e .
T h e r e is a n o p p o s i t e w a y b y which a w o m a n g o e s b e y o n d
i t ; t h a t is, w h e n , i n s t e a d of n e g l e c t i n g a m o t h e r ' s c a r e s , she
carries t h e m t o e x c e s s ; when she m a k e s her child h e r idol.
She i n c r e a s e s a n d fosters his w e a k n e s s t o p r e v e n t h i m
from feeling it. H o p i n g to shelter him from t h e l a w s of n a ­
t u r e , she w a r d s from h i m s h o c k s of p a i n . She d o e s n o t
consider h o w , for t h e s a k e of p r e s e r v i n g him for a m o ­
m e n t from some i n c o n v e n i e n c e s , she is h e a p i n g u p o n his
h e a d f u t u r e a c c i d e n t s a n d p e r i l s ; n o r h o w cruel is t h e cau­
tion which p r o l o n g s t h e w e a k n e s s of childhood in o n e who
m u s t b e a r t h e f a t i g u e s of a g r o w n - u p m a n . T h e fable s a y s
t h a t , t o r e n d e r her son i n v u l n e r a b l e , T h e t i s p l u n g e d h i m i n t o
t h e S t y x . T h i s allegory is beautiful a n d clear. T h e cruel
m o t h e r s of w h o m I a m s p e a k i n g d o f a r otherwise ; b y p l u n g ­
ing their children into effeminacy t h e y open their p o r e s t o
ills of e v e r y k i n d , t o which, w h e n g r o w n u p , t h e y fall a cer­
tain p r e y .
W a t c h n a t u r e carefully, a n d follow t h e p a t h s she t r a c e s o u t
for y o u . She gives children c o n t i n u a l exercise ; she s t r e n g t h ­
ens t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n b y o r d e a l s of e v e r y k i n d ; she t e a c h e s
t h e m e a r l y w h a t p a i n a n d trouble m e a n . T h e c u t t i n g of
their t e e t h gives t h e m fever, s h a r p fits of colic t h r o w t h e m
into c o n v u l s i o n s , l o n g c o u g h i n g chokes t h e m , w o r m s t o r m e n t
t h e m , r e p l e t i o n c o r r u p t s their blood, different l e a v e n s fer­
m e n t i n g t h e r e c a u s e d a n g e r o u s e r u p t i o n s . N e a r l y t h e whole
of i n f a n c y is s i c k n e s s a n d d a n g e r ; half t h e children b o r n
into the world die before their eighth y e a r . T h e s e t r i a l s
p a s t , t h e child h a s g a i n e d s t r e n g t h , a n d a s soon as he
can use life, its principle b e c o m e s m o r e a s s u r e d .
 T h i s is t h e l a w of n a t u r e . W h y d o you o p p o s e h e r ? D o you
n o t see t h a t in t h i n k i n g t o correct her y o u d e s t r o y h e r w o r k
a n d c o u n t e r a c t t h e effect of all h e r c a r e s ? I n y o u r opinion,
to do without w h a t she is d o i n g within is to r e d o u b l e the
d a n g e r . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , it is really t o a v e r t , to m i t i g a t e
t h a t d a n g e r . E x p e r i e n c e t e a c h e s t h a t m o r e children w h o a r e
delicately r e a r e d die t h a n o t h e r s . P r o v i d e d we d o n o t e x ­
ceed t h e m e a s u r e of their s t r e n g t h , it is b e t t e r t o emplo}^ it
t h a n t o h o a r d it. G i v e t h e m p r a c t i c e , t h e n , in t h e trials they
will one d a y h a v e to e n d u r e . I n u r e their b o d i e s to the
inclemencies of t h e s e a s o n s , of c l i m a t e s , of e l e m e n t s ; t o
h u n g e r , t h i r s t , f a t i g u e ; p l u n g e t h e m i n t o t h e w a t e r of t h e
S t y x . Before t h e h a b i t s of t h e b o d y a r e a c q u i r e d we can
give it such as we please without r i s k . B u t when once
it h a s r e a c h e d its full vigor, a n y a l t e r a t i o n is perilous t o
its well-being. A child will e n d u r e c h a n g e s which a m a n
could n o t bear'. T h e fibres of t h e former, soft a n d plia­
b l e , t a k e w i t h o u t effort t h e b e n t we give t h e m ; t h o s e of
m a n , m o r e h a r d e n e d , d o n o t w i t h o u t violence c h a n g e t h o s e
t h e y h a v e received. W e m a y t h e r e f o r e m a k e a child r o b u s t
w i t h o u t e x p o s i n g his life or his h e a l t h ; a n d e v e n if t h e r e
were some risk we still o u g h t n o t t o h e s i t a t e . Since t h e r e
are r i s k s i n s e p a r a b l e from h u m a n life, c a n we d o b e t t e r t h a n
t o t h r o w t h e m b a c k u p o n t h a t p e r i o d of life w h e n t h e y are
least disadvantageous ?
A child b e c o m e s m o r e precious a s he a d v a n c e s in a g e
T o the v a l u e of his p e r s o n is a d d e d t h a t of t h e cares he h a s
cost u s ; if w e lose his life, his own consciousness of d e a t h is
a d d e d t o o u r s e n s e of l o s s . A b o v e all t h i n g s , t h e n , in w a t c h ­
ing o v e r his p r e s e r v a t i o n we m u s t t h i n k of t h e f u t u r e . We
m u s t a r m h i m a g a i n s t t h e m i s f o r t u n e s of y o u t h before h e h a s
r e a c h e d t h e m . F o r , if t h e value of life i n c r e a s e s up. to t h e
a g e w h e n life b e c o m e s useful, w h a t folly it is t o s p a r e t h e child
some t r o u b l e s , a n d t o h e a p t h e m u p o n t h e a g e of r e a s o n !
A r e t h e s e t h e counsels of a m a s t e r ?
I n all a g e s suffering is t h e lot of m a n . E v e n t o t h e c a r e s
of self-preservation p a i n is j o i n e d . H a p p y a r e we, w h o in
childhood are a c q u a i n t e d w i t h only physical m i s f o r t u n e s —
misfortunes far less cruel, less painful t h a n o t h e r s ; misfor­
t u n e s which far m o r e r a r e l y m a k e u s r e n o u n c e life. W e d o
n o t kill o u r s e l v e s o n a c c o u n t of t h e p a i n s of g o u t ; seldom d o
1
any b u t t h o s e of t h e m i n d p r o d u c e d e s p a i r .
W e p i t y t h e lot of i n f a n c y , a n d it is o u r o w n lot t h a t we
o u g h t t o p i t y . O u r g r e a t e s t m i s f o r t u n e s come t o us from
ourselves.
A t b i r t h a child cries ; his earliest infancy is s p e n t in cry­
i n g . S o m e t i m e s h e is t o s s e d , he is p e t t e d , t o a p p e a s e h i m ;
s o m e t i m e s he is t h r e a t e n e d , b e a t e n , t o m a k e h i m k e e p q u i e t .
W e either d o as he p l e a s e s , or else we e x a c t from h i m w h a t
we please ; we either s u b m i t t o his w h i m s , or m a k e him s u b ­
mit t o o u r s . T h e r e is n o m i d d l e course ; h e m u s t either give
or receive o r d e r s . T h u s his first ideas a r e t h o s e of a b s o l u t e
rule a n d of s l a v e r y . Before he k n o w s h o w t o s p e a k , h e
c o m m a n d s ; before he is able t o a c t , h e o b e y s ; a n d some­
times he is p u n i s h e d before he k n o w s w h a t his faults a r e , or
r a t h e r , before he is c a p a b l e of c o m m i t t i n g t h e m . T h u s d o
we early p o u r i n t o his y o u n g h e a r t t h e p a s s i o n s t h a t a r e
a f t e r w a r d i m p u t e d t o n a t u r e ; a n d , after h a v i n g t a k e n p a i n s
to m a k e him wicked, w e complain of finding h i m wicked.
A child p a s s e s six o r seven }^ears of his life in this m a n n e r
in t h e h a n d s of w o m e n , t h e victim of his o w n caprice a n d of
t h e i r s . A f t e r h a v i n g m a d e him l e a r n this a n d t h a t , — after
i T h i s remark is not a just one. How often have we seen unhappy
creatures disgusted with life because of some dreadful and incurable mal­
ady ? It is true that suicide, being an act of madness, is more frequently
caused by those troubles which imagination delights itself in magnifying
up to the point of insanity.
 h a v i n g l o a d e d his m e m o r y either with w o r d s h e c a n n o t u n d e r ­
s t a n d , or with facts which a r e of n o u s e t o h i m , — a f t e r h a v i n g
stifled his n a t u r a l disposition b y t h e p a s s i o n s we h a v e c r e a t e d T

we p u t t h i s artificial c r e a t u r e i n t o t h e h a n d s of a t u t o r who
finishes t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e artificial g e r m s he finds
a l r e a d y formed, a n d t e a c h e s h i m e v e r y t h i n g e x c e p t t o k n o w
himself, e v e r y t h i n g e x c e p t t o k n o w h o w t o live a n d how
t o m a k e himself h a p p y . F i n a l l y , w h e n this e n s l a v e d child, t h i s
little t y r a n t , full of l e a r n i n g a n d devoid of s e n s e , enfeebled
alike in m i n d a n d b o d y , is c a s t u p o n t h e w o r l d , he t h e r e b y
his unfitness, b y his p r i d e , a n d b y all his vices, m a k e s u s d e ­
plore h u m a n w r e t c h e d n e s s a n d p e r v e r s i t y . W e deceive our­
selves ; t h i s is t h e m a n o u r w h i m s h a v e c r e a t e d . Nature
m a k e s m e n b y a different p r o c e s s .
D o y o u t h e n wish him t o p r e s e r v e his original f o r m ?
P r e s e r v e it from t h e m o m e n t he e n t e r s t h e world. A s soon a s
he is b o r n t a k e possession of him, a n d d o n o t leave him u n t i l
h e is a m a n . W i t h o u t t h i s you will n e v e r succeed. A s t h e
m o t h e r is t h e t r u e n u r s e , t h e father is t h e t r u e t e a c h e r .
L e t t h e m b e of o n e m i n d as t o t h e o r d e r in which their func­
t i o n s a r e fulfilled, as well as in r e g a r d t o their p l a n ; let the
child p a s s from t h e h a n d s of t h e o n e i n t o t h e h a n d s of t h e
o t h e r . H e will b e b e t t e r e d u c a t e d b y a f a t h e r w h o is j u d i ­
cious, e v e n t h o u g h of m o d e r a t e a t t a i n m e n t s , t h a n b y t h e
m o s t skilful m a s t e r in t h e w o r l d . F o r zeal will s u p p l e ­
m e n t t a l e n t b e t t e r t h a n t a l e n t c a n s u p p l y w h a t only zeal
can give.
A father, w h e n he b r i n g s his children i n t o e x i s t e n c e a n d
s u p p o r t s t h e m , h a s , in so d o i n g , fulfilled only a t h i r d p a r t of
his t a s k . T o t h e h u m a n r a c e h e o w e s m e n ; t o society, m e n
fitted for s o c i e t y ; t o t h e S t a t e , citizens. Every man who
3an p a y t h i s triple d e b t , a n d d o e s n o t p a y it, is a guilty m a n ;
and if he p a y s it b y h a l v e s , he is p e r h a p s m o r e guilty still.
H e who c a n n o t fulfil t h e duties of a f a t h e r h a s n o r i g h t t o
b e a father. N o t p o v e r t y , n o r severe labor, n o r h u m a n r e ­
spect can release h i m from t h e d u t y of s u p p o r t i n g his chil­
d r e n a n d of e d u c a t i n g t h e m himself. R e a d e r s , you m a y b e ­
lieve m y w o r d s . I prophesy to any one who has natural
feeling a n d neglects t h e s e s a c r e d d u t i e s , — t h a t he will l o n g
shed b i t t e r t e a r s o v e r this fault, a n d t h a t for t h o s e t e a r s h e
1
will find no c o n s o l a t i o n .
[ I t b e i n g s u p p o s e d that the father is unable or u n w i l l i n g t o c h a r g e
h i m s e l f p e r s o n a l l y w i t h the e d u c a t i o n o f his s o n , h e m u s t c h a r g e a
third p e r s o n w i t h i t ; m u s t s e e k out a master, a teacher f o r the
child.]

T h e qualifications .of a g o o d t u t o r a r e v e r y freely dis­

cussed. T h e first qualification I should require in h i m ,
a n d this o n e p r e s u p p o s e s m a n y o t h e r s , i s , t h a t he shall
n o t be c a p a b l e of selling himself. T h e r e a r e e m p l o y m e n t s
so noble t h a t we c a n n o t fulfil t h e m for m o n e y w i t h o u t show­
i n g ourselves u n w o r t h y t o fulfil t h e m . S u c h a n e m p l o y m e n t
is t h a t of a soldier ; such a one is t h a t of a t e a c h e r . Who,
r
t h e n , shall e d u c a t e m y child? I h a v e told y o u a l r e a d } , —
yourself. I c a n n o t ! T h e n m a k e for yourself a friend w h o
c a n . I see n o o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e .
A t e a c h e r ! w h a t a g r e a t soul he o u g h t t o b e ! T r u l y , t o
form a m a n , o n e m u s t b e either himself a father, or else
s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n h u m a n . A n d this is t h e office y o u
2
calmly e n t r u s t t o h i r e l i n g s !

1
This is an allusion to one of the most unfortunate episodes in the life of
Rousseau,—his abandoning of the children whom Therese Levasseur bore
him, and whom he sent to a foundling hospital because he felt within him.
neither courage to labor for their support, nor capacity to educate them.
Sad practical defect in this teacher of theories of education!
2
For the particular example of education which he supposes, Rousseau
creates a tutor whom he consecrates absolutely, exclusively, to the work.
He desires one so perfect that he calls him a prodigy. Let us not blame
 The Earliest Education.

C h i l d r e n ' s first i m p r e s s i o n s a r e p u r e l y t h o s e of f e e l i n g ;
t h e y perceive only pleasure a n d p a i n . U n a b l e either t o
m o v e a b o u t , or t o g r a s p a n y t h i n g w i t h t h e i r h a n d s , t h e y
need a g r e a t d e a l of t i m e t o form s e n s a t i o n s which r e p r e s e n t ,
a n d so m a k e t h e m a w a r e of objects o u t s i d e of t h e m s e l v e s .
B u t , d u r i n g all this t i m e , while t h e s e o b j e c t s a r e e x t e n d i n g ,
a n d , a s it w e r e , r e c e d i n g from their e y e s , a s s u m i n g , t o t h e m ,
form and dimension, the constantly recurring sensations
begin t o s u b j e c t t h e little c r e a t u r e s t o t h e s w a y of h a b i t . We
see their eyes i n c e s s a n t l y t u r n i n g t o w a r d t h e l i g h t ; a n d , if it
comes to t h e m from one side, u n w i t t i n g l y t a k i n g t h e direc­
tion of t h a t s i d e ; so t h a t their faces o u g h t t o be carefully
t u r n e d t o w a r d t h e light, lest t h e y b e c o m e s q u i n t - e y e d , or
a c c u s t o m t h e m s e l v e s t o look a w r y . T h e y should, also, early
a c c u s t o m t h e m s e l v e s to d a r k n e s s , or else t h e y will cry a n d
s c r e a m a s soon as t h e y are left in t h e d a r k . F o o d a n d sleep,
if too e x a c t l y p r o p o r t i o n e d , b e c o m e n e c e s s a r y t o t h e m after
t h e l a p s e of the s a m e i n t e r v a l s ; a n d soon t h e desire arises
n o t from necessity* b u t from h a b i t . O r r a t h e r , h a b i t a d d s a
n e w w a n t t o t h o s e of n a t u r e , a n d t h i s m u s t b e p r e v e n t e d .
T h e only h a b i t a child should be allowed t o form is t o con­
t r a c t n o h a b i t s w h a t e v e r . L e t h i m n o t b e carried u p o n o n e
a r m more t h a n u p o n a n o t h e r ; let him n o t b e a c c u s t o m e d to

him for this. The ideal of those who assume the noble and difficult office
of a teacher of childhood cannot be placed too high. As to the pupil,
Rousseau imagines a child of average ability, in easy circumstances, and of
robust health. He makes him an only son and an orphan, so that no fam­
ily vicissitudes may disturb the logic of his plan.
All this m a y b e summed up by saying that he considers the child in him­
self with regard to his individual development, and without regard to his
relations to ordinary life. This at the same time renders his task easy, and
deprives him of an important element of education.
p u t forth o n e h a n d r a t h e r t h a n the o t h e r , or t o u s e it oftener ;
nor t o desire t o e a t , t o sleep, t o a c t in a n y w a y , a t r e g u l a r
h o u r s ; n o r t o be u n a b l e to s t a y alone either b y n i g h t or b y
d a y . P r e p a r e long b e f o r e h a n d for t h e t i m e w h e n he shall
freely u s e all his s t r e n g t h . D o t h i s b y l e a v i n g his b o d y
u n d e r t h e control of its n a t u r a l b e n t , b y fitting him t o b e
a l w a y s m a s t e r of himself, a n d t o c a r r y o u t his own will in
e v e r y t h i n g a s soon a s he h a s a will of his o w n .
Since t h e only k i n d s of objects p r e s e n t e d t o him are likely
t o m a k e h i m either timid or c o u r a g e o u s , w h y should n o t his
education begin before he s p e a k s or u n d e r s t a n d s ? I would
h a b i t u a t e him t o seeing n e w objects, t h o u g h t h e y b e ugly,
r e p u l s i v e , or s i n g u l a r . B u t let this be b y d e g r e e s , a n d from
a d i s t a n c e , until he h a s b e c o m e a c c u s t o m e d t o t h e m , a n d ,
from seeing t h e m h a n d l e d b y o t h e r s , shall a t l a s t h a n d l e
t h e m himself. If d u r i n g his infancy h e h a s seen w i t h o u t
fear frogs, s e r p e n t s , crawfishes, he will, w h e n g r o w n u p , see
w i t h o u t s h r i n k i n g a n y a n i m a l t h a t m a y b e s h o w n him. For
one w h o daily sees frightful o b j e c t s , there are n o n e s u c h .
A l l children are afraid of m a s k s . I b e g i n b y s h o w i n g
E m i l e t h e m a s k of a p l e a s a n t face. B y a n d b y s o m e o n e
p u t s t h e m a s k u p o n his own face, so t h a t t h e child c a n see
it. I b e g i n t o l a u g h ; every one else l a u g h s , a n d t h e child
with t h e r e s t . B y d e g r e e s I familiarize him with less comely
m a s k s , a n d finally with really hideous o n e s . I f I h a v e m a n ­
aged t h e p r o c e s s well, he will, far from b e i n g frightened a t
t h e l a s t m a s k , l a u g h a t it as he l a u g h e d a t t h e first. A f t e r
t h a t , I shall n o t fear his b e i n g f r i g h t e n e d b y a n y o n e with a
mask.
W h e n , in t h e farewell scene b e t w e e n H e c t o r a n d A n d r o ­
m a c h e , t h e little A s t y a n a x , terrified a t t h e p l u m e floating
from a helmet, fails t o r e c o g n i z e his f a t h e r , t h r o w s himself,
crying, u p o n his n u r s e ' s b r e a s t , a n d w i n s from his m o t h e r a
smile b r i g h t with t e a r s , w h a t o u g h t to b e d o n e t o soothe his
f e a r ? Precisely w h a t H e c t o r d o e s . H e p l a c e s t h e h e l m e t
oh t h e g r o u n d , a n d t h e n c a r e s s e s his child. A t a m o r e t r a n ­
quil m o m e n t , t h i s should n o t h a v e b e e n all. T h e y should
h a v e d r a w n n e a r t h e h e l m e t , p l a y e d with its p l u m e s , c a u s e d
t h e child t o h a n d l e t h e m . A t l a s t t h e n u r s e s h o u l d h a v e
lifted t h e h e l m e t a n d l a u g h i n g l y set it on h e r own head —
if, i n d e e d , t h e h a n d of a w o m a n d a r e d t o u c h t h e a r m o r of
Hector.
If I wish t o familiarize E m i l e with t h e noise of fire-arms,
I first b u r n s o m e p o w d e r in a pistol. T h e quickly v a n i s h i n g
flame, t h e n e w k i n d of l i g h t n i n g , g r e a t l y p l e a s e s him. I
repeat the process, using more powder. By degrees I put
i n t o t h e pistol a small c h a r g e , w i t h o u t r a m m i n g it d o w n ;
t h e n a l a r g e r c h a r g e ; finally, I a c c u s t o m him t o t h e noise of
a g u n , t o b o m b s , to c a n n o n - s h o t s , t o t h e m o s t terrific n o i s e s .
I h a v e noticed t h a t children a r e r a r e l y afraid of t h u n d e r ,
u n l e s s , i n d e e d , t h e t h u n d e r - c l a p s are so frightful a s a c t u a l l y
t o w o u n d t h e o r g a n of h e a r i n g . O t h e r w i s e , t h e y fear it only
7
w h e n the} h a v e b e e n t a u g h t t h a t t h u n d e r s o m e t i m e s w o u n d s
o r kills. W h e n r e a s o n begins to affright t h e m , let h a b i t
r e a s s u r e t h e m . B y a slow a n d well c o n d u c t e d p r o c e s s t h e
m a n or t h e child is r e n d e r e d fearless of e v e r y t h i n g .
I n t h i s o u t s e t of life, while m e m o r y a n d i m a g i n a t i o n a r e
T
still i n a c t i v e , t h e child pa} s a t t e n t i o n only t o w h a t a c t u a l l y
affects his s e n s e s . T h e first m a t e r i a l s of his k n o w l e d g e a r e
his s e n s a t i o n s . If, t h e r e f o r e , t h e s e a r e p r e s e n t e d t o him in
s u i t a b l e o r d e r , his m e m o r y c a n h e r e a f t e r p r e s e n t t h e m t o his
u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e s a m e o r d e r . B u t a s he a t t e n d s t o his
s e n s a t i o n s o n l y , it will a t first suffice t o show h i m v e i y
clearly t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e s e n s a t i o n s , a n d t h e
objects which give rise t o t h e m . H e is e a g e r t o t o u c h e v e r y ­
thing, to handle everything. D o not thwart this restless
d e s i r e ; it s u g g e s t s to him a v e r y n e c e s s a r y a p p r e n t i c e s h i p .
I t is t h u s he l e a r n s to feel t h e h e a t a n d c o l d n e s s , h a r d n e s s
a n d softness, heaviness a n d l i g h t n e s s of bodies ; to j u d g e of
their size, their s h a p e , a n d all their sensible qualities, b y
looking, b y t o u c h i n g , b y l i s t e n i n g ; a b o v e all, b y c o m p a r i n g
the r e s u l t s of sight with t h o s e of t o u c h , e s t i m a t i n g with t h e
eye t h e s e n s a t i o n a t h i n g p r o d u c e s u p o n t h e fingers.
B y m o v e m e n t alone we l e a r n t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h i n g s which
a r e n o t o u r s e l v e s ; a n d it is b y o u r o w n m o v e m e n t s alone
t h a t we g a i n t h e i d e a of e x t e n s i o n .
B e c a u s e t h e child h a s n o t this i d e a , he s t r e t c h e s o u t his
h a n d indifferently t o seize an o b j e c t which t o u c h e s him, or
one which is a h u n d r e d p a c e s d i s t a n t from h i m . T h e effort
he m a k e s in d o i n g this a p p e a r s t o you a sign of d o m i n a t i o n ,
a n o r d e r he gives t h e object to come n e a r e r , or to y o u t o
b r i n g it t o him. I t is n o t h i n g of t h e k i n d . I t m e a n s only
t h a t t h e object seen first within t h e b r a i n , t h e n u p o n t h e eye,
is now seen a t a r m ' s l e n g t h , a n d t h a t he does n o t conceive
of a n y d i s t a n c e be yond his r e a c h . B e careful, t h e n , t o w a l k
i

often with him, to t r a n s p o r t him from one place t o a n o t h e r ,

to let him feel t h e c h a n g e of position, a n d , in this w a y t o
t e a c h him how to j u d g e of d i s t a n c e s . W h e n he b e g i n s t o
know t h e m , c h a n g e t h e p l a n ; c a r r y h i m only w h e r e it is
convenient for y o u t o d o so, a n d n o t w h e r e v e r it p l e a s e s h i m .
F o r a s soon a s h e is n o l o n g e r deceived b y t h e s e n s e s , his
a t t e m p t s arise from a n o t h e r c a u s e . T h i s c h a n g e is r e m a r k ­
able a n d d e m a n d s e x p l a n a t i o n .
T h e u n e a s i n e s s a r i s i n g from our w a n t s e x p r e s s e s itself b y
signs w h e n e v e r h e l p in s u p p l y i n g t h e s e w a n t s is n e e d e d ;
hence t h e cries of children. T h e y cry a g r e a t d e a l , a n d t h i s
is n a t u r a l . Since all their sensations a r e t h o s e of feeling,
children enjoy t h e m in silence, w h e n t h e s e n s a t i o n s a r e
p l e a s a n t ; o t h e r w i s e t h e y e x p r e s s t h e m in their o w n l a n g u a g e ,
 r
a n d a s k relief. N o w a s l o n g a s children a r e a w a k e t h e j
c a n n o t be in a s t a t e of indifference ; t h e y either sleep or are
m o v e d b y pleasure a n d p a i n .
A l l o u r l a n g u a g e s a r e the r e s u l t of a r t . W h e t h e r there is
a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e , c o m m o n t o all m a n k i n d , h a s l o n g b e e n a
m a t t e r of i n v e s t i g a t i o n . W i t h o u t d o u b t t h e r e is such a
l a n g u a g e , a n d it is t h e one t h a t children u t t e r before t h e y
k n o w h o w t o t a l k . T h i s l a n g u a g e is n o t a r t i c u l a t e , b u t it is
a c c e n t u a t e d , s o n o r o u s , intelligible. T h e u s i n g of o u r o w n
l a n g u a g e h a s led u s to" neglect t h i s , even so far a s t o forget
it altogether, L e t u s s t u d y children, a n d we shall soon
a c q u i r e it again from t h e m . N u r s e s a r e our t e a c h e r s in t h i s
T
l a n g u a g e . T h e y u n d e r s t a n d all their n u r s l i n g s saj , t h e y
a n s w e r t h e m , t h e y hold really c o n n e c t e d dialogues with
them. A n d , although they pronounce words, these words
a r e entirely useless ; t h e child u n d e r s t a n d s , n o t t h e m e a n i n g
of t h e w o r d s , b u t t h e a c c e n t which a c c o m p a n i e s t h e m .
T o t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e voice is a d d e d t h e n o less forcible
l a n g u a g e of g e s t u r e . T h i s g e s t u r e is n o t t h a t of c h i l d r e n ' s
feeble h a n d s ; it is t h a t seen in their faces. I t is a s t o n i s h i n g
t o see how m u c h e x p r e s s i o n t h e s e i m m a t u r e c o u n t e n a n c e s
T
alread} h a v e . F r o m m o m e n t to m o m e n t , their features
c h a n g e with inconceivable q u i c k n e s s . O n t h e m you see t h e
smile, t h e wish, t h e fear, s p r i n g i n t o life, a n d p a s s a w a y ,
like so m a n y l i g h t n i n g flashes. E a c h t i m e y o u seem t o see
a different c o u n t e n a n c e . T h e y c e r t a i n l y h a v e m u c h m o r e
flexible facial muscles t h a n o u r s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , their
dull eyes tell u s a l m o s t n o t h i n g a t all.
S u c h is n a t u r a l l y t h e character, of t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n when
all t h e i r w a n t s a r e p h y s i c a l . S e n s a t i o n s a r e m a d e k n o w n b y
grimaces, sentiments by looks.
A s t h e first s t a t e of m a n is w r e t c h e d n e s s a n d w e a k n e s s ,
so his first u t t e r a n c e s a r e c o m p l a i n t s a n d t e a r s . T h e child
feels his need a n d c a n n o t satisfy i t ; he i m p l o r e s aid from
others b y crying. I f he is h u n g r y or t h i r s t y , h e cries ; if h e
is too cold or t o o w a r m , he cries ; if h e wishes t o m o v e or to
be k e p t a t r e s t , h e c r i e s ; if h e wishes t o sleep or t o be
m o v e d a b o u t , he cries. T h e less c o n t r o l h e h a s of his own
m o d e of living, t h e oftener h e a s k s t h o s e a b o u t h i m to
c h a n g e it. H e h a s b u t o n e l a n g u a g e , b e c a u s e h e feels, so t o
s p e a k , b u t one s o r t of discomfort. I n t h e i m p e r f e c t condi­
tion of his o r g a n s , he d o e s n o t distinguish t h e i r different
i m p r e s s i o n s ; all ills p r o d u c e in him o n l y a s e n s a t i o n of
pain.
F r o m t h i s c r y i n g , r e g a r d e d a s so little w o r t h y of a t t e n t i o n ,
arises t h e first relation of m a n t o all t h a t s u r r o u n d s him ;
j u s t h e r e is forged t h e first l i n k of t h a t l o n g c h a i n which
c o n s t i t u t e s social o r d e r .
W h e n t h e child cries, he is ill a t e a s e ; h e h a s s o m e w a n t
t h a t he c a n n o t satisfy. W e e x a m i n e i n t o it, we s e a r c h
for t h e w a n t , find it, a n d z^elieve it. W h e n we c a n n o t find
it, o r relieve it, t h e c r y i n g c o n t i n u e s . W e a r e a n n o y e d b y
i t ; we c a r e s s t h e child to m a k e him k e e p q u i e t , we r o c k him
a n d s i n g t o h i m , t o lull him a s l e e p . I f he p e r s i s t s , we g r o w
i m p a t i e n t ; we t h r e a t e n h i m ; b r u t a l n u r s e s s o m e t i m e s s t r i k e
him. T h e s e a r e s t r a n g e lessons for h i m u p o n his e n t r a n c e
into life.
T h e first c r y i n g of children is a p r a y e r . If we d o n o t
heed it well, t h i s c r y i n g soon b e c o m e s a c o m m a n d . They
begin b y a s k i n g o u r a i d ; t h e y end b y compelling u s t o serve
t h e m . T h u s from their v e r y w e a k n e s s , w h e n c e c o m e s , a t first,
their feeling of d e p e n d e n c e , s p r i n g s a f t e r w a r d t h e i d e a of
e m p i r e , a n d of c o m m a n d i n g o t h e r s . B u t a s t h i s i d e a is
a w a k e n e d less b y their o w n w a n t s , t h a n b y t h e fact t h a t we
are serving t h e m , t h o s e m o r a l r e s u l t s w h o s e i m m e d i a t e c a u s e
is n o t in n a t u r e , a r e h e r e p e r c e i v e d . W e therefore see w h y ,
even a t this earty a g e , it is i m p o r t a n t t o d i s c e r n t h e h i d d e n
p u r p o s e which d i c t a t e s t h e g e s t u r e or t h e c r y .
W h e n t h e child s t r e t c h e s forth his h a n d with a n effort, b u t
without a s o u n d , he t h i n k s he c a n r e a c h some o b j e c t , b e ­
cause h e d o e s n o t p r o p e r l y e s t i m a t e its d i s t a n c e ; he is
mistaken* B u t if, while s t r e t c h i n g o u t his h a n d , h e com­
plains a n d cries, he is n o l o n g e r deceived a s t o t h e d i s t a n c e .
H e is c o m m a n d i n g t h e o b j e c t t o come to him, or is d i r e c t i n g
you to b r i n g it to hini. I n t h e first c a s e , c a r r y him to t h e
o b j e c t slowly, a n d with s h o r t s t e p s ; in t h e s e c o n d c a s e , d o
n o t even a p p e a r to u n d e r s t a n d h i m . I t is w o r t h while t o
h a b i t u a t e him early n o t to c o m m a n d p e o p l e , for he is n o t
t h e i r m a s t e r ; n o r t h i n g s , for t h e y c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d h i m .
So, w h e n a child w a n t s s o m e t h i n g he s e e s , a n d we m e a n t o
give it t o him, it is b e t t e r t o c a r r y him to t h e object t h a n t o
fetch t h e object to him. F r o m t h i s p r a c t i c e of o u r s he will
i e a r n a lesson suited to his a g e , a n d t h e r e is n o b e t t e r w a y
of s u g g e s t i n g this lesson t o h i m .

M a x i m s to K e e p u s True to Nature.

R E A S O N alone t e a c h e s us t o k n o w good a n d evil. Con­

science, which m a k e s us love t h e o n e a n d h a t e t h e o t h e r , is
i n d e p e n d e n t of r e a s o n , b u t c a n n o t g r o w s t r o n g w i t h o u t its
a i d . Before r e a c h i n g y e a r s of r e a s o n , we d o good a n d evil
u n c o n s c i o u s l y . T h e r e is n o m o r a l c h a r a c t e r in o u r a c t i o n s ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e s o m e t i m e s is in o u r feeling t o w a r d t h o s e
a c t i o n s of o t h e r s which r e l a t e t o u s . A child likes t o d i s t u r b
e v e r y t h i n g he sees ; he b r e a k s , he s h a t t e r s e v e r y t h i n g within
his r e a c h ; h e l a y s hold of a b i r d j u s t as he would lay hold of
a s t o n e , a n d s t r a n g l e s it w i t h o u t k n o w i n g w h a t he is d o i n g .
W h y is t h i s ? A t first view, p h i l o s o p h y would a c c o u n t for
it on t h e g r o u n d of vices n a t u r a l to us — p r i d e , t h e spirit of
d o m i n a t i o n , self-love, t h e w i c k e d n e s s of m a n k i n d . I t would
p e r h a p s a d d , t h a t t h e s e n s e of his o w n w e a k n e s s m a k e s t h e
child e a g e r t o d o t h i n g s r e q u i r i n g s t r e n g t h , a n d so p r o v e t o
himself his o w n power. B u t see t h a t old m a n , infirm a n d
b r o k e n d o w n , w h o m t h e cycle of h u m a n life b r i n g s b a c k t o
t h e w e a k n e s s of childhood. N o t only d o e s h e r e m a i n
i m m o v a b l e a n d quiet, b u t he wishes e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t him
t o be in t h e s a m e c o n d i t i o n . T h e slightest c h a n g e d i s t u r b s
a n d d i s q u i e t s h i m ; he would like to see stillness r e i g n i n g
e v e r y w h e r e . H o w could t h e s a m e p o w e r l e s s n e s s , j o i n e d t o
t h e s a m e p a s s i o n s , p r o d u c e such different effects in t h e t w o
a g e s , if t h e p r i m a r y cause were n o t c h a n g e d ? A n d where
can we seek for this difference of c a u s e , u n l e s s it b e in t h e
p h y s i c a l condition of t h e t w o individuals ? T h e active prin­
ciple c o m m o n t o t h e t w o is d e v e l o p i n g in t h e o n e , a n d d y i n g
o u t in t h e o t h e r ; t h e one is g r o w i n g , a n d t h e o t h e r is w e a r ­
ing itself o u t ; t h e o n e is t e n d i n g t o w a r d life, a n d t h e o t h e r
t o w a r d d e a t h . F a i l i n g activity c o n c e n t r a t e s itself in t h e
h e a r t of t h e old m a n ; in t h e child it is s u p e r a b o u n d i n g , a n d
r e a c h e s o u t w a r d ; h e s e e m s t o feel within him life e n o u g h t o
a n i m a t e all t h a t s u r r o u n d s h i m . W h e t h e r h e m a k e s or
u n m a k e s m a t t e r s little t o h i m . I t is e n o u g h t h a t he c h a n g e s
t h e condition of t h i n g s , a n d t h a t e v e r y c h a n g e is a n a c t i o n .
If h e s e e m s m o r e inclined t o d e s t r o y t h i n g s , it is n o t o u t of
p e r v e r s e n e s s , b u t b e c a u s e t h e action which c r e a t e s is alwa}^s
T
s l o w ; a n d t h a t w h i c h destro} s, b e i n g m o r e r a p i d , b e t t e r
suits his n a t u r a l s p r i g h t l i n e s s .
W h i l e t h e A u t h o r of n a t u r e gives children t h i s active prin­
ciple, h e t a k e s care t h a t it shall d o little h a r m ; for he l e a v e s
t h e m little p o w e r t o indulge it. B u t n o s o o n e r d o t h e y look
u p o n t h o s e a b o u t t h e m as i n s t r u m e n t s which it is t h e i r
b u s i n e s s t o set in m o t i o n , t h a n t h e y m a k e u s e of t h e m in
following t h e i r o w n inclinations a n d in m a k i n g u p for t h e i r
o w n w a n t of s t r e n g t h . I n this w a y t h e y b e c o m e d i s a g r e e ­
able, tyrannical, imperious, perverse, unruly ; a development
n o t a r i s i n g from a n a t u r a l spirit of d o m i n a t i o n , b u t c r e a t i n g
such a spirit. F o r n o v e r y l o n g e x p e r i e n c e is requisite in
t e a c h i n g how p l e a s a n t it is t o a c t t h r o u g h o t h e r s , a n d t o n e e d
only m o v e o n e ' s t o n g u e t o set t h e world in m o t i o n .
A s we g r o w u p , we g a i n s t r e n g t h , we b e c o m e less u n e a s y
a n d r e s t l e s s , we s h u t o u r s e l v e s m o r e within o u r s e l v e s . The
soul a n d t h e b o d y p u t t h e m s e l v e s in equilibrium, a s it w e r e ,
a n d n a t u r e r e q u i r e s n o m o r e m o t i o n t h a n is n e c e s s a r y for o u r
preservation.
B u t t h e wish t o c o m m a n d outlives t h e necessit}^ from
which it s p r a n g ; p o w e r t o c o n t r o l o t h e r s a w a k e n s and
gratifies self-love, a n d h a b i t m a k e s it s t r o n g . T h u s n e e d
g i v e s place t o w h i m ; t h u s clo prejudices a n d opinions first
r o o t t h e m s e l v e s within u s .
T h e p r i n c i p l e once u n d e r s t o o d , we see clearly t h e p o i n t a t
which we l e a v e t h e p a t h of n a t u r e . L e t u s discover w h a t
we o u g h t t o d o , t o k e e p within it.
F a r from h a v i n g t o o m u c h s t r e n g t h , children h a v e n o t
e v e n e n o u g h for all t h a t n a t u r e d e m a n d s of t h e m . We
o u g h t , t h e n , t o l e a v e t h e m t h e free use of all n a t u r a l s t r e n g t h
which t h e y c a n n o t m i s u s e . F i r s t m a x i m .
W e m u s t aid t h e m , s u p p l y i n g w h a t e v e r t h e y l a c k in intel­
ligence, in s t r e n g t h , in all t h a t b e l o n g s t o p h y s i c a l n e c e s s i t y .
Second maxim.
I n h e l p i n g t h e m , we m u s t confine o u r s e l v e s t o w h a t is
really of u s e t o t h e m , yielding n o t h i n g t o their w h i m s or
u n r e a s o n a b l e w i s h e s . F o r t h e i r o w n caprice will n o t trouble
t h e m u n l e s s we ourselves c r e a t e i t ; it is n o t a n a t u r a l t h i n g .
Third maxim.
W e m u s t s t u d y carefully their l a n g u a g e aiid t h e i r s i g n s , so
t h a t , a t a n a g e w h e n t h e y c a n n o t d i s s e m b l e , we m a y j u d g e
which of their desires s p r i n g from n a t u r e itself, a n d which
of t h e m from o p i n i o n . F o u r t h m a x i m .
T h e m e a n i n g of t h e s e r u l e s i s , t o allow children m o r e
p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m a n d less a u t h o r i t y ; t o let t h e m d o m o r e
for t h e m s e l v e s , a n d e x a c t less from o t h e r s . T h u s a c c u s ­
t o m e d b e t i m e s to desire only w h a t t h e y c a n o b t a i n or d o for
t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y will feel less keenly t h e w a n t of w h a t e v e r is
n o t within their o w n p o w e r .
H e r e t h e r e is a n o t h e r a n d v e r y i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n for leav­
i n g children absolutely free a s t o b o d y a n d l i m b s , with t h e
sole p r e c a u t i o n of k e e p i n g t h e m from t h e d a n g e r of falling,
a n d of p u t t i n g o u t of t h e i r r e a c h e v e r y t h i n g t h a t can injure
them.
D o u b t l e s s a child whose b o d y a n d a r m s a r e free will cry
less t h a n one b o u n d fast in s w a d d l i n g c l o t h e s . H e w h o feels
only p h y s i c a l w a n t s cries only when he. suffers, a n d this is a
great advantage. F o r t h e n we k n o w e x a c t l y w h e n he
requires h e l p , a n d we o u g h t n o t to d e l a y o n e m o m e n t in
giving him help, if possible.
B u t if you c a n n o t relieve him, k e e p q u i e t ; d o n o t t r y t o
soothe h i m b y p e t t i n g him. Y o u r c a r e s s e s will n o t cure his
colic ; b u t h e will r e m e m b e r w h a t he h a s t o do in o r d e r t o be
p e t t e d . A n d if he once discovers t h a t he can, a t will, b u s y
you a b o u t him, he will h a v e b e c o m e y o u r m a s t e r ; t h e m i s ­
chief is d o n e .
If children were n o t so m u c h t h w a r t e d in t h e i r m o v e m e n t s ,
they would n o t cry so m u c h ; if w e w e r e less a n n o y e d b y
their crying, we would t a k e less p a i n s t o h u s h t h e m ; if t h e y
were n o t so often t h r e a t e n e d or c a r e s s e d , t h e y would b e less
timid or less s t u b b o r n , a n d m o r e t r u l y t h e m s e l v e s as n a t u r e
m a d e t h e m . I t is n o t so often b y l e t t i n g children cry, a s b y
h a s t e n i n g t o quiet t h e m , t h a t we m a k e t h e m r u p t u r e t h e m ­
selves. T h e proof of this is t h a t t h e children m o s t n e g l e c t e d
are less subject t h a n o t h e r s t o this infirmity. I a m far from
wishing t h e m t o b e n e g l e c t e d , h o w e v e r . O n t h e c o n t r a r y ,
we o u g h t to a n t i c i p a t e their w a n t s , a n d n o t w a i t t o b e noti­
fied of t h e s e b y t h e c h i l d r e n ' s c r y i n g . Y e t I w o u l d n o t h a v e
t h e m m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e cares we b e s t o w on t h e m . Wiry
should they consider c r y i n g a fault, w h e n t h e y find t h a t it
avails so m u c h ? K n o w i n g t h e v a l u e of their silence, t h e y
will b e careful n o t t o b e lavish of it. T h e y will, a t l a s t ,
m a k e it so costly t h a t we c a n n o l o n g e r p a y for i t ; a n d t h e n
it is t h a t b y c r y i n g w i t h o u t success t h e y s t r a i n , w e a k e n , a n d
kill t h e m s e l v e s .
T h e l o n g crying fits of a child w h o is n o t c o m p r e s s e d or
ill, or allowed t o w a n t for a n y t h i n g , a r e from h a b i t a n d
o b s t i n a c y . T h e y a r e b y n o m e a n s t h e w o r k of n a t u r e , b u t
of t h e n u r s e , w h o , b e c a u s e she c a n n o t e n d u r e t h e a n n o y a n c e ,
multiplies it, w i t h o u t reflecting t h a t b y stilling t h e child t o ­
d a y , he is i n d u c e d t o cry t h e m o r e t o - m o r r o w .
T h e only w a y t o cure or p r e v e n t t h i s h a b i t is to p a y n o
a t t e n t i o n t o it. N o o n e , n o t even a child, likes t o t a k e
unnecessary trouble.
T h e y are s t u b b o r n in t h e i r a t t e m p t s ; b u t if y o u h a v e m o r e
7 7
firmness t h a n the} h a v e obstinac} , t h e y a r e d i s c o u r a g e d , a n d
d o n o t r e p e a t t h e a t t e m p t . T h u s we s p a r e t h e m some t e a r s ,
a n d a c c u s t o m t h e m t o cry only w h e n p a i n forces t h e m to it.
N e v e r t h e l e s s w h e n t h e y d o cry from caprice or s t u b b o r n ­
n e s s , a sure w a y t o p r e v e n t their c o n t i n u i n g i s , to t u r n their
a t t e n t i o n t o some a g r e e a b l e a n d s t r i k i n g object, a n d so m a k e
t h e m f o r g e t their desire to cry. I n t h i s a r t m o s t n u r s e s
excel, a n d when skilfully e m p l o y e d , it is v e r y effective. But
it is highly i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e child should n o t k n o w of our
i n t e n t i o n to d i v e r t him, a n d t h a t h e s h o u l d a m u s e himself
without a t all t h i n k i n g we h a v e h i m in m i n d . I n t h i s all
n u r s e s a r e unskilful.
 A l l children a r e w e a n e d too early. T h e p r o p e r t i m e is
indicated b y t h e i r t e e t h i n g . T h i s p r o c e s s is usually painful
a n d d i s t r e s s i n g . B y a m e c h a n i c a l instinct t h e child, a t t h a t
time, carries t o his m o u t h a n d chews e v e r y t h i n g he h o l d s .
W e t h i n k we m a k e the o p e r a t i o n easier by g i v i n g him for a
p l a y t h i n g some h a r d s u b s t a n c e , such as ivory or coral. I
t h i n k we a r e m i s t a k e n . F a r from softening t h e g u m s , t h e s e
h a r d b o d i e s , w h e n a p p l i e d , r e n d e r t h e m h a r d a n d callous,
a n d p r e p a r e t h e w a y for a m o r e painful a n d d i s t r e s s i n g l a c ­
e r a t i o n . L e t us a l w a y s t a k e i n s t i n c t for g u i d e . W e n e v e r
see p u p p i e s t r y their g r o w i n g t e e t h u p o n flints, or i r o n , or
b o n e s , b u t u p o n wood, or l e a t h e r , or r a g s , — u p o n soft m a t e ­
rials, which give w a y , a n d on which t h e t o o t h i m p r e s s e s itself.
W e n o l o n g e r aim a t simplicity, even w h e r e children are
c o n c e r n e d . G o l d e n a n d silver b e l l s , corals, c r y s t a l s , t o y s
of every p r i c e , of every s o r t . W h a t useless a n d mischiev­
ous affectations t h e y a r e ! L e t t h e r e b e n o n e of t h e m , —
n o bells, n o t o y s .
A little t w i g covered with its own l e a v e s a n d fruit, — a
p o p p y - h e a d , in which t h e seeds can b e h e a r d r a t t l i n g , — a stick
of liquorice he c a n s u c k a n d chew, t h e s e will a m u s e a child
quite a s well as t h e s p l e n d i d b a u b l e s , and will n o t d i s a d v a n ­
t a g e him b y a c c u s t o m i n g him t o l u x u r y from his v e r y b i r t h .

Language.

F R O M t h e t i m e t h e y a r e b o r n , children h e a r people s p e a k .
7
T h e j a r e s p o k e n t o n o t only before t h e y u n d e r s t a n d w h a t
7
is said to t h e m , b u t b e f o r e the} c a n r e p e a t t h e s o u n d s t h e y
hear. T h e i r o r g a n s , still b e n u m b e d , a d a p t t h e m s e l v e s o n l y
b y degrees t o i m i t a t i n g t h e s o u n d s d i c t a t e d t o t h e m , a n d it
is not e v e n c e r t a i n t h a t t h e s e s o u n d s a r e b o r n e t o t h e i r e a r s
a t first as d i s t i n c t l y a s to o u r s .
 I d o n o t d i s a p p r o v e of a n u r s e ' s a m u s i n g t h e child with
s o n g s , a n d with blithe a n d v a r i e d t o n e s . B u t T d o d i s a p ­
p r o v e of her p e r p e t u a l l y d e a f e n i n g him with a m u l t i t u d e of
useless w o r d s , of which h e u n d e r s t a n d s only t h e t o n e she
gives t h e m .
I would like t h e first a r t i c u l a t e s o u n d s he m u s t h e a r t o be
few in n u m b e r , e a s y , d i s t i n c t , often r e p e a t e d . T h e w o r d s
t h e y form should r e p r e s e n t only m a t e r i a l objects which c a n
b e shown h i m . O u r u n f o r t u n a t e r e a d i n e s s t o c o n t e n t our­
selves with words t h a t h a v e no m e a n i n g to u s w h a t e v e r ,
b e g i n s earlier t h a n we s u p p o s e . E v e n as in his s w a d d l i n g -
clothes t h e child h e a r s his n u r s e ' s b a b b l e , he h e a r s in class
t h e v e r b i a g e of his t e a c h e r . I t s t r i k e s m e t h a t if h e were t o
be so b r o u g h t u p t h a t he could n o t u n d e r s t a n d it a t all, he
1
w o u l d - b e v e r y well i n s t r u c t e d .
Eeflections c r o w d u p o n us w h e n we s e t a b o u t discussing
t h e f o r m a t i o n of c h i l d r e n ' s l a n g u a g e , a n d their b a b y t a l k
itself. I n spite of u s , t h e y a l w a y s l e a r n t o s p e a k b y t h e
s a m e p r o c e s s , a n d all o u r philosophical s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t it
a r e entirely u s e l e s s .
They s e e m , a t first, t o h a v e a g r a m m a r a d a p t e d t o t h e i r
o w n a g e , a l t h o u g h its r u l e s of s y n t a x a r e m o r e g e n e r a l t h a n
o u r s . A n d if we w e r e t o p a y close a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m , we
should be a s t o n i s h e d a t t h e e x a c t n e s s with which t h e y follow
c e r t a i n a n a l o g i e s , v e r y faulty if you will, b u t v e r y r e g u l a r ,
t h a t a r e d i s p l e a s i n g only b e c a u s e h a r s h , or b e c a u s e u s a g e
does n o t recognize t h e m .
I t is u n b e a r a b l e p e d a n t r y , a n d a m o s t useless l a b o r , t o

1
No doubt this sarcasm is applicable to those teachers who talk so as to
say nothing. A teacher ought, on the contrary, to speak only so as to be
understood by the child. He ought to adapt himself to the child's ca­
pacity; to employ no useless or conventional expressions; his language
ought to arouse curiosity and to impart light.
a t t e m p t correcting in children every little fault a g a i n s t u s a g e ;
t h e y n e v e r fail t h e m s e l v e s t o correct t h e s e f a u l t s in t i m e .
A l w a y s s p e a k correctly in t h e i r p r e s e n c e ; o r d e r it so t h a t
they are n e v e r so h a p p y with a n y one as with y o u ; a n d r e s t
a s s u r e d t h e i r l a n g u a g e will insensibly be purified b y y o u r
o w n , without y o u r h a v i n g ever r e p r o v e d t h e m . -
B u t a n o t h e r error, which h a s a n entirety different b e a r i n g
on t h e m a t t e r , a n d is n o less easy t o p r e v e n t , is our b e i n g
o v e r - a n x i o u s t o m a k e t h e m s p e a k , as if we f e a r e d t h e y
m i g h t n o t of their own accord l e a r n t o d o s o . O u r injudi­
cious h a s t e h a s a n effect e x a c t l y c o n t r a r y t o w h a t we wish.
O n a c c o u n t of it t h e y l e a r n more slowly a n d s p e a k m o r e
indistinctly. T h e marked attention paid to everything they
u t t e r m a k e s it u n n e c e s s a r y for t h e m t o a r t i c u l a t e d i s t i n c t l y .
7
A s the} h a r d l y c o n d e s c e n d t o o p e n their l i p s , m a n y r e t a i n
t h r o u g h o u t life a n imperfect p r o n u n c i a t i o n a n d a confused
m a n n e r of s p e a k i n g , which m a k e s t h e m n e a r l y unintelligible.
Children w h o are t o o m u c h u r g e d t o s p e a k h a v e n o t t i m e
sufficient for l e a r n i n g either t o p r o n o u n c e carefully or to
u n d e r s t a n d t h o r o u g h l y w h a t t h e y are m a d e t o s a y . If, in­
7
s t e a d , the} a r e left to t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y a t first p r a c t i s e u s i n g
t h e syllables t h e y c a n m o s t readily u t t e r ; a n d g r a d u a l l y
a t t a c h i n g to t h e s e some m e a n i n g t h a t can be g a t h e r e d from
their g e s t u r e s , t h e y g i v e you their o w n w o r d s before acquir­
i n g y o u r s . T h u s t h e y receive y o u r s o n l y after t h e y u n d e r ­
s t a n d t h e m . N o t b e i n g u r g e d to use t h e m , t h e y notice
carefully w h a t m e a n i n g you give t h e m ; a n d , w h e n t h e y are
sure of t h i s , t h e y a d o p t it as t h e i r o w n .
T h e g r e a t e s t evil arising from our h a s t e t o m a k e children
s p e a k before t h e y a r e old e n o u g h is n o t t h a t our first t a l k s
with t h e m , a n d t h e first w o r d s t h e y u s e , h a v e n o m e a n i n g
to t h e m , b u t t h a t t h e y h a v e a m e a n i n g different from o u r s ,
without our b e i n g able t o p e r c e i v e it. T h u s , while t h e y seem
to be a n s w e r i n g us v e r y c o r r e c t l y , t h e y a r e realty a d d r e s s i n g
u s w i t h o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g u s , a n d w i t h o u t our u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h e m . T o such a m b i g u o u s discourse is d u e t h e s u r p r i s e we
sometimes feel a t their s a y i n g s , to which we a t t a c h i d e a s t h e
children t h e m s e l v e s h a v e n o t d r e a m e d of. T h i s i n a t t e n t i o n
of ours t o t h e t r u e m e a n i n g w o r d s h a v e for children s e e m s t o
m e t h e c a u s e of their first m i s t a k e s , a n d these e r r o r s , even
after children a r e cured of t h e m , influence t h e i r t u r n of m i n d
for t h e r e m a i n d e r of their life.
T h e first d e v e l o p m e n t s of childhood occur a l m o s t all a t
o n c e . T h e child l e a r n s to s p e a k , to eat, t o walk, n e a r l y a t
t h e s a m e t i m e . T h i s i s , p r o p e r l y , t h e first epoch of his life.
B e f o r e t h e n he is n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n he w a s before he w a s
b o r n ; he h a s n o t a s e n t i m e n t , n o t an i d e a ; he scarcely h a s
s e n s a t i o n s ; he does n o t feel even his own e x i s t e n c e .
 BOOK SECOND.

T H E s e c o n d b o o k takes t h e child at about t h e fifth year, and c o n ­

d u c t s h i m t o about t h e t w e l f t h year. l i e i s n o l o n g e r t h e little
c h i l d ; h e is t h e y o u n g b o y . H i s education b e c o m e s m o r e impor­
tant. I t c o n s i s t s n o t i n s t u d i e s , in r e a d i n g or w r i t i n g , or in d u t i e s ,
but in w e l l - c h o s e u p l a y s , in i n g e n i o u s r e c r e a t i o n s , in w e l l - d i r e c t e d
experiments.
T h e r e s h o u l d be n o e x a g g e r a t e d p r e c a u t i o n s , and, o n t h e other
hand, n o h a r s h n e s s , n o p u n i s h m e n t s . W e m u s t l o v e t h e child, aucl
encourage h i s playing. T o make h i m realize h i s w e a k n e s s and t h e
narrow l i m i t s w i t h i n w h i c h it c a n w o r k , t o keep t h e child depend­
ent o n l y o n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w i l l suffice, w i t h o u t ever m a k i n g him
feel t h e y o k e o f t h e m a s t e r .
T h e b e s t e d u c a t i o n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d in t h e country. T e a c h i n g b y
m e a n s of t h i n g s . Criticism o f t h e ordinary m e t h o d . E d u c a t i o n
o f t h e s e n s e s b y continually e x e r c i s i n g t h e m .

Avoid taking too m a n y Precautions.

T .
H I S is t h e s e c o n d p e r i o d of life, a n d t h e o n e a t w h i c h ,
p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , i n f a n c y e n d s ; for t h e w o r d s
1
infans
a n d puer are not s y n o n y m o u s . T h e first is i n c l u d e d in t h e
s e c o n d , a n d m e a n s one who cannot speak: t h u s in V a l e r i u s
M a x i m u s we find t h e e x p r e s s i o n puerum infantem. But I
shall c o n t i n u e t o e m p l o y t h e w o r d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e u s a g e of
t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e , u n t i l I a m d e s c r i b i n g t h e a g e for w h i c h
there are other names.
1
Puer, child; infans, one who does not speak.
 W h e n children b e g i n t o s p e a k , t h e y cry less often. This
s t e p in a d v a n c e is n a t u r a l ; one l a n g u a g e is s u b s t i t u t e d for
a n o t h e r . A s soon as the}* c a n u t t e r t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s in
w o r d s , w h y should t h e y cry, u n l e s s t h e suffering is t o o k e e n
t o b e e x p r e s s e d by w o r d s ? I f t h e y t h e n c o n t i n u e to cry, it
is t h e fault of t h o s e a r o u n d t h e m . A f t e r E m i l e h a s once
said, " I t h u r t s m e , " only a c u t e suffering can force him t o
cry.
If t h e child is physically so delicate a n d sensitive t h a t he
n a t u r a l l y cries a b o u t n o t h i n g , I will soon e x h a u s t t h e foun­
t a i n of his t e a r s , b y m a k i n g t h e m ineffectual. So long a s
he cries, I will n o t g o t o him ; as soon a s he s t o p s , I will
r u n t o h i m . V e r y soon h i s m e t h o d of calling m e will b e t o
k e e p quiet, or a t t h e u t m o s t , t o u t t e r a single c r y . Children
j u d g e of t h e m e a n i n g of signs b y their p a l p a b l e effect; t h e y
h a v e n o o t h e r r u l e . W h a t e v e r h a r m a child m a y do himself,
he v e r y r a r e l y cries w h e n a l o n e , u n l e s s w i t h t h e h o p e of
being heard.
If he fall, if he bruise his h e a d , if his nose b l e e d , if he
cut his finger, I should, i n s t e a d of b u s t l i n g a b o u t him with
a look of a l a r m , r e m a i n quiet, a t l e a s t for a little while.
T h e mischief is d o n e ; he m u s t e n d u r e i t ; all my a n x i e t y
will o n l y serve t o frighten him m o r e , a n d t o i n c r e a s e his sen­
s i t i v e n e s s . A f t e r all, when we h u r t o u r s e l v e s , it is less t h e
shock which p a i n s us t h a n the fright. I will s p a r e him a t
l e a s t t h i s l a s t p a n g ; for he will c e r t a i n l y e s t i m a t e his h u r t
a s he sees m e e s t i m a t e it. If he sees m e r u n a n x i o u s l y to
c o m f o r t a n d t o pity h i m , he will t h i n k himself seriously h u r t ;
b u t if he sees m e k e e p m y p r e s e n c e of m i n d , he will soon
r e c o v e r his o w n , a n d will t h i n k t h e p a i n cured when he no
l o n g e r feels it. A t his a g e we l e a r n o u r first lessons in cour­
a g e ; a n d b y fearlessly e n d u r i n g l i g h t e r sufferings, we g r a d ­
ually learn t o b e a r t h e h e a v i e r o n e s .
 AVOID TAKING TOO M A N Y P R E C A U T I O N S . 41

F a r from t a k i n g care t h a t fimile does n o t h u r t himself, I

shall b e dissatisfied if h e n e v e r d o e s , a n d so g r o w s u p u n a c ­
q u a i n t e d with p a i n . T o suffer is t h e first a n d m o s t n e c e s ­
sary t h i n g for h i m t o l e a r n . C h i l d r e n a r e little a n d w e a k ,
a p p a r e n t l y t h a t t h e y m a y learn t h e s e i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n s . If
a child fall his whole l e n g t h , he will n o t b r e a k his leg ; if h e
s t r i k e himself w i t h a stick, he will n o t b r e a k his a r m ; if h e
l a y hold of a n e d g e d tool, he d o e s n o t g r a s p it tightly, a n d
will n o t c u t himself v e r y b a d l y .
O u r p e d a n t i c m a n i a for i n s t r u c t i n g c o n s t a n t l y l e a d s u s t o
t e a c h children w h a t the}' c a n learn far b e t t e r for themselves,
a n d t o lose sight of w h a t we alone can t e a c h t h e m . I s t h e r e
a n y t h i n g m o r e a b s u r d t h a n t h e p a i n s we t a k e in t e a c h i n g
t h e m t o w a l k ? A s if we h a d ever seen o n e , w h o , t h r o u g h
his n u r s e ' s n e g l i g e n c e , did n o t k n o w how to w a l k w h e n
g r o w n ! O n t h e c o n t r a r y , h o w m a n y people d o we see m o v ­
ing a w k w a r d l y all their lives b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e b e e n b a d l y
taught how to walk !
E m i l e shall h a v e n o h e a d - p r o t e c t o r s , n o r c a r r i a g e s , n o r g o -
c a r t s , n o r l e a d i n g - s t r i n g s . O r a t l e a s t from t h e t i m e w h e n
he b e g i n s t o b e able t o p u t one foot before t h e o t h e r , h e
shall n o t b e s u p p o r t e d , e x c e p t over p a v e d p l a c e s ; a n d h e
shall b e h u r r i e d o v e r t h e s e . I n s t e a d of l e t t i n g him suffocate
in t h e e x h a u s t e d air i n d o o r s , let him b e t a k e n every d a y , far
out i n t o t h e fields. T h e r e let him r u n a b o u t , p l a y , fall d o w n
a h u n d r e d t i m e s a d a y ; t h e oftener t h e b e t t e r , as h e will t h e
sooner l e a r n t o g e t u p again b y himself. T h e b o o n of free­
d o m is w o r t h m a n y s c a r s . M y pupil will h a v e m a n y b r u i s e s ,
b u t t o m a k e a m e n d s for t h a t , he will b e a l w a y s l i g h t - h e a r t e d .
T h o u g h y o u r p u p i l s a r e less often h u r t , t h e y a r e c o n t i n u a l l y
thwarted, fettered; they are always unhappy. I doubt
w h e t h e r t h e a d v a n t a g e b e on t h e i r s i d e .
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e i r p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h m a k e s com-
p l a i n t less n e c e s s a r y to children. W h e n able t o help t h e m ­
selves, t h e y h a v e less n e e d of t h e h e l p of o t h e r s . Knowledge
t o direct their s t r e n g t h g r o w s with t h a t s t r e n g t h . A t this
s e c o n d s t a g e t h e life of t h e individual p r o p e r l y begins ; he
n o w b e c o m e s conscious of his own b e i n g . M e m o r y e x t e n d s
t h i s feeling of p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y t o e v e r y m o m e n t of his e x ­
istence ; h e b e c o m e s really o n e , t h e s a m e o n e , a n d conse­
q u e n t l y c a p a b l e of h a p p i n e s s or of m i s e r y . W e m u s t t h e r e ­
fore, from t h i s m o m e n t , b e g i n t o r e g a r d h i m a s a m o r a l
being.

Childhood is to be Loved.

A L T H O U G H t h e l o n g e s t t e r m of h u m a n life, a n d t h e p r o b a ­
bility, a t a n y given a g e , of r e a c h i n g t h i s t e r m , h a v e b e e n
c o m p u t e d , n o t h i n g is m o r e u n c e r t a i n t h a n t h e c o n t i n u a n c e of
e a c h individual l i f e : v e r y few a t t a i n t h e m a x i m u m . The
g r e a t e s t r i s k s in life a r e a t its b e g i n n i n g ; t h e less one h a s
lived, t h e less p r o s p e c t h e h a s of living.
Of all children b o r n , only a b o u t half r e a c h y o u t h ; a n d it
is p r o b a b l e t h a t y o u r pupil m a y n e v e r a t t a i n t o m a n h o o d .
W h a t , t h e n , m u s t b e t h o u g h t of t h a t b a r b a r o u s e d u c a t i o n
w h i c h sacrifices t h e p r e s e n t t o ail u n c e r t a i n future, l o a d s t h e
child w i t h e v e r y description of f e t t e r s , a n d b e g i n s , b y m a k ­
i n g h i m w r e t c h e d , t o p r e p a r e for him s o m e f a r - a w a y indefi­
nite h a p p i n e s s he m a y n e v e r e n j o y ! E v e n s u p p o s i n g t h e
o b j e c t of s u c h a n e d u c a t i o n r e a s o n a b l e , how c a n we w i t h o u t
i n d i g n a t i o n see t h e u n f o r t u n a t e c r e a t u r e s b o w e d u n d e r an
i n s u p p o r t a b l e y o k e , d o o m e d to c o n s t a n t l a b o r like so m a n y
g a l l e y - s l a v e s , w i t h o u t a n y c e r t a i n t y t h a t all t h i s toil will ever
b e of u s e t o t h e m ! T h e y e a r s t h a t o u g h t t o b e b r i g h t a n d
cheerful a r e p a s s e d in t e a r s a m i d p u n i s h m e n t s , t h r e a t s , a n d
s l a v e r y . F o r his o w n g o o d , t h e u n h a p p y child is t o r t u r e d ;
 C H I L D H O O D I S TO B E LOVED. 43

a n d the d e a t h t h u s s u m m o n e d will seize o n him u n p e r c e i v e d

a m i d s t all t h i s m e l a n c h o l y p r e p a r a t i o n . W h o k n o w s h o w
m a n y children die o n a c c o u n t of t h e e x t r a v a g a n t p r u d e n c e of
a f a t h e r or of a t e a c h e r ? H a p p y in e s c a p i n g his cruelty, it
gives t h e m o n e a d v a n t a g e ; t h e y leave w i t h o u t r e g r e t a life
1
which t h e y k n o w only from its d a r k e r s i d e .
0 m e n , b e h u m a n e ! it is y o u r h i g h e s t d u t y ; b e h u m a n e
t o all conditions of m e n , t o every a g e , t o e v e r y t h i n g n o t
alien t o m a n k i n d . W h a t higher wisdom is t h e r e for y o u
t h a n h u m a n i t y ? L o v e c h i l d h o o d ; e n c o u r a g e its s p o r t s , its
p l e a s u r e s , its l o v a b l e i n s t i n c t s . W h o a m o n g u s h a s n o t a t
t i m e s l o o k e d b a c k with r e g r e t t o t h e a g e w h e n a smile was
continually on our lips, w h e n t h e soul w a s a l w a y s a t p e a c e ?
W h y should we r o b t h e s e little i n n o c e n t c r e a t u r e s of t h e
enjoyment of a t i m e so brief, so t r a n s i e n t , of a b o o n so
p r e c i o u s , which t h e y c a n n o t m i s u s e ? W h y will you fill with
b i t t e r n e s s a n d sorrow t h e s e fleeting y e a r s which can n o m o r e
r e t u r n t o t h e m t h a n t o y o u ? D o you k n o w , y o u f a t h e r s , t h e
m o m e n t w h e n d e a t h a w a i t s y o u r children ? D o n o t store u p
for y o u r s e l v e s r e m o r s e , b y t a k i n g from t h e m t h e brief
m o m e n t s n a t u r e h a s given t h e m . A s soon as t h e y can
a p p r e c i a t e t h e delights of e x i s t e n c e , let t h e m enjoy it. At
w h a t e v e r h o u r G o d m a y call t h e m , let t h e m n o t die w i t h o u t
h a v i n g t a s t e d life a t all.
Y o u a n s w e r , " I t is t h e time to correct t h e evil t e n d e n c i e s
of t h e h u m a n h e a r t . I n childhood, w h e n sufferings a r e less
keenly felt, t h e y o u g h t to b e multiplied, so t h a t fewer of

1
Reading these lines, we are reminded of the admirable works of Dick­
ens, the celebrated English novelist, who so touchingly depicts the suffer­
ings of children smade unhappy by the inhumanity of teachers, or neglected
as to their need of free air, of liberty, of affection: David Copperfield,
Hard Times, Nicholas Nickleby, Dombey and Son, Oliver Twist, Little Dor-
rit, and the like.
t h e m will h a v e t o b e e n c o u n t e r e d d u r i n g t h e a g e of r e a s o n . "
B u t who h a s told y o u t h a t it is y o u r p r o v i n c e to m a k e t h i s
a r r a n g e m e n t , a n d t h a t all t h e s e fine i n s t r u c t i o n s , with which
y o u b u r d e n t h e t e n d e r m i n d of a child, will n o t o n e d a y b e
m o r e pernicious t h a n useful t o him ? W h o a s s u r e s y o u t h a t
you s p a r e h i m a n y t h i n g w h e n y o u d e a l h i m afflictions w i t h
so lavish a h a n d ? W h y d o y o u c a u s e him m o r e u n h a p p i n e s s
t h a n he c a n b e a r , w h e n y o u a r e n o t sure t h a t the f u t u r e will
c o m p e n s a t e him for t h e s e p r e s e n t evils ? A n d h o w c a n you
p r o v e t h a t t h e evil t e n d e n c i e s of which you p r e t e n d t o cure
him will n o t arise from y o u r m i s t a k e n care r a t h e r t h a n from
n a t u r e itself ! U n h a p p y foresight, which r e n d e r s a c r e a t u r e
actually m i s e r a b l e , in t h e h o p e , well or ill f o u n d e d , of one
d a y m a k i n g him h a p p y !' I f t h e s e v u l g a r r e a s o n e r s confound
license w i t h l i b e r t y , a n d m i s t a k e a spoiled child for a child
w h o is m a d e h a p p y , let u s t e a c h t h e m t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e t w o .
T o avoid b e i n g m i s l e d , let u s r e m e m b e r w h a t r e a l l y a c ­
c o r d s with o u r p r e s e n t abilities. H u m a n i t y h a s its p l a c e in
t h e g e n e r a l o r d e r of t h i n g s ; childhood h a s its p l a c e in t h e
o r d e r of h u m a n life. M a n k i n d m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d in t h e
i n d i v i d u a l m a n , a n d childhood in t h e i n d i v i d u a l child. T o
a s s i g n e a c h his p l a c e , a n d t o establish him in it — t o direct
h u m a n p a s s i o n s a s h u m a n n a t u r e will p e r m i t — is all we c a n
do for his w e l f a r e . T h e r e s t d e p e n d s o n o u t s i d e influences
not under our control.

Neither Slaves nor Tyrants.

H E alone h a s his own w a y w h o , t o c o m p a s s it, d o e s n o t

n e e d t h e a r m of a n o t h e r to l e n g t h e n his o w n . Consequently
freedom, a n d n o t a u t h o r i t y , is t h e greatest good. A man
who d e s i r e s only w h a t h e can d o for himself is really free t o
d o w h a t e v e r he p l e a s e s . F r o m t h i s a x i o m , if it b e a p p l i e d
to the case of childhood, all t h e rules of e d u c a t i o n will
follow.
A wise m a n u n d e r s t a n d s h o w t o r e m a i n in his o w n place ;
b u t a child, w h o d o e s n o t k n o w h i s , c a n n o t p r e s e r v e it. As
m a t t e r s s t a n d , t h e r e a r e a t h o u s a n d w a y s of leaving it.
T h o s e w h o g o v e r n h i m a r e t o k e e p him in it, a n d this is not
a n e a s y t a s k . H e o u g h t to be n e i t h e r a n a n i m a l n o r a m a n ,
b u t a child. H e should feel his w e a k n e s s , a n d y e t n o t suffer
from it. H e should d e p e n d , n o t o b e y ; he should d e m a n d ,
n o t c o m m a n d . H e is s u b j e c t to o t h e r s only b y r e a s o n of his
n e e d s , a n d b e c a u s e o t h e r s see b e t t e r t h a n h e w h a t is useful
t o him, w h a t will c o n t r i b u t e t o his well-being or will i m p a i r
it. N o o n e , n o t e v e n his father, h a s a r i g h t t o c o m m a n d a
child t o do w h a t is of n o u s e t o him w h a t e v e r .
A c c u s t o m t h e child t o d e p e n d only on c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d
a s his education g o e s o n , you will follow t h e o r d e r of n a t u r e .
N e v e r o p p o s e t o his i m p r u d e n t wishes a n y t h i n g b u t p h y s i c a l
o b s t a c l e s , or p u n i s h m e n t s which arise from t h e a c t i o n s t h e m ­
selves, a n d which he will r e m e m b e r w h e n t h e occasion c o m e s .
I t is e n o u g h t o p r e v e n t his d o i n g h a r m , w i t h o u t forbidding it.
W i t h him only e x p e r i e n c e , or w a n t of p o w e r , should t a k e
t h e place of l a w . D o n o t give h i m a n y t h i n g b e c a u s e h e
a s k s for it, b u t b e c a u s e he n e e d s it. W h e n h e a c t s , d o n o t
let him k n o w t h a t it is from o b e d i e n c e ; a n d w h e n a n o t h e r
acts for h i m , let h i m n o t feel t h a t h e is exercising a u t h o r i t y .
L e t him feel his l i b e r t y a s m u c h in y o u r actions a s in his
o w n . A d d t o t h e p o w e r h e lacks e x a c t l y e n o u g h t o m a k e
him free a n d n o t i m p e r i o u s , so t h a t , a c c e p t i n g y o u r aid with
a k i n d of h u m i l i a t i o n , h e m a y a s p i r e to t h e m o m e n t w h e n h e
can d i s p e n s e with it, a n d h a v e t h e h o n o r of s e r v i n g himself.
F o r s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e b o d y a n d p r o m o t i n g its g r o w t h , n a t u r e
h a s m e a n s which o u g h t n e v e r t o b e t h w a r t e d . A child o u g h t
n o t to be c o n s t r a i n e d t o s t a y a n y w h e r e w h e n he wishes to g o
a w a y , or t o g o a w a y w h e n h e wishes t o s t a y . W h e n their
will is n o t spoiled b y our o w n f a u l t , children d o n o t wish for
anything without good reason. They ought to leap, to run,
to s h o u t , w h e n e v e r t h e y will. A l l their m o v e m e n t s are n e ­
cessities of n a t u r e , which is e n d e a v o r i n g t o s t r e n g t h e n itself.
B u t we m u s t t a k e h e e d of those wishes t h e y c a n n o t t h e m ­
selves a c c o m p l i s h , b u t m u s t fulfil b y t h e h a n d of a n o t h e r .
Therefore care s h o u l d b e t a k e n t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e r e a l w a n t s ,
t h e w a n t s of n a t u r e , from t h o s e which arise from fancy or
from t h e r e d u n d a n t life j u s t m e n t i o n e d .
I h a v e a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d w h a t should b e d o n e when a
child cries for a n y t h i n g . I will only a d d t h a t , a s soon as he
c a n a s k in w o r d s for w h a t he w a n t s , a n d , t o o b t a i n it s o o n e r ,
o r t o o v e r c o m e a refusal, reinforces his r e q u e s t b y c r y i n g , it
s h o u l d n e v e r b e g r a n t e d him. I f n e c e s s i t y h a s m a d e him
s p e a k , y o u o u g h t t o k n o w it, a n d a t once t o g r a n t w h a t h e
d e m a n d s . B u t yielding t o his t e a r s is e n c o u r a g i n g him t o
shed t h e m : it t e a c h e s him t o d o u b t y o u r g o o d will, a n d t o
believe t h a t i m p o r t u n i t y h a s m o r e influence over you t h a n
y o u r o w n k i n d n e s s of h e a r t h a s .
If h e d o e s n o t believe you g o o d , h e will soon b e b a d ; if
h e believes y o u w e a k , h e will soon b e s t u b b o r n . I t is of
g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t h a t y o u a t once c o n s e n t to w h a t you d o
n o t i n t e n d t o refuse h i m . D o n o t refuse often, b u t n e v e r
revoke a refusal.
A b o v e all t h i n g s , b e w a r e of t e a c h i n g t h e child e m p t y for­
m u l a s of politeness which shall s e r v e h i m i n s t e a d of m a g i c
w o r d s to s u b j e c t t o his own wishes all who s u r r o u n d him,
a n d t o o b t a i n i n s t a n t l y w h a t he l i k e s . I n t h e artificial edu­
c a t i o n of t h e rich t h e y a r e infallibly m a d e politely i m p e r i o u s ,
b y h a v i n g p r e s c r i b e d t o t h e m w h a t t e r m s t o use so t h a t no
o n e shall d a r e r e s i s t t h e m . S u c h children h a v e neither t h e
iiones n o r t h e s p e e c h of s u p p l i a n t s ; t h e y a r e a s a r r o g a n t
w h e n t h e y r e q u e s t a s w h e n t h e y c o m m a n d , a n d even m o r e
s o , for in t h e former c a s e t h e y are m o r e sure of b e i n g o b e y e d .
u
F r o m t h e first it is r e a d i l y seen t h a t , c o m i n g from t h e m , If
u
you p l e a s e " m e a n s " I t p l e a s e s m e " ; a n d t h a t Ibeg"
signifies " I o r d e r y o u . " S i n g u l a r p o l i t e n e s s t h i s , b y w h i c h
t h e y only c h a n g e t h e m e a n i n g of w o r d s , a n d so n e v e r s p e a k
b u t with a u t h o r i t y ! F o r myself, I d r e a d far less E m i l e ' s
b e i n g r u d e t h a n his b e i n g a r r o g a n t . I w o u l d r a t h e r h a v e
u
him s a y D o t h i s " as if r e q u e s t i n g t h a n " I b e g y o u " a s
if c o m m a n d i n g . I a t t a c h far less i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e t e r m he
u s e s t h a n t o t h e m e a n i n g h e a s s o c i a t e s w i t h it.
O v e r - s t r i c t n e s s a n d o v e r - i n d u l g e n c e a r e equally t o b e
a v o i d e d . If y o u let children suffer, y o u e n d a n g e r their
h e a l t h a n d their life ; y o u m a k e t h e m actually w r e t c h e d . If
you carefully s p a r e t h e m every k i n d of a n n o y a n c e , y o u a r e
s t o r i n g u p for t h e m m u c h u n h a p p i n e s s ; y o u a r e m a k i n g
t h e m delicate a n d sensitive t o p a i n ; you a r e r e m o v i n g t h e m
from t h e c o m m o n l o t of m a n , into which, in s p i t e of all
y o u r c a r e , t h e y will one clay r e t u r n . T o s a v e t h e m s o m e
n a t u r a l discomforts, you contrive for t h e m o t h e r s which
n a t u r e h a s n o t inflicted.
Y o u will c h a r g e m e with falling into t h e m i s t a k e of t h o s e
f a t h e r s I h a v e r e p r o a c h e d for sacrificing their c h i l d r e n ' s h a p ­
piness t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of a f a r - a w a y future t h a t m a y n e v e r
b e . N o t s o ; for t h e freedom I give m y pupil will a m p l y
supply him with t h e slight discomforts t o which I l e a v e h i m
e x p o s e d . I see t h e little r o g u e s p l a y i n g in t h e snow, b l u e
with cold, a n d scarcely able to move their fingers. T h e } '
have only t o g o a n d w a r m t h e m s e l v e s , b u t t h e y d o n o t h i n g
of t h e k i n d . If t h e y a r e compelled t o d o s o , t h e y feel t h e
c o n s t r a i n t a h u n d r e d t i m e s m o r e t h a n t h e y d o t h e cold. W h y
t h e n d o y o u c o m p l a i n ? Shall I m a k e y o u r child u n h a p p y if
I e x p o s e him only t o t h o s e i n c o n v e n i e n c e s h e is p e r f e c t l y
 willing t o e n d u r e ? B y l e a v i n g h i m a t l i b e r t y . I d o h i m ser­
vice n o w ; b y a r m i n g h i m a g a i n s t t h e ills he m u s t e n c o u n t e r ,
I do him service for t h e t i m e t o c o m e . If he could choose
b e t w e e n being m y pupil or y o u r s , d o y o u t h i n k he would
hesitate a moment?
C a n we conceive of a n y c r e a t u r e ' s b e i n g t r u l y h a p p y o u t ­
side of w h a t belongs to its own p e c u l i a r n a t u r e ? A n d if we
w o u l d h a v e a m a n e x e m p t from all h u m a n m i s f o r t u n e s , w o u l d
it n o t e s t r a n g e him from h u m a n i t y ? U n d o u b t e d l y it would ;
for we a r e so c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t t o a p p r e c i a t e g r e a t g o o d fortune
we m u s t b e a c q u a i n t e d with slight m i s f o r t u n e s . I f t h e b o d y
be t o o m u c h a t e a s e the m o r a l n a t u r e b e c o m e s c o r r u p t e d .
T h e m a n u n a c q u a i n t e d with suffering would n o t k n o w t h e
t e n d e r feelings of h u m a n i t y or t h e s w e e t n e s s of c o m p a s s i o n ;
he would n o t b e a social b e i n g ; h e would b e a m o n s t e r
a m o n g his k i n d .
T h e s u r e s t w a y t o m a k e a child u n h a p p y is to a c c u s t o m
h i m t o o b t a i n e v e r y t h i n g he w a n t s to h a v e . F o r , since his
wishes m u l t i p l y in p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e ease with which t h e y a r e
gratified, y o u r inability to fulfil t h e m will sooner or l a t e r
o b l i g e y o u t o refuse in spite of yourself, a n d this u n w o n t e d
refusal will p a i n him more t h a n w i t h h o l d i n g from him w h a t
h e d e m a n d s . A t first he will w a n t t h e c a n e you hold ; soon
he will w a n t y o u r watch ; a f t e r w a r d h e will w a n t t h e bird he
sees flying, or t h e s t a r he sees s h i n i n g . H e will w a n t every­
t h i n g h e s e e s , a n d w i t h o u t b e i n g G o d himself how c a n you
content him ?
M a n is n a t u r a l l y d i s p o s e d t o r e g a r d as his o w n w h a t e v e r is
within his p o w e r . I n this s e n s e t h e p r i n c i p l e of H o b b e s is
c o r r e c t u p t o a certain p o i n t ; m u l t i p l y w i t h our desires t h e
m e a n s of satisfying t h e m , a n d e a c h of us will m a k e himself
m a s t e r of e v e r y t h i n g . H e n c e t h e child w h o h a s only to wish
in o r d e r t o o b t a i n his wish, t h i n k s himself t h e o w n e r of t h e
u n i v e r s e . H e r e g a r d s all m e n as his s l a v e s , a n d w h e n a t l a s t
he m u s t be d e n i e d s o m e t h i n g , h e , believing e v e r y t h i n g possi­
ble w h e n he c o m m a n d s it, t a k e s refusal for a n act of rebellion.
A t his a g e , i n c a p a b l e of r e a s o n i n g , all r e a s o n s given seem t o
him only p r e t e x t s . H e sees ill-will in e v e r y t h i n g ; t h e feeling
of i m a g i n e d injustice e m b i t t e r s his t e m p e r ; he b e g i n s t o h a t e
e v e i y b o d y , a n d w i t h o u t ever b e i n g t h a n k f u l for k i n d n e s s , is
angry at any opposition whatever.
W h o s u p p o s e s t h a t a child t h u s ruled b y a n g e r , a p r e y t o
furious p a s s i o n s , can ever b e h a p p y ? H e h a p p y ? H e is a
t y r a n t ; t h a t is, t h e vilest of s l a v e s , a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e
m o s t m i s e r a b l e of b e i n g s . I h a v e seen children t h u s r e a r e d
w h o w a n t e d t h o s e a b o u t t h e m t o p u s h t h e house d o w n , t o give
t h e m t h e w e a t h e r c o c k t h e y saw on a s t e e p l e , to s t o p t h e
m a r c h of a r e g i m e n t so t h a t t h e y could enjoy t h e d r u m - b e a t
a little l o n g e r ; a n d a s soon as obedience t o t h e s e d e m a n d s
w a s delayed t h e y r e n t t h e air with t h e i r s c r e a m s , a n d would
listen t o n o o n e . I n A^ain e v e i y b o d y t r i e d e a g e r l y t o gratify
t h e m . T h e ease with which t h e y f o u n d t h e i r wishes o b e y e d
s t i m u l a t e d t h e m t o desire m o r e , a n d t o b e s t u b b o r n a b o u t
impossibilities. E v e r y w h e r e t h e y found only c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ,
i m p e d i m e n t s , suffering, a n d s o r r o w . Alwaj^s c o m p l a i n i n g ,
always r e f r a c t o r y , a l w a y s a n g r y , t h e y s p e n t t h e time in
crying a n d fretting ; w e r e t h e s e c r e a t u r e s h a p p y ? A u t h o r i t y
a n d w e a k n e s s conjoined p r o d u c e only m a d n e s s a n d w r e t c h e d ­
ness. O n e of t w o spoiled children b e a t s t h e t a b l e , a n d t h e
1
other h a s t h e sea l a s h e d . T h e y will h a v e m u c h t o b e a t a n d
to lash before t h e y a r e satisfied with life.

1
Here he means Xerxes, King of Persia, who had built an immense
bridge of boats over the Hellespont to transport his army from Asia into
Europe. A storm having destroyed this bridge, the all-powerful monarch,
furious at the insubordination of the elements, ordered chains to be cast
into the sea, and had the rebellious waves beaten with rods.
 If t h e s e i d e a s of a u t h o r i t y a n d of t y r a n n y m a k e t h e m
u n h a p p y from t h e i r v e r y childhood, h o w will it b e with t h e m
w h e n t h e y a r e g r o w n , a n d w h e n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with others
begin to be extended and multiplied?
A c c u s t o m e d t o seeing e v e r y t h i n g give way b e f o r e t h e m ,
how s u r p r i s e d t h e y will be on e n t e r i n g t h e world t o find
t h e m s e l v e s c r u s h e d b e n e a t h t h e w e i g h t of t h a t u n i v e r s e t h e y
h a v e e x p e c t e d to m o v e a t their own p l e a s u r e ! T h e i r i n s o l e n t
airs a n d childish v a n i t y will only b r i n g u p o n t h e m mortifica­
tion, c o n t e m p t , a n d ridicule ; t h e y m u s t swallow affront after
affront; cruel trials will t e a c h t h e m t h a t t h e y u n d e r s t a n d
n e i t h e r their own position n o r their o w n s t r e n g t h . U n a b l e t o
d o e v e r y t h i n g , t h e y will t h i n k t h e m s e l v e s u n a b l e t o d o a n y ­
t h i n g . So m a n y u n u s u a l o b s t a c l e s d i s h e a r t e n t h e m , so m u c h
contempt degrades them. They become base, cowardly,
c r i n g i n g , a n d sink a s far below t h e i r r e a l self as t h e y h a d
i m a g i n e d t h e m s e l v e s a b o v e it.
L e t u s r e t u r n t o t h e original o r d e r of t h i n g s . N a t u r e h a s
m a d e children t o b e loved a n d helped ; h a s she m a d e t h e m to
b e o b e y e d a n d feared ? H a s she given t h e m a n i m p o s i n g air,
a s t e r n e y e , a h a r s h a n d t h r e a t e n i n g voice, so t h a t t h e y m a y
inspire fear ? I can u n d e r s t a n d w h y t h e r o a r of a lion fills
o t h e r c r e a t u r e s with d r e a d , a n d why the}" t r e m b l e a t sight of
his t e r r i b l e c o u n t e n a n c e . B u t if ever t h e r e were an u n b e c o m ­
i n g , hateful, ridiculous s p e c t a c l e , it is t h a t of a b o d y of m a g ­
i s t r a t e s in their r o b e s of c e r e m o n y , a n d h e a d e d b y their chief,
p r o s t r a t e before a n infant in l o n g c l o t h e s , w h o t o t h e i r p o m p o u s
1
h a r a n g u e replies only b y s c r e a m s or b y childish d r i v e l !
1
The feeling of a republican, of the " citizen of Geneva," justly shocked
by monarchial superstitions. Louis XIV. and Louis XV. had had, in fact,
from the days of their first playthings, the degrading spectacle of a univer­
sal servility prostrated before their cradle. The sentiment here uttered
was still uncommon and almost unknown when Rousseau wrote it. He did
much toward creating it and making it popular.
 C o n s i d e r i n g infancy in itself, is t h e r e a c r e a t u r e o n e a r t h
more helpless, m o r e u n h a p p y , m o r e a t the m e r c y of every­
t h i n g a r o u n d him, m o r e in n e e d of c o m p a s s i o n , of c a r e , of
protection, t h a n a c h i l d ? D o e s it n o t seem as if his sweet
face a n d t o u c h i n g a s p e c t w e r e i n t e n d e d to i n t e r e s t every one
who comes n e a r h i m , a n d t o u r g e t h e m to assist his w e a k n e s s ?
W h a t then is m o r e o u t r a g e o u s , m o r e c o n t r a r y t o t h e fitness of
t h i n g s , t h a n t o see a n imperious a n d h e a d s t r o n g child order­
ing a b o u t t h o s e a r o u n d h i m , i m p u d e n t l y t a k i n g t h e t o n e of a
m a s t e r t o w a r d t h o s e w h o , t o d e s t r o y h i m , n e e d only l e a v e
h i m to himself!
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h o d o e s n o t see t h a t since t h e w e a k ­
n e s s of infanc}^ fetters children in so m a n y w a y s , we a r e
b a r b a r o u s if we a d d t o t h i s n a t u r a l subjection a b o n d a g e t o
T
our own caprices b} t a k i n g from t h e m t h e limited freedom
t h e y h a v e , a freedom t h e y are so little able to m i s u s e , a n d
from the loss of which we a n d t h e y h a v e so little to g a i n ?
A s n o t h i n g is m o r e ridiculous t h a n a h a u g h t y child, so noth -
i n g is more pitiable t h a n a c o w a r d l y child.
1
Since with y e a r s of r e a s o n civil b o n d a g e b e g i n s , w h y
a n t i c i p a t e it b y s l a v e r y a t h o m e ? L e t us leave o n e m o m e n t
of life e x e m p t f r o m a y o k e n a t u r e h a s n o t laid u p o n u s , a n d
allow childhood t h e exercise of t h a t n a t u r a l liberty which
k e e p s it safe, a t l e a s t for a t i m e , from t h e vices t a u g h t b y
slavery. L e t t h e over-strict t e a c h e r a n d t h e o v e r - i n d u l g e n t
p a r e n t b o t h come w i t h their e m p t y cavils, a n d before they
b o a s t of t h e i r o w n m e t h o d s let t h e m l e a r n t h e m e t h o d of
N a t u r e herself.
1
Civil bondage, as understood by Rousseau, consists in the laws and
obligations of civilized life itself. He extols the state of nature as the ideal
condition, the condition of perfect freedom, without seeing that, on the
contrary, true liberty cannot exist without the protection of laws, while the
state of nature is only the enslavement of the weak by the strong — the
triumph of brute force.
 Reasoning should not begin too soon.

L O C K E ' S g r e a t m a x i m w a s t h a t we o u g h t t o r e a s o n with
children, a n d j u s t n o w this m a x i m is m u c h in fashion. I
t h i n k , h o w e v e r , t h a t its success d o e s n o t w a r r a n t its r e p u t a ­
tion, a n d I find n o t h i n g m o r e s t u p i d t h a n children w h o h a v e
b e e n so m u c h r e a s o n e d w i t h . R e a s o n , a p p a r e n t l y a com­
p o u n d of all other faculties, t h e one l a t e s t d e v e l o p e d , a n d
with m o s t difficulty, is t h e o n e p r o p o s e d as a g e n t in u n f o l d i n g
t h e faculties earliest used ! T h e n o b l e s t work of e d u c a t i o n
is t o m a k e a r e a s o n i n g m a n , a n d we e x p e c t to t r a i n a y o u n g
child b y m a k i n g him r e a s o n ! T h i s is b e g i n n i n g a t t h e end ;
this is m a k i n g an i n s t r u m e n t of a r e s u l t . I f children u n d e r ­
s t o o d how t o r e a s o n t h e y would n o t need to be e d u c a t e d .
T
B u t b y a d d r e s s i n g t h e m from their t e n d e r e s t } ears in a
l a n g u a g e t h e y c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d , y o u a c c u s t o m t h e m to be
satisfied with w o r d s , t o find fault with w h a t e v e r is said to
t h e m , to t h i n k t h e m s e l v e s a s wise as their t e a c h e r s , to w r a n g l e
a n d rebel. A n d w h a t we m e a n t h e y shall d o from r e a s o n a b l e
m o t i v e s we are forced to o b t a i n from t h e m b y a d d i n g t h e
m o t i v e of a v a r i c e , or of fear, or of v a n i t y .
N a t u r e i n t e n d s t h a t children shall b e children before t h e y
a r e m e n . If we insist o n r e v e r s i n g this o r d e r we shall h a v e
fruit early i n d e e d , b u t u n r i p e a n d t a s t e l e s s , a n d liable t o
r
e a r l y d e c a y ; we shall h a v e 3 oung s a v a n t s a n d old children.
C h i l d h o o d h a s its own m e t h o d s of s e e i n g , t h i n k i n g , a n d
feeling. N o t h i n g shows less sense t h a n t o t r y t o s u b s t i t u t e
our o w n m e t h o d s for t h e s e . I would r a t h e r require a child
T
t e n } ears old to b e five feet tall t h a n t o b e j u d i c i o u s . I n d e e d ,
w h a t use would he h a v e a t t h a t a g e for t h e p o w e r t o r e a s o n ?
I t is a check u p o n p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h , a n d t h e child n e e d s
none.
 REASONING SHOULD NOT B E G I N TOO SOON. 53

I n a t t e m p t i n g t o p e r s u a d e 3'our pupils to obedience y o u

a d d t o this alleged p e r s u a s i o n force a n d t h r e a t s , or w o r s e
still, flattery a n d p r o m i s e s . B o u g h t over in this w a y b y
interest, or c o n s t r a i n e d b y force, t h e y p r e t e n d t o be convinced
b y r e a s o n . T h e y see p l a i n l y t h a t a s s o o n as y o u discover
obedience or disobedience in t h e i r c o n d u c t , t h e former is a n
a d v a n t a g e a n d t h e l a t t e r a d i s a d v a n t a g e t o t h e m . B u t you
a s k of t h e m only w h a t is d i s t a s t e f u l t o t h e m ; it is a l w a y s
i r k s o m e to c a r r y o u t t h e wishes of a n o t h e r , so b y stealth t h e y
c a n y out their o w n . T h e y a r e s u r e t h a t if t h e i r disobedience
is n o t k n o w n t h e y a r e d o i n g w e l l ; b u t t h e y a r e r e a d y , for
fear of g r e a t e r evils, t o a c k n o w l e d g e , if found o u t , t h a t t h e y
a r e d o i n g w r o n g . A s t h e r e a s o n for t h e d u t y r e q u i r e d is
b e y o n d t h e i r c a p a c i t y , n o one can m a k e t h e m really u n d e r ­
s t a n d it. B u t the fear of p u n i s h m e n t , t h e h o p e of forgive­
T
n e s s , j our i m p o r t u n i t y , t h e i r difficulty in a n s w e r i n g y o u ,
e x t o r t from t h e m the confession r e q u i r e d of t h e m . Y o u t h i n k
you h a v e convinced t h e m , w h e n y o u h a v e only w e a r i e d t h e m
o u t or i n t i m i d a t e d t h e m .
W h a t r e s u l t s "from this ? F i r s t of all t h a t , by i m p o s i n g
u p o n t h e m a duty t h e y do n o t feel a s s u c h , you set t h e m
a g a i n s t y o u r t y r a n n y , a n d d i s s u a d e t h e m from l o v i n g you ;
you t e a c h t h e m t o b e d i s s e m b l e r s , deceitful, willfully u n t r u e ,
for the s a k e of e x t o r t i n g r e w a r d s or of e s c a p i n g p u n i s h m e n t s .
F i n a l l y , b y h a b i t u a t i n g t h e m to cover a secret motive b y a n
a p p a r e n t m o t i v e , you give t h e m t h e m e a n s of c o n s t a n t l y
misleading y o u , of c o n c e a l i n g their t r u e c h a r a c t e r from y o u ,
a n d of s a t i s f y i n g yourself a n d o t h e r s with e m p t y w o r d s w h e n
their occasion d e m a n d s . Y o u m a y say t h a t t h e l a w , a l t h o u g h
b i n d i n g on t h e conscience, uses c o n s t r a i n t in d e a l i n g with
grown m e n . I g r a n t i t ; b u t w h a t a r e t h e s e m e n b u t children
spoiled b y their e d u c a t i o n ? T h i s is precisely w h a t o u g h t t o
be p r e v e n t e d . W i t h children use force, w i t h m e n reason.;
such is t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r of t h i n g s . T h e wise m a n r e q u i r e s
no laws.
Well-Regulated Liberty.

T R E A T y o u r pupil a s his a g e d e m a n d s . F r o m t h e first, a s ­

sign him t o his t r u e p l a c e , a n d k e e p h i m t h e r e so effectually
t h a t h e will n o t t r y t o l e a v e it. T h e n , w i t h o u t k n o w i n g w h a t
w i s d o m is, h e will p r a c t i s e its m o s t i m p o r t a n t lesson.
N e v e r , a b s o l u t e l y n e v e r , c o m m a n d him t o d o a t h i n g , w h a t ­
1
ever it m a y b e . D o n o t let him e v e n i m a g i n e t h a t y o u
claim a n y a u t h o r i t y over h i m . L e t him k n o w only t h a t h e
is w e a k a n d you a r e s t r o n g : t h a t from his condition a n d
y o u r s h e is necessarily a t y o u r m e r c y . L e t him k n o w t h i s —
learn it a n d feel it. L e t him e a r l y k n o w t h a t u p o n his
h a u g h t } ' n e c k is the s t e r n y o k e n a t u r e i m p o s e s upon m a n ,
t h e h e a v y y o k e of n e c e s s i t y , u n d e r which e v e r y finite b e i n g
m u s t toil.
L e t him discover t h i s necessity in t h e n a t u r e of t h i n g s ;
n e v e r in h u m a n c a p r i c e . L e t t h e rein t h a t holds him b a c k
b e p o w e r , n o t a u t h o r i t y . D o n o t forbid, b u t p r e v e n t , his
d o i n g w h a t he o u g h t n o t ; a n d in t h u s p r e v e n t i n g him use no
e x p l a n a t i o n s , give n o r e a s o n s . W h a t y o u g r a n t him, g r a n t
a t t h e first a s k i n g w i t h o u t a n y u r g i n g , a n y e n t r e a t y from
h i m , a n d a b o v e all without c o n d i t i o n s . C o n s e n t with p l e a s ­
u r e a n d refuse unwillingly, b u t let e v e r y refusal b e irrevo­
c a b l e . L e t n o i m p o r t u n i t y move y o u . L e t t h e " N o " once
1
In this unconditional form the principle is inadmissible. Any one who
has the rearing of children knows this. But the idea underlying the para­
dox ought to be recognized, for it is a just one. We ought not to command
merely for the pleasure of commanding, but solely to interpret to the child
the requirements of the case in hand. To command him for the sake of
commanding is an abuse of power: it is a baseness which will end in disas­
ter. On the other hand, we cannot leave it to circumstances to forbid what
ought not to be done. Only, the command should be intelligible, reason­
able, and unyielding. This is really what Rousseau means.
u t t e r e d be a wall of b r a s s a g a i u s t which t h e child will h a v e
to e x h a u s t his s t r e n g t h only five or s i x t i m e s before he c e a s e s
t r y i n g to o v e r t u r n it.
I n this way you will m a k e him p a t i e n t , e v e n - t e m p e r e d , re­
signed, g e n t l e , even when he h a s not w h a t he w a n t s . F o r it
is in our n a t u r e to e n d u r e p a t i e n t l y t h e d e c r e e s of fate, b u t
n o t t h e ill-will of o t h e r s . T h e r e is n o m o r e , " is an a n s w e r
a g a i n s t which n o child ever rebelled u n l e s s he believed it
T
u n t r u e . B e s i d e s , t h e r e is n o other w a } ; either n o t h i n g a t
all is to be r e q u i r e d of h i m , or he m u s t from t h e first b e
a c c u s t o m e d t o p e r f e c t o b e d i e n c e . T h e w o r s t t r a i n i n g of all
is t o leave him w a v e r i n g b e t w e e n his own will a n d y o u r s ,
a n d t o d i s p u t e i n c e s s a n t l y with him a s t o which shall b e
m a s t e r . I should a h u n d r e d t i m e s prefer his b e i n g m a s t e r
in e v e r y c a s e .
I t is m a r v e l l o u s t h a t in u n d e r t a k i n g t o e d u c a t e a child n o
o t h e r m e a n s of g u i d i n g him should h a v e b e e n devised t h a n
emulation, j e a l o u s y , e n v y , v a n i t y , g r e e d , vile fear, — all of
t h e m p a s s i o n s m o s t d a n g e r o u s , r e a d i e s t t o f e r m e n t , /fittest t o
c o r r u p t a soul, even before t h e b o d y is full-grown. F o r each
instruction t o o early p u t i n t o a child's h e a d , a vice is d e e p l y
i m p l a n t e d in his h e a r t . Foolish t e a c h e r s t h i n k t h e y a r e
doing w o n d e r s w h e n t h e y m a k e a child wicked, in o r d e r t o
t e a c h him w h a t g o o d n e s s i s ; and then the}^ g r a v e l y tell u s ,
" S u c h is m a n . " Y e s ; such is t h e m a n you h a v e m a d e .
All m e a n s h a v e been tried s a v e o n e , a n d t h a t the v e r y o n e
which i n s u r e s s u c c e s s , n a m e l y , well-regulated freedom. We
o u g h t n o t t o u n d e r t a k e a child's e d u c a t i o n u n l e s s we k n o w
how to l e a d him w h e r e v e r we please solely b y t h e l a w s of t h e
possible a n d t h e impossible. T h e s p h e r e of b o t h b e i n g alike
u n k n o w n to him, we m a y e x t e n d or c o n t r a c t it a r o u n d him a s
we will. W e m a y b i n d him clown, incite him t o a c t i o n , r e ­
strain him b y t h e leash of n e c e s s i t y a l o n e , a n d he will n o t
murniur. W e may render him pliant and teachable by the
force of c i r c u m s t a n c e s a l o n e , w i t h o u t giving a n y vice an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o t a k e root within h i m . F o r the passions
n e v e r a w a k e to life, so l o n g a s they a r e of n o avail.
D o n o t give y o u r p u p i l a n y s o r t of lesson v e r b a l l y : he
o u g h t to receive n o n e e x c e p t from e x p e r i e n c e . Inflict u p o n
him no k i n d of p u n i s h m e n t , for h e d o e s n o t k n o w w h a t b e i n g
in fault m e a n s ; n e v e r oblige him t o a s k p a r d o n , for he does
n o t k n o w w h a t it is t o offend you.
H i s actions b e i n g w i t h o u t m o r a l q u a l i t y , h e can d o n o t h i n g
which is m o r a l l y b a d , or which d e s e r v e s either p u n i s h m e n t or
1
reproof.
A l r e a d y I see t h e s t a r t l e d r e a d e r j u d g i n g of t h i s child b y
t h o s e a r o u n d u s ; b u t he is m i s t a k e n . T h e p e r p e t u a l con­
s t r a i n t u n d e r which you k e e p y o u r pupils i n c r e a s e s their
liveliness. T h e m o r e c r a m p e d the}' are while u n d e r y o u r eye
t h e m o r e u n r u l y t h e y a r e t h e m o m e n t t h e y escape it. They
m u s t , in fact, m a k e t h e m s e l v e s a m e n d s for t h e s e v e r e re­
s t r a i n t you p u t u p o n t h e m . T w o school-boys from a city
will d o m o r e mischief in a c o m m u n i t y t h a n t h e y o u n g people
of a whole v i l l a g e .
S h u t u p in t h e s a m e r o o m a little g e n t l e m a n a n d a little
p e a s a n t ; t h e f o r m e r will h a v e e v e r y t h i n g u p s e t a n d b r o k e n
before t h e l a t t e r h a s m o v e d from his p l a c e . W h y is t h i s ?
B e c a u s e t h e one h a s t e n s t o m i s u s e a m o m e n t of l i b e r t y , a n d
t h e o t h e r , a l w a y s sure of his freedom, is n e v e r in a h u r r y t o
u s e it. A n d y e t t h e children of v i l l a g e r s , often p e t t e d or
1
This is not strictly true. The child early has the consciousness of right
and wrong; and if it be true that neither chastisement nor reproof is to be
abused, it is no less certain that conscience is early awake within him, and
that it ought not to be neglected in a work so delicate as that of education:
on condition, be it understood, that we act with simplicity, without pedan­
try, and that we employ example more than lectures. Rousseau says this
admirably a few pages farther on.
t h w a r t e d , a r e still v e r y far from t h e condition in which I
s h o u l d wish t o k e e p t h e m .

Proceed Slowly.

M A Y I v e n t u r e t o s t a t e here t h e g r e a t e s t , t h e m o s t impor­
t a n t , t h e m o s t useful rule in all e d u c a t i o n ? I t i s , n o t to
g a i n t i m e , b u t to lose it. F o r g i v e t h e p a r a d o x , O m y ordi­
n a r y r e a d e r ! I t m u s t b e u t t e r e d by a n y o n e w h o reflects,
a n d w h a t e v e r y o u m a y s a y , I prefer p a r a d o x e s t o p r e j u d i c e s .
T h e m o s t perilous i n t e r v a l of h u m a n life is t h a t b e t w e e n b i r t h
a n d t h e a g e of twelve y e a r s . A t t h a t time e r r o r s a n d vices
t a k e r o o t w i t h o u t our h a v i n g a n y m e a n s of d e s t r o y i n g t h e m ;
a n d when t h e i n s t r u m e n t is f o u n d , t h e t i m e for u p r o o t i n g t h e m
is p a s t . I f children could s p r i n g a t one b o u n d from t h e
m o t h e r ' s b r e a s t t o t h e a g e of r e a s o n , t h e e d u c a t i o n given
t h e m n o w - a - d a y s would b e s u i t a b l e ; b u t in t h e d u e o r d e r of
n a t u r e t h e y need one entirely different. T h e y should n o t
u s e t h e m i n d a t all, until it h a s all its faculties. F o r while
it is blind it c a n n o t see the t o r c h you p r e s e n t to i t ; n o r c a n
it follow on t h e i m m e n s e plain of ideas a p a t h which, even
for t h e k e e n e s t e y e s i g h t , r e a s o n t r a c e s so faintly.
T h e earliest e d u c a t i o n o u g h t , t h e n , to be purely n e g a t i v e .
I t consists n o t in t e a c h i n g t r u t h or v i r t u e , b u t in s h i e l d i n g
t h e h e a r t from vice a n d t h e m i n d from e r r o r . If you could
do n o t h i n g a t all, a n d allow n o t h i n g t o be d o n e ; if you
could b r i n g u p y o u r p u p i l s o u n d a n d r o b u s t t o t h e age of
twelve y e a r s , w i t h o u t his k n o w i n g how to d i s t i n g u i s h his
right h a n d from his left, t h e eyes of his u n d e r s t a n d i n g would
from the v e r y first o p e n t o r e a s o n . W i t h o u t a prejudice or
a habit, t h e r e w o u l d b e in him n o t h i n g t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e
effect of y o u r c a r e . Before long h e w o u l d b e c o m e in y o u r
h a n d s the wisest of m e n ; a n d b e g i n n i n g b y d o i n g n o t h i n g ,
you would h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d a m a r v e l in e d u c a t i o n .
R e v e r s e t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e , a n d you will n e a r l y always
d o well. P a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s desiring t o m a k e of a child
n o t a child, b u t a l e a r n e d m a n , h a v e n e v e r b e g u n e a r l y e n o u g h
t o chide, to correct, to r e p r i m a n d , t o flatter, to p r o m i s e , t o
i n s t r u c t , to discourse r e a s o n to him. D o b e t t e r t h a n t h i s :
b e r e a s o n a b l e yourself, a n d d o n o t a r g u e with y o u r pupil, l e a s t
of all, t o m a k e him a p p r o v e w h a t he dislikes. F o r if y o u
p e r s i s t in r e a s o n i n g a b o u t d i s a g r e e a b l e t h i n g s , y o u m a k e
r e a s o n i n g d i s a g r e e a b l e t o h i m , a n d w e a k e n its influence
b e f o r e h a n d in a m i n d as y e t unfitted t o u n d e r s t a n d it. Keep
his o r g a n s , his s e n s e s , his physical s t r e n g t h , busy; b u t , as
l o n g as possible, k e e p his m i n d i n a c t i v e . G u a r d a g a i n s t all
s e n s a t i o n s a r i s i n g in a d v a n c e of j u d g m e n t , which e s t i m a t e s
their t r u e v a l u e . K e e p b a c k a n d check u n f a m i l i a r i m p r e s ­
s i o n s , a n d b e in no h a s t e to d o good for t h e s a k e of p r e v e n t i n g
evil. F o r t h e good is n o t real unless e n l i g h t e n e d b y r e a s o n .
R e g a r d e v e r y d e l a y as an a d v a n t a g e ; for m u c h is g a i n e d if
t h e critical period b e a p p r o a c h e d w i t h o u t losing a n y t h i n g .
L e t childhood h a v e its full g r o w t h . If i n d e e d a l e s s o n m u s t
b e g i v e n , avoid it to-clay, if you c a n w i t h o u t d a n g e r d e l a y
it until t o - m o r r o w .
A n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n which p r o v e s t h i s m e t h o d useful is
t h e peculiar b e n t of t h e child's m i n d . T h i s o u g h t to be well
u n d e r s t o o d if we would k n o w w h a t m o r a l g o v e r n m e n t is b e s t
a d a p t e d t o him. E a c h h a s his own c a s t of m i n d , in accord­
a n c e with which he m u s t be d i r e c t e d ; a n d if we would suc­
ceed, he m u s t be ruled a c c o r d i n g to t h i s n a t u r a l b e n t a n d n o
o t h e r . B e judicious : w a t c h n a t u r e l o n g , a n d observe y o u r
pupil carefully before y o u s a y a word t o h i m . A t first leave
t h e g e r m of his c h a r a c t e r free t o disclose itself. R e p r e s s it
a s little as p o s s i b l e , so t h a t you m a y t h e b e t t e r see all t h e r e
is of it.
 D o 3^011 t h i n k this s e a s o n of free action will b e t i m e lost t o
him ? O n t h e c o n t r a r y , it will be e m p l o y e d in t h e b e s t way
possible. F o r b y this m e a n s y o u will l e a r n n o t t o lose a sin­
gle m o m e n t w h e n t i m e is m o r e p r e c i o u s ; w h e r e a s , if y o u
begin t o a c t before you k n o w w h a t o u g h t t o b e d o n e , y o u
T
act a t r a n d o m . L i a b l e t o deceive 3 ourself, y o u will h a v e t o
r
r e t r a c e }-our s t e p s , a n d will b e f a r t h e r from } our object t h a n
if you h a d b e e n less in h a s t e t o r e a c h it. D o n o t t h e n act
like a miser, who, in o r d e r t o lose n o t h i n g , loses a g r e a t deal.
A t t h e earlier age sacrifice t i m e which 3^011 will r e c o v e r with
i n t e r e s t l a t e r o n . T h e wise physician does n o t give direc­
tions a t first s i g h t of his p a t i e n t , b u t s t u d i e s t h e sick m a n ' s
t e m p e r a m e n t , before p r e s c r i b i n g . H e b e g i n s l a t e with his
T
t r e a t m e n t , b u t c u r e s t h e m a n : t h e ove«*-hast3 p h y s i c i a n kills
him.
R e m e m b e r t h a t , before y o u v e n t u r e u n d e r t a k i n g t o form a
m a n , you m u s t h a v e m a d e yourself a m a n ; y o u m u s t find in
yourself the e x a m p l e you o u g h t t o offer h i m . W h i l e t h e
child is yet w i t h o u t k n o w l e d g e t h e r e is t i m e to p r e p a r e every­
t h i n g a b o u t him so t h a t his first glance shall discover only
r
w h a t he o u g h t t o s e e . M a k e everybod3 r e s p e c t you ; b e g i n
7
b y m a k i n g yourself beloved, so t h a t eveiybod3 will t r y t o
please you. Y o u will n o t b e t h e child's m a s t e r unless y o u
are m a s t e r of e v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d him, a n d this a u t h o r i t y will
not suffice u n l e s s founded o n esteem for v i r t u e .
T h e r e is n o u s e in e x h a u s t i n g y o u r p u r s e b y l a v i s h i n g
money : I h a v e n e v e r observed t h a t m o n e y m a d e a n y o n e
beloved. Y o u m u s t n o t be miserly or unfeeling, o r l a m e n t
the distress y o u c a n r e l i e v e ; b u t you will open 3-our coffers
in vain if you do n o t open y o u r heart"; t h e h e a r t s of o t h e r s
will be forever closed to you. Y o u m u s t give y o u r t i m e ,
r T
your care, } our affection, yourself. F o r w h a t e v e r 3 ou m a y
d o , 3'our m o n e y certainly is n o t yourself. T o k e n s of i n t e r e s t
a n d of k i n d n e s s go f a r t h e r a n d a r e of m o r e u s e t h a n any
gifts w h a t e v e r . H o w m a n y u n h a p p y p e r s o n s , h o w m a n y
sufferers, n e e d consolation f a r m o r e t h a n a l m s ! H o w m a n y
who are o p p r e s s e d a r e aided r a t h e r b y p r o t e c t i o n t h a n b y
money!
Reconcile t h o s e w h o a r e a t v a r i a n c e ; p r e v e n t l a w s u i t s ;
p e r s u a d e children t o filial d u t y a n d p a r e n t s t o g e n t l e n e s s .
E n c o u r a g e h a p p y m a r r i a g e s ; h i n d e r d i s t u r b a n c e s ; u s e freely
t h e i n t e r e s t of y o u r p u p i l ' s family on behalf of t h e w e a k who
a r e d e n i e d justice a n d o p p r e s s e d b y t h e powerful. Boldly
d e c l a r e yourself t h e c h a m p i o n of t h e u n f o r t u n a t e . B e j u s t ,
h u m a n e , beneficent. B e n o t c o n t e n t with giving a l m s ; b e
c h a r i t a b l e . K i n d n e s s relieves m o r e d i s t r e s s t h a n m o n e y c a n
r e a c h . L o v e o t h e r s , a n d t h e y will love y o u ; s e r v e t h e m ,
a n d t h e y will serve y o u ; be their b r o t h e r , a n d t h e y will b e
T
3 our c h i l d r e n .
B l a m e o t h e r s n o l o n g e r for t h e mischief y o u yourself a r e
d o i n g . C h i l d r e n a r e less c o r r u p t e d b y t h e h a r m t h e y s e e
than by that you teach them.
Alwaj^s p r e a c h i n g , a l w a y s m o r a l i z i n g , a l w a y s a c t i n g t h e
p e d a n t , y o u give t h e m t w e n t y w o r t h l e s s i d e a s w h e n you
t h i n k y o u a r e giving t h e m one g o o d o n e . F u l l of w h a t is
p a s s i n g in y o u r o w n m i n d , y o u d o n o t see t h e effect y o u are
producing upon theirs.
I n t h e p r o l o n g e d t o r r e n t of w o r d s with which you inces­
s a n t l y w e a r y t h e m , d o }^ou t h i n k t h e r e a r e n o n e t h e y m a y
m i s u n d e r s t a n d ? D o you i m a g i n e t h a t t h e y will n o t c o m m e n t
in t h e i r o w n w a y u p o n y o u r w o r d y e x p l a n a t i o n s , a n d find in
t h e m a s y s t e m a d a p t e d to their o w n c a p a c i t y , which, if n e e d
be, they can use against you?
L i s t e n t o a little fellow w h o h a s j u s t b e e n u n d e r i n s t r u c ­
t i o n . L e t h i m p r a t t l e , q u e s t i o n , b l u n d e r , j u s t as he p l e a s e s ,
and you will b e s u r p r i s e d a t t h e t u r n y o u r r e a s o n i n g s h a v e
t a k e n in his m i n d . H e confounds one thing with another ;
he r e v e r s e s e v e r y t h i n g ; h e t i r e s y o u , s o m e t i m e s worries y o u ,
by unexpected objections. He forces you t o hold your
p e a c e , or t o m a k e him hold h i s . A n d w h a t m u s t h e t h i n k of
t h i s silence, in o n e so fond of t a l k i n g ? If ever h e wins t h i s
a d v a n t a g e a n d k n o w s t h e fact, farewell t o his e d u c a t i o n .
H e will n o l o n g e r t r y t o l e a r n , b u t t o refute w h a t y o u s a y .
t
Be p l a i n , d i s c r e e t , r e t i c e n t , 3 OU w h o a r e z e a l o u s t e a c h e r s .
Be in n o h a s t e t o a c t , e x c e p t t o p r e v e n t o t h e r s from a c t i n g .
A g a i n a n d a g a i n I s a y , p o s t p o n e even a g o o d lesson if
T
J OU c a n , for fear of c o n v e y i n g a b a d o n e . On this earth,
m e a n t by n a t u r e t o b e m a n ' s first p a r a d i s e , b e w a r e lest you
a c t t h e t e m p t e r b y g i v i n g t o i n n o c e n c e t h e k n o w l e d g e of
good a n d evil. Since you c a n n o t p r e v e n t t h e child's l e a r n i n g
from outside examples, restrict your care to the task of
i m p r e s s i n g t h e s e e x a m p l e s on h i s m i n d in s u i t a b l e f o r m s .
V i o l e n t p a s s i o n s m a k e a s t r i k i n g i m p r e s s i o n on t h e child
who notices t h e m , b e c a u s e t h e i r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s are well-de­
fined, a n d forcibly a t t r a c t his a t t e n t i o n . A n g e r especially
h a s s u c h stornry i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t its a p p r o a c h is u n m i s t a k a b l e .
D o not a s k , " I s n o t t h i s a fine o p p o r t u n i t y for t h e p e d a g o g u e ' s
moral discourse ? " S p a r e t h e discourse : s a y n o t a w o r d : let
t h e child a l o n e . A m a z e d a t w h a t he sees, he will not fail t o
question y o u . I t will n o t b e h a r d t o a n s w e r h i m , on a c c o u n t
of t h e v e i y t h i n g s t h a t s t r i k e his s e n s e s . H e sees a n in­
flamed c o u n t e n a n c e , flashing e y e s , t h r e a t e n i n g g e s t u r e s , h e
h e a r s u n u s u a l l y e x c i t e d t o n e s of voice ; all sure signs t h a t t h e
b o d y is n o t in its u s u a l condition. S a y t o him c a l m l y , u n ­
affectedly, w i t h o u t a n y nvystery, " T h i s p o o r m a n is s i c k ; h e
h a s a high f e v e r . " Y o u m a y t a k e this occasion t o give h i m ,
in few w o r d s , a n idea of m a l a d i e s a n d of t h e i r effects ; for
t h e s e , b e i n g n a t u r a l , a r e t r a m m e l s of t h a t n e c e s s i t y t o which
he h a s t o feel himself s u b j e c t .
 F r o m t h i s , t h e t r u e i d e a , will h e n o t early feel r e p u g n a n c e
a t giving w a y t o excessive p a s s i o n , which he r e g a r d s as a
disease ? A n d d o you n o t t h i n k t h a t s u c h an idea, given a t
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t i m e , will h a v e as g o o d an effect as t h e m o s t
tiresome s e r m o n on m o r a l s ? N o t e also t h e f u t u r e conse­
q u e n c e s of this i d e a ; it will a u t h o r i z e y o u , if ever necessity
arises, to t r e a t a rebellious child a s a sick child, t o confine
him to his r o o m , a n d e v e n to his b e d , to m a k e him u n d e r g o
a course of m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t ; to m a k e his g r o w i n g vices
a l a r m i n g a n d hateful to himself. H e c a n n o t consider a s a
p u n i s h m e n t t h e s e v e r i t y you a r e forced t o u s e in c u r i n g h i m .
S o t h a t if you yourself, in some h a s t y m o m e n t , a r e p e r h a p s
stirred o u t of t h e coolness a n d m o d e r a t i o n it should b e y o u r
r
s t u d y t o p r e s e r v e , d o n o t t r y t o disguise y o u r fault, b u t s a j
u
to him frankly, in t e n d e r r e p r o a c h , M y b o y , you h a v e h u r t
me."
I d o n o t i n t e n d t o e n t e r fully into d e t a i l s , b u t t o lay d o w n
s o m e g e n e r a l m a x i m s a n d to illustrate difficult c a s e s . I be­
lieve it i m p o s s i b l e , in t h e v e r y h e a r t of social s u r r o u n d i n g s ,
t o e d u c a t e a child u p t o t h e a g e of twelve y e a r s , without giv­
ing him some ideas of the r e l a t i o n s of m a n to m a n , a n d of
m o r a l i t y in h u m a n a c t i o n s . I t will suffice if we p u t off a s
l o n g a s possible t h e n e c e s s i t y for t h e s e i d e a s , a n d when t h e y
m u s t b e g i v e n , limit t h e m t o such as a r e immediately appli­
c a b l e . W e m u s t d o this only lest he consider himself m a s t e r
of every t h i n g , a n d so injure o t h e r s without s c r u p l e , because
u n k n o w i n g l y . T h e r e a r e g e n t l e , quiet c h a r a c t e r s who, in
their early i n n o c e n c e , m a y be led a l o n g way w i t h o u t d a n g e r
of this k i n d . B u t o t h e r s , n a t u r a l l y violent, whose wildness
is p r e c o c i o u s , m u s t be t r a i n e d into m e n a s early as m a y b e ,
t h a t you m a y n o t be obliged t o fetter t h e m o u t r i g h t .
 The I d e a of Property.

O U R first d u t i e s a r e t o ourselves ; o u r first feelings a r e

c o n c e n t r a t e d u p o n o u r s e l v e s ; our first n a t u r a l m o v e m e n t s
h a v e reference t o our o w n p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d well-being.
T h u s our first idea of justice is n o t as d u e from u s , b u t to
u s . O n e error in t h e e d u c a t i o n of t o - d a y i s , t h a t b y s p e a k ­
ing t o children first of their duties a n d n e v e r of their r i g h t s ,
we c o m m e n c e a t t h e w r o n g e n d , a n d tell t h e m of w h a t t h e y
cannot understand, and what cannot interest them.
If t h e r e f o r e I h a d to t e a c h o n e of t h e s e I h a v e m e n t i o n e d ,
I should reflect t h a t a child n e v e r a t t a c k s p e r s o n s , b u t
t h i n g s ; he soon l e a r n s from e x p e r i e n c e t o r e s p e c t his s u p e ­
riors in age a n d s t r e n g t h . B u t t h i n g s d o n o t defend t h e m ­
selves. T h e first i d e a to be given him, t h e r e f o r e , is r a t h e r
t h a t of p r o p e r t y t h a n t h a t of liberty ; a n d in o r d e r t o u n d e r ­
s t a n d this i d e a he m u s t h a v e s o m e t h i n g of his o w n . T o s p e a k
to him of his c l o t h e s , his furniture, his p l a y t h i n g s , is t o tell
him n o t h i n g a t a l l ; for t h o u g h h e m a k e s use of t h e s e t h i n g s ,
he k n o w s n e i t h e r how n o r w h y he h a s t h e m . T o tell him t h e y
are his b e c a u s e t h e y have b e e n given t o him is n o t m u c h b e t t e r ,
for in o r d e r t o give, we m u s t h a v e . T h i s is a n o w n e r s h i p d a t ­
ing farther b a c k t h a n his o w n , a n d we wish him t o u n d e r s t a n d
the principle of o w n e r s h i p itself. B e s i d e s , a gift is a c o n v e n ­
tional t h i n g , a n d t h e child c a n n o t as y e t u n d e r s t a n d w h a t a
conventional t h i n g i s . Y o u who r e a d t h i s , o b s e r v e h o w in
this i n s t a n c e , as in a h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d o t h e r s , a child's h e a d
is c r a m m e d with w o r d s which from t h e s t a r t h a v e n o m e a n i n g
to him, b u t which we i m a g i n e we h a v e t a u g h t him.
W e m u s t g o b a c k , t h e n , to t h e origin of o w n e r s h i p , for
thence our first ideas of it should arise. T h e child living in
the country will h a v e g a i n e d some n o t i o n of w h a t field l a b o r i s ,
 T
h a v i n g n e e d e d only t o u s e his ej es a n d his a b u n d a n t l e i s u r e .
E v e r y age in life, a n d especially his o w n , d e s i r e s to c r e a t e ,
t o i m i t a t e , to p r o d u c e , to m a n i f e s t p o w e r a n d activity.
O n l y twice will it be n e c e s s a r y for him t o see a g a r d e n culti­
v a t e d , seed sown, p l a n t s r e a r e d , b e a n s s p r o u t i n g , before he
will desire to w o r k in a g a r d e n himself.
I n a c c o r d a n c e with principles a l r e a d y laid d o w n I d o n o t
a t all o p p o s e this desire, b u t e n c o u r a g e it. I s h a r e his
t a s t e ; I w o r k w i t h h i m , n o t for his p l e a s u r e , b u t for my
own : a t least he t h i n k s so. I b e c o m e his a s s i s t a n t g a r d e n e r ;
until his a r m s are s t r o n g e n o u g h I work t h e g r o u n d for him.
B y p l a n t i n g a b e a n in it, he t a k e s possession of i t ; a n d
s u r e l y this p o s s e s s i o n is m o r e s a c r e d a n d more to be re­
s p e c t e d t h a n t h a t a s s u m e d b y N u n e z de B a l b o a of S o u t h
A m e r i c a in t h e n a m e of t h e k i n g of S p a i n , b y p l a n t i n g his
s t a n d a r d on t h e shores of t h e Pacific O c e a n .
H e comes every d a y to w a t e r t h e b e a n s , a n d rejoices t o
u
see t h e m t h r i v i n g . I a d d t o his delight b y telling h i m This
b e l o n g s to y o u . " I n e x p l a i n i n g t o him w h a t I m e a n by
" b e l o n g s , " I m a k e him feel t h a t he h a s p u t i n t o t h i s plot^ of
g r o u n d his t i m e , his l a b o r , his c a r e , his b o d i l y s e l f ; t h a t in
it is a p a r t of himself which he m a y claim b a c k from a n y
o n e w h a t e v e r , j u s t a s he m a y d r a w his own a r m b a c k if
a n o t h e r tries to hold it a g a i n s t his will.
O n e fine m o r n i n g he comes a s u s u a l , r u n n i n g , w a t e r i n g -
p o t in h a n d . B u t oh, w h a t a s i g h t ! W h a t a m i s f o r t u n e !
T h e b e a n s a r e u p r o o t e d , t h e g a r d e n b e d is all in disorder :
t h e p l a c e actually no longer k n o w s itself. W h a t h a s b e c o m e
of m y l a b o r , t h e sweet r e w a r d of all m y care a n d toil?
T
W h o h a s r o b b e d m e of m y own ? W ho h a s t a k e n my b e a n s
a w a y from m e ? T h e little h e a r t swells with t h e b i t t e r n e s s
of its first feeling of injustice. H i s eyes overflow with t e a r s ;
his d i s t r e s s r e n d s t h e air with m o a n s a n d cries. W e com-
p a s s i o n a t e his t r o u b l e s , s h a r e his i n d i g n a t i o n , m a k e inqui­
ries, sift t h e m a t t e r t h o r o u g h l y . A t l a s t we find t h a t t h e
g a r d e n e r h a s d o n e t h e deed : we s e n d for h i m .
B u t we find t h a t we h a v e r e c k o n e d w i t h o u t o u r h o s t .
W h e n t h e g a r d e n e r h e a r s w h a t we a r e c o m p l a i n i n g of, h e
complains more than we.
"What! So it w a s you, g e n t l e m e n , who r u i n e d all nry
l a b o r ! I h a d p l a n t e d some M a l t e s e m e l o n s , from seed g i v e n
m e as a g r e a t r a r i t y : I hoped t o give y o u a g r a n d t r e a t with
t h e m when t h e y w e r e r i p e . B u t for t h e s a k e of p l a n t i n g y o u r
miserable b e a n s t h e r e , y o u killed m y melons after t h e y h a d
actually s p r o u t e d ; a n d t h e r e a r e n o m o r e t o b e h a d . Y o u
h a v e d o n e m e more h a r m t h a n you can r e m e d y , a n d y o u
h a v e lost t h e p l e a s u r e of t a s t i n g some delicious m e l o n s . "
44
J E A N JACQUES. Excuse us, my good Robert. You p u t
m t o t h e m y o u r l a b o r , 3'our c a r e . I see plainly t h a t we did
T
w r o n g t o spoil } our w o r k : b u t we will g e t y o u some m o r e
M a l t e s e seed, a n d we will n o t till a n y m o r e g r o u n d w i t h o u t
finding o u t w h e t h e r s o m e o n e else h a s p u t his h a n d t o it b e ­
fore u s . "
ROBERT. " O h well, g e n t l e m e n , you m a y a s well e n d t h e
b u s i n e s s ; for t h e r e ' s n o w a s t e l a n d . W h a t I w o r k w a s im­
proved b y m y father, a n d it's t h e s a m e with e v e r y b o d y h e r e ­
about. A l l t h e fields y o u see were t a k e n u p l o n g a g o . "
EIMILE. " M r . R o b e r t , clo y o u often lose y o u r melon-
seed?"
ROBERT. " P a r d o n , m y y o u n g m a s t e r : we d o n ' t often
have .young g e n t l e m e n a b o u t t h a t a r e careless like y o u .
N o b o d y t o u c h e s his n e i g h b o r ' s g a r d e n ; e v e r y b o d y r e s p e c t s
other p e o p l e ' s w o r k , t o m a k e sure of his o w n . "
£MILE. " But I haven't any g a r d e n . "
ROBERT. " W h a t ' s t h a t t o m e ? I f y o u spoil m i n e , I
w o n ' t let y o u walk in it a n y m o r e ; for y o u are t o u n d e r ­
s t a n d t h a t I ' m n o t g o i n g t o h a v e all nvy p a i n s for n o t h i n g . "
 J E A N JACQUES. " C a n ' t we a r r a n g e t h i s m a t t e r with h o n e s t
R o b e r t ? J u s t let m y little friend a n d m e h a v e one c o r n e r
of y o u r g a r d e n to c u l t i v a t e , on condition t h a t y o u h a v e half
the produce."
ROBERT. " I will let y o u h a v e it w i t h o u t t h a t condition ;
b u t r e m e m b e r , I will r o o t u p y o u r b e a n s if y o u m e d d l e with
my melons."
I n t h i s e s s a y on t h e m a n n e r of t e a c h i n g f u n d a m e n t a l n o ­
t i o n s t o children it m a y b e seen how t h e i d e a of p r o p e r t y
n a t u r a l l y g o e s b a c k t o t h e r i g h t which t h e first o c c u p a n t
a c q u i r e d b y l a b o r . T h i s is clear, concise, simple, a n d a l w a y s
within t h e c o m p r e h e n s i o n of t h e child. F r o m this t o t h e
r i g h t of h o l d i n g propert}-, a n d of t r a n s f e r r i n g it, t h e r e is b u t
o n e s t e p , a n d b e y o n d this we a r e to s t o p s h o r t .
I t will also b e e v i d e n t t h a t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n I h a v e included
in t w o p a g e s m a y , in a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , b e t h e w o r k of an entire
y e a r . F o r in the d e v e l o p m e n t of moral i d e a s , we c a n n o t
a d v a n c e t o o slowly, or establish t h e m too firmly a t every s t e p .
I e n t r e a t you, y o u n g t e a c h e r s , t o t h i n k of t h e e x a m p l e I h a v e
g i v e n , a n d t o r e m e m b e r t h a t y o u r lessons u p o n e v e i y subject
o u g h t t o b e r a t h e r in a c t i o n s t h a n in w o r d s ; for c h i l d r e n
r e a d i l y forget w h a t is said or d o n e to t h e m .
A s I h a v e said, such lessons o u g h t t o b e given earlier or
l a t e r , a s t h e disposition of t h e child, g e n t l e or t u r b u l e n t ,
h a s t e n s or r e t a r d s t h e n e c e s s i t y for g i v i n g t h e m . I n em­
p l o y i n g t h e m , we call in a n evidence t h a t c a n n o t b e m i s u n ­
d e r s t o o d . B u t t h a t in difficult cases n o t h i n g i m p o r t a n t m a y
b e o m i t t e d , let u s give a n o t h e r i l l u s t r a t i o n .
Y o u r little m e d d l e r spoils e v e r y t h i n g he t o u c h e s ; d o n o t
b e v e x e d , b u t p u t o u t of his r e a c h w h a t e v e r he c a n spoil.
H e b r e a k s t h e furniture h e u s e s . B e in n o h u n y to give him
a n y m o r e ; let him feel t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s of d o i n g without it.
H e b r e a k s t h e w i n d o w s in his r o o m ; let t h e w i n d blow o n
him n i g h t a n d d a y . H a v e n o fear of his t a k i n g c o l d ; he
h a d b e t t e r t a k e cold t h a n b e a fool.
D o n o t fret a t t h e i n c o n v e n i e n c e he c a u s e s y o u , b u t m a k e
him feel it first of all. F i n a l l y , w i t h o u t say i n g ; a n y thin g
a b o u t it, h a v e t h e p a n e s of g l a s s m e n d e d . H e b r e a k s t h e m
a g a i n . C h a n g e y o u r m e t h o d : say t o him coolly a n d w i t h o u t
a n g e r , " T h o s e w i n d o w s are m i n e ; I t o o k p a i n s to h a v e t h e m
p u t t h e r e , a n d I a m g o i n g to m a k e sure t h a t t h e y shall n o t
b e b r o k e n a g a i n . " T h e n s h u t him u p in some d a r k p l a c e
where t h e r e are n o w i n d o w s . A t this n o v e l p r o c e e d i n g , he
begins t o cry a n d s t o r m : b u t n o b o d y listens t o h i m . He
soon g r o w s tired of t h i s , a n d c h a n g e s his t o n e ; he c o m p l a i n s
a n d g r o a n s . A s e r v a n t is s e n t , w h o m t h e r e b e l e n t r e a t s t o
set him free. W i t h o u t t r y i n g to fiud a n y e x c u s e for u t t e r
refusal, t h e s e r v a n t a n s w e r s , " I h a v e w i n d o w s t o t a k e c a r e
of, t o o , " a n d g o e s awa y. A t l a s t , after t h e child h a s b e e n
t

in d u r a n c e for several h o u r s , long e n o u g h t o tire him a n d

t o m a k e him r e m e m b e r it, some o n e s u g g e s t s an a r r a n g e m e n t
b y which you shall agree to release h i m , a n d he t o b r e a k n o
m o r e w i n d o w s . H e s e n d s to beseech you to come a n d see
h i m ; you come ; he m a k e s his p r o p o s a l . Y o u a c c e p t it im­
m e d i a t e l y , s a y i n g , " W e l l t h o u g h t of; t h a t will be a g o o d
t h i n g for b o t h of u s . W h y d i d n ' t y o u t h i n k of this capital
plan b e f o r e ? " Then, without requiring any protestations,
or confirmation of his p r o m i s e , y o u g l a d l y c a r e s s him a n d
t a k e him t o his r o o m a t o n c e , r e g a r d i n g this c o m p a c t a s
sacred a n d inviolable a s if ratified b y an o a t h . W h a t an i d e a
of t h e obligation, a n d t h e u s e f u l n e s s , of a n e n g a g e m e n t will
he n o t gain from t h i s t r a n s a c t i o n ! I am g r e a t l y m i s t a k e n if
there is an u n s p o i l e d child on e a r t h w h o would b e p r o o f
a g a i n s t it, or w h o would ever after t h i n k of b r e a k i n g a win­
dow p u r p o s e l y .
 Falsehood. The F o r c e of E x a m p l e .

W E a r e n o w within t h e d o m a i n of m o r a l s , a n d t h e d o o r is
o p e n t o vice. Side b y side with c o n v e n t i o n a l i t i e s a n d duties
s p r i n g u p deceit a n d falsehood. A s soon a s t h e r e a r e t h i n g s
we o u g h t n o t to d o , we desire t o hide w h a t we o u g h t n o t to
h a v e d o n e . A s soon as one i n t e r e s t leads us to p r o m i s e , a
s t r o n g e r one m a y u r g e us to b r e a k the p r o m i s e . O u r chief
c o n c e r n is h o w to b r e a k it a n d still go u n s c a t h e d . I t is n a t u ­
ral t o find e x p e d i e n t s ; we d i s s e m b l e a n d we u t t e r falsehood.
U n a b l e to p r e v e n t this evil, we m u s t n e v e r t h e l e s s p u n i s h it.
T h u s t h e miseries of our life arise from o u r m i s t a k e s .
I h a v e said e n o u g h to show t h a t p u n i s h m e n t , a s s u c h ,
should n o t be inflicted u p o n c h i l d r e n , b u t should a l w a y s h a p ­
p e n t o t h e m a s the n a t u r a l r e s u l t of their o w n w r o n g - d o i n g .
D o n o t , t h e n , p r e a c h t o t h e m a g a i n s t falsehood, or p u n i s h t h e m
confessedly on a c c o u n t of a falsehood. B u t if t h e y a r e guilty
of o n e , let all its c o n s e q u e n c e s fall heavily on their h e a d s .
L e t t h e m k n o w w h a t it is t o b e disbelieved even when t h e y
s p e a k t h e t r u t h , a n d to be a c c u s e d of faults in s p i t e of their
e a r n e s t d e n i a l . B u t let us inquire w h a t falsehood is, in
children.
T h e r e are t w o k i n d s of falsehood ; t h a t of fact, which
refers t o t h i n g s a l r e a d y p a s t , a n d t h a t of r i g h t , which h a s t o
d o with t h e future. T h e first o c c u r s when we d e n y d o i n g
w h a t we h a v e d o n e , a n d in g e n e r a l , when we k n o w i n g l y u t t e r
w h a t is n o t t r u e . T h e o t h e r occurs when we p r o m i s e w h a t
we d o n o t m e a n to p e r f o r m , a n d , in g e n e r a l , w h e n we
e x p r e s s a n i n t e n t i o n c o n t r a r y t o the one we really h a v e .
T h e s e t w o s o r t s of u n t r u t h m a y s o m e t i m e s m e e t in t h e s a m e
case ; b u t let u s here discuss their points of difference.
O n e who realizes his need of help from o t h e r s , a n d con-
 stantly receives k i n d n e s s from t h e m , h a s n o t h i n g t o g a i n b y
deceiving t h e m . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , it is evidently his i n t e r e s t
t h a t t h e y s h o u l d see t h i n g s a s t h e y a r e , l e s t t h e y m a k e m i s ­
t a k e s t o his d i s a d v a n t a g e . I t is clear, t h e n , t h a t t h e false­
h o o d of fact is n o t n a t u r a l t o children. B u t t h e l a w of obe­
dience m a k e s falsehood n e c e s s a r y ; b e c a u s e , o b e d i e n c e b e i n g
i r k s o m e , we secretly avoid it w h e n e v e r w e c a n , a n d j u s t in
p r o p o r t i o n as t h e i m m e d i a t e a d v a n t a g e of e s c a p i n g r e p r o o f or
punishment outweighs the remoter advantage to be gained by
revealing the truth.
W h y should a child e d u c a t e d n a t u r a l l y a n d in perfect free­
d o m , tell a f a l s e h o o d ? W h a t h a s he t o hide from y o u ? Y o u
a r e n o t g o i n g t o r e p r o v e or p u n i s h h i m , or e x a c t a n y t h i n g
from him. W h y s h o u l d he n o t tell y o u e v e ^ t h i n g a s frankly
as t o his little p l a y m a t e ? H e sees n o m o r e d a n g e r in t h e
o n e case t h a n in t h e o t h e r .
T h e falsehood of r i g h t is still less n a t u r a l t o children,
b e c a u s e p r o m i s e s t o d o or n o t t o d o a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t s ,
foreign to. our n a t u r e a n d i n f r i n g e m e n t s of o u r l i b e r t y .
B e s i d e s , all the e n g a g e m e n t s of children are in t h e m s e l v e s
void, b e c a u s e , a s their limited vision does n o t s t r e t c h b e y o n d
t h e p r e s e n t , t h e y k n o w n o t w h a t t h e y d o when t h e y b i n d
themselves. I t is h a r d l y possible for a child t o tell a lie in
m a k i n g a p r o m i s e . F o r , c o n s i d e r i n g only h o w t o o v e r c o m e
a p r e s e n t difficulty, all devices t h a t h a v e n o i m m e d i a t e effect
become alike t o h i m . I n p r o m i s i n g for a t i m e t o come h e
actually does n o t p r o m i s e a t all, as his still d o r m a n t i m a g i ­
nation c a n n o t e x t e n d itself over t w o different p e r i o d s of
t i m e . If he could e s c a p e a w h i p p i n g or e a r n some s u g a r ­
p l u m s b y p r o m i s i n g t o t h r o w himself o u t of t h e w i n d o w t o ­
m o r r o w , h e would a t o n c e p r o m i s e it. T h e r e f o r e t h e l a w s
pay no regard to engagements made by children; and when
some f a t h e r s a n d t e a c h e r s , more s t r i c t t h a n t h i s , r e q u i r e t h e
fulfilling of s u c h e n g a g e m e n t s , it is only in t h i n g s t h e child
o u g h t t o do w i t h o u t p r o m i s i n g .
A s t h e child in m a k i n g a p r o m i s e is n o t a w a r e w h a t he is
d o i n g , he c a n n o t b e g u i l t y of falsehood in so d o i n g : b u t t h i s
is n o t t h e case w h e n h e b r e a k s a p r o m i s e . F o r h e well
r e m e m b e r s h a v i n g m a d e t h e p r o m i s e ; w h a t he c a n n o t u n d e r ­
s t a n d i s , t h e i m p o r t a n c e of k e e p i n g it. U n a b l e t o r e a d t h e
f u t u r e , he does n o t foresee t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of his a c t i o n s ;
a n d w h e n he violates e n g a g e m e n t s he d o e s n o t h i n g con­
t r a r y t o w h a t m i g h t be e x p e c t e d of his y e a r s .
I t follows from this t h a t all t h e u n t r u t h s s p o k e n b y chil­
d r e n a r e t h e fault of t h o s e w h o i n s t r u c t t h e m ; a n d t h a t
e n d e a v o r i n g t o t e a c h t h e m how to b e truthful is only t e a c h ­
i n g t h e m how to tell falsehoods. W e a r e so e a g e r t o regu­
l a t e , t o g o v e r n , to i n s t r u c t t h e m , t h a t we n e v e r find m e a n s
e n o u g h t o r e a c h o u r object. W e w a n t t o win n e w victories
over their m i n d s b y m a x i m s n o t b a s e d u p o n fact, b y u n r e a ­
s o n a b l e p r e c e p t s ; we would r a t h e r they should k n o w their
l e s s o n s a n d tell lies t h a n t o r e m a i n i g n o r a n t a n d s p e a k t h e
truth.
A s for u s , w h o give our pupils n o n e b u t p r a c t i c a l t e a c h i n g ,
a n d would r a t h e r h a v e t h e m good t h a n k n o w i n g , we shall
n o t e x a c t t h e t r u t h from t h e m a t all, lest t h e y disguise i t ;
w e will require of t h e m no p r o m i s e s the}^ m a y b e t e m p t e d to
b r e a k . ; If in m y a b s e n c e some a n o n y m o u s mischief h a s b e e n
d o n e , I will b e w a r e of a c c u s i n g E m i l e , or of a s k i n g " W a s
1
it y o u ? " F o r w h a t would t h a t b e b u t t e a c h i n g him t o d e n y
i t ? I f his n a t u r a l l y t r o u b l e s o m e disposition obliges m e t o
1
Nothing is more injudicious than such a question, especially when the
child is in fault. In that case, if he thinks you know what he has done, he
will see that you are laying a snare for him, and this opinion cannot fail to
set him against you. If he thinks you do not know he will say to himself,
" Why should I disclose my fault? " And thus the first temptation to false­
hood is the result of your imprudent question. — [Note by J . J . ROUSSEAU.]
m a k e some a g r e e m e n t w i t h h i m , I will p l a n so well t h a t a n y
such p r o p o s a l shall come from h i m a n d n e v e r from m e . T h u s ,
w h e n e v e r he is b o u n d b y a n e n g a g e m e n t he shall h a v e a n
i m m e d i a t e a n d t a n g i b l e i n t e r e s t in fulfilling it. A n d if he
ever fails in t h i s , t h e falsehood shall b r i n g u p o n him evil r e ­
sults which he sees m u s t arise from t h e very n a t u r e of t h i n g s ,
a n d n e v e r from t h e v e n g e a n c e of his t u t o r . F a r from need­
i n g r e c o u r s e to such severe m e a s u r e s , h o w e v e r , I am a l m o s t
s u r e t h a t iDmile will be l o n g in l e a r n i n g w h a t a lie is, a n d
u p o n finding it o u t will b e g r e a t l y a m a z e d , n o t u n d e r s t a n d i n g
w h a t is t o b e g a i n e d b y it. I t is v e r y plain t h a t t h e m o r e
I m a k e his welfare i n d e p e n d e n t of either t h e will o r t h e
j u d g m e n t of o t h e r s , t h e m o r e I u p r o o t within h i m all i n t e r e s t
in telling f a l s e h o o d s .
W h e n we a r e less e a g e r t o i n s t r u c t we a r e also less e a g e r
to e x a c t r e q u i r e m e n t s from o u r pupil, a n d can t a k e t i m e t o
require only w h a t is t o t h e p u r p o s e . I n t h a t c a s e , t h e child
will b e developed, j u s t b e c a u s e h e is n o t spoiled. B u t w h e n
some b l o c k h e a d t e a c h e r , n o t u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t h e is a b o u t ,
continually forces t h e child t o p r o m i s e t h i n g s , m a k i n g n o
d i s t i n c t i o n s , allowing n o choice, k n o w i n g n o limit, t h e l i t t l e
fellow, worried a n d weighed d o w n with all t h e s e o b l i g a t i o n s ,
neglects t h e m , forgets t h e m , a t l a s t d e s p i s e s t h e m ; a n d con­
sidering t h e m m e r e e m p t y formulas, t u r n s t h e giving a n d t h e
b r e a k i n g of t h e m i n t o ridicule. I f t h e n y o u w a n t t o m a k e
him faithful t o his w o r d , b e discreet in r e q u i r i n g h i m to give
it.
T h e d e t a i l s j u s t e n t e r e d upon in r e g a r d t o falsehood m a y
apply in m a n y r e s p e c t s t o all duties which, when enjoined
u p o n children, b e c o m e t o t h e m n o t only hateful b u t i m p r a c ­
ticable. I n o r d e r t o s e e m t o preach v i r t u e we m a k e vices
a t t r a c t i v e , a n d a c t u a l l y i m p a r t t h e m b y forbidding t h e m . If
we would h a v e t h e children religious, we tire t h e m o u t t a k i n g
t h e m t o c h u r c h . By m a k i n g t h e m m u m b l e p r a y e r s inces­
s a n t l y we m a k e t h e m sigh for t h e h a p p i n e s s of n e v e r p r a y i n g
a t all. T o inspire c h a r i t y in t h e m , we m a k e t h e m give a l m s ,
a s if we d i s d a i n e d d o i n g it o u r s e l v e s . I t is n o t t h e child,
b u t his t e a c h e r , who o u g h t t o d o t h e g i v i n g . H o w e v e r m u c h
you love y o u r p u p i l , t h i s is an h o n o r y o u o u g h t t o d i s p u t e
w i t h h i m , l e a d i n g him t o feel t h a t he is n o t }^et old e n o u g h
t o d e s e r v e it.
G i v i n g a l m s is t h e a c t of o n e w h o k n o w s t h e w o r t h of his
gift, a n d his fellow-creature's need of t h e gift. A child w h o
k n o w s n o t h i n g -of either can h a v e n o merit in b e s t o w i n g .
H e gives w i t h o u t c h a r i t y or b e n e v o l e n c e : he is a l m o s t
a s h a m e d t o give a t all, a s , j u d g i n g from y o u r e x a m p l e a n d
his o w n , o n l y children give a l m s , a n d leave it off when g r o w n
u p . O b s e r v e , t h a t we m a k e t h e child b e s t o w only t h i n g s
whose v a l u e h e d o e s n o t k n o w : pieces of m e t a l , which he
carries in his p o c k e t , a n d which are g o o d for n o t h i n g else.
A child w o u l d r a t h e r give a w a y a h u n d r e d gold pieces t h a n
a single c a k e . B u t s u g g e s t t o this f r e e - h a n d e d giver t h e
idea of p a r t i n g with w h a t he really p r i z e s — his p l a y t h i n g s ,
his s u g a r - p l u m s , or his l u n c h e o n ; you will soon find o u t
w h e t h e r 3^011 h a v e m a d e him really g e n e r o u s .
T o a c c o m p l i s h t h e s a m e e n d , r e s o r t is h a d t o a n o t h e r e x p e ­
d i e n t , t h a t of i n s t a n t l y r e t u r n i n g t o t h e child w h a t he h a s
given a w a y , so t h a t he h a b i t u a l l y gives w h a t e v e r h e k n o w s
will b e r e s t o r e d t o h i m . I h a v e r a r e l y m e t w i t h other t h a n
t h e s e t w o k i n d s of g e n e r o s i t y in c h i l d r e n , n a m e l y , t h e giving
e i t h e r of w h a t is n o use to t h e m s e l v e s , o r else of w h a t t h e y
a r e c e r t a i n will come b a c k to t h e m .
u
" D o t h i s , " s a y s L o c k e , t h a t t h e y m a y b e convinced b y
e x p e r i e n c e t h a t he who gives m o s t generously h a s a l w a y s t h e
b e t t e r p o r t i o n . " T h i s is m a k i n g h i m liberal in a p p e a r a n c e
5
a n d miserly in r e a l i t y . H e a d d s , t h a t children-will t h u s a c ­
q u i r e t h e h a b i t of generosity.
 Y e s ; a miser's g e n e r o s i t y , g i v i n g a n e g g to g a i n an o x .
B u t when called u p o n to be g e n e r o u s in e a r n e s t , g o o d - b y e
to t h e h a b i t ; t h e y soon cease g i v i n g when t h e gift n o l o n g e r
comes b a c k t o t h e m . W e o u g h t to k e e p in view the h a b i t of
m i n d r a t h e r t h a n t h a t of t h e h a n d s . L i k e t h i s v i r t u e are all
o t h e r s t a u g h t t o children ; a n d their early y e a r s a r e s p e n t in
sadness, that we may preach these sterling virtues to them !
Excellent training this !
L a y aside all affectation, you t e a c h e r s ; b e yourselves
good a n d v i r t u o u s , so t h a t y o u r e x a m p l e m a y b e deeply
g r a v e n on y o u r p u p i l s ' m e m o r y until such t i m e a s it finds
l o d g m e n t in t h e i r h e a r t . I n s t e a d of earl}' r e q u i r i n g a c t s of
c h a r i t y from m y p u p i l I would r a t h e r d o t h e m in his p r e s ­
ence, t a k i n g from him all m e a n s of i m i t a t i n g m e , a s if I con­
sidered it a n h o n o r n o t d u e t o his a g e . F o r he should b y n o
m e a n s be in t h e h a b i t of t h i n k i n g a m a n ' s d u t i e s t h e s a m e a s
a child's. S e e i n g m e assist t h e p o o r , h e q u e s t i o n s m e a b o u t
it a n d , if occasion s e r v e , I a n s w e r , " M y b o y , it is b e c a u s e ,
since p o o r people are willing t h e r e should b e rich p e o p l e , t h e
rich h a v e p r o m i s e d t o t a k e care of t h o s e w h o h a v e n o m o n e y
or c a n n o t e a r n a living b y their l a b o r . "
u
A n d h a v e y o u p r o m i s e d it t o o ? " i n q u i r e s h e .
u
Of c o u r s e ; t h e m o n e y t h a t comes i n t o m y h a n d s is m i n e
to use only u p o n t h i s condition, which its o w n e r h a s t o
carry o u t . "
A f t e r t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n , a n d w e h a v e seen how a child m a y
be p r e p a r e d t o u n d e r s t a n d it, o t h e r children besides E m i l e
would b e t e m p t e d t o i m i t a t e me b y a c t i n g like a rich m a n . In
this case I would a t l e a s t see t h a t it should n o t b e d o n e o s t e n ­
tatiously. I would r a t h e r h a v e him r o b m e of m y r i g h t , a n d
conceal t h e fact of his g e n e r o s i t y . I t would b e a s t r a t a g e m
n a t u r a l a t hiS" a g e , a n d t h e only one I would p a r d o n in h i m .
T h e only m o r a l lesson suited t o childhood a n d t h e m o s t
 7
i m p o r t a n t a t a n y a g e is, n e v e r t o injure an} o n e . E v e n t h e
principle of d o i n g g o o d , if n o t s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h i s , is d a n g e r ­
o u s , false, a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y . F o r w h o does n o t do g o o d ?
E v e r y b o d y d o e s , even a wicked m a n w h o m a k e s one h a p p y
a t t h e e x p e n s e of m a k i n g a h u n d r e d m i s e r a b l e : a n d t h e n c e
arise all our calamities. T h e most exalted virtues are nega­
tive : t h e y a r e h a r d e s t t o a t t a i n , too, b e c a u s e t h e y a r e u n o s ­
t e n t a t i o u s , a n d rise above even t h a t gratification d e a r t o t h e
h e a r t of m a n , — s e n d i n g a n o t h e r p e r s o n a w a y p l e a s e d with
u s . I f t h e r e b e a m a n who n e v e r injures one of his fellow-
c r e a t u r e s , w h a t g o o d m u s t he achieve for t h e m ! W h a t fear­
l e s s n e s s , w h a t vigor of m i n d he r e q u i r e s for i t ! N o t b y
r e a s o n i n g a b o u t this principle, b u t b y a t t e m p t i n g to c a r r y it
into p r a c t i c e , d o we find o u t how g r e a t it i s , h o w h a r d to
fulfil.
T h e foregoing c o n v e y s s o m e f a i n t i d e a of t h e p r e c a u t i o n s
I would h a v e }~ou e m p l o y in g i v i n g children t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s
w e s o m e t i m e s c a n n o t w i t h h o l d w i t h o u t risk of their i n j u r i n g
themselves-or o t h e r s , and especially of c o n t r a c t i n g b a d h a b i t s
of which it will b y a n d b y b e difficult t o b r e a k t h e m . But
we m a y r e s t a s s u r e d t h a t in children rightly e d u c a t e d the
necessity will s e l d o m arise ; for it is impossible t h a t t h e y
should b e c o m e i n t r a c t a b l e , vicious, deceitful, g r e e d y , u n l e s s
t h e vices which m a k e t h e m so are sowed in their h e a r t s . For
t h i s r e a s o n w h a t h a s b e e n said o n this p o i n t applies r a t h e r t o
e x c e p t i o n a l t h a n t o o r d i n a r y c a s e s . B u t such e x c e p t i o n a l
c a s e s b e c o m e c o m m o n in p r o p o r t i o n a s children h a v e m o r e
f r e q u e n t o p p o r t u n i t y to d e p a r t from their n a t u r a l s t a t e a n d
to acquire t h e vices of their seniors. T h o s e b r o u g h t up a m o n g
m e n of t h e world absolutely require earlier t e a c h i n g in t h e s e
m a t t e r s t h a n t h o s e e d u c a t e d a p a r t from such s u r r o u n d i n g s .
H e n c e t h i s p r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n is t o b e preferred, even if it d o
n o m o r e t h a n allow childhood leisure t o g r o w t o perfection.
 NEGATIVE OR T E M P O R I Z I N G EDUCATION. 75

N e g a t i v e or Temporizing E d u c a t i o n ,

EXACTLY contrary to the cases just described are those

w h o m a h a p p y t e m p e r a m e n t e x a l t s a b o v e their y e a r s . As
t h e r e a r e s o m e m e n who never o u t g r o w childhood, so t h e r e
a r e o t h e r s who n e v e r p a s s t h r o u g h it, b u t a r e m e n a l m o s t
from their b i r t h . T h e difficulty is t h a t t h e s e e x c e p t i o n a l
c a s e s a r e r a r e a n d n o t easily d i s t i n g u i s h e d ; b e s i d e s , all
m o t h e r s c a p a b l e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t a child cari b e a p r o d ­
igy, h a v e n o d o u b t t h a t their own a r e such. T h e y g o e v e n
"farther t h a n t h i s : t h e y t a k e for e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n d i c a t i o n s t h e
s p r i g h t l i n e s s , t h e b r i g h t childish p r a n k s a n d s a y i n g s , t h e
s h r e w d simplicity of o r d i n a l c a s e s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h a t
time of life, a n d s h o w i n g plainly t h a t a child is only a child.
I s it s u r p r i s i n g t h a t , allowed to s p e a k so m u c h a n d so freely,
u n r e s t r a i n e d b y a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p r o p r i e t y , a child s h o u l d
occasionally m a k e h a p p y r e p l i e s ? If he did n o t , it would b e
even m o r e s u r p r i s i n g ; j u s t as if a n a s t r o l o g e r , a m o n g a h u n ­
d r e d false p r e d i c t i o n s , should n e v e r h i t upon a single t r u e
o n e . " T h e y lie so o f t e n , " said H e n r y I V . , " t h a t t h e y e n d
b y telling t h e t r u t h . " T o b e a wit, one need only u t t e r a
g r e a t m a n y foolish s p e e c h e s . H e a v e n help m e n of fashion,
whose r e p u t a t i o n r e s t s u p o n j u s t t h i s f o u n d a t i o n !
T h e m o s t b r i l l i a n t t h o u g h t s m a } ' e n t e r a child's h e a d , or
r a t h e r , t h e m o s t b r i l l i a n t s a y i n g s m a y - f a i r from his lips, j u s t
as t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e d i a m o n d s m a y fall i n t o his h a n d s , with­
out his h a v i n g a n y r i g h t either t o t h e t h o u g h t s or t o t h e
diamonds. A t his a g e , he h a s n o r e a l p r o p e r t y of a n y
k i n d . A child's u t t e r a n c e s are n o t t h e s a m e t o h i m as t o us ;
he does n o t a t t a c h t o t h e m t h e s a m e i d e a s . If he h a s a n y
ideas a t all on t h e subject, t h e y h a v e n e i t h e r o r d e r nor cohe­
rence in his m i n d ; in all his t h o u g h t s n o t h i n g is c e r t a i n or
s t a b l e . If y o u w a t c h y o u r s u p p o s e d p r o d i g y a t t e n t i v e l y , y o u
 T
will s o m e t i m e s find h i m a w e l l - s p r i n g of energ} , c l e a r - s i g h t e d ,
p e n e t r a t i n g t h e v e r y m a r r o w , of t h i n g s . M u c h oftener t h e
s a m e m i n d a p p e a r s c o m m o n p l a c e , dull, a n d a s if e n v e l o p e d
in a d e n s e fog. S o m e t i m e s he o u t r u n s y o u , a n d s o m e t i m e s
h e s t a n d s still. A t o n e m o m e n t you feel like s a y i n g , " H e is
a g e n i u s , " a n d a t a n o t h e r , " H e is a f o o l . " Y o u a r e m i s t a k e n
in either case : h e is a child ; he is a n e a g l e t t h a t o n e m o m e n t
b e a t s t h e air w i t h its w i n g s , a n d t h e n e x t m o m e n t falls b a c k
into the nest.
I n s p i t e of a p p e a r a n c e s , t h e n , t r e a t h i m a s his a g e d e m a n d s ,
a n d b e w a r e l e s t y o u e x h a u s t his p o w e r s b y a t t e m p t i n g t o u s e
t h e m t o o freely. I f this y o u n g b r a i n g r o w s w a r m , if y o u
see it b e g i n n i n g t o s e e t h e , leave it free t o f e r m e n t , b u t d o
n o t e x c i t e it, lest it m e l t a l t o g e t h e r i n t o air. W h e n t h e first
flow of spirits h a s e v a p o r a t e d , r e p r e s s a n d k e e p w i t h i n
b o u n d s t h e r e s t , u n t i l , as t i m e goes o n , t h e whole is t r a n s ­
f o r m e d i n t o life-giving w a r m t h a n d r e a l p o w e r . Otherwise
t
3 OU will lose b o t h t i m e a n d p a i n s ; y o u will d e s t r o y y o u r own
h a n d i w o r k , a n d after h a v i n g t h o u g h t l e s s l y i n t o x i c a t e d yourself
w i t h all t h e s e inflammable v a p o r s , y o u will h a v e n o t h i n g left
but the dregs.
N o t h i n g h a s b e e n m o r e g e n e r a l l y or c e r t a i n l y o b s e r v e d t h a n
t h a t dull children m a k e c o m m o n p l a c e m e n . I n childhood it
is v e r y difficult t o d i s t i n g u i s h r e a l d u l l n e s s from t h a t m i s l e a d ­
ing apparent dullness which indicates a strong character. A t
first it s e e m s s t r a n g e t h a t t h e t w o e x t r e m e s s h o u l d m e e t in
i n d i c a t i o n s so m u c h alike ; a n d y e t s u c h is t h e c a s e . F o r a t
a n a g e w h e n m a n h a s n o r e a l i d e a s a t all, t h e difference
b e t w e e n o n e w h o h a s g e n i u s a n d one w h o h a s n o t i s , t h a t t h e
l a t t e r e n t e r t a i n s only m i s t a k e n i d e a s , a n d t h e f o r m e r , e n c o u n ­
t e r i n g only s u c h , a d m i t s n o n e a t all. T h e t w o a r e t h e r e f o r e
alike in t h i s , t h a t the d u l l a r d is c a p a b l e of n o t h i n g , a n d t h e
o t h e r finds n o t h i n g t o s u i t him, T h e o n l y m e a n s of distin-
g u i s h i n g t h e m is c h a n c e , which m a y b r i n g t o t h e g e n i u s s o m e
ideas h e c a n c o m p r e h e n d , while t h e dull m i n d is a l w a y s t h e
same.
D u r i n g his childhood t h e y o u n g e r C a t o w a s a t h o m e con­
sidered a n idiot. N o o n e said a n y t h i n g of him b e y o n d t h a t
he w a s silent a n d h e a d s t r o n g . I t w a s only in t h e a n t e c h a m ­
b e r of Sulla t h a t his uncle l e a r n e d t o k n o w h i m . If he h a d
n e v e r c r o s s e d its t h r e s h o l d , h e m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t a
fool until he w a s g r o w n . I f t h e r e h a d b e e n n o s u c h p e r s o n
a s Caesar, this v e r y C a t o , w h o r e a d t h e s e c r e t of Caesar's f a t a l
g e n i u s , a n d from afar f o r e s a w his a m b i t i o u s d e s i g n s , w o u l d
1
always have been treated as a visionary. Those who judge
of children so h a s t i l y a r e v e r y liable t o b e m i s t a k e n . They
a r e often m o r e childish t h a n t h e children t h e m s e l v e s .

Concerning' the M e m o r y .

E E S P E C T children, a n d b e in n o h a s t e t o j u d g e t h e i r a c t i o n s ,
good or evil. L e t t h e e x c e p t i o n a l cases show t h e m s e l v e s
such for some t i m e before y o u a d o p t special m e t h o d s of deal­
i n g with t h e m . L e t n a t u r e b e l o n g a t w o r k b e f o r e y o u
a t t e m p t to s u p p l a n t h e r , l e s t you t h w a r t h e r w o r k . Y o u s a y
you k n o w how precious time i s , a n d d o n o t wish t o lose it.
D o y o u n o t k n o w t h a t t o e m p l o y it b a d l y is t o w a s t e it still
m o r e , a n d t h a t a child b a d l y t a u g h t is f a r t h e r from b e i n g
wise t h a n one n o t t a u g h t a t all ? Y o u a r e t r o u b l e d a t seeing
him s p e n d his early y e a r s in d o i n g n o t h i n g . W h a t ! is it
n o t h i n g t o b e h a p p y ? I s it n o t h i n g to s k i p , t o p l a y , t o r u n
1
He refers to Cato, surnamed of Utiea, from the African city in which
he ended his own life. When a child, he was often invited by his brother
to the house of the all-powerful Sulla. The cruelties of the tyrant roused
the boy to indignation, and it was necessary to watch him lest he should
attempt to kill Sulla. It was in the latter's antechamber that the scene
described by Plutarch occurred;
a b o u t all d a y l o n g ? N e v e r in all bis life will b e b e so b u s y
a s n o w . P l a t o , in t h a t w o r k of his c o n s i d e r e d so s e v e r e , t h e
" R e p u b l i c , " would h a v e children a c c u s t o m e d t o festivals,
g a m e s , s o n g s , a n d p a s t i m e s ; one would t h i n k he w a s satisfied
with h a v i n g carefully t a u g h t t h e m h o w t o enjoy t h e m s e l v e s .
A n d S e n e c a , s p e a k i n g of t h e R o m a n y o u t h of old, s a y s ,
46
T h e y were a l w a y s s t a n d i n g ; n o t h i n g w a s t a u g h t t h e m t h a t
t h e y h a d t o l e a r n w h e n s e a t e d . " W e r e t h e y of less a c c o u n t
w h e n t h e y r e a c h e d m a n h o o d ? H a v e no fear, t h e n , of this
s u p p o s e d i d l e n e s s . W h a t would you t h i n k of a m a n w h o , in
o r d e r to use his whole life to t h e b e s t a d v a n t a g e , would n o t
s l e e p ? Y o u would s a y , " T h e m a n h a s n o s e n s e ; he does
n o t enjoy life, b u t r o b s himself of it. T o avoid sleep, h e
r u s h e s o n his d e a t h . " T h e t w o cases a r e parallel, for child­
h o o d is t h e s l u m b e r of r e a s o n .
A p p a r e n t q u i c k n e s s in l e a r n i n g is t h e r u i n of children. W e
d o n o t consider t h a t this very q u i c k n e s s p r o v e s t h a t t h e y are
l e a r n i n g n o t h i n g . T h e i r s m o o t h a n d polished b r a i n reflects
like a m i r r o r the objects p r e s e n t e d to it, b u t n o t h i n g abides
t h e r e , n o t h i n g p e n e t r a t e s it. T h e child r e t a i n s t h e w o r d s ;
t h e ideas are reflected ; t h e y who h e a r u n d e r s t a n d t h e m , b u t
he himself does n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e m a t all.
A l t h o u g h m e m o r y a n d r e a s o n are two essentially different
faculties, t h e one is* n e v e r really d e v e l o p e d w i t h o u t t h e o t h e r .
B e f o r e t h e a g e of r e a s o n , t h e child r e c e i v e s n o t i d e a s , b u t
i m a g e s . T h e r e is this difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o , t h a t i m a g e s
a r e only a b s o l u t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of objects of s e n s e , a n d
i d e a s a r e n o t i o n s of objects d e t e r m i n e d b y their r e l a t i o n s .
A n i m a g e m a y e x i s t alone in t h e m i n d t h a t r e p r e s e n t s it, b u t
e v e r y i d e a s u p p o s e s o t h e r i d e a s . W h e n we i m a g i n e , we only-
see ; w h e n we conceive of t h i n g s , we c o m p a r e t h e m . Our
s e n s a t i o n s a r e entirely p a s s i v e , w h e r e a s all our p e r c e p t i o n s
or i d e a s s p r i n g from a n active principle which j u d g e s .
 I say t h e n t h a t c h i l d r e n , i n c a p a b l e of j u d g i n g , really h a v e
no memory. T h e y retain sounds, shapes, sensations ; b u t
rarely i d e a s , a n d still m o r e r a r e l y t h e r e l a t i o n s of i d e a s t o
one a n o t h e r . If this s t a t e m e n t is a p p a r e n t l y r e f u t e d b y t h e
objection t h a t t h e y l e a r n some e l e m e n t s of g e o m e t r y , it is n o t
really t r u e ; t h a t v e r y fact confirms m y s t a t e m e n t . I t shows
t h a t , far from k n o w i n g how t o r e a s o n t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y c a n n o t
even k e e p in m i n d t h e r e a s o n i n g s of o t h e r s . F o r if you
i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m e t h o d of t h e s e little g e o m e t r i c i a n s , y o u dis­
cover a t once t h a t t h e y h a v e r e t a i n e d only t h e e x a c t i m p r e s ­
sion of t h e d i a g r a m a n d t h e w o r d s of t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n .
U p o n t h e l e a s t n e w objection t h e y are p u z z l e d . Their
k n o w l e d g e is only of t h e s e n s a t i o n ; n o t h i n g h a s b e c o m e t h e
p r o p e r t y of t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . E v e n their m e m o r y is
r a r e l y m o r e p e r f e c t t h a n their other f a c u l t i e s : for w h e n
g r o w n t h e y h a v e n e a r l y always to l e a r n a g a i n as realities
t h i n g s whose n a m e s t h e y l e a r n e d in childhood.
H o w e v e r , I a m far from t h i n k i n g t h a t children h a v e n o
1
power of r e a s o n i n g w h a t e v e r . I o b s e r v e , on t h e c o n t r a r y ,
t h a t in t h i n g s t h e y u n d e r s t a n d , t h i n g s r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r p r e s e n t
a n d m a n i f e s t i n t e r e s t s , t h e y r e a s o n e x t r e m e l y well. W e a r e ,
1
While writing this I have reflected a hundred times that in an extended
work it is impossible always to use the same words in the same sense.
No language is rich enough to furnish terms and expressions to keep pace
with the possible modifications of our ideas. The method which defines
all the terms, and substitutes the definition for the term, is fine, but im­
practicable ; for how shall we then avoid travelling in a circle ? If defi­
nitions could be given without using words, they might be useful. Never­
theless, I am convinced that, poor as our language is, we can make our­
selves understood, not by always attaching the same meaning to the same
words, but by so using each word that its meaning shall be sufficiently
determined by the ideas nearly related to it, and so that each sentence in
which a word is used shall serve to define the word. Sometimes I say
that children are incapable of reasoning, and sometimes I make them
reason extremely w e l l ; I think that my ideas do not contradict each other,
though I cannot escape the inconvenient contradictions of my mode of
expression.
h o w e v e r , liable to be*misled a s t o their k n o w l e d g e , a t t r i b u t ­
ing to them what they do not have, and making them reason
a b o u t w h a t t h e y d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d . A g a i n , we m a k e t h e
m i s t a k e of calling t h e i r a t t e n t i o n to c o n s i d e r a t i o n s b y which
t h e y are in n o wise affected, such a s their f u t u r e i n t e r e s t s ,
t h e h a p p i n e s s of t h e i r c o m i n g m a n h o o d , t h e opinion p e o p l e
will h a v e of t h e m w h e n t h e y are g r o w n u p . S u c h s p e e c h e s ,
a d d r e s s e d to m i n d s entirely w i t h o u t foresight, are a b s o l u t e l y
u n m e a n i n g . N o w all t h e studies forced u p o n t h e s e p o o r
u n f o r t u n a t e s d e a l with t h i n g s like t h i s , u t t e r l y foreign t o
their m i n d s . Y o u m a y j u d g e w h a t a t t e n t i o n such s u b j e c t s
a r e likely t o r e c e i v e .

On t h e S t u d y of W o r d s .
PEDAGOGUES, w h o m a k e s u c h an i m p o s i n g d i s p l a y of w h a t
t h e y t e a c h , a r e p a i d t o t a l k in a n o t h e r s t r a i n t h a n m i n e ,
b u t their c o n d u c t shows t h a t t h e y t h i n k as I d o . F o r after
all, w h a t d o t h e y t e a c h their p u p i l s ? W o r d s , w o r d s , w o r d s .
A m o n g all t h e i r b o a s t e d s u b j e c t s , n o n e a r e selected b e c a u s e
t h e y a r e u s e f u l ; s u c h would be the sciences of t h i n g s , in
which t h e s e p r o f e s s o r s are unskilful. B u t t h e y prefer
sciences we s e e m t o k n o w w h e n we k n o w their n o m e n c l a ­
t u r e , such a s h e r a l d r y , g e o g r a p h y , c h r o n o l o g y , l a n g u a g e s ;
studies so far r e m o v e d from h u m a n i n t e r e s t s , a n d p a r t i c u ­
larly from t h e child, t h a t it would b e wonderful if a n y of
t h e m could b e of t h e l e a s t u s e a t a n y t i m e in life.
I t m a y cause s u r p r i s e t h a t I a c c o u n t t h e s t u d y of l a n ­
g u a g e s one of t h e u s e l e s s t h i n g s in e d u c a t i o n . B u t r e m e m b e r
I a m s p e a k i n g of t h e s t u d i e s of earlier y e a r s , a n d w h a t e v e r
m a y b e s a i d , I d o n o t believe t h a t a n y child e x c e p t a p r o d i g y ,
will ever l e a r n two l a n g u a g e s b y t h e time h e is twelve or
3
fifteen.
1
Another exaggeration : the idea is not to teach children to speak
another language as perfectly as their own. There are three different
 I a d m i t t h a t if t h e s t u d y of l a n g u a g e s w e r e only t h a t
of w o r d s , t h a t i s , of f o r m s , a n d of t h e s o u n d s which e x p r e s s
t h e m , it m i g h t b e suitable for children. B u t l a n g u a g e s , b y
c h a n g i n g their s i g n s , modify also t h e ideas t h e y r e p r e s e n t .
M i n d s a r e formed u p o n l a n g u a g e s ; t h o u g h t s t a k e coloring
from i d i o m s . R e a s o n alone is c o m m o n t o all. I n each
l a n g u a g e t h e m i n d h a s its peculiar c o n f o r m a t i o n , a n d this
m a y b e in p a r t t h e cause or t h e effect of n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r .
T h e fact t h a t every n a t i o n ' s l a n g u a g e follows t h e vicissi­
t u d e s of t h a t n a t i o n ' s m o r a l s , a n d is p r e s e r v e d or a l t e r e d
with t h e m , seems t o confirm t h i s t h e o r y .
Of t h e s e different f o r m s , c u s t o m gives one to t h e child,
a n d it is t h e only one he r e t a i n s u n t i l t h e a g e of r e a s o n . In
o r d e r to h a v e t w o , he m u s t b e able to c o m p a r e ideas ; a n d
h o w c a n he do this when h e is scarcely able to g r a s p
t h e m ? E a c h object m a y for h i m h a v e a t h o u s a n d different
s i g n s , b u t each idea c a n h a v e b u t one f o r m ; h e can t h e r e ­
fore l e a r n to s p e a k only o n e l a n g u a g e . I t is n e v e r t h e l e s s
m a i n t a i n e d t h a t he l e a r n s s e v e r a l ; this I d e n y . I h a v e
seen little prodigies w h o t h o u g h t t h e y could s p e a k six or
s e v e n : I h a v e h e a r d t h e m s p e a k G e r m a n in L a t i n , F r e n c h ,
a n d I t a l i a n idioms successively. T h e y did i n d e e d use five
or six v o c a b u l a r i e s , b u t t h e y n e v e r s p o k e a n y t h i n g b u t G e r ­
m a n . I n s h o r t , y o u m a y give children as m a n y s y n o n y m s
as you p l e a s e , a n d you will c h a n g e only their w o r d s , a n d n o t
their l a n g u a g e ; t h e y will n e v e r k n o w m o r e t h a n o n e .

objects to be attained in studying languages. First, this study is meant to

render easy by comparison and practice the knowledge and free use of
the mother tongue. Second, it is useful as intellectual gymnastics, devel­
oping attention, reflection, reasoning, and taste. This result is to be
expected particularly from the study of the ancient languages. Third,
it lowers the barriers separating nations, and furnishes valuable means
of intercourse which science, industries, and commerce cannot afford
to do without. The French have not always shown wisdom in ignoring
the language of their neighbors or their rivals. •
 T o hide t h i s inability w e , b y p r e f e r e n c e , give t h e m p r a c ­
tice in t h e d e a d l a n g u a g e s , of which t h e r e are n o longer a n y
u n e x c e p t i o n a b l e j u d g e s . T h e familiar use of t h e s e t o n g u e s
h a v i n g long b e e n lost, we c o n t e n t ourselves w i t h i m i t a t i n g
w h a t we find of t h e m in b o o k s , a n d call this s p e a k i n g t h e m .
If such b e t h e G r e e k a n d L a t i n of t h e m a s t e r s , y o u m a y
j u d g e w h a t t h a t of t h e children i s . Scarcely h a v e t h e y
l e a r n e d b y h e a r t t h e r u d i m e n t s , w i t h o u t in t h e least u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g t h e m , before t h e y a r e t a u g h t t o u t t e r a F r e n c h
discourse in L a t i n w o r d s ; a n d , w h e n further a d v a n c e d , to
s t r i n g t o g e t h e r in p r o s e , p h r a s e s from Cicero a n d c a n t o s
from Yirgil. T h e n t h e y i m a g i n e t h e y a r e s p e a k i n g L a t i n ,
1
a n d who is t h e r e to c o n t r a d i c t t h e m ?
I n any study, words that represent things are nothing
without t h e ideas of t h e t h i n g s t h e y r e p r e s e n t . W e , h o w e v e r ,
limit children to t h e s e s i g n s , w i t h o u t ever b e i n g able to m a k e
t h e m u n d e r s t a n d t h e t h i n g s r e p r e s e n t e d . W e t h i n k we a r e
t e a c h i n g a child t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e e a r t h , w h e n he is merely
l e a r n i n g m a p s . W e t e a c h h i m t h e n a m e s of cities, c o u n t r i e s ,
rivers'; he h a s n o idea t h a t t h e y e x i s t a n y w h e r e b u t o n t h e
m a p we use in p o i n t i n g t h e m o u t to h i m . I recollect seeing
s o m e w h e r e a t e x t - b o o k on g e o g r a p h y which b e g a n t h u s :
" W h a t is t h e w o r l d ? A pasteboard globe." Precisely
s u c h is t h e g e o g r a p h y of children. I will v e n t u r e to say t h a t
after two y e a r s of globes a n d c o s m o g r a p h y n o child of t e n ,
b y rules t h e y give h i m , could find t h e w a y from P a r i s to
S t . D e n i s . I m a i n t a i n t h a t n o t one of t h e m , from a p l a n of
his f a t h e r ' s g a r d e n , could t r a c e o u t its w i n d i n g s w i t h o u t
g o i n g a s t r a y . A n d y e t t h e s e are t h e k n o w i n g c r e a t u r e s who
c a n tell y o u e x a c t l y w h e r e P e k i n , I s p a h a n , M e x i c o , a n d all
t h e c o u n t r i e s of t h e world a r e .
1
From this passage, it is plain that the objections lately raised by intel­
ligent persons against the abuse of Latin conversations and verses are not
of recent date, after all.
 I h e a r it s u g g e s t e d t h a t children o u g h t to b e e n g a g e d in
studies in which only t h e eye is n e e d e d . T h i s m i g h t b e t r u e
if t h e r e were s t u d i e s in which their eyes were n o t n e e d e d ;
b u t I k n o w of n o n e such.
A still m o r e ridiculous m e t h o d obliges children to s t u d y
h i s t o r y , s u p p o s e d to b e within their c o m p r e h e n s i o n b e c a u s e
1
it is only a collection of f a c t s . B u t w h a t do we m e a n b y
f a c t s ? D o we s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s o u t of which historic
facts g r o w a r e so easily u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e m i n d s of children
g r a s p such ideas w i t h o u t difficulty ? D o we i m a g i n e t h a t t h e
t r u e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e v e n t s can b e s e p a r a t e d from t h a t of
their c a u s e s a n d effects ? a n d t h a t t h e historic a n d t h e m o r a l
a r e so far a s u n d e r t h a t the o n e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t
t h e o t h e r ? If in m e n ' s actions y o u see only purely e x t e r n a l
a n d physical c h a n g e s , w h a t d o y o u learn from h i s t o r y ?
A b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g ; a n d t h e subject, despoiled of all i n t e r e s t ,
no longer gives y o u either p l e a s u r e or i n s t r u c t i o n . If y o u
i n t e n d to e s t i m a t e actions b y their m o r a l r e l a t i o n s , t r y to
m a k e y o u r pupils u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e r e l a t i o n s , a n d y o u will
discover w h e t h e r h i s t o r y is a d a p t e d to their y e a r s .
If there is n o science in w o r d s , t h e r e is n o s t u d y especially
a d a p t e d to children. If t h e y h a v e n o real i d e a s , t h e y h a v e
n o real m e m o r y ; for I do n o t call t h a t m e m o r y which r e t a i n s
only i m p r e s s i o n s . Of w h a t use is it to write o n their m i n d s
sa catalogue of signs t h a t r e p r e s e n t n o t h i n g to t h e m ? In
learning the t h i n g s r e p r e s e n t e d , would t h e y n o t also l e a r n

1
There is indeed a faulty method of teaching history, by giving children
a dry list of facts, names, and dates. On the other hand, to offer them
theories upon the philosophy of history is quite as unprofitable. Yet it is
not an absurd error, but a duty, to teach them the broad outlines of history,
to tell them of deeds of renown, of mighty works accomplished, of men
celebrated for the good or the evil they have done; to interest them in the
past of humanity, be it melancholy or glorious. By abuse of logic Rous­
seau, in protesting against one excess, falls into another.
t h e signs ? "Why d o you give t h e m t h e useless t r o u b l e of
l e a r n i n g t h e m t w i c e ? B e s i d e s , y o u c r e a t e d a n g e r o u s preju­
dices b y m a k i n g t h e m s u p p o s e t h a t science c o n s i s t s of w o r d s
m e a n i n g l e s s to t h e m . T h e first m e r e w o r d w i t h which t h e
child satisfies himself, t h e first t h i n g he l e a r n s o n t h e
a u t h o r i t y of a n o t h e r p e r s o n , r u i n s his j u d g m e n t . L o n g m u s t
he shine in t h e eyes of u n t h i n k i n g p e r s o n s before he can
r e p a i r s u c h a n injury to himself.
N o ; n a t u r e m a k e s the child's b r a i n so yielding t h a t it r e ­
ceives all k i n d s of i m p r e s s i o n s ; n o t t h a t we m a y m a k e his child­
h o o d a d i s t r e s s i n g b u r d e n t o h i m by e n g r a v i n g o n t h a t b r a i n
d a t e s , n a m e s of k i n g s , t e c h n i c a l t e r m s in h e r a l d r y , m a t h e ­
m a t i c s , g e o g r a p h y , a n d all such w o r d s , u n m e a n i n g to h i m
a n d u n n e c e s s a r y t o p e r s o n s a t a n y a g e in life. B u t all ideas
t h a t h e c a n u n d e r s t a n d , a n d t h a t a r e of u s e t o h i m , all t h a t
c o n d u c e t o his h a p p i n e s s a n d t h a t will one d a y m a k e his
d u t i e s p l a i n , should early write t h e m s e l v e s t h e r e indelibly, to
g u i d e h i m t h r o u g h life as his condition a n d his intellect
require.
T h e m e m o r y of which a child is c a p a b l e is far from inac­
t i v e , e v e n w i t h o u t t h e use of b o o k s . A l l h e sees a n d h e a r s
i m p r e s s e s h i m , a n d h e r e m e m b e r s it. H e k e e p s a m e n t a l
r e g i s t e r of p e o p l e ' s s a y i n g s a n d d o i n g s . E v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d
h i m is t h e b o o k from which h e is continually b u t u n c o n ­
sciously enriching his m e m o r y a g a i n s t t h e t i m e his j u d g m e n t
c a n benefit b y it. If we i n t e n d rightly t o cultivate this chief
faculty of t h e m i n d , we m u s t choose t h e s e objects carefully,
c o n s t a n t l y a c q u a i n t i n g h i m with s u c h a s h e o u g h t to u n d e r ­
s t a n d , a n d k e e p i n g b a c k t h o s e h e o u g h t n o t to k n o w . In
t h i s way we s h o u l d e n d e a v o r t o m a k e his m i n d a s t o r e h o u s e
of k n o w l e d g e , t o aid in his e d u c a t i o n in y o u t h , a n d to direct
h i m a t all t i m e s . T h i s m e t h o d d o e s n o t , it is t r u e , p r o d u c e
p h e n o m e n a l children, n o r does it m a k e t h e r e p u t a t i o n of their
teachers ; b u t it p r o d u c e s j u d i c i o u s , r o b u s t m e n , s o u n d in
body a n d in m i n d , w h o , a l t h o u g h n o t a d m i r e d in y o u t h , will
m a k e t h e m s e l v e s r e s p e c t e d in m a n h o o d .
E m i l e shall n e v e r l e a r n a n y t h i n g b y h e a r t , n o t e v e n fables
such as t h o s e of L a F o n t a i n e , simple a n d c h a r m i n g as t h e y
a r e . F o r t h e w o r d s of fables a r e aio m o r e the fables t h e m ­
selves t h a n t h e w o r d s of history a r e history itself. H o w c a n
we be so blind as to call fables m o r a l lessons for children ?
W e do n o t reflect t h a t while t h e s e stories a m u s e t h e y also
mislead children, who, c a r r i e d a w a y b y t h e fiction, m i s s t h e
t r u t h c o n v e y e d ; so t h a t w h a t m a k e s t h e lesson a g r e e a b l e also
m a k e s it less profitable. M e n m a y l e a r n from f a b l e s , b u t
children m u s t b e told t h e b a r e t r u t h ; if it b e veiled, t h e y d o
1
n o t trouble t h e m s e l v e s to lift t h e v e i l .
Since n o t h i n g o u g h t to be r e q u i r e d of children m e r e l y in
proof of their obedience, it follows t h a t t h e y c a n l e a r n n o t h ­
ing of which t h e y c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e a c t u a l a n d i m m e d i a t e
a d v a n t a g e , w h e t h e r it b e p l e a s a n t or useful. O t h e r w i s e , w h a t
motive will induce t h e m to learn i t ? T h e a r t of c o n v e r s i n g
with a b s e n t p e r s o n s , a n d of h e a r i n g from t h e m , of c o m m u n i
eating to t h e m a t a d i s t a n c e , w i t h o u t t h e aid of a n o t h e r , our
feelings, i n t e n t i o n s , a n d wishes, is a n a r t whose v a l u e m a y
be explained t o ^children of a l m o s t a n y a g e w h a t e v e r . By

1
Rousseau here analyzes several of La Fontaine's fables, to show the
immorality and the danger of their " ethics." He dwells particularly upon
the fable of the Fox and the Crow. In this he is right; the morality of the
greater part of these fables leaves much to be desired. But there is noth­
ing to prevent the teacher from making the application. The memory of a
child is pliable and vigorous; not to cultivate it would be doing him great
injustice. We need not say that a true teacher not only chooses, but by his
instructions explains and rectifies everything he requires his pupil to read
or to learn by heart. Witli this reservation one cannot but admire this
aversion of Rousseau's for parrot-learning, word-worship, and exclusive
cultivation of the memory. In a few pages may here be found a complete
philosophy of teaching, adapted to the regeneration of a people.
w h a t a s t o n i s h i n g p r o c e s s h a s this useful a n d a g r e e a b l e a r t
b e c o m e so i r k s o m e to t h e m ? T h e y h a v e b e e n forced to l e a r n
it in spite of t h e m s e l v e s , a n d to use it in w a y s t h e y c a n n o t
u n d e r s t a n d . A child is n o t a n x i o u s to p e r f e c t t h e i n s t r u m e n t
u s e d in t o r m e n t i n g h i m ; b u t m a k e t h e s a m e t h i n g m i n i s t e r
to his p l e a s u r e s , a n d y o u c a n n o t p r e v e n t him from u s i n g it.
M u c h a t t e n t i o n is p a i d to finding o u t t h e b e s t m e t h o d s of
t e a c h i n g children t o r e a d . W e i n v e n t printing-offices a n d
c h a r t s ; we t u r n a child's r o o m into a p r i n t e r ' s establish­
1
ment. L o c k e p r o p o s e s t e a c h i n g children to r e a d b}" m e a n s
of dice ; a brilliant c o n t r i v a n c e i n d e e d , b u t a m i s t a k e as well.
A b e t t e r t h i n g t h a n all t h e s e , a t h i n g n o one t h i n k s of, is t h e
desire to l e a r n . G i v e a child this d e s i r e , a n d y o u will n o t
need dice or r e a d i n g lotteries ; a n y device will serve as well.
If, on t h e p l a n 1 h a v e b e g u n to lay d o w n , y o u follow rules
e x a c t l y c o n t r a r y t o t h o s e m o s t in fashion, y o u will n o t a t t r a c t
a n d b e w i l d e r y o u r pupil's a t t e n t i o n b y d i s t a n t places, c l i m a t e s ,
a n d a g e s of t h e world, g o i n g to the e n d s of t h e e a r t h a n d
i n t o t h e v e r y h e a v e n s t h e m s e l v e s , b u t will m a k e a p o i n t of
k e e p i n g it fixed u p o n himself a n d w h a t immediately c o n c e r n s
h i m ; a n d b y this p l a n you will find him c a p a b l e of p e r c e p ­
tion, m e m o r y , a n d even r e a s o n i n g ; this is t h e o r d e r of
2
nature. I n p r o p o r t i o n a s a c r e a t u r e e n d o w e d with s e n s a -

1
Rousseau here alludes to the typographical lottery invented by Louis
Dumas, a French author of the eighteenth century. It was an imitation of
a printing-office, and was intended to teach, in an agreeable way, not only
reading, but even grammar and spelling. There may be good features in
all these systems, but we certainly cannot save the child all trouble; we
ought to let him understand that work must be in earnest. Besides, as
moralists and teachers, we ought not to neglect giving' children some kinds
of work demanding application. They will be in better spirits for recrea­
tion hours after study.
2
It is well to combine the two methods; to keep the child occupied with
what immediately concerns him, and to interest him also in what is more
remote, whether in space or in time. He ought not to become too positive,
tion becomes active, it a c q u i r e s d i s c e r n m e n t suited t o its
p o w e r s , a n d t h e s u r p l u s of . s t r e n g t h n e e d e d to p r e s e r v e it
is absolutely n e c e s s a r y in d e v e l o p i n g t h a t speculative faculty
which uses t h e s a m e s u r p l u s for other e n d s . If, t h e n , yon
m e a n t o cultivate y o u r p u p i l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , cultivate t h e
s t r e n g t h it is i n t e n d e d to g o v e r n . G i v e h i m c o n s t a n t p h y s i ­
cal exercise ; m a k e his b o d y s o u n d a n d r o b u s t , t h a t you m a y
m a k e h i m wise a n d r e a s o n a b l e . L e t h i m b e a t w o r k d o i n g
s o m e t h i n g ; let him r u n , s h o u t , b e a l w a y s in m o t i o n ; let him
b e a m a n in vigor, a n d h e will t h e sooner b e c o m e one in
reason.
Y o u would indeed m a k e a m e r e a n i m a l of h i m b y this
m e t h o d if you are continually directing him, a n d s a y i n g ,
" G o ; c o m e ; s t a y ; do this ; s t o p d o i n g t h a t . " If y o u r
h e a d is a l w a y s to g u i d e his a r m , his own h e a d will be of n o
use to h i m . B u t recollect our a g r e e m e n t ; if y o u are a m e r e
p e d a n t , t h e r e is n o use in y o u r r e a d i n g w h a t I w r i t e .
T o imagine t h a t p h y s i c a l exercise injures m e n t a l o p e r a ­
tions is a w r e t c h e d m i s t a k e ; t h e t w o should m o v e in u n i s o n ,
a n d one o u g h t to r e g u l a t e t h e o t h e r .
M y pupil, or r a t h e r n a t u r e ' s pupil, t r a i n e d from t h e first
to d e p e n d a s m u c h a s possible on himself, is n o t continually
r u n n i n g to o t h e r s for a d v i c e . Still less does h e m a k e a d i s ­
play of his k n o w l e d g e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e j u d g e s , he
foresees, he r e a s o n s , u p o n e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y con­
cerns h i m ; h e d o e s n o t p r a t e , b u t a c t s . H e is little i n f o r m e d
as to w h a t is g o i n g o n in t h e world, b u t k n o w s v e r y well w h a t
he o u g h t to d o , a n d how to d o it. I n c e s s a n t l y in m o t i o n ,
he c a n n o t avoid o b s e r v i n g m a n y t h i n g s , a n d k n o w i n g m a n y
effects. H e early g a i n s a wide e x p e r i e n c e , a n d t a k e s his l e s -

nor yet should he he chimerical. The "order of nature" itself has pro­
vided for this, by making the child inquisitive about things around him,
and at the same time about things far away.
sons from n a t u r e , n o t from m e n . H e i n s t r u c t s himself all
t h e b e t t e r for discovering n o w h e r e a n y i n t e n t i o n of i n s t r u c t ­
ing h i m . T h u s , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , b o d y a n d m i n d are e x e r ­
cised. A l w a y s c a r r y i n g o u t his o w n i d e a s , a n d n o t a n o t h e r
p e r s o n ' s , two p r o c e s s e s are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y g o i n g on within
him. A s he g r o w s r o b u s t a n d s t r o n g , he becomes intelligent
and judicious.
I n this w a y h e will one d a y h a v e t h o s e t w o excellences, —
t h o u g h t i n c o m p a t i b l e i n d e e d , b u t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of n e a r l y all
g r e a t m e n , — s t r e n g t h of b o d y a n d s t r e n g t h of m i n d , t h e
r e a s o n of a s a g e a n d t h e vigor of a n a t h l e t e .
I a m r e c o m m e n d i n g a difficult a r t to y o u , y o u n g t e a c h e r , —
t h e a r t of g o v e r n i n g w i t h o u t r u l e s , a n d of d o i n g e v e r y t h i n g
b y d o i n g n o t h i n g a t all. I g r a n t , t h a t a t y o u r age, this a r t
is n o t to b e e x p e c t e d of y o u . I t will n o t enable y o u , a t t h e
o u t s e t , to e x h i b i t y o u r shining t a l e n t s , or t o m a k e yourself
p r i z e d b y p a r e n t s ; b u t it is t h e only one t h a t will succeed.
T o b e a sensible m a n , y o u r pupil m u s t first h a v e b e e n a
little s c a p e g r a c e . T h e S p a r t a n s were e d u c a t e d in this w a y ;
1
n o t tied d o w n to b o o k s , b u t obliged t o s t e a l their d i n n e r s ;
a n d did this p r o d u c e m e n inferior in u n d e r s t a n d i n g ? W h o
d o e s n o t r e m e m b e r their forcible, p i t h y s a y i n g s ? Trained
to c o n q u e r , t h e y w o r s t e d their enemies in every k i n d of en­
c o u n t e r ; a n d t h e b a b b l i n g A t h e n i a n s d r e a d e d their s h a r p
speeches quite as m u c h as their v a l o r .
I n stricter s y s t e m s of e d u c a t i o n , t h e t e a c h e r c o m m a n d s
a n d t h i n k s he is g o v e r n i n g t h e child, w h o is, after all, t h e
r e a l m a s t e r . W h a t you e x a c t from h i m he e m p l o y s as m e a n s
to g e t from you w h a t he w a n t s . B y one h o u r of diligence he
1
This expresses rather too vehemently a true idea. Do not try to impart
a rigid education whose apparent correctness hides grave defects. Allow
free course to the child's instinctive activity and turbulence; let nature
speak; do not crave reserve and fastidiousness at the expense of frankness
and vigor of mind. This is what the writer really means.
can b u y a w e e k ' s i n d u l g e n c e . A t every m o m e n t y o u h a v e
to m a k e t e r m s with h i m . T h e s e b a r g a i n s , which y o u p r o ­
pose in y o u r w a y , a n d which h e fulfils in his o w n w a y ,
always t u r n o u t t o t h e a d v a n t a g e of his w h i m s , especially
w h e n you a r e so careless as t o m a k e s t i p u l a t i o n s which will
be to his a d v a n t a g e w h e t h e r h e carries o u t his s h a r e of t h e
b a r g a i n or n o t . U s u a l l y , t h e child r e a d s t h e t e a c h e r ' s m i n d
b e t t e r t h a n t h e t e a c h e r r e a d s h i s . T h i s is n a t u r a l ; for all
t h e s a g a c i t y t h e child a t liberty would use in s e l f - p r e s e r v a ­
tion he n o w uses to p r o t e c t himself from a t y r a n t ' s c h a i n s ;
while t h e l a t t e r , h a v i n g n o i m m e d i a t e i n t e r e s t in k n o w i n g t h e
child's m i n d , follows his o w n a d v a n t a g e b y l e a v i n g v a n i t y
a n d indolence u n r e s t r a i n e d .
D o otherwise with y o u r p u p i l . L e t h i m a l w a y s s u p p o s e
himself m a s t e r , while you really are m a s t e r . N o subjection
is so perfect a s t h a t which r e t a i n s t h e a p p e a r a n c e of l i b e r t y ;
for t h u s t h e will itself is m a d e c a p t i v e . I s n o t t h e h e l p l e s s ,
u n k n o w i n g child a t y o u r m e r c y ? D o you n o t , so far a s h e
is c o n c e r n e d , control e v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d h i m ? H a v e you n o t
power to influence h i m a s y o u p l e a s e ? A r e n o t his w o r k , his
p l a y , his p l e a s u r e , h i s p a i n , in y o u r h a n d s , w h e t h e r h e k n o w s
it or n o t ?
D o u b t l e s s h e o u g h t to d o only w h a t h e p l e a s e s ; b u t y o u r
choice o u g h t to control his w i s h e s . H e o u g h t to t a k e n o
s t e p t h a t y o u h a v e n o t d i r e c t e d ; h e o u g h t n o t t o o p e n his
lips w i t h o u t y o u r k n o w i n g w h a t h e is a b o u t to s a y .
I n this case h e m a y , w i t h o u t fear of d e b a s i n g his m i n d ,
d e v o t e himself t o exercises of t h e b o d y . I n s t e a d of s h a r p ­
ening his wits to e s c a p e a n i r k s o m e subjection, you will o b ­
serve him wholly occupied in finding o u t in e v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d
him t h a t p a r t b e s t a d a p t e d to* his p r e s e n t well-being. You
will b e a m a z e d a t t h e subtilty of his c o n t r i v a n c e s for a p p r o ­
p r i a t i n g t o himself all t h # o b j e c t s within t h e r e a c h of his
u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d for enjoying e v e r y t h i n g w i t h o u t regard
to other people's o p i n i o n s .
B y t h u s l e a v i n g h i m free, y o u will n o t foster h i s c a p r i c e s .
If he n e v e r does a n y t h i n g t h a t does n o t suit h i m , h e will
soon d o only w h a t h e o u g h t t o d o . A n d , a l t h o u g h his b o d y
b e n e v e r a t r e s t , still, if h e is c a r i n g for h i s p r e s e n t a n d p e r ­
ceptible i n t e r e s t s , all t h e r e a s o n of which h e is c a p a b l e will
develop f a r b e t t e r a n d m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y t h a n in s t u d i e s
purely s p e c u l a t i v e .
A s h e d o e s n o t "find y o u b e n t o n t h w a r t i n g h i m , does n o t
d i s t r u s t y o u , h a s n o t h i n g t o hide from y o u , h e will n o t
deceive y o u or tell y o u lies. H e will fearlessly show h i m ­
self t o y o u j u s t a s h e i s . Y o u m a y s t u d y h i m entirely a t
y o u r e a s e , a n d p l a n l e s s o n s for h i m which h e will all u n c o n ­
sciously r e c e i v e .
H e will n o t p r y w i t h suspicious curiosity i n t o y o u r affairs,
a n d feel p l e a s u r e w h e n h e finds you in fault. T h i s is o n e
of o u r m o s t serious d i s a d v a n t a g e s . A s I h a v e said, o n e of
a child's first o b j e c t s is t o discover t h e w e a k n e s s e s of those
w h o h a v e c o n t r o l of h i m . T h i s disposition m a y p r o d u c e ill-
n a t u r e , b u t d o e s n o t arise from it, b u t from their desire t o
e s c a p e a n i r k s o m e b o n d a g e . O p p r e s s e d b y t h e y o k e laid
u p o n t h e m , children e n d e a v o r t o s h a k e it off; a n d t h e faults
t h e y find in their t e a c h e r s yield t h e m excellent m e a n s for
d o i n g t h i s . B u t t h e y acquire t h e h a b i t of o b s e r v i n g faults
in o t h e r s , a n d of e n j o y i n g such discoveries. T h i s source of
evil e v i d e n t l y d o e s n o t e x i s t in iSmile. H a v i n g n o i n t e r e s t
t o s e r v e b y d i s c o v e r i n g m y f a u l t s , h e will n o t lpok for t h e m
in m e , and will h a v e little t e m p t a t i o n t o s e e k t h e m in other
people.
T h i s course of c o n d u c t seems difficult because we do n o t
reflect u p o n i t ; but t a k i n g it a l t o g e t h e r , it o u g h t n o t to be s o .
I am justified in s u p p o s i n g that you know enough to under-
 PHYSICAL TRAINING. 91

s t a n d t h e b u s i n e s s y o u h a v e u n d e r t a k e n ; t h a t you k n o w the
n a t u r a l p r o g r e s s of t h e h u m a n m i n d ; t h a t you u n d e r s t a n d
s t u d y i n g m a n k i n d in g e n e r a l a n d in i n d i v i d u a l cases ; t h a t
a m o n g all t h e objects i n t e r e s t i n g t o his a g e t h a t you m e a n to
show y o u r p u p i l , y o u k n o w b e f o r e h a n d which of t h e m will
influence his will.
, N o w if y o u h a v e t h e a p p l i a n c e s , a n d k n o w j u s t h o w t o use
t h e m , a r e y o u n o t m a s t e r of t h e o p e r a t i o n ?
Y o u object t h a t children h a v e c a p r i c e s , b u t in this you a r e
m i s t a k e n . T h e s e caprices r e s u l t from faulty discipline, a n d
are n o t n a t u r a l . T h e children h a v e b e e n a c c u s t o m e d either
to obey or t o c o m m a n d , a n d I h a v e said a h u n d r e d t i m e s t h a t
neither of t h e s e two t h i n g s is n e c e s s a r y . Y o u r pupil will
therefore h a v e only such caprices a s you give h i m , a n d it is
j u s t you should b e p u n i s h e d for y o u r o w n f a u l t s . B u t do
y o u a s k h o w t h e s e are to be r e m e d i e d ? I t can still b e d o n e
b y m e a n s of b e t t e r m a n a g e m e n t a n d m u c h p a t i e n c e .

Physical Training.

M A N ' S first n a t u r a l m o v e m e n t s are for t h e p u r p o s e of

c o m p a r i n g himself with w h a t e v e r s u r r o u n d s h i m a n d finding
in each t h i n g t h o s e sensible qualities likely to affect himself.
H i s first s t u d y i s , t h e r e f o r e , a k i n d of e x p e r i m e n t a l p h y s i c s
r e l a t i n g t o his own p r e s e r v a t i o n . F r o m t h i s , before h e h a s
fully u n d e r s t o o d his place h e r e on e a r t h , h e is t u r n e d aside
to speculative s t u d i e s . W h i l e y e t his delicate a n d pliable
o r g a n s can a d a p t t h e m s e l v e s to t h e objects u p o n which t h e y
are to a c t , while his s e n s e s , still p u r e , a r e free from illusion,
it is time t o e x e r c i s e b o t h in their peculiar f u n c t i o n s , a n d t o
learn the perceptible relations b e t w e e n o u r s e l v e s a n d out­
w a r d t h i n g s . Since w h a t e v e r e n t e r s t h e h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d ­
i n g enters b y t h e senses,, m a n ' s primitive r e a s o n i s ^ a r e a s o n
of the s e n s e s , s e r v i n g as f o u n d a t i o n for the r e a s o n of the
intellect. O u r first t e a c h e r s in philosophy a r e our o w n
feet, h a n d s , a n d e y e s . T o s u b s t i t u t e b o o k s for t h e s e is
t e a c h i n g us n o t to r e a s o n , b u t to u s e t h e r e a s o n of a n o t h e r ;
to believe a g r e a t d e a l , a n d to k n o w n o t h i n g a t all.
I n p r a c t i s i n g a n a r t we m u s t b e g i n b y p r o c u r i n g a p p a r ­
a t u s for i t ; a n d to use this a p p a r a t u s to a d v a n t a g e , we
m u s t h a v e it solid e n o u g h to b e a r u s e . I n l e a r n i n g to
t h i n k , we m u s t therefore employ our m e m b e r s , our s e n s e s ,
our o r g a n s , all which are t h e a p p a r a t u s of our u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
A n d to u s e t h e m to t h e b e s t a d v a n t a g e , the b o d y which
furnishes t h e m m u s t b e s o u n d a n d r o b u s t . O u r r e a s o n is
t h e r e f o r e so far from b e i n g i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e b o d y , t h a t
a good c o n s t i t u t i o n r e n d e r s m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n s e a s y a n d
a c c u r a t e . I n i n d i c a t i n g h o w t h e l o n g leisure of childhood
o u g h t to be e m p l o y e d , I a m e n t e r i n g into p a r t i c u l a r s which
m a y b e t h o u g h t ridiculous. " P r e t t y l e s s o n s , " y o u will tell
m e , " which y o u yourself criticize for t e a c h i n g only w h a t
t h e r e is n o n e e d of l e a r n i n g ! W h y w a s t e time in i n s t r u c ­
tions which a l w a y s come of their o w n a c c o r d , a n d cost n e i t h e r
care n o r t r o u b l e ? W h a t child of twelve d o e s n o t k n o w all
you a r e g o i n g t o t e a c h y o u r s , a n d all t h a t his m a s t e r s
have taught him besides ? "
Gentlemen, you are mistaken. I am teaching my pupil
a v e r y tedious a n d difficult a r t , which y o u r s certainly h a v e
n o t a c q u i r e d , — t h a t of b e i n g i g n o r a n t . F o r t h e k n o w l e d g e
of one w h o gives himself credit for k n o w i n g only w h a t he
really does k n o w r e d u c e s itself to a v e r y small c o m p a s s .
Y o u a r e t e a c h i n g science : v e r y g o o d ; I a m d e a l i n g with t h e
i n s t r u m e n t b y which science is a c q u i r e d . A l l w h o h a v e
reflected u p o n t h e m o d e of life a m o n g t h e a n c i e n t s a t t r i b u t e
to g y m n a s t i c exercises t h a t vigor of b o d y a n d m i n d which
so n o t a b l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e m from u s moderns*. M o n t a i g n e ' s
 CLOTHING. 93

s u p p o r t of this opinion shows t h a t h e h a d fully a d o p t e d i t ;

he r e t u r n s to it a g a i n a n d a g a i n , in a t h o u s a n d w a y s .
S p e a k i n g of t h e e d u c a t i o n of a child, he s a y s , " W e m u s t
m a k e his m i n d r o b u s t b y h a r d e n i n g his m u s c l e s ; i n u r e h i m
to p a i n b y a c c u s t o m i n g him t o l a b o r ; b r e a k h i m b y severe
exercise t o t h e k e e n p a n g s of dislocation, of colic, of other
1 2
ailments." T h e wise L o c k e , t h e excellent E o l l i n , t h e
5 4
l e a r n e d F l e u r y , t h e p e d a n t i c de C r o u z a s , so different in
e v e r y t h i n g else, a g r e e e x a c t l y o n this p o i n t of a b u n d a n t
physical exercise for children. I t is t h e w i s e s t l e s s o n t h e y
ever t a u g h t , b u t t h e one t h a t is a n d a l w a y s will b e m o s t
neglected.

Clothing.

A s t o clothing, t h e limbs of a g r o w i n g b o d y s h o u l d b e
entirely free. N o t h i n g should c r a m p their m o v e m e n t s or
their g r o w t h ; n o t h i n g should fit t o o closely or b i n d t h e b o d y ;
t h e r e should be n o l i g a t u r e s w h a t e v e r . T h e p r e s e n t F r e n c h
d r e s s c r a m p s a n d disables even a m a n , a n d is especially
injurious to children. I t a r r e s t s t h e circulation of t h e h u m o r s ;
t h e y s t a g n a t e from a n inaction m a d e w o r s e b y a s e d e n t a r y
life. T h i s c o r r u p t i o n of t h e h u m o r s b r i n g s o n t h e s c u r v y ,
a disease b e c o m i n g every d a y m o r e c o m m o n a m o n g u s , b u t
u n k n o w n t o t h e a n c i e n t s , p r o t e c t e d from it b y their d r e s s a n d
their m o d e of life. T h e h u s s a r d r e s s d o e s n o t r e m e d y this
1
An English philosopher, who died in 1704. He wrote a very celebrated
" Treatise on the Education of Children.*'
2
A celebrated professor, Rector of the University of Paris, who died in
1741, He left a number of works on education.
3
An abbe of the seventeenth century who wrote a much valued " His­
tory of the Church," and a " Treatise on the Method and Choice of
Studies." He was tutor to Count Vermandois, natural son to Louis XIV.
4
A professor of mathematics, born at Lausanne, tutor to Prince Fred­
erick of Hesse Cassel.
i n c o n v e n i e n c e , b u t increases it, since, t o s a v e the child a few
l i g a t u r e s , it c o m p r e s s e s t h e entire b o d y . I t w o u l d b e b e t t e r
to k e e p children in frocks a s l o n g as possible, a n d t h e n p u t
t h e m into loosely fitting clothes, w i t h o u t t r y i n g t o s h a p e their
figures a n d t h e r e b y spoil t h e m . T h e i r defects of b o d y a n d
of m i n d nearly all s p r i n g from t h e s a m e c a u s e : w e a r e t r y i n g
to m a k e m e n of t h e m before their t i m e .
Of b r i g h t a n d dull colors, t h e former b e s t p l e a s e a child's
t a s t e ; s u c h colors a r e also m o s t b e c o m i n g to t h e m ; a n d I
see n o r e a s o n w h y we should n o t in such m a t t e r s c o n s u l t
t h e s e n a t u r a l coincidences. B u t t h e m o m e n t a m a t e r i a l is
p r e f e r r e d b e c a u s e it is richer, t h e child's m i n d is c o r r u p t e d
b y l u x u r y , a n d b y all s o r t s of w h i m s . P r e f e r e n c e s like this
d o n o t s p r i n g u p of their own a c c o r d . I t is impossible
t o s a y h o w m u c h choice of d r e s s a n d t h e m o t i v e s of this
choice i n n u e n c e e d u c a t i o n . N o t only d o t h o u g h t l e s s m o t h e r s
p r o m i s e ciiiidreh fine clothes b y w a y of r e w a r d , b u t foolish
t u t o r s t h r e a t e n t h e m w i t h c o a r s e r a n d simpler d r e s s a s p u n ­
i s h m e n t . " I f you d o n o t s t u d y y o u r l e s s o n s , if y o u d o
n o t t a k e b e t t e r care of y o u r clothes, y o u shall b e d r e s s e d
like t h a t little r u s t i c . " T h i s is s a y i n g t o h i m , " R e s t a s s u r e d
that, a m a n is n o t h i n g b u t w h a t his clothes m a k e him ; your,
o w n w o r t h d e p e n d s on w h a t you w e a r . " I s it s u r p r i s i n g
t h a t s a g e l e s s o n s like t h i s so influence y o u n g m e n t h a t t h e y
c a r e for n o t h i n g b u t o r n a m e n t , a n d j u d g e of m e r i t b y o u t w a r d
appearance only?
G e n e r a l l y , children a r e too w a r m l y clothed, especially in
their earlier y e a r s . T h e y should b e i n u r e d to cold r a t h e r
t h a n h e a t ; s e v e r e cold n e v e r i n c o m m o d e s t h e m when t h e y
e n c o u n t e r i t e a r l y . B u t t h e tissue of their skin, as y e t
yielding a n d t e n d e r , allows too free p a s s a g e to p e r s p i r a t i o n ,
and exposure to great heat invariably weakens them. I t has
been o b s e r v e d t h a t m o r e children die in A u g u s t t h a n in a n y
 SLEEP. 95

other m o n t h . B e s i d e s , if we c o m p a r e n o r t h e r n a n d s o u t h e r n
r a c e s , we find t h a t excessive cold, r a t h e r t h a n e x c e s s i v e
h e a t , m a k e s m a n r o b u s t . I n p r o p o r t i o n as t h e child g r o w s
a n d his fibres a r e s t r e n g t h e n e d , a c c u s t o m him g r a d u a l l y to
w i t h s t a n d h e a t ; a n d b y d e g r e e s you will w i t h o u t risk t r a i n
h i m t o e n d u r e t h e glowing t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e t o r r i d z o n e .

Sleep.

CHILDREN n e e d a g r e a t d e a l of sleep b e c a u s e t h e y t a k e a
g r e a t deal of e x e r c i s e . T h e one a c t s as corrective to t h e
o t h e r , so t h a t b o t h a r e n e c e s s a r y . A s n a t u r e t e a c h e s u s ,
n i g h t is t h e t i m e for r e s t . C o n s t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n shows t h a t
sleep is softer a n d m o r e p r o f o u n d while t h e s u n is below t h e
horizon. T h e h e a t e d air does n o t so perfectly tranquillize
our tired s e n s e s . F o r this r e a s o n t h e m o s t s a l u t a r y h a b i t is
to rise a n d t o g o t o r e s t with t h e s u n . I n our climate m a n ,
a n d a n i m a l s g e n e r a l l y , r e q u i r e m o r e sleep in w i n t e r t h a n in
s u m m e r . B u t our m o d e of life is n o t so simple, n a t u r a l , a n d
u n i f o r m t h a t we can m a k e this r e g u l a r h a b i t a n e c e s s i t y .
W e m u s t w i t h o u t d o u b t s u b m i t t o r e g u l a t i o n s ; b u t it is m o s t
i m p o r t a n t t h a t we should b e able t o b r e a k t h e m w i t h o u t risk
when occasion r e q u i r e s . D o n o t t h e n i m p r u d e n t l y soften
y o u r pupil by l e t t i n g h i m lie peacefully asleep w i t h o u t e v e r
being d i s t u r b e d . A t first let h i m yield w i t h o u t r e s t r a i n t t o
the law of n a t u r e , b u t d o n o t forget t h a t in our d a y we m u s t
be superior t o this l a w ; we m u s t b e able to g o late to r e s t
a n d rise early, to b e a w a k e n e d s u d d e n l y , to be u p all n i g h t ,
without d i s c o m f o r t . B y b e g i n n i n g early, a n d b y always
proceeding slowly, we f o r m t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n b y t h e v e r y
practices which w o u l d r u i n it if it were a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d .
I t is i m p o r t a n t t h a t y o u r pupil should from t h e first be
accustomed to a h a r d b e d , so t h a t h e m a y find n o n e u n c o m ­
fortable.
 G e n e r a l l y , a life of h a r d s h i p , w h e n we a r e u s e d to it, gives
u s a far g r e a t e r n u m b e r of a g r e e a b l e s e n s a t i o n s t h a n does a
life of e a s e , which c r e a t e s a n infinite n u m b e r of unpleasaift
o n e s . O n e too delicately r e a r e d c a n find sleep only u p o n a
b e d of d o w n ; o n e a c c u s t o m e d t o b a r e b o a r d s can find it a n y ­
w h e r e . N o b e d is h a r d to h i m w h o falls asleep as soon as
his h e a d t o u c h e s t h e pillow. T h e b e s t b e d is the one which
b r i n g s t h e b e s t sleep. T h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y n o slaves from
P e r s i a , b u t E m i l e a n d I , will p r e p a r e our b e d s . W h e n we
a r e tilling t h e g r o u n d we shall b e m a k i n g t h e m soft for our
slumber.

E x e r c i s e of the S e n s e s .
A CHILD h a s n o t a m a n ' s s t a t u r e , s t r e n g t h , or r e a s o n ; b u t
he sees a n d h e a r s a l m o s t or quite as well. H i s sense of t a s t e
is a s k e e n , t h o u g h he does n o t enjoy it as a p l e a s u r e .
O u r s e n s e s are t h e first p o w e r s p e r f e c t e d in u s . T h e y arc
t h e first t h a t should b e c u l t i v a t e d a n d t h e only o n e s f o r g o t t e n ,
or a t l e a s t , t h e m o s t neglected.
T o exercise t h e senses is n o t merely to use t h e m , b u t to
l e a r n how t o j u d g e correctly b y m e a n s of t h e m ; We m a y s a y ,
to l e a r n h o w t o feel. F o r we c a n n o t feel, or h e a r , or see,
otherwise t h a n as we h a v e b e e n t a u g h t .
T h e r e is a k i n d of e x e r c i s e , purely n a t u r a l a n d m e c h a n i c a l ,
t h a t r e n d e r s t h e b o d y r o b u s t w i t h o u t i n j u r i n g t h e m i n d . Of
this description are s w i m m i n g , r u n n i n g , l e a p i n g , s p i n n i n g
t o p s , . a n d t h r o w i n g s t o n e s . A l l t h e s e are well e n o u g h ; b u t
h a v e we n o t h i n g b u t a r m s a n d legs ? H a v e we n o t eyes a n d
e a r s a s well ? a n d are t h e y of no u s e while t h e o t h e r s are em­
p l o y e d ? U s e , t h e n , n o t only y o u r bodily s t r e n g t h , b u t all
the s e n s e s which direct it. M a k e a s m u c h of each as possi­
ble, a n d verify t h e i m p r e s s i o n s of one b y t h o s e of a n o t h e r .
M e a s u r e , c o u n t , weigh, a n d c o m p a r e . U s e n o s t r e n g t h till
after you h a v e calculated t h e r e s i s t a n c e it will m e e t . Be
careful t o e s t i m a t e t h e effect before you use t h e m e a n s . In­
t e r e s t t h e child in n e v e r m a k i n g a n y useless or i n a d e q u a t e
trials of s t r e n g t h . If you a c c u s t o m h i m to forecast t h e
effect of e v e r y m o v e m e n t , a n d to correct his e r r o r s b y e x p e ­
r i e n c e , is it n o t c e r t a i n t h a t t h e m o r e h e does t h e b e t t e r his
j u d g m e n t will b e ?
If t h e lever he u s e s in m o v i n g a h e a v y w e i g h t b e too l o n g ,
h e will e x p e n d too m u c h m o t i o n ; if too s h o r t , h e will n o t
h a v e p o w e r e n o u g h . E x p e r i e n c e will t e a c h h i m to choose
one exactly s u i t a b l e . S u c h p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e , t h e n , is n o t
b e y o n d his y e a r s . If he wishes to carry a b u r d e n e x a c t l y as
h e a v y as his s t r e n g t h will b e a r , w i t h o u t t h e t e s t of first lift­
ing it, m u s t h e n o t e s t i m a t e its w e i g h t b y t h e eye ? If he
u n d e r s t a n d s c o m p a r i n g m a s s e s of t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l b u t of
different size, let him choose b e t w e e n m a s s e s of t h e s a m e
size b u t of different m a t e r i a l . T h i s w i l l oblige h i m t o com­
p a r e t h e m as to specific g r a v i t y . I h a v e seen a well-educated
y o u n g m a n w h o , u n t i l h e h a d tried t h e e x p e r i m e n t , would
n o t believe t h a t a pail full of l a r g e chips weighs less t h a n it
does w h e n full of w a t e r .

The S e n s e of Touch.
W E h a v e n o t equal control of a l b our s e n s e s . O n e of
t h e m , the sense of t o u c h , is in c o n t i n u a l action so l o n g a s
we are a w a k e . Diffused over t h e ' e n t i r e surface of t h e b o d y ,
it serves as a p e r p e t u a l sentinel to w a r n us of w h a t is likely
to h a r m u s . B y t h e c o n s t a n t use of this s e n s e , v o l u n t a r y
or otherwise, we g a i n o u r earliest e x p e r i e n c e . I t therefore
s t a n d s less in n e e d of special cultivation. W e o b s e r v e how­
ever, t h a t t h e b l i n d h a v e a m o r e delicate a n d a c c u r a t e t o u c h
t h a n we, b e c a u s e , n o t h a v i n g sight t o g u i d e t h e m , t h e y
d e p e n d u p o n t o u c h for t h e j u d g m e n t s we f o r m with t h e aid
of sight. W h y t h e n d o we n o t t r a i n ourselves t o walk, like
t h e m , in t h e d a r k , t o r e c o g n i z e b y t h e t o u c h all bodies we
c a n r e a c h , to j u d g e of objects a r o u n d u s , in s h o r t , to do by
n i g h t a n d in the d a r k all t h e y d o in d a y t i m e w i t h o u t eye­
s i g h t ? So long as t h e s u n s h i n e s , we h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e of
t h e m ; b u t t h e y c a n g u i d e us in d a r k n e s s . W e a r e blind
d u r i n g half our life-time, with this difference, t h a t t h e realty
b l i n d c a n always guide t h e m s e l v e s , w h e r e a s we d a r e n o t
t a k e a s t e p in t h e d e a d of n i g h t . You may remind me
t h a t we h a v e artificial light. W h a t ! m u s t we always use
m a c h i n e s ? Who c a n i n s u r e their b e i n g always a t h a n d w h e n
we n e e d t h e m ? F o r m y p a r t , I prefer t h a t E m i l e , i n s t e a d
of k e e p i n g his eyes in a c h a n d l e r ' s s h o p , should h a v e t h e m
a t t h e e n d s of his fingers.
A s m u c h a s possible, let him b e a c c u s t o m e d to play a b o u t
a t n i g h t . T h i s advice is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n it would s e e m .
F o r m e n , a n d s o m e t i m e s for a n i m a l s , n i g h t h a s n a t u r a l l y its
t e r r o r s . R a r e l y clo w i s d o m , or wit, or c o u r a g e , free us from
p a y i n g t r i b u t e to t h e s e t e r r o r s . I h a v e seen r e a s o n e r s , free­
t h i n k e r s , p h i l o s o p h e r s , soldiers, w h o w e r e u t t e r l y fearless in
b r o a d d a y l i g h t , t r e m b l e like w o m e n a t t h e r u s t l e of leaves
b y night. S u c h t e r r o r s a r e s u p p o s e d t o b e t h e r e s u l t of
n u r s e r y t a l e s . T h e r e a l c a u s e is t h e s a m e t h i n g which m a k e s
t h e deaf d i s t r u s t f u l , a n d t h e lower classes s u p e r s t i t i o u s ; a n d
t h a t is, i g n o r a n c e of objects a n d e v e n t s a r o u n d u s .
T h e c a u s e of t h e evil, once found, s u g g e s t s t h e r e m e d y .
I n e v e r y t h i n g , h a b i t b e n u m b s t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ; n e w objects
alone q u i c k e n it a g a i n . E v e r y - d a y o b j e c t s k e e p active n o t
u
t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , b u t t h e m e m o r y ; whence t h e s a y i n g Ab
1
a s s u e t i s n o n fit p a s s i o . " F o r only t h e i m a g i n a t i o n c a n set
o n fire o u r p a s s i o n s . If, t h e r e f o r e , you wish t o cure a n y one
of t h e fear of d a r k n e s s , do n o t r e a s o n w i t h h i m . T a l t e him
1
'' Passion is not born of familiar things."
into the d a r k often, a n d y o u m a y be sure t h a t will d o h i m
m o r e g o o d t h a n philosophical a r g u m e n t s . W h e n a t w o r k o n
the roofs of h o u s e s , slaters do n o t feel their h e a d s s w i m ;
a n d t h o s e a c c u s t o m e d to d a r k n e s s do n o t fear it a t all.
T h e r e will b e one a d v a n t a g e of our plays in t h e d a r k .
B u t if y o u m e a n t h e m to be successful, you m u s t m a k e t h e m
as g a y a s possible. D a r k n e s s is of all t h i n g s t h e m o s t
g l o o m y ; so d o n o t s h u t y o u r child up in a d u n g e o n . When
he goes i n t o t h e d a r k m a k e him l a u g h ; w h e n he leaves it
m a k e him l a u g h a g a i n ; a n d all t h e time he is t h e r e , let t h e
t h o u g h t of w h a t h e is enjoying, a n d w h a t he will find t h e r e
w h e n he r e t u r n s , p r o t e c t him from t h e s h a d o w y t e r r o r s which
m i g h t otherwise i n h a b i t it.
I h a v e h e a r d some p r o p o s e t o t e a c h children n o t t o b e
afraid a t n i g h t , b y s u r p r i s i n g t h e m . T h i s is a b a d p l a n , a n d
its effect is c o n t r a r y t o t h e one s o u g h t : it only m a k e s t h e m
m o r e timid t h a n b e f o r e . Neither reason nor habit can
a c c u s t o m us to a p r e s e n t d a n g e r , t h e n a t u r e a n d e x t e n t of
which we d o n o t k n o w , n o r can t h e y lessen our d r e a d of
u n e x p e c t e d t h i n g s h o w e v e r often we m e e t with t h e m . But
how c a n we g u a r d our pupil a g a i n s t s u c h a c c i d e n t s ? I t h i n k
the following is the b e s t p l a n . 1 will tell m y iSmile, " I f
a n y one a t t a c k s y o u a t night, y o u a r e justified in d e f e n d i n g
yourself ; for y o u r a s s a i l a n t gives you n o notice w h e t h e r h e
m e a n s to h u r t y o u or only to frighten y o u . A s he h a s
t a k e n you a t a d i s a d v a n t a g e , seize him boldly, n o m a t t e r
w h a t he m a y s e e m to b e . H o l d him fast, a n d if h e offers
a n y r e s i s t a n c e , hit him h a r d a n d often. W h a t e v e r h e m a y
say or d o , n e v e r let g o until you k n o w e x a c t l y w h o h e i s .
T h e e x p l a n a t i o n will p r o b a b l y show y o u t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g
t o be afraid of; a n d if you t r e a t a p r a c t i c a l j o k e r in this
w a y , he will n o t b e likely-to t r y the s a m e t h i n g a g a i n . "
A l t h o u g h , of all our s e n s e s , t o u c h is t h e one m o s t con-
s t a n t l y used, still, a s I h a v e s a i d , its conclusions a r e t h e
m o s t r u d e a n d imperfect. T h i s is b e c a u s e it is always u s e d
a t t h e s a m e time with s i g h t ; a n d b e c a u s e t h e eye a t t a i n s its
object sooner t h a n t h e h a n d ; the m i n d n e a r l y a l w a y s decides
w i t h o u t a p p e a l i n g to t o u c h . O n t h e other h a n d , t h e decis­
ions of t o u c h , j u s t b e c a u s e t h e y are so limited in their r a n g e ,
a r e the m o s t a c c u r a t e . F o r a s t h e y e x t e n d n o f a r t h e r t h a n
our a r m ' s l e n g t h , t h e y c o r r e c t t h e e r r o r s of o t h e r s e n s e s ,
which deal w i t h d i s t a n t o b j e c t s , a n d scarcely g r a s p t h e s e
objects a t all, w h e r e a s all t h a t t h e t o u c h perceives it p e r ­
ceives t h o r o u g h l y . B e s i d e s , if to nerve-force we a d d m u s c u ­
l a r a c t i o n , we form a s i m u l t a n e o u s i m p r e s s i o n , a n d j u d g e of
weight a n d solidity as well as of t e m p e r a t u r e , size, a n d s h a p e .
T h u s t o u c h , which of all our senses b e s t i n f o r m s u s c o n c e r n ­
ing i m p r e s s i o n s m a d e u p o n us b y e x t e r n a l t h i n g s , is t h e one
oftenest u s e d , a n d gives us m o s t directly t h e k n o w l e d g e
n e c e s s a r y t o our p r e s e r v a t i o n .

The S e n s e of Sight.

T H E sense of t o u c h confines its o p e r a t i o n s t o a v e r y n a r ­

r o w s p h e r e a r o u n d u s , b u t t h o s e of sight e x t e n d far b e y o n d ;
this sense is t h e r e f o r e liable to be m i s t a k e n . W i t h a single
g l a n c e a m a n t a k e s in half his own h o r i z o n , a n d in t h e s e
m y r i a d i m p r e s s i o n s , a n d j u d g m e n t s r e s u l t i n g from t h e m ,
h o w is i t credible t h a t t h e r e should b e n o m i s t a k e s ? S i g h t ,
t h e r e f o r e , is t h e m o s t defective of all our s e n s e s , precisely
b e c a u s e it is m o s t f a r - r e a c h i n g , a n d b e c a u s e its o p e r a t i o n s ,
b y far p r e c e d i n g all o t h e r s , are t o o i m m e d i a t e a n d too v a s t
t o receive correction from t h e m . B e s i d e s , t h e v e r y illusions
of p e r s p e c t i v e a r e n e e d e d to m a k e u s u n d e r s t a n d e x t e n s i o n ,
a n d to help u s in c o m p a r i n g its p a r t s . If t h e r e were n o false
a p p e a r a n c e s , we could see n o t h i n g a t a d i s t a n c e ; if t h e r e
were n c g r a d a t i o n s in size, we could f o r m n o e s t i m a t e of d i s ­
t a n c e , or r a t h e r t h e r e would b e n o d i s t a n c e a t all. If of t w o
trees t h e one a h u n d r e d p a c e s a w a y s e e m e d as large a n d dis­
tinct as t h e o t h e r , t e n p a c e s d i s t a n t , we should place t h e m
side b y side. If we saw all o b j e c t s in their t r u e d i m e n s i o n s ,
we should see n o s p a c e w h a t e v e r ; e v e r y t h i n g would a p p e a r
to b e directly b e n e a t h our e y e .
F o r j u d g i n g of t h e size a n d d i s t a n c e of o b j e c t s , sight lies
only one m e a s u r e , a n d t h a t is t h e angle t h e y form with our
e y e . A s this is t h e simple effect of a c o m p o u n d c a u s e , the
j u d g m e n t we f o r m from it l e a v e s e a c h p a r t i c u l a r case u n d e ­
cided or is necessarily imperfect. F o r h o w c a n I b y t h e
sight alone tell w h e t h e r t h e angle which m a k e s one object
a p p e a r smaller t h a n a n o t h e r is c a u s e d b y t h e really lesser
m a g n i t u d e of t h e object or b y its g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e from me ?
A n opposite m e t h o d m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e p u r s u e d . Instead
of r e l y i n g on one s e n s a t i o n only, we m u s t r e p e a t it, verify it
by o t h e r s , s u b o r d i n a t e sight t o t o u c h , r e p r e s s i n g t h e i m p e t u ­
osity of the first b y the s t e a d y , e v e n p a c e of the s e c o n d .
F o r lack of this caution we m e a s u r e v e r y i n a c c u r a t e l y b y t h e
eye, in d e t e r m i n i n g height, l e n g t h , d e p t h , a n d d i s t a n c e .
T h a t this is n o t d u e to o r g a n i c defect, b u t to careless u s e ,
is p r o v e d b y t h e fact t h a t e n g i n e e r s , s u r v e y o r s , a r c h i t e c t s ,
m a s o n s , a n d p a i n t e r s generally h a v e a far m o r e a c c u r a t e eye
t h a n w e , a n d e s t i m a t e m e a s u r e s of e x t e n s i o n m o r e c o r r e c t l y .
T h e i r b u s i n e s s gives t h e m e x p e r i e n c e t h a t we n e g l e c t t o
acquire, a n d t h u s t h e y correct the a m b i g u i t y of t h e a n g l e b y
m e a n s of a p p e a r a n c e s associated with it, which e n a b l e t h e m
to d e t e r m i n e m o r e e x a c t l y the relation of the two t h i n g s p r o ­
ducing t h e a n g l e .
Children are easily led i n t o a n y t h i n g t h a t allows u n c o n ­
strained m o v e m e n t of t h e b o d y . T h e r e are a t h o u s a n d w a y s
of interesting t h e m in m e a s u r i n g , d i s c o v e r i n g , a n d e s t i m a t i n g
d i s t a n c e s . " Y o n d e r is a v e r y tall c h e r r y - t r e e ; h o w c a n we
m a n a g e to g e t some cherries ? W i l l the l a d d e r in t h e b a r n
d o ? T h e r e is a v e r y wide b r o o k ; how c a n we cross it ?
W o u l d one of t h e p l a n k s in t h e y a r d be l o n g e n o u g h ? We
w a n t to t h r o w a line from our windows a n d c a t c h some fish
in t h e m o a t a r o u n d t h e h o u s e ; how m a n y f a t h o m s long
o u g h t the line to b e ? I w a n t to p u t u p a swing b e t w e e n
those two t r e e s ; would four y a r d s of r o p e b e e n o u g h for it ?
T h e y say t h a t in t h e other h o u s e our r o o m will b e t w e n t y -
five feet s q u a r e ; d o y o u t h i n k t h a t will suit u s ? W i l l it b e
l a r g e r t h a n this ? W e are very h u n g r y ; which of t h o s e t w o
villages y o n d e r can we r e a c h s o o n e s t , a n d h a v e our d i n n e r ? "
A s the sense of sight is t h e one l e a s t easily s e p a r a t e d from
the j u d g m e n t s of t h e m i n d , we n e e d a g r e a t deal of time for
l e a r n i n g how to s e e . W e m u s t for a long time c o m p a r e sight
with t o u c h , if we would a c c u s t o m our eye t o r e p o r t forms
and distances accurately.
W i t h o u t touch a n d w i t h o u t p r o g r e s s i v e m o v e m e n t , t h e
k e e n e s t eye-sight in t h e world could give us n o idea of
e x t e n t . T o a n o y s t e r t h e entire u n i v e r s e m u s t be only a
single p o i n t . O n l y b y w a l k i n g , feeling, c o u n t i n g , a n d m e a s ­
u r i n g , do we l e a r n to e s t i m a t e d i s t a n c e s .
If we always m e a s u r e t h e m , h o w e v e r , our e y e , d e p e n d i n g
o n t h i s , will n e v e r gain a c c u r a c y . Y e t t h e child o u g h t n o t
t o p a s s too soon from m e a s u r i n g to e s t i m a t i n g . I t will be
b e t t e r for him, after c o m p a r i n g b y p a r t s w h a t he c a n n o t
c o m p a r e a s wholes, finally to s u b s t i t u t e for m e a s u r e d aliquot
p a r t s o t h e r s , o b t a i n e d b y t h e eye a l o n e . H e should t r a i n
himself in this m a n n e r of m e a s u r i n g i n s t e a d of always
m e a s u r i n g with t h e h a n d . I prefer t h a t t h e v e r y first
o p e r a t i o n s of this k i n d should be verified b y a c t u a l m e a s ­
u r e m e n t s , so t h a t he m a y correct t h e m i s t a k e s arising from
false a p p e a r a n c e s b y a b e t t e r j u d g m e n t . T h e r e a r e n a t u r a l
m e a s u r e s , n e a r l y t h e s a m e e v e r y w h e r e , such as a m a n ' s
p a c e , t h e l e n g t h of his a r m , or his h e i g h t . W h e n t h e child
U calculating t h e h e i g h t of t h e s t o r y of a h o u s e , his t u t o r
m a y serve a s a u n i t of m e a s u r e . I n e s t i m a t i n g t h e altitude
of a steeple, h e m a y c o m p a r e it with t h a t of t h e n e i g h b o r i n g
h o u s e s . If he w a n t s to k n o w how m a n y l e a g u e s t h e r e a r e
in a g i v e n j o u r n e y , let h i m r e c k o n t h e n u m b e r of h o u r s
s p e n t in m a k i n g it on foot. A n d b y all m e a n s d o n o n e of
this woi'k for him ; let h i m d o it himself.
W e c a n n o t l e a r n t o j u d g e correctly of t h e e x t e n t a n d size
of bodies w i t h o u t also l e a r n i n g to r e c o g n i z e their f o r m s , a n d
e v e n t o i m i t a t e t h e m . F o r such imitation is absolutely d e ­
p e n d e n t on t h e laws of p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d we c a n n o t e s t i m a t e
e x t e n t from a p p e a r a n c e s without s o m e a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e s e
laws.

Drawing.

A L L children, b e i n g n a t u r a l i m i t a t o r s , t r y to d r a w . I
would h a v e m y pupil cultivate this a r t , n o t e x a c t l y for the
s a k e of t h e a r t itself, b u t to r e n d e r t h e eye true a n d t h e
h a n d flexible. I n g e n e r a l , it m a t t e r s little w h e t h e r he u n d e r ­
s t a n d s this or t h a t exercise, p r o v i d e d he a c q u i r e s t h e m e n t a l
insight, a n d the m a n u a l skill furnished b y t h e e x e r c i s e . I
should t a k e c a r e , t h e r e f o r e , n o t to give h i m a d r a w i n g -
m a s t e r , w h o would give him only copies t o i m i t a t e , a n d
would m a k e h i m d r a w from d r a w i n g s only. H e shall h a v e
n o t e a c h e r b u t n a t u r e , n o m o d e l s b u t r e a l t h i n g s . H e shall
h a v e before his eyes t h e originals, a n d n o t t h e p a p e r which
r e p r e s e n t s t h e m . H e shall d r a w a h o u s e from a r e a l h o u s e ,
a tree from a tree, a h u m a n figure from t h e m a n himself. In
this way h e will a c c u s t o m himself to o b s e r v e b o d i e s a n d their
a p p e a r a n c e s , a n d n o t m i s t a k e for a c c u r a t e i m i t a t i o n s t h o s e
t h a t a r e false a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l . I should e v e n object t o his
d r a w i n g a n y t h i n g from m e m o r y , until b y f r e q u e n t o b s e r v a ­
tions t h e e x a c t forms of t h e objects h a d clearly i m p r i n t e d
t h e m s e l v e s on his i m a g i n a t i o n , lest, s u b s t i t u t i n g o d d and
f a n t a s t i c s h a p e s for t h e r e a l t h i n g s , he m i g h t loose the
k n o w l e d g e of p r o p o r t i o n a n d a t a s t e for t h e b e a u t i e s oi
n a t u r e . I k n o w v e r y well t h a t he will g o o n d a u b i n g for a
long time w i t h o u t m a k i n g a n y t h i n g w o r t h n o t i c i n g , a n d will
b e l o n g in m a s t e r i n g elegance of outline, a n d in a c q u i r i n g
t h e deft s t r o k e of a skilled d r a u g h t s m a n . H e m a y never
l e a r n to discern p i c t u r e s q u e effects, or d r a w with superior
skill. O n t h e other h a n d , he will h a v e a m o r e correct eye, a
t r u e r h a n d , a k n o w l e d g e of the r e a l r e l a t i o n s of size a n d
s h a p e in a n i m a l s , p l a n t s , a n d n a t u r a l b o d i e s , a n d p r a c t i c a l
e x p e r i e n c e of t h e illusions of p e r s p e c t i v e . T h i s is precisely
w h a t I i n t e n d ; n o t so m u c h t h a t h e shall imitate objects as
t h a t he shall k n o w t h e m . I would r a t h e r h a v e h i m show me
a n a c a n t h u s t h a n a finished d r a w i n g of the foliation of a
capital.
Y e t I would n o t allow m y pupil to h a v e t h e e n j o y m e n t of
this or a n y other exercise all to himself. B y s h a r i n g it w i t h
h i m I will m a k e h i m enjoy it still m o r e . H e shall h a v e n o
c o m p e t i t o r b u t m y s e l f ; b u t I will b e t h a t c o m p e t i t o r con­
tinually, a n d w i t h o u t r i s k of j e a l o u s y b e t w e e n u s . I t will
only i n t e r e s t h i m m o r e deeply in his s t u d i e s . L i k e him I
will t a k e u p t h e pencil, a n d a t first I will b e as a w k w a r d as
h e . If I were a n A p e l l e s , even, I will m a k e myself a m e r e
dauber.
I will b e g i n b y s k e t c h i n g a m a n j u s t a s a b o y would s k e t c h
one on a wall, with a d a s h for e a c h a r m , a n d with fingers
larger than the arms. B y a n d b y one or t h e o t h e r of us
will discover this d i s p r o p o r t i o n . W e shall o b s e r v e t h a t a
leg h a s t h i c k n e s s , a n d t h a t this t h i c k n e s s is n o t the s a m e
 DRAWING. 105

everywhere ; t h a t t h e l e n g t h of t h e a r m is d e t e r m i n e d b y its
p r o p o r t i o n to t h e b o d y ; a n d so on. A s we g o on I will d o
n o m o r e t h a n k e e p even s t e p with h i m , or will excel h i m by
so little t h a t he c a n always easily o v e r t a k e a n d e v e n s u r p a s s
m e . W e will g e t colors a n d b r u s h e s ; we will t r y to i m i t a t e
n o t only the outline b u t the coloring a n d all t h e other details
of o b j e c t s . W e will c o l o r ; we will p a i n t ; we will d a u b ;
b u t in all our d a u b i n g we shall b e continually p e e r i n g i n t o
n a t u r e , a n d all we d o shall be d o n e u n d e r t h e eye of t h a t
great teacher.
If we h a d difficulty in finding d e c o r a t i o n s for our r o o m ,
we h a v e now all we could d e s i r e . I will h a v e our d r a w i n g s
f r a m e d , so t h a t we c a n give t h e m n o finishing t o u c h e s ; a n d
this will m a k e us b o t h careful to do n o n e g l i g e n t w o r k . I
will a r r a n g e t h e m in o r d e r a r o u n d o u r r o o m , e a c h d r a w i n g
r e p e a t e d t w e n t y or t h i r t y t i m e s , a n d each r e p e t i t i o n s h o w i n g
t h e a u t h o r ' s p r o g r e s s , from t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a h o u s e by
a n a l m o s t shapeless a t t e m p t a t a s q u a r e , to t h e a c c u r a t e
copy of its front elevation, profile, p r o p o r t i o n s , a n d s h a d i n g .
T h e d r a w i n g s t h u s g r a d e d m u s t b e i n t e r e s t i n g to o u r s e l v e s ,
curious t o o t h e r s , a n d likely to s t i m u l a t e further effort. I
will inclose t h e first a n d r u d e s t of t h e s e in s h o w y gilded
f r a m e s , to set t h e m off w e l l ; b u t a s t h e i m i t a t i o n i m p r o v e s ,
a n d when t h e d r a w i n g is really g o o d , I will a d d only a v e r y
simple b l a c k f r a m e . T h e picture n e e d s n o o r n a m e n t b u t
itself, a n d it would b e a pity t h a t t h e b o r d e r i n g should
receive half t h e a t t e n t i o n .
B o t h of us will a s p i r e to the h o n o r of a plain f r a m e , a n d
if either wishes t o c o n d e m n t h e o t h e r ' s d r a w i n g , h e will say
it o u g h t to h a v e a gilt f r a m e . P e r h a p s some day these
gilded frames will p a s s into a p r o v e r b w i t h u s , a n d we shall
be i n t e r e s t e d to o b s e r v e h o w m a n y m e n d o justice to them*
selves b y framing t h e m s e l v e s in t h e v e r y s a m e Way. .•
 Geometry.

I HAVE said t h a t g e o m e t r y is n o t intelligible t o c h i l d r e n ;

b u t it is our o w n fault. W e do n o t o b s e r v e t h a t their
m e t h o d is different from o u r s , a n d t h a t w h a t is t o us t h e a r t
of r e a s o n i n g should b e to t h e m only t h e a r t of s e e i n g .
I n s t e a d of g i v i n g t h e m our m e t h o d , we should do b e t t e r t o
t a k e t h e i r s . F o r in our w a y of l e a r n i n g g e o m e t r y , i m a g i n a ­
tion really does as m u c h as r e a s o n . W h e n a p r o p o s i t i o n is
s t a t e d , we h a v e to i m a g i n e t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n ; t h a t is, we
h a v e t o find u p o n w h a t p r o p o s i t i o n a l r e a d y k n o w n t h e new
one d e p e n d s , a n d from all t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of this k n o w n
principle select j u s t t h e one r e q u i r e d . A c c o r d i n g to this
m e t h o d t h e m o s t e x a c t r e a s o n e r , if n o t n a t u r a l l y i n v e n t i v e ,
m u s t b e a t fault. A n d t h e r e s u l t is t h a t t h e t e a c h e r , i n s t e a d
of m a k i n g u s discover d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , d i c t a t e s t h e m to u s ;
i n s t e a d of t e a c h i n g u s to r e a s o n , he r e a s o n s for u s , a n d
e x e r c i s e s only our m e m o r y .
M a k e t h e d i a g r a m s a c c u r a t e ; c o m b i n e t h e m , place t h e m
o n e u p o n a n o t h e r , e x a m i n e their r e l a t i o n s , a n d y o u will
discover t h e whole of e l e m e n t a r y g e o m e t r y b y p r o c e e d i n g
from one o b s e r v a t i o n to a n o t h e r , w i t h o u t using either defi­
nitions or p r o b l e m s , or a n y form of d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a n
simple s u p e r p o s i t i o n . F o r m y p a r t , I do n o t e v e n p r e t e n d to
t e a c h E m i l e g e o m e t r y ; he shall t e a c h it to m e . I will look
for r e l a t i o n s , a n d h e shall discover t h e m . I will look for
t h e m in a w a y t h a t will lead him to discover t h e m . In
d r a w i n g a circle, for i n s t a n c e , I will n o t use a c o m p a s s , b u t
a p o i n t a t t h e e n d of a cord which t u r n s on a p i v o t . After­
w a r d , w h e n I w a n t to c o m p a r e t h e r a d i i of a semi-circle,
iDmile will l a u g h a t m e a n d tell m e t h a t t h e s a m e cord, held
with t h e s a m e t e n s i o n , c a n n o t describe u n e q u a l d i s t a n c e s .
W h e n I w a n t t o m e a s u r e a n angle of s i x t y d e g r e e s , I will
 describe from t h e a p e x of t h e angle n o t a n a r c o n l y , b u t a n
entire circle ; for with children n o t h i n g m u s t b e t a k e n for
g r a n t e d . I find t h a t t h e p o r t i o n i n t e r c e p t e d b y t h e two sides
of t h e angle is o n e - s i x t h of t h e whole c i r c u m f e r e n c e . After­
w a r d , from t h e s a m e c e n t r e , I describe a n o t h e r a n d a l a r g e r
circle, a n d find t h a t this second a r c is o n e - s i x t h of t h e n e w
circumference. D e s c r i b i n g a t h i r d c o n c e n t r i c circle, I t e s t it
i n the s a m e w a y , a n d c o n t i n u e t h e p r o c e s s with o t h e r concen­
tric circles, until, ]£mile, v e x e d a t m y s t u p i d i t y , informs m e
t h a t every a r c , g r e a t or small, i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e sides of t h i s
a n g l e , will b e o n e - s i x t h of t h e circumference to which it
b e l o n g s . Y o u see we a r e a l m o s t r e a d y t o use t h e i n s t r u m e n t s
intjlligently.
I n o r d e r t o p r o v e t h e angles of a t r i a n g l e e q u a l t o t w o r i g h t
a n g l e s , a circle is usually d r a w n . I , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , will
call E m i l e ' s a t t e n t i o n to this in t h e circle, a n d t h e n a s k h i m ,
" N o w , if t h e circle were t a k e n a w a y , a n d t h e s t r a i g h t lines
were left, would t h e size of t h e a n g l e s b e c h a n g e d ? "
I t is n o t c u s t o m a r y t o p a y m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o t h e a c c u r a c y
of figures in g e o m e t r y ; t h e a c c u r a c y is t a k e n for g r a n t e d ,
a n d the d e m o n s t r a t i o n alone is r e g a r d e d . E m i l e a n d I will
p a y n o heed to t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n , b u t a i m t o d r a w e x a c t l y
s t r a i g h t a n d even lines ; to m a k e a s q u a r e p e r f e c t a n d a circle
r o u n d . T o t e s t t h e e x a c t n e s s of t h e figure we will e x a m i n e
it in all its visible p r o p e r t i e s , a n d this will give u s daily
o p p o r t u n i t y of finding o u t o t h e r s . W e will fold t h e t w o
halves of a circle o n t h e line of t h e d i a m e t e r , a n d t h e h a l v e s
of a s q u a r e o n its d i a g o n a l , a n d t h e n e x a m i n e our t w o fig­
ures to see which h a s its b o u n d i n g lines m o s t n e a r l y coinci­
d e n t , a n d is t h e r e f o r e b e s t c o n s t r u c t e d . W e will d e b a t e a s
to whether t h i s equality of p a r t s e x i s t s in all p a r a l l e l o g r a m s ,
t r a p e z i u m s , a n d like figures. S o m e t i m e s we will e n d e a v o r
to g u e s s a t t h e r e s u l t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t b e f o r e we m a k e it,
a n d sometimes to find o u t t h e r e a s o n s w h y it should r e s u l t as
it d o e s .
G e o m e t r y for m y pupil is only the a r t of u s i n g t h e rule a n d
c o m p a s s well. I t should n o t b e c o n f o u n d e d with d r a w i n g ,
which u s e s n e i t h e r of t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e rule a n d com­
p a s s a r e t o be k e p t u n d e r lock a n d k e y , a n d he shall be
allowed t o use t h e m only occasionally, a n d for a s h o r t t i m e ,
lest he fall into t h e h a b i t of d a u b i n g . B u t s o m e t i m e s , w h e n
we go for a w a l k , we will t a k e our d i a g r a m s with us, a n d talk
a b o u t w h a t we h a v e d o n e or would like t o d o .

Hearing.

W H A T h a s b e e n said as to t h e t w o senses m o s t continually

employed a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a y illustrate t h e w a y in w h i c h
I should exercise t h e other s e n s e s . S i g h t a n d t o u c h deal
alike w i t h b o d i e s a t r e s t a n d bodies in m o t i o n . B u t as only
t h e v i b r a t i o n of t h e air c a n a r o u s e t h e sense of h e a r i n g , noise
or s o u n d c a n b e m a d e only by a b o d y in m o t i o n . If every­
t h i n g w e r e a t r e s t , we could n o t h e a r a t all. A t night, w h e n
we m o v e only as we choose, we h a v e n o t h i n g to fear e x c e p t
from o t h e r b o d i e s in m o t i o n . W e t h e r e f o r e n e e d quick e a r s
t o j u d g e from our s e n s a t i o n s w h e t h e r t h e bod}' c a u s i n g t h e m
is l a r g e or small, d i s t a n t or n e a r , a n d w h e t h e r its m o t i o n is
violent or slight. T h e air, w h e n in a g i t a t i o n , is subject to
r e v e r b e r a t i o n s which reflect it b a c k , p r o d u c e echoes, a n d
r e p e a t t h e s e n s a t i o n , m a k i n g the s o n o r o u s b o d y h e a r d else­
w h e r e t h a n w h e r e it realty is. I n a plain or valley, if you
T
p u t 3 our ear to the g r o u n d , you c a n h e a r t h e voices of m e n
a n d t h e s o u n d of h o r s e s ' hoofs m u c h f a r t h e r t h a n w h e n s t a n d ­
i n g u p r i g h t . A s we h a v e c o m p a r e d sight with t o u c h , let u s
also c o m p a r e it with h e a r i n g , a n d consider which of the t w o
i m p r e s s i o n s , l e a v i n g t h e s a m e b o d y a t t h e s a m e t i m e , soonest
 THE VOICE. 109

r e a c h e s its o r g a n . W h e n we see t h e flash of a c a n n o n t h e r e

is still time t o avoid t h e s h o t ; b u t as soon as we h e a r t h e
s o u n d there is n o t time ; t h e ball h a s s t r u c k . W e can esti­
m a t e t h e d i s t a n c e of t h u n d e r by t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n the
flash a n d t h e t h u n d e r b o l t . M a k e the child u n d e r s t a n d such
e x p e r i m e n t s ; t r y t h o s e t h a t are within his o w n p o w e r , a n d
discover o t h e r s b y inference. B u t it would b e b e t t e r he
should k n o w n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e s e t h i n g s t h a n t h a t you should
tell him all he is to k n o w a b o u t t h e m .
W e h a v e an o r g a n t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h a t of h e a r i n g , t h a t
is, the voice. S i g h t h a s n o t h i n g like t h i s , for t h o u g h we c a n
p r o d u c e s o u n d s , we .cannot give off colors. W e h a v e t h e r e ­
fore fuller m e a n s of cultivating h e a r i n g , b y e x e r c i s i n g its
active a n d p a s s i v e o r g a n s u p o n one a n o t h e r .

The Voice.

M A N h a s t h r e e k i n d s of v o i c e : t h e s p e a k i n g or a r t i c u l a t e
voice, t h e singing or melodious voice, a n d t h e p a t h e t i c or
a c c e n t e d voice, which gives l a n g u a g e to p a s s i o n a n d a n i m a t e s
song a n d speech. A child h a s t h e s e t h r e e k i n d s of voice a s
well a s a m a n , b u t he does n o t k n o w how to b l e n d t h e m in
t h e same w a y . L i k e his elders he can l a u g h , c r y , c o m p l a i n ,
exclaim, a n d g r o a n . B u t he does n o t k n o w how t o b l e n d
t h e s e inflections with t h e two other v o i c e s . P e r f e c t m u s i c
b e s t accomplishes this b l e n d i n g ; b u t children a r e i n c a p a b l e of
such music, a n d t h e r e is never m u c h feeling in their s i n g i n g .
I n s p e a k i n g , their voice h a s little e n e r g y , a n d little or n o a c c e n t .
Our pupil will h a v e even a simpler a n d m o r e u n i f o r m m o d e
of s p e a k i n g , b e c a u s e his p a s s i o n s , n o t y e t a r o u s e d , will n o t
mingle their l a n g u a g e with his. D o n o t , t h e r e f o r e , give him
d r a m a t i c p a r t s to recite, nor t e a c h h i m t o declaim. H e will
h a v e too m u c h sense to e m p h a s i z e w o r d s h e c a n n o t u n d e r ­
s t a n d , a n d to e x p r e s s feelings he h a s n e v e r k n o w n .
 T e a c h h i m to s p e a k evenly, clearly, a r t i c u l a t e l y , to p r o ­
n o u n c e correctly a n d w i t h o u t affectation, to u n d e r s t a n d a n d
use t h e a c c e n t d e m a n d e d b y g r a m m a r a n d p r o s o d y . Train
him to avoid a c o m m o n fault a c q u i r e d in colleges, of s p e a k ­
ing louder t h a n is n e c e s s a r y ; h a v e him s p e a k loud e n o u g h
to b e u n d e r s t o o d ; let t h e r e b e n o e x a g g e r a t i o n in a n y t h i n g .
A i m , also, to r e n d e r his voice in s i n g i n g , e v e n , flexible, a n d
s o n o r o u s . L e t his ear be sensitive to time a n d h a r m o n y , b u t
to n o t h i n g m o r e . D o n o t e x p e c t of him, a t his a g e , i m i t a t i v e
a n d t h e a t r i c a l m u s i c . I t would be b e t t e r if he did n o t even
sing w o r d s . If he wished to sing t h e m , I should t r y to
i n v e n t s o n g s especially for him, such as would i n t e r e s t h i m ,
as simple as his own i d e a s .

The S e n s e of Taste.

O F our different s e n s a t i o n s , those of t a s t e g e n e r a l l y affect

us m o s t . W e a r e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d in j u d g i n g correctly of
s u b s t a n c e s t h a t a r e to f o r m p a r t of our own bodies t h a n of
those which merely s u r r o u n d u s . W e are indifferent to a
t h o u s a n d t h i n g s , as o b j e c t s of t o u c h , of h e a r i n g , or of s i g h t ;
b u t t h e r e is a l m o s t n o t h i n g to which our sense of t a s t e is
indifferent. B e s i d e s , t h e action of this sense is entirely
p h y s i c a l a n d m a t e r i a l . I m a g i n a t i o n a n d i m i t a t i o n often give
a t i n g e of m o r a l c h a r a c t e r to t h e i m p r e s s i o n s of all t h e o t h e r
s e n s e s ; b u t t o this it a p p e a l s least of all, if a t all. Gener­
ally, also, p e r s o n s of p a s s i o n a t e a n d really sensitive t e m p e r ­
a m e n t , easily m o v e d b y t h e other s e n s e s , a r e r a t h e r indiffer­
e n t in r e g a r d to this. T h i s v e r y fact, which s e e m s in s o m e
m e a s u r e t o d e g r a d e t h e sense of t a s t e , a n d to m a k e e x c e s s
in its i n d u l g e n c e m o r e c o n t e m p t i b l e , l e a d s m e , h o w e v e r , t o
conclude t h a t the s u r e s t w a y to influence children is b y
m e a n s of their a p p e t i t e . G l u t t o n y , as a m o t i v e , is far b e t t e r
t h a n v a n i t y ; for g l u t t o n y is a n a t u r a l a p p e t i t e d e p e n d i n g
directly on t h e s e n s e s , a n d v a n i t y is t h e r e s u l t of o p i n i o n ,
is subject to h u m a n caprice a n d t o a b u s e of all k i n d s .
G l u t t o n y is t h e p a s s i o n of childhood, a n d c a n n o t hold
its o w n a g a i n s t a n y o t h e r ; it d i s a p p e a r s on t h e slightest
occasion.
Believe m e , t h e child will only too soon leave off t h i n k i n g
of his a p p e t i t e ; for w h e n his h e a r t is occupied, his p a l a t e
will give him little c o n c e r n . W h e n he is a m a n , a t h o u s a n d
impulsive feelings will d i v e r t his m i n d from g l u t t o n y t o
v a n i t y ; for this l a s t p a s s i o n alone t a k e s a d v a n t a g e of all
o t h e r s , a n d e n d s b y a b s o r b i n g t h e m all. I h a v e s o m e t i m e s
w a t c h e d closely t h o s e w h o a r e especially fond of d a i n t i e s ;
w h o , as soon as t h e y a w o k e , were t h i n k i n g of w h a t t h e y
should e a t d u r i n g the d a y , a n d could describe a d i n n e r with
m o r e m i n u t e n e s s t h a n P o l y b i u s u s e s in d e s c r i b i n g a b a t t l e ;
a n d I h a v e always found t h a t t h e s e s u p p o s e d m e n w e r e
n o t h i n g b u t children forty y e a r s old, w i t h o u t a n y force or
s t e a d i n e s s of c h a r a c t e r . G l u t t o n y is t h e vice of m e n w h o
h a v e n o s t a m i n a . T h e soul of a g o u r m a n d h a s its s e a t in
his p a l a t e a l o n e ; f o r m e d only for e a t i n g , s t u p i d , i n c a p a b l e ,
he is in his t r u e place only a t t h e t a b l e ; his j u d g m e n t is
worthless e x c e p t in t h e m a t t e r of d i s h e s . A s he v a l u e s
t h e s e far m o r e highly t h a n o t h e r s in which we a r e i n t e r e s t e d ,
as well a s h e , let us w i t h o u t r e g r e t leave this b u s i n e s s of t h e
p a l a t e to h i m .
I t is w e a k p r e c a u t i o n t o fear t h a t g l u t t o n y m a y t a k e r o o t
in a child c a p a b l e of a n y t h i n g .else. A s children, we t h i n k
only of e a t i n g ; b u t in y o u t h , we t h i n k of it n o m o r e . E v e r y ­
t h i n g t a s t e s g o o d to u s , a n d we h a v e m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s t o
occupy u s .
Y e t I would n o t use so low a m o t i v e injudiciously, or
r e w a r d a good action w i t h a s u g a r - p l u m . Since childhood is
or should b e a l t o g e t h e r m a d e u p of p l a y a n d frolic, I see
n o r e a s o n w h y exercise purely p h y s i c a l should n o t h a v e a
m a t e r i a l a n d t a n g i b l e r e w a r d . If a y o u n g M a j o r c a n , seeing
a b a s k e t in t h e t o p of a t r e e , b r i n g s it d o w n with a stone
from his sling, w h y should he n o t h a v e the r e c o m p e n s e of a
g o o d b r e a k f a s t , to r e p a i r t h e s t r e n g t h u s e d in e a r n i n g it ?
A y o u n g S p a r t a n , b r a v i n g the risk of a h u n d r e d l a s h e s ,
A
stole into a k i t c h e n , a n d carried off a live f o x - c u b , which
concealed u n d e r his coat, s c r a t c h e d a n d bit him till t h e b l o o d
c a m e . T o avoid t h e disgrace of d e t e c t i o n , t h e child allowed
t h e c r e a t u r e to g n a w his e n t r a i l s , a n d did n o t lift a n eyelash
1
or u t t e r a c r y . W a s it n o t j u s t t h a t , as a r e w a r d , he w a s
allowed to d e v o u r t h e b e a s t t h a t h a d d o n e its b e s t to d e v o u r
him ?
A g o o d m e a l o u g h t n e v e r to b e g i v e n as a r e w a r d ; b u t
w h y should it n o t s o m e t i m e s b e the r e s u l t of t h e p a i n s t a k e n
t o secure i t ? E m i l e will n o t consider t h e cake I p u t u p o n a
s t o n e as a r e w a r d for r u n n i n g w e l l ; he only k n o w s t h a t he
c a n n o t h a v e t h e c a k e unless he r e a c h e s it before some o t h e r
person does.
T h i s does n o t c o n t r a d i c t t h e principle before laid d o w n as
t o simplicity in diet. F o r to please a child's a p p e t i t e we
n e e d n o t a r o u s e it, b u t merely satisfy i t ; a n d this m a y b e
d o n e with t h e m o s t o r d i n a r y t h i n g s in the world, if we d o
n o t t a k e p a i n s to refine his t a s t e . H i s c o n t i n u a l a p p e t i t e ,
arising from his r a p i d g r o w t h , is an unfailing s a u c e , which
supplies the place of m a n y o t h e r s . W i t h a little fruit, or
s o m e of the d a i n t i e s m a d e from milk, or a b i t of p a s t r y r a t h e r
m o r e of a r a r i t y t h a n t h e e v e r y - d a y b r e a d , a n d , m o r e t h a n all,
with s o m e t a c t in b e s t o w i n g , you m a y lead a n a r m y of children
to the w o r l d ' s e n d w i t h o u t giving t h e m a n y t a s t e for highly
spiced food, or r u n n i n g a n y risk of cloying their p a l a t e .
1
Recorded as illustrating Spartan education.
 B e s i d e s , w h a t e v e r k i n d of diet y o u give c h i l d r e n , p r o v i d e d
t h e y ' a r e u s e d only t o simple a n d c o m m o n articles of food,
let t h e m e a t , r u n , a n d play as m u c h as t h e y p l e a s e , a n d you
m a y r e s t a s s u r e d t h e y will n e v e r e a t too m u c h , or b e t r o u ­
b l e d w i t h i n d i g e s t i o n . B u t if y o u s t a r v e t h e m half t h e t i m e ,
a n d t h e y c a n find a w a y to escape y o u r vigilance, t h e y will
injure t h e m s e l v e s w i t h all their m i g h t , a n d e a t u n t i l t h e y a r e
entirely surfeited.
U n l e s s we d i c t a t e t o our appetite- o t h e r rules t h a n t h o s e of
n a t u r e , it will n e v e r b e i n o r d i n a t e . A l w a y s r e g u l a t i n g , p r e ­
scribing, a d d i n g , r e t r e n c h i n g , we do e v e r y t h i n g w i t h scales
in h a n d . B u t t h e scales m e a s u r e our own w h i m s , a n d n o t
our digestive o r g a n s .
T o r e t u r n to m y illustrations ; a m o n g c o u n t r y folk t h e
larder and the orchard are always open, and nobody, young
or old, k n o w s w h a t i n d i g e s t i o n m e a n s .

Result. T h e P u p i l a t the A g e of T e n or T w e l v e .

SUPPOSING t h a t my m e t h o d is i n d e e d t h a t of n a t u r e itself,
a n d t h a t I h a v e m a d e n o m i s t a k e s in a p p l y i n g it, I h a v e n o w
c o n d u c t e d m y pupil t h r o u g h t h e r e g i o n of s e n s a t i o n s to t h e
b o u n d a r i e s of childish r e a s o n . T h e first s t e p b e y o n d should
b e t h a t of a m a n . B u t before b e g i n n i n g this n e w c a r e e r , let
us for a m o m e n t c a s t o u r eyes over w h a t we h a v e j u s t t r a v ­
ersed. E v e r y a g e a n d s t a t i o n in life h a s a perfection, a
m a t u r i t y , all its o w n . W e often h e a r of a full-grown m a n ;
in c o n t e m p l a t i n g a full-grown child we shall find m o r e n o v ­
elty, a n d p e r h a p s no less p l e a s u r e .
T h e e x i s t e n c e of finite b e i n g s is so b a r r e n a n d so limited
t h a t when we se£ only- w h a t is, it n e v e r stirs u s t o e m o t i o n .
R e a l objects are a d o r n e d b y t h e c r e a t i o n s of f a n c y , a n d
without t h i s c h a r m yield u s b u t a b a r r e n s a t i s f a c t i o n , e x -
t e n d i n g n o f a r t h e r t h a n to t h e o r g a n t h a t perceives t h e m ,
a n d t h e h e a r t is left cold. T h e e a r t h , clad in t h e glories of
a u t u m n , displays a w e a l t h which t h e w o n d e r i n g eye e n j o y s ,
b u t which a r o u s e s n o feeling within us ; it s p r i n g s less from
s e n t i m e n t t h a n from reflection. I n s p r i n g t h e l a n d s c a p e is
still a l m o s t b a r e ; t h e forests yield n o s h a d e ; t h e v e r d u r e is
only b e g i n n i n g to b u d ; a n d y e t t h e h e a r t is deeply m o v e d
a t t h e sight. W e feel within us a n e w life, w h e n we see
n a t u r e t h u s r e v i v e ; delightful i m a g e s s u r r o u n d u s ; the
c o m p a n i o n s of p l e a s u r e , g e n t l e t e a r s , ever r e a d y to 'spring a t
t h e t o u c h of t e n d e r feelings, b r i m o u r e y e s . B u t u p o n the
p a n o r a m a of t h e v i n t a g e s e a s o n , a n i m a t e d a n d p l e a s a n t
t h o u g h it b e , we h a v e n o t e a r s to b e s t o w . W h y is t h e r e this
difference ? I t is b e c a u s e i m a g i n a t i o n joins to t h e s i g h t of
s p r i n g - t i m e t h a t of following s e a s o n s . T o t h e t e n d e r b u d s
t h e eye a d d s t h e flowers, t h e fruit, t h e s h a d e , s o m e t i m e s
also t h e m y s t e r i e s t h a t m a y lie hid in t h e m . I n t o a single
p o i n t of t i m e our f a n c y g a t h e r s all t h e y e a r ' s s e a s o n s y e t to
b e , a n d sees t h i n g s less as t h e y really will b e t h a n as it
would choose to h a v e t h e m . I n a u t u m n , o n t h e c o n t r a r y ,
t h e r e is n o t h i n g b u t b a r e r e a l i t y . If we t h i n k of s p r i n g
t h e n , t h e t h o u g h t of w i n t e r checks u s , a n d b e n e a t h s n o w
a n d h o a r - f r o s t t h e chilled i m a g i n a t i o n d i e s .
T h e c h a r m we feel in looking u p o n a lovely childhood
r a t h e r t h a n u p o n t h e perfection of m a t u r e a g e , arises from
t h e s a m e s o u r c e . If t h e sight of a m a n in his p r i m e gives
u s like p l e a s u r e , it is w h e n t h e m e m o r y of w h a t he h a s d o n e
l e a d s u s t o review his p a s t life a n d b r i n g u p his y o u n g e r
7
da} s. If we t h i n k of h i m as h e i s , or as h e will be in old
a g e , t h e i d e a of declining n a t u r e d e s t r o y s all o u r p l e a s u r e .
T h e r e c a n b e n o n e in seeing a m a n r a p i d l y d r a w i n g n e a r
t h e g r a v e ; the iniage of d e a t h is a b l i g h t u p o n e v e r y t h i n g .
B u t w h e n I i m a g i n e a child of t e n or t w e l v e , s o u n d ,
 BESULT. 115

vigorous, well d e v e l o p e d for his a g e , it gives rne p l e a s u r e ,

w h e t h e r on a c c o u n t of t h e p r e s e n t or oft t h e future. I see
h i m i m p e t u o u s , s p r i g h t l y , a n i m a t e d , free- from a n x i e t y or
corroding c a r e , living wholly in h i s o w n p r e s e n t , a n d enjoying
a life full to overflowing. I foresee w h a t h e will b e in later
y e a r s , u s i n g t h e s e n s e s , t h e intellect, t h e bodily v i g o r , every
d a y unfolding within him. W h e n I t h i n k of h i m as a child,
he delights m e ; w h e n I t h i n k of h i m a s a m a n , he delights
m e still m o r e . H i s glowing p u l s e s seem to w a r m m y own ;
I feel his life within myself, a n d his s p r i g h t l i n e s s r e n e w s m y
youth. H i s f o r m , his b e a r i n g , his c o u n t e n a n c e , m a n i f e s t
self-confidence a n d h a p p i n e s s . H e a l t h glows in his face ;
his firm s t e p is a sign of bodily v i g o r . His complexion,
still delicate, b u t n o t insipid, h a s in it n o effeminate s o f t n e s s ,
for air a n d s u n h a v e a l r e a d y g i v e n h i m t h e h o n o r a b l e s t a m p
of his s e x . H i s still r o u n d e d muscles a r e b e g i n n i n g to show
signs of g r o w i n g e x p r e s s i v e n e s s . H i s e y e s , n o t y e t lighted
w i t h t h e fire of feeling, h a v e all their n a t u r a l s e r e n i t y .
Y e a r s of sorrow h a v e n e v e r m a d e t h e m d i m , n o r h a v e his
cheeks b e e n furrowed b y u n c e a s i n g t e a r s . H i s quick b u t
decided m o v e m e n t s s h o w the sprightliness of his a g e , a n d
his s t u r d y i n d e p e n d e n c e ; t h e y b e a r t e s t i m o n y to t h e a b u n d ­
a n t physical exercise h e h a s enjoyed. H i s b e a r i n g is f r a n k
a n d o p e n , b u t n o t insolent or v a i n . H i s face, n e v e r glued to
his b o o k s , is n e v e r d o w n c a s t ; y o u n e e d n o t tell h i m t o raise
1
his h e a d , for n e i t h e r fear n o r s h a m e h a s ever m a d e it d r o o p .
M a k e r o o m for h i m a m o n g you, a n d e x a m i n e him, g e n t l e ­
m e n . Q u e s t i o n h i m with all confidence, w i t h o u t fear of his
troubling you with idle c h a t t e r or i m p e r t i n e n t q u e r i e s . Do
n o t b e afraid of his t a k i n g u p all y o u r t i m e , or m a k i n g it
impossible for y o u t o g e t r i d of h i m . Y o u n e e d n o t e x p e c t
brilliant speeches t h a t I h a v e t a u g h t h i m , b u t only t h e f r a n k
a n d simple t r u t h w i t h o u t p r e p a r a t i o n , o r n a m e n t , or v a n i t y .
 W h e n he tells you w h a t h e h a s b e e n t h i n k i n g or d o i n g , he
will s p e a k of t h e evil as freely as of t h e g o o d , n o t in t h e
l e a s t e m b a r r a s s e d b y its effect u p o n t h o s e w h o h e a r him.
H e will use w o r d s in all t h e simplicity of their original
meaning.
W e like to p r o p h e s y g o o d of children, a n d a r e a l w a y s
s o r r y w h e n a s t r e a m of n o n s e n s e comes to d i s a p p o i n t h o p e s
a r o u s e d b y s o m e c h a n c e r e p a r t e e . M y pupil seldom a w a k e n s
such h o p e s , a n d will n e v e r cause such r e g r e t s : for he n e v e r
u t t e r s a n u n n e c e s s a r y w o r d , or w a s t e s b r e a t h in b a b b l e to
which he k n o w s n o b o d y will listen. If his i d e a s h a v e a
limited r a n g e , t h e y a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s clear. If he k n o w s
n o t h i n g b y h e a r t , he k n o w s a g r e a t deal from e x p e r i e n c e .
If he d o e s n o t r e a d o r d i n a r y b o o k s so well as o t h e r children,
he r e a d s t h e b o o k of n a t u r e far b e t t e r . H i s m i n d is in his
b r a h i , a n d n o t a t his t o n g u e ' s e n d . H e h a s less m e m o r y
than judgment. H e c a n s p e a k only one l a n g u a g e , b u t h e
u n d e r s t a n d s w h a t he s a y s : a n d if he does n o t s a y it as well
as a n o t h e r , he c a n d o t h i n g s far b e t t e r t h a n t h e y c a n .
H e d o e s n o t k n o w t h e m e a n i n g of c u s t o m or r o u t i n e .
W h a t h e did y e s t e r d a y does n o t in a n y wise affect his
a c t i o n s of t o - d a y . H e n e v e r follows a rigid formula, or
gives w a y in t h e l e a s t t o a u t h o r i t y or to e x a m p l e . E v e r y ­
t h i n g h e does a n d s a y s is after t h e n a t u r a l fashion of his
age. E x p e c t of h i m , t h e r e f o r e , n o f o r m a l speeches or
s t u d i e d m a n n e r s , b u t a l w a y s t h e faithful e x p r e s s i o n of his
o w n i d e a s , a n d a c o n d u c t arising from his own i n c l i n a t i o n s .
Y o u will find he h a s a few m o r a l ideas in r e l a t i o n to his
o w n c o n c e r n s , b u t in r e g a r d to m e n in g e n e r a l , n o n e a t all.
Of w h a t use would t h e s e l a s t be t o h i m , since a child is n o t
y e t a n active m e m b e r of society ? S p e a k t o h i m of l i b e r t y ,
of p r o p e r t y , e v e n of t h i n g s d o n e b y c o m m o n c o n s e n t , a n d h e
m a y u n d e r s t a n d y o u . H e k n o w s w h y his o w n t h i n g s b e l o n g
to him a n d t h o s e of a n o t h e r p e r s o n »do n o t , a n d b e y o n d this
he k n o w s n o t h i n g . S p e a k to h i m of d u t y a n d o b e d i e n c e ,
a n d he will n o t k n o w w h a t y o u m e a n . C o m m a n d h i m to d o
a t h i n g , a n d h e will n o t u n d e r s t a n d y o u . B u t tell h i m t h a t
if he will d o y o u such a n d such a favor, you will d o the s a m e
for h i m w h e n e v e r you c a n , a n d h e will readily oblige y o u ;
for he likes n o t h i n g b e t t e r t h a n to increase his p o w e r , a n d t o
l a \ you u n d e r obligations he k n o w s to be inviolable. Per­
h a p s , t o o , he enjoys b e i n g r e c o g n i z e d a s s o m e b o d y a n d
a c c o u n t e d w o r t h s o m e t h i n g . B u t if this last b e his m o t i v e ,
he h a s a l r e a d y left t h e p a t h of n a t u r e , a n d you h a v e n o t
effectually closed t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o v a n i t y .
If he n e e d s h e l p , h e will a s k it of t h e v e r y first p e r s o n h e
m e e t s , b e h e m o n a r c h or m a n - s e r v a n t ; t o h i m one m a n is a s
g o o d as a n o t h e r .
7
B3 his m a n n e r of a s k i n g , y o u c a n see t h a t he feels y o u d o
n o t owe h i m a n y t h i n g ; he k n o w s t h a t w h a t he a s k s is really
a favor to h i m , which h u m a n i t y will i n d u c e you t o g r a n t .
H i s e x p r e s s i o n s a r e simple a n d laconic. H i s voice, his look,
his g e s t u r e , are t h o s e of one equally a c c u s t o m e d to c o n s e n t
or to refusal. T h e y show n e i t h e r t h e c r i n g i n g s u b m i s s i o n of
a slave, n o r t h e i m p e r i o u s t o n e of a m a s t e r ; b u t m o d e s t con­
fidence in his fellow-creatures, a n d t h e noble a n d t o u c h i n g
g e n t l e n e s s of one w h o is free, b u t sensitive a n d feeble, a s k ­
ing aid of a n o t h e r , also free, b u t powerful a n d k i n d . I f y o u
do w h a t he a s k s , h e does n o t t h a n k y o u , b u t feels t h a t h e
h a s laid himself u n d e r obligation. If you refuse, he will n o t
complain or i n s i s t ; h e k n o w s it would be of no use. H e will
not say, " I was refused," but " I t was impossible." And,
as h a s b e e n , a l r e a d y said, we do n o t often rebel a g a i n s t a n
acknowledged necessity.
L e a v e h i m a t l i b e r t y a n d b y himself, a n d w i t h o u t s a y i n g a
w o r d , w a t c h w h a t h e d o e s , a n d h o w h e d o e s it. Knowing
perfectly well t h a t he i s ' f r e e , h e will clo n o t h i n g from m e r e
t h o u g h t l e s s n e s s , or j u s t to show t h a t h e c a n clo i t ; for is he
n o t a w a r e t h a t h e is always his o w n m a s t e r ? H e is alert,
n i m b l e , a n d active ; his m o v e m e n t s h a v e all t h e agility of his
y e a r s ; b u t y o u will n o t see one t h a t h a s n o t some definite
aim. N o m a t t e r w h a t h e m a y wish to d o , h e will n e v e r u n ­
d e r t a k e w h a t h e c a n n o t d o , for h e h a s t e s t e d his o w n s t r e n g t h ,
a n d k n o w s e x a c t l y w h a t it is. T h e m e a n s he u s e s a r e a l w a y s
a d a p t e d t o t h e e n d s o u g h t , a n d he r a r e l y d o e s a n y t h i n g with­
o u t b e i n g a s s u r e d h e will succeed in it. H i s eye will b e
a t t e n t i v e a n d critical, a n d he will n o t a s k foolish q u e s t i o n s
a b o u t e v e r y t h i n g h e sees. Before m a k i n g a n y inquiries he
will tire himself t r y i n g to find a t h i n g o u t for himself. If he
m e e t s with u n e x p e c t e d difficulties, he will b e less d i s t u r b e d
by t h e m t h a n a n o t h e r child, a n d less f r i g h t e n e d if t h e r e is
d a n g e r . A s n o t h i n g h a s b e e n d o n e t o a r o u s e his still dor­
m a n t i m a g i n a t i o n , he sees t h i n g s only a s t h e y a r e , e s t i m a t e s
d a n g e r a c c u r a t e l y , a n d is a l w a y s self-possessed. H e h a s so
often h a d t o give w a y t o necessity t h a t he n o longer rebels
a g a i n s t it. H a v i n g b o r n e its y o k e ever since he w a s born,
he is a c c u s t o m e d t o it, a n d is r e a d y for w h a t e v e r m a y c o m e .
W o r k a n d play are alike to h i m ; his p l a y s a r e his o c c u p a ­
t i o n s , a n d he sees n o difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o . H e t h r o w s
himself i n t o e v e r y t h i n g with c h a r m i n g e a r n e s t n e s s a n d free­
d o m , which shows the b e n t of his m i n d a n d the r a n g e of his
k n o w l e d g e . W h o does n o t enjoy seeing a p r e t t y child of
this a g e , with his b r i g h t e x p r e s s i o n of s e r e n e c o n t e n t , a n d
l a u g h i n g , o p e n c o u n t e n a n c e , p l a y i n g a t t h e m o s t serious
t h i n g s , or deeply occupied with t h e m o s t frivolous a m u s e ­
m e n t s ? H e h a s r e a c h e d t h e m a t u r i t y of childhood, h a s lived
a child's life; n o t g a i n i n g perfection a t t h e cost of his h a p p i ­
n e s s , b u t d e v e l o p i n g t h e one b y m e a n s of t h e o t h e r .
W h i l e acquiring all t h e r e a s o n i n g p o w e r possible t o his
a g e , he h a s b e e n as h a p p y a n d a s free a s his n a t u r e allowed.
I f the fatal s c y t h e is to c u t d o w n in h i m t h e flower of our
h o p e s , we shall n o t b e obliged t o l a m e n t a t t h e s a m e time his
life a n d his d e a t h . O u r grief will n o t b e e m b i t t e r e d b y t h e
recollection of t h e s o r r o w s we h a v e m a d e h i m feel. We
u
shall be able t o s a y , A t l e a s t , h e enjoyed his childhood ; we
r o b b e d h i m of n o t h i n g t h a t n a t u r e g a v e h i m . "
I n r e g a r d to this early e d u c a t i o n , t h e chief difficulty i s ,
t h a t only far-seeing m e n c a n u n d e r s t a n d it, a n d t h a t a child
so carefully e d u c a t e d s e e m s to a n o r d i n a r y o b s e r v e r only a
young scapegrace.
A t u t o r usually considers his o w n i n t e r e s t s r a t h e r t h a n
t h o s e of his pupil. H e d e v o t e s himself t o p r o v i n g t h a t he
loses n o t i m e a n d e a r n s his s a l a r y . H e t e a c h e s t h e child
such a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s as c a n be readily e x h i b i t e d w h e n r e ­
quired, w i t h o u t r e g a r d to their usefulness or w o r t h l e s s n e s s ,
so l o n g as t h e y a r e s h o w y . W i t h o u t selecting or d i s c e r n i n g ,
h e c h a r g e s t h e child's m e m o r y with a v a s t a m o u n t of r u b b i s h .
W h e n t h e child is to b e e x a m i n e d , t h e t u t o r m a k e s h i m d i s ­
p l a y his w a r e s ; a n d , after t h u s g i v i n g s a t i s f a c t i o n , folds u p
his p a c k a g a i n , a n d goes his w a y .
M y pupil is n o t so rich ; h e h a s n o p a c k a t all to d i s p l a y ;
he h a s n o t h i n g b u t himself. N o w a child, like a m a n , c a n ­
n o t be' seen all a t o n c e . W h a t o b s e r v e r c a n a t t h e first
glance seize u p o n t h e child's peculiar t r a i t s ? S u c h o b s e r v e r s
there a r e , b u t t h e y are u n c o m m o n ; a n d a m o n g a h u n d r e d
t h o u s a n d f a t h e r s y o u will n o t find one s u c h .
 BOOK THIRD.

T H E third b o o k h a s t o d o w i t h t h e y o u t h as h e is b e t w e e n the
a g e s o f t w e l v e a n d fifteen. A t this t i m e h i s s t r e n g t h is proportion­
ately g r e a t e s t , a n d this i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p e r i o d i n h i s life. I t
is t h e time f o r labor and s t u d y ; n o t indeed f o r studies, of all kinds,
but for t h o s e w h o s e n e c e s s i t y t h e s t u d e n t h i m s e l f f e e l s . T h e prin­
ciple that o u g h t t o g u i d e h i m n o w i s t h a t of utility. All t h e master's
talent c o n s i s t s i n l e a d i n g h i m t o d i s c o v e r what i s really u s e f u l t o
him. L a n g u a g e and h i s t o r y offer h i m little that is i n t e r e s t i n g . H e
applies h i m s e l f t o s t u d y i n g natural p h e n o m e n a , b e c a u s e t h e y arouse
h i s c u r i o s i t y a n d afford h i m m e a n s o f o v e r c o m i n g h i s difficulties.
H e m a k e s his o w n i n s t r u m e n t s , and i n v e n t s w h a t apparatus h e
needs.
H e d o e s n o t d e p e n d u p o n another t o direct h i m , b u t f o l l o w s
w h e r e h i s o w n g o o d s e n s e p o i n t s t h e w a y . R o b i n s o n Crusoe on
h i s island i s h i s ideal, a u d t h i s b o o k f u r n i s h e s t h e reading best
suited t o h i s a g e . H e should h a v e s o m e manual o c c u p a t i o n , as
m u c h o n a c c o u n t o f t h e uncertain future as f o r t h e sake o f satisfy­
i n g h i s o w n c o n s t a n t activity.
Side b y side w i t h t h e b o d y t h e mind i s d e v e l o p e d b y a t a s t e f o r
reflection, and i s finally prepared f o r s t u d i e s o f a h i g h e r order.
W i t h this period c h i l d h o o d ends and y o u t h b e g i n s .

T h e A g e of S t u d y .

A L T H O U G H u p t o t h e b e g i n n i n g of y o u t h life i s , o n t h e
w h o l e , a p e r i o d of w e a k n e s s , t h e r e is a t i m e d u r i n g t h i s
earlier a g e w h e n o u r s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s b e y o n d w h a t o u r w a n t s
r e q u i r e , a n d t h e g r o w i n g a n i m a l , still a b s o l u t e l y w e a k , b e c o m e s
relatively strong. His wants being as yet partly undeveloped,
h i s p r e s e n t s t r e n g t h is m o r e t h a n sufficient t o p r o v i d e for t h o s e
 of t h e p r e s e n t . A s a m a n , he would b e v e r y w e a k ; as a
child, he is yery s t r o n g .
W h e n c e arises this w e a k n e s s of ours b u t from the i n e q u a l ­
ity b e t w e e n our desires a n d t h e s t r e n g t h we h a v e for fulfill­
ing t h e m ? O u r p a s s i o n s w e a k e n u s , b e c a u s e t h e gratification
of t h e m r e q u i r e s m o r e t h a n our n a t u r a l s t r e n g t h .
If we h a v e fewer d e s i r e s , we are so m u c h t h e s t r o n g e r .
W h o e v e r c a n d o m o r e t h a n his wishes d e m a n d h a s s t r e n g t h
to s p a r e ; h e is s t r o n g indeed. Of t h i s , t h e t h i r d s t a g e of
childhood, I h a v e n o w t o s p e a k . I still call it childhood for
w a n t of a b e t t e r t e r m to e x p r e s s t h e i d e a ; for this a g e , n o t
T
3~et t h a t of pubert} , a p p r o a c h e s y o u t h .
A t t h e a g e of twelve or t h i r t e e n the child's p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h
develops m u c h faster t h a n his w a n t s . H e b r a v e s w i t h o u t
i n c o n v e n i e n c e t h e inclemency of climate a n d s e a s o n s , scarcely
feeling it a t , a l l . N a t u r a l h e a t s e r v e s h i m i n s t e a d of clothing,
a p p e t i t e i n s t e a d of s a u c e . W h e n h e is d r o w s y , h e lies d o w n
o n t h e g r o u n d a n d falls a s l e e p . T h u s he finds a r o u n d h i m
e v e r y t h i n g he n e e d s ; n o t g o v e r n e d b y c a p r i c e s , his desires
e x t e n d n o f a r t h e r t h a n his o w n a r m s c a n r e a c h . N o t only is
h e sufficient for himself, b u t , a t this one t i m e in all his life,
h e h a s m o r e s t r e n g t h t h a n he realty r e q u i r e s .
W h a t t h e n shall h e d o w i t h this s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of m e n t a l
a n d p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h , which h e will h e r e a f t e r need, b u t
e n d e a v o r to employ it in w a y s which will a t some time b e of
u s e t o h i m , a n d t h u s t h r o w this s u r p l u s v i t a l i t y f o r w a r d into
t h e future ? T h e r o b u s t child shall m a k e provision for his
w e a k e r m a n h o o d . B u t h e will n o t g a r n e r it in b a r n s , or lay
it u p in coffers t h a t can be p l u n d e r e d . T o b e r e a l owner of
this t r e a s u r e , he m u s t store it u p in his a r m s , in his b r a i n , in
himself. T h e p r e s e n t , t h e n , is t h e time to l a b o r , t o receive
i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d to s t u d y ; n a t u r e so o r d a i n s , n o t I .
H u m a n intelligence h a s its limits. W e c a n neither k n o w
everything, n o r b e t h o r o u g h l y a c q u a i n t e d with t h e little t h a t
other m e n k n o w . Since t h e r e v e r s e of every false p r o p o s i ­
tion is a t r u t h , t h e n u m b e r of t r u t h s , like t h e n u m b e r of
e r r o r s , is i n e x h a u s t i b l e . W e h a v e to select w h a t is t o be
t a u g h t as well as t h e t i m e for l e a r n i n g it. Of t h e k i n d s of
k n o w l e d g e within our p o w e r s o m e a r e false, s o m e u s e l e s s ,
some serve only to foster p r i d e . O n l y the few t h a t really
conduce t o our well-being a r e w o r t h y of s t u d y b y a wise m a n ,
or b y a y o u t h i n t e n d e d to be a wise m a n . T h e q u e s t i o n is,
n o t w h a t m a y b e k n o w n , b u t w h a t will b e of t h e m o s t u s e
w h e n it is k n o w n . F r o m t h e s e few we m u s t a g a i n d e d u c t
such as require a r i p e n e s s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a k n o w l e d g e
of h u m a n r e l a t i o n s which a child c a n n o t possibly a c q u i r e ;
such a s , t h o u g h t r u e in t h e m s e l v e s , incline a n i n e x p e r i e n c e d
m i n d to j u d g e w r o n g l y of other t h i n g s .
T h i s r e d u c e s us to a circle small i n d e e d in r e l a t i o n to
e x i s t i n g t h i n g s , b u t i m m e n s e w h e n we consider the c a p a c i t y
of t h e child's m i n d . H o w d a r i n g w a s t h e h a n d t h a t first v e n ­
t u r e d to lift t h e veil of d a r k n e s s from our h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d ­
ing ! W h a t a b y s s e s , due t o our u n w i s e l e a r n i n g , y a w n a r o u n d
the u n f o r t u n a t e y o u t h ! T r e m b l e , y o u w h o a r e t o c o n d u c t
him by t h e s e perilous w a y s , a n d t o lift for h i m t h e s a c r e d
veil of n a t u r e . B e sure of y o u r o w n b r a i n a n d of h i s , lest
either, or p e r h a p s b o t h , g r o w d i z z y a t t h e sight. B e w a r e of
t h e g l a m o u r of falsehood a n d of t h e i n t o x i c a t i n g fumes of
p r i d e . A l w a y s b e a r in m i n d t h a t i g n o r a n c e h a s n e v e r b e e n
harmful, t h a t e r r o r alone is f a t a l , a n d t h a t our e r r o r s a r i s e ,
n o t from w h a t we d o n o t k n o w , b u t from w h a t w e t h i n k we
1
do k n o w .
1
This might be carried too far, and is to be admitted with some reser­
vations, ignorance is never alone ; its companions are always error and
presumption. No one is so certain that he knows, as he who knows
nothing ;•' and prejudice of all kinds is the form in which our ignorance
is clothed. '.
 The Incentive of Curiosity.

s a m e i n s t i n c t a n i m a t e s all the different faculties of

m a n . T o t h e activity of t h e b o d y , s t r i v i n g to develop itself,
succeeds t h e activity of t h e m i n d , e n d e a v o r i n g to i n s t r u c t
itself. Children are a t first only r e s t l e s s ; a f t e r w a r d s they
are inquisitive. T h e i r curiosity, rightly t r a i n e d , is t h e in­
centive of t h e age we a r e n o w c o n s i d e r i n g . W e m u s t a l w a y s
d i s t i n g u i s h n a t u r a l inclinations from t h o s e t h a t h a v e their
source in opinion.
T h e r e is a t h i r s t for k n o w l e d g e which is f o u n d e d only
u p o n a desire to b e t h o u g h t l e a r n e d , a n d a n o t h e r , s p r i n g i n g
from our n a t u r a l curiosity c o n c e r n i n g a n y t h i n g which n e a r l y
or r e m o t e l y i n t e r e s t s u s . O u r desire for h a p p i n e s s is i n b o r n ;
a n d as it c a n n e v e r b e fully satisfied, we a r e a l w a y s s e e k i n g
w a y s t o i n c r e a s e w h a t we h a v e . T h i s first principle of
curiosity is n a t u r a l t o t h e h e a r t of m a n , b u t is developed
only in p r o p o r t i o n t o our p a s s i o n s a n d to our a d v a n c e in
k n o w l e d g e . Call y o u r pupil's a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p h e n o m e n a of
:v$ature, a n d you will soon r e n d e r h i m inquisitive. B u t if
y o u would k e e p this curiosity alive, d o n o f b e in h a s t e to
satisfy it. A s k h i m q u e s t i o n s t h a t h e c a n c o m p r e h e n d , a n d
let h i m solve t h e m . L e t h i m k n o w a t h i n g b e c a u s e h e h a s
f o u n d it o u t for himself, a n d n o t b e c a u s e you h a v e told him
of it. L e t h i m n o t l e a r n science, b u t discover it for himself.
I f o n c e y o u s u b s t i t u t e a u t h o r i t y for r e a s o n , h e will n o t
r e a s o n a n y m o r e ; he will only b e t h e s p o r t of other people's
opinions.
W h e n y o u a r e r e a d y t o teach this child g e o g r a p h y , you
g e t t o g e t h e r y o u r globes a n d y o u r m a p s ; a n d w h a t m a c h i n e s
t h e y a r e ! W h y , i n s t e a d of u s i n g all t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ,
d o y o u n o t b e g i n b y s h o w i n g h i m t h e o b j e c t itself, so a s t o
let h i m k n o w w h a t y o u you a r e t a l k i n g of ?
 O n some beautiful e v e n i n g t a k e t h e child t o w a l k w i t h y o u ,
in a place suitable for y o u r p u r p o s e , where in t h e u n o b ­
s t r u c t e d h o r i z o n t h e s e t t i n g s u n c a n b e plainly s e e n . Take
a careful o b s e r v a t i o n of all the objects m a r k i n g t h e s p o t a t
which it goes d o w n . W h e n y o u g o for a n airing n e x t d a y ,
r e t u r n to this s a m e place before t h e s u n rises. Y o u c a n see
it a n n o u n c e itself b y a r r o w s of fire. T h e b r i g h t n e s s in­
creases ; t h e e a s t s e e m s all a f l a m e ; from its glow you
a n t i c i p a t e l o n g b e f o r e h a n d t h e coming of d a y . Every
m o m e n t you i m a g i n e y o u see it. A t l a s t it really does
a p p e a r , a brilliant p o i n t which rises like a flash of l i g h t n i n g ,
a n d i n s t a n t l y fills all s p a c e . T h e veil of s h a d o w s is c a s t
down and disappears. W e k n o w our dwelling-place once
m o r e , a n d find it m o r e beautiful t h a n ever. The verdure
h a s t a k e n on fresh vigor d u r i n g t h e n i g h t ; it is revealed
with its brilliant n e t - w o r k of d e w - d r o p s , reflecting light a n d
color t o t h e eye, in t h e first g o l d e n r a y s of t h e n e w - b o r n
d a y . T h e full choir of b i r d s , n o n e silent, salute in concert
t h e F a t h e r of life. T h e i r w a r b l i n g , still faint with t h e
l a n g u o r of a peaceful a w a k e n i n g , is n o w m o r e lingering a n d
sweet t h a n a t other h o u r s of the d a y . A l l this fills t h e
senses with a c h a r m a n d freshness which s e e m s to t o u c h our
inmost soul. N o one c a n r e s i s t this e n c h a n t i n g h o u r , or
behold with indifference a spectacle so g r a n d , so beautiful,
so full of all delight.
Carried a w a y b y such a sight, t h e t e a c h e r is e a g e r t o
i m p a r t t o t h e child his o w n e n t h u s i a s m , a n d t h i n k s to a r o u s e
it b y calling a t t e n t i o n t o w h a t h e himself feels. W h a t folly !
The d r a m a of n a t u r e lives only in t h e h e a r t ; to see it, one
m u s t feel it. T h e child sees t h e o b j e c t s , b u t n o t t h e rela­
tions t h a t b i n d t h e m t o g e t h e r ; he c a n m a k e n o t h i n g of their
harmony. T h e c o m p l e x a n d m o m e n t a r y i m p r e s s i o n of all
t h e s e s e n s a t i o n s r e q u i r e s a n e x p e r i e n c e he h a s n e v e r g a i n e d ,
 a n d feelings he h a s n e v e r k n o w n . I f he h a s n e v e r crossed
t h e d e s e r t a n d felt its b u r n i n g s a n d s scorch his feet, t h e
stifling reflection of the s u n from its r o c k s o p p r e s s h i m , how
c a n h e fully enjoy- t h e coolness of a beautiful m o r n i n g ?
H o w c a n the perfume of flowers, t h e cooling v a p o r of t h e
d e w , the s i n k i n g of his footstep in t h e soft a n d p l e a s a n t turf,
e n c h a n t his s e n s e s ? H o w c a n the singing of b i r d s delight
him, while t h e a c c e n t s of love a n d p l e a s u r e are y e t u n k n o w n ?
H o w c a n h e see with t r a n s p o r t t h e rise of so beautiful a d a y ,
u n l e s s i m a g i n a t i o n c a n p a i n t all t h e t r a n s p o r t s with which it
m a y be filled? A n d lastly, how c a n he be m o v e d b y t h e
beautiful p a n o r a m a of n a t u r e , if h e does n o t k n o w b y whose
t e n d e r care it h a s b e e n a d o r n e d ?
D o n o t t a l k to t h e child a b o u t t h i n g s he c a n n o t u n d e r ­
stand. L e t h i m h e a r from y o u n o d e s c r i p t i o n s , n o elo­
q u e n c e , no figurative l a n g u a g e , n o p o e t r y . S e n t i m e n t a n d
t a s t e a r e j u s t n o w out of t h e q u e s t i o n . C o n t i n u e to b e
clear, unaffected, a n d d i s p a s s i o n a t e ; t h e t i m e for u s i n g
a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e will come only too soon.
E d u c a t e d in the spirit of our p r i n c i p l e s , a c c u s t o m e d to
look for r e s o u r c e s within himself, a n d t o h a v e r e c o u r s e t o
o t h e r s only w h e n he finds himself really helpless, he will
e x a m i n e e v e r y n e w object for a l o n g t i m e w i t h o u t s a y i n g a
w o r d . H e is t h o u g h t f u l , a n d n o t d i s p o s e d t o a s k q u e s t i o n s .
B e satisfied, t h e r e f o r e , with p r e s e n t i n g objects a t a p p r o p r i a t e
t i m e s a n d in a p p r o p r i a t e w a y s . W h e n you see his curiosity
fairly a t w o r k , a s k h i m some laconic q u e s t i o n which will
s u g g e s t its o w n a n s w e r .
O n this occasion, h a v i n g w a t c h e d t h e sunrise from b e g i n ­
n i n g to e n d w i t h h i m , h a v i n g m a d e him notice t h e m o u n t a i n s
a n d o t h e r n e i g h b o r i n g objects on t h e s a m e side, a n d allowed
h i m t o t a l k a b o u t t h e m j u s t as he p l e a s e s , b e silent for a few
m i n u t e s , a s if in d e e p t h o u g h t , a n d t h e n s a y t o h i m , " I
think the s u n set over t h e r e , a n d now it h a s r i s e n over h e r e .
H o w c a n t h a t b e s o ? " S a y no m o r e ; if he a s k s q u e s t i o n s ,
do not a n s w e r t h e m : s p e a k of s o m e t h i n g else. L e a v e h i m
to himself, a n d he will be c e r t a i n to t h i n k t h e m a t t e r over.
T o give t h e child t h e h a b i t of a t t e n t i o n a n d t o i m p r e s s h i m
deeply with a n y t r u t h affecting t h e s e n s e s , let h i m p a s s sev­
eral restless d a y s before he discovers t h a t t r u t h . If t h e one
in q u e s t i o n does n o t t h u s i m p r e s s h i m , y o u m a y m a k e h i m
see it m o r e clearly b y r e v e r s i n g t h e p r o b l e m . If he d o e s n o t
k n o w how t h e s u n p a s s e s from its s e t t i n g t o its r i s i n g , h e a t
l e a s t does k n o w how it t r a v e l s from its r i s i n g t o its s e t t i n g ;
his eyes alone t e a c h him t h i s . E x p l a i n y o u r first q u e s t i o n
b y the second. I f y o u r pupil b e n o t a b s o l u t e l y s t u p i d , t h e
a n a l o g y is so p l a i n t h a t he c a n n o t e s c a p e it. T h i s is his
first lesson in c o s m o g r a p h y .
A s we p a s s slowly from one sensible i d e a t o a n o t h e r ,
familiarize ourselves for a l o n g time with e a c h before con­
sidering t h e n e x t , a n d d o n o t force our pupil's a t t e n t i o n ;
it will be a long w a y from this p o i n t to a k n o w l e d g e of t h e
s u n ' s course a n d of t h e s h a p e of t h e e a r t h . B u t a s all t h e
a p p a r e n t m o t i o n s of t h e h e a v e n l y bodies a r e u p o n t h e s a m e
principle, a n d t h e first o b s e r v a t i o n p r e p a r e s t h e w a y for all
t h e r e s t , less effort, if m o r e t i m e , is r e q u i r e d to p a s s from
t h e daily r o t a t i o n of the e a r t h to t h e calculation of eclipses
t h a n t o u n d e r s t a n d clearly t h e p h e n o m e n a of d a y a n d n i g h t .
Since t h e s u n ( a p p a r e n t l y ) revolves a b o u t t h e e a r t h , it
describes a circle, a n d we a l r e a d y k n o w t h a t every circle
m u s t h a v e a c e n t r e . T h i s c e n t r e , b e i n g in t h e h e a r t of t h e
e a r t h , c a n n o t be s e e n ; b u t we m a y m a r k u p o n t h e surface
two opposite p o i n t s t h a t c o r r e s p o n d to it. A r o d p a s s i n g
t h r o u g h t h e s e t h r e e p o i n t s , a n d e x t e n d i n g from o n e side of
t h e h e a v e n s t o t h e o t h e r , shall b e t h e a x i s of t h e e a r t h , a n d
of t h e s u n ' s a p p a r e n t daily m o t i o n . A s p h e r i c a l t o p , t u r n i n g
o n its point, shall r e p r e s e n t t h e h e a v e n s r e v o l v i n g on their
a x i s ; t h e two e x t r e m i t i e s of t h e t o p are t h e t w o p o l e s . The
child will be i n t e r e s t e d in k n o w i n g one of t h e m , which I will
show him n e a r t h e tail of U r s a M i n o r .
T h i s will serve t o a m u s e u s for one n i g h t . B y d e g r e e s w e
shall g r o w familiar with t h e s t a r s , a n d this will a w a k e n a
desire to k n o w t h e p l a n e t s a n d t o w a t c h t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s .
W e h a v e seen t h e s u n rise a t m i d s u m m e r ; we will also
w a t c h its r i s i n g a t C h r i s t m a s or some o t h e r fine d a y in
w i n t e r . F o r b e it k n o w n t h a t we a r e n o t a t all idle, a n d
t h a t we m a k e a j o k e of b r a v i n g t h e cold. I t a k e care t o
m a k e this s e c o n d o b s e r v a t i o n in t h e s a m e place as t h e first;
a n d after s o m e c o n v e r s a t i o n t o p a v e the w a y for it. O n e or
u
t h e o t h e r of us will be sure t o e x c l a i m , H o w q u e e r t h a t is !
t h e s u n does n o t rise w h e r e it u s e d to rise ! H e r e a r e o u r
old l a n d m a r k s , a n d n o w it is rising over y o n d e r . T h e n t h e r e
m u s t be one e a s t for s u m m e r , a n d a n o t h e r for w i n t e r . "
N o w , y o u n g t e a c h e r , y o u r w a y is plain. T h e s e e x a m p l e s
o u g h t to suffice y o u for t e a c h i n g t h e s p h e r e v e r y u n d e r s t a n d -
ingly, b y t a k i n g t h e world for y o u r g l o b e , a n d t h e r e a l s u n
i n s t e a d of y o u r artificial s u n .

Things Rather than their Signs.

I N g e n e r a l , n e v e r show t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a t h i n g u n l e s s
it be impossible t o show t h e t h i n g i t s e l f ; for t h e sign a b ­
s o r b s t h e child's a t t e n t i o n , a n d m a k e s h i m lose s i g h t of t h e
t h i n g signified.
1
T h e a r m i l l a r y s p h e r e seems t o m e p o o r l y d e s i g n e d a n d in
b a d p r o p o r t i o n . I t s confused circles a n d o d d figures, giving

!The armillary sphere is a group of pasteboard or copper circles, to

illustrate the orbits of the planets, and their position in relation to the
earth, which is represented by a small wooden ball.
it the look of a c o n j u r e r ' s a p p a r a t u s , are e n o u g h to f r i g h t e n
a child. T h e e a r t h is too s m a l l ; t h e circles are too m a n y
1
a n d too l a r g e . S o m e of t h e m , the c o l u r e s , for i n s t a n c e , a r e
entirely u s e l e s s . E v e r y circle is l a r g e r t h a n t h e e a r t h . The
p a s t e b o a r d gives t h e m a n a p p e a r a n c e of solidity which
c r e a t e s t h e m i s t a k e n i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e y a r e circular m a s s e s
which really e x i s t . W h e n y o u tell t h e child t h a t t h e s e a r e
i m a g i n a r y circles, he u n d e r s t a n d s n e i t h e r w h a t he sees n o r
what you mean.
Shall we never l e a r n t o p u t ourselves in t h e child's place ?
W e d o n o t e n t e r i n t o his t h o u g h t s , b u t s u p p o s e t h e m e x a c t l y
like our o w n . C o n s t a n t l y following our o w n m e t h o d of
r e a s o n i n g , we c r a m his m i n d n o t only w i t h a c o n c a t e n a t i o n
of t r u t h s , b u t also w i t h e x t r a v a g a n t n o t i o n s a n d e r r o r s .
I n t h e s t u d y of t h e sciences it is a n o p e n q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r
we o u g h t t o use s y n t h e s i s or analysis. I t is n o t a l w a y s n e c ­
e s s a r y to choose either. I n t h e s a m e p r o c e s s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n
we can s o m e t i m e s b o t h r e s o l v e a n d c o m p o u n d , a n d while t h e
child t h i n k s he is only a n a l y z i n g , we c a n direct h i m b y t h e
m e t h o d s t e a c h e r s usually employ. B y t h u s u s i n g b o t h we
m a k e each p r o v e the o t h e r . S t a r t i n g a t t h e s a m e m o m e n t
from t w o opposite p o i n t s a n d n e v e r i m a g i n i n g t h a t oiie r o a d
connects t h e m , he will b e a g r e e a b l y s u r p r i s e d to find t h a t
w h a t he s u p p o s e d t o b e t w o p a t h s finally m e e t a s o n e .
1 would, for e x a m p l e , t a k e g e o g r a p h y a t t h e s e two e x ­
t r e m e s , a n d a d d t o t h e s t u d y of t h e e a r t h ' s m o t i o n s t h e
m e a s u r e m e n t of its p a r t s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h our o w n dwelling-
place. W h i l e t h e child, s t u d y i n g t h e s p h e r e , is t r a n s p o r t e d
into t h e h e a v e n s , b r i n g h i m b a c k t o the m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e
e a r t h , a n d first show h i m his o w n h o m e .
T h e two s t a r t i n g - p o i n t s in his g e o g r a p h y shall b e t h e t o w n
2
The imaginary circles traced on the celestial sphere, and figured in the
armillary sphere by metallic circles, are called colures.
in which h e lives, a n d his f a t h e r ' s h o u s e in t h e c o u n t r y .
A f t e r w a r d shall come t h e places lying b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o ;
t h e n t h e n e i g h b o r i n g r i v e r s ; l a s t l y , t h e a s p e c t of t h e s u n , a n d
t h e m a n n e r of finding o u t w h e r e t h e e a s t is. T h i s l a s t is t h e
p o i n t of u n i o n . L e t h i m m a k e himself a m a p of all t h e s e
d e t a i l s ; a v e r y simple m a p , including a t first only t w o
o b j e c t s , t h e n b y d e g r e e s t h e o t h e r s , as h e l e a r n s their dis­
t a n c e a n d p o s i t i o n . Y o u see n o w w h a t a n a d v a n t a g e we
h a v e g a i n e d b e f o r e h a n d , b y m a k i n g his eyes serve h i m
i n s t e a d of a c o m p a s s .
E v e n with this it m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o direct h i m a little,
b u t v e r y little, a n d w i t h o u t a p p e a r i n g t o do so a t all. When
h e m a k e s m i s t a k e s , let h i m m a k e t h e m ; do n o t c o r r e c t t h e m .
W a i t in silence u n t i l he can see a n d c o r r e c t t h e m himself.
O r , a t m o s t , t a k e a g o o d o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e t in m o t i o n some­
t h i n g which will direct his a t t e n t i o n to t h e m . If he were
n e v e r to m a k e m i s t a k e s , h e could n o t l e a r n half so well.
B e s i d e s , t h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g i s , n o t t h a t he should k n o w t h e
e x a c t t o p o g r a p h y of t h e c o u n t r y , b u t t h a t h e should l e a r n
h o w t o find it o u t b y himself. I t m a t t e r s little w h e t h e r he
h a s m a p s in his m i n d or n o t , so t h a t h e u n d e r s t a n d s w h a t
t h e y r e p r e s e n t , a n d h a s a clear idea of h o w t h e y are m a d e .
M a r k t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e l e a r n i n g of y o u r pupils
a n d t h e i g n o r a n c e of m i n e . T h e y k n o w all a b o u t m a p s , a n d
he c a n m a k e t h e m . O u r m a p s will serve as n e w decora­
tions for our r o o m .

1
Imparting a T a s t e for S c i e n c e .

B E A R in m i n d a l w a y s t h a t t h e life a n d soul of m y s y s t e m
is, n o t t o t e a c h t h e child m a n y t h i n g s , b u t to allow only cor­
r e c t and clear i d e a s t o e n t e r his m i n d . I clo n o t care if he
knows nothing, so long as h e is not m i s t a k e n . T o guard
him from e r r o r s h e m i g h t l e a r n , I furnish his m i n d with
t r u t h s only. R e a s o n a n d j u d g m e n t e n t e r slowly ; p r e j u d i c e s
crowd in ; a n d h e m u s t b e p r e s e r v e d from t h e s e last. Y e t it
y o u consider science in itself, y o u l a u n c h u p o n a n u n f a t h o m ­
able a n d b o u n d l e s s s e a , full of u n a v o i d a b l e d a n g e r s . When
I see a m a n carried away by his love for k n o w l e d g e , h a s t e n ­
ing from one alluring science t o a n o t h e r , w i t h o u t k n o w i n g
w h e r e to s t o p , I t h i n k I see a child g a t h e r i n g shells u p o n
the s e a s h o r e . A t first h e l o a d s himself with t h e m ; t h e n ,
tempted by others, he throws these away, and gathers more.
A t l a s t , w e i g h e d d o w n b y so m a n y , a n d n o longer k n o w i n g
which t o choose, h e e n d s b y t h r o w i n g all a w a y , a n d r e t u r n ­
ing e m p t y - h a n d e d .
I n our early y e a r s time p a s s e d s l o w l y ; we e n d e a v o r e d t o
lose it, for fear of m i s u s i n g it. T h e case is r e v e r s e d ; n o w
we h a v e n o t t i m e e n o u g h for doing all t h a t we find useful.
B e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e p a s s i o n s a r e d r a w i n g n e a r e r , a n d t h a t
as soon as t h e y k n o c k a t t h e door, y o u r p u p i l will h a v e eyes
a n d e a r s for t h e m a l o n e . T h e t r a n q u i l period of intelli­
g e n c e is so brief, a n d h a s so m a n y o t h e r n e c e s s a r y u s e s , t h a t
only folly i m a g i n e s it long e n o u g h t o m a k e t h e child a
learned man. T h e thing is, not to teach him knowledge,
b u t t o give h i m a love for it, a n d a g o o d m e t h o d of a c q u i r i n g
it w h e n this love h a s g r o w n s t r o n g e r . C e r t a i n l y this is a
f u n d a m e n t a l principle in all g o o d e d u c a t i o n .
N o w , also, is t h e t i m e t o a c c u s t o m h i m g r a d u a l l y t o con­
c e n t r a t e a t t e n t i o n on a single object. T h i s a t t e n t i o n , how­
ever, should n e v e r r e s u l t from c o n s t r a i n t , b u t from desire
a n d p l e a s u r e . B e careful t h a t it shall' n o t g r o w i r k s o m e , or
a p p r o a c h t h e p o i n t of w e a r i n e s s . L e a v e a n y s u b j e c t j u s t
before h e g r o w s t i r e d of i t ; for t h e l e a r n i n g it m a t t e r s less
t o h i m t h a n t h e n e v e r b e i n g obliged t o l e a r n a n y t h i n g
a g a i n s t his will. If h e himself q u e s t i o n s y o u , a n s w e r so a s
 to k e e p alive his curiosity, n o t t o satisfy it a l t o g e t h e r .
A b o v e all, w h e n you find t h a t he m a k e s i n q u i r i e s , n o t for the
s a k e of l e a r n i n g s o m e t h i n g , b u t to t a l k a t r a n d o n a n d a n n o y
you with silly q u e s t i o n s , p a u s e a t o n c e , a s s u r e d t h a t he cares
n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e m a t t e r , b u t only t o o c c u p y y o u r time with
himself. L e s s r e g a r d s h o u l d b e p a i d to w h a t h e s a y s t h a n
to t h e m o t i v e which l e a d s him t o s p e a k . T h i s caution, h e r e ­
tofore u n n e c e s s a r y , is of t h e u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e a s soon as
a child b e g i n s t o r e a s o n .
T h e r e is a chain of g e n e r a l t r u t h s b y which all sciences
are linked to c o m m o n p r i n c i p l e s a n d successively u n f o l d e d .
T h i s c h a i n is t h e m e t h o d of p h i l o s o p h e r s , with which, for
t h e p r e s e n t , we h a v e n o t h i n g to d o . T h e r e is a n o t h e r ,
a l t o g e t h e r different, which shows e a c h object a s t h e c a u s e of
a n o t h e r , a n d a l w a y s p o i n t s o u t t h e one following. This
o r d e r , which, b y a p e r p e t u a l c u r i o s i t y , k e e p s alive t h e a t t e n ­
tion d e m a n d e d b y all, is t h e one followed b y m o s t m e n , a n d
of all o t h e r s n e c e s s a r y with children. W h e n , in m a k i n g our
m a p s , we found o u t t h e p l a c e of t h e e a s t , we were obliged
to d r a w m e r i d i a n s . T h e t w o p o i n t s of intersection b e ­
t w e e n t h e e q u a l s h a d o w s of n i g h t a n d m o r n i n g furnish an
e x c e l l e n t m e r i d i a n for a n a s t r o n o m e r t h i r t e e n y e a r s old.
B u t t h e s e m e r i d i a n s d i s a p p e a r ; it t a k e s time to d r a w them ;
t h e y oblige u s t o work a l w a y s in t h e s a m e p l a c e : so m u c h
c a r e , so m u c h a n n o y a n c e , will tire him o u t a t l a s t . We
h a v e seen a n d p r o v i d e d for this b e f o r e h a n d .
I have again begun upon tedious and minute details.
R e a d e r s , I h e a r y o u r m u r m u r s , a n d d i s r e g a r d t h e m . I will
n o t sacrifice t o y o u r i m p a t i e n c e t h e m o s t useful p a r t of t h i s
b o o k . D o w h a t you please with m y t e d i o u s n e s s , as I h a v e
done as I p l e a s e d in r e g a r d to y o u r c o m p l a i n t s .
 The Juggler.

F O R s o m e t i m e m y p u p i l a n d I h a d o b s e r v e d t h a t different
bodies, such as a m b e r , g l a s s , a n d w a x , when r u b b e d , a t t r a c t
s t r a w s , a n d t h a t o t h e r s d o n o t a t t r a c t t h e m . B y a c c i d e n t we
discovered one t h a t h a s a virtue m o r e e x t r a o r d i n a r y still, —
t h a t of a t t r a c t i n g a t a d i s t a n c e , a n d w i t h o u t b e i n g r u b b e d ,
iron filings a n d other b i t s of iron. T h i s p e c u l i a r i t y a m u s e d
us for some t i m e before we s a w a n y use in it. A t l a s t we
T
f o u n d o u t t h a t it ma} b e c o m m u n i c a t e d to iron itself, w h e n
m a g n e t i z e d t o a certain d e g r e e . O n e da}' we w e n t t o a fair,
w h e r e a j u g g l e r , with a piece of b r e a d , a t t r a c t e d a d u c k
m a d e of w a x , a n d floating on a bowl of w a t e r . M u c h sur­
p r i s e d , we did n o t however s a y , " H e is a c o n j u r e r , " for we
k n e w n o t h i n g a b o u t c o n j u r e r s . C o n t i n u a l l y s t r u c k b y effects
w h o s e causes we d o n o t k n o w , we were n o t in h a s t e to
decide the m a t t e r , a n d r e m a i n e d in i g n o r a n c e until we found
a w a y o u t of it.
W h e n we r e a c h e d h o m e we h a d t a l k e d so m u c h of t h e
d u c k a t t h e fair t h a t we t h o u g h t we would e n d e a v o r to copy
it. T a k i n g a p e r f e c t n e e d l e , well m a g n e t i z e d , we inclosed
it in white w a x , modelled as well as we could d o it into t h e
s h a p e of a d u c k , so t h a t t h e needle p a s s e d entirely t h r o u g h
t h e b o d y , a n d with its l a r g e r e n d f o r m e d t h e d u c k ' s bill.
W e p l a c e d t h e d u c k u p o n t h e w a t e r , applied t o t h e b e a k
t h e h a n d l e of a k e y , a n d s a w , with a d e l i g h t easy t o i m a g i n e ,
t h a t our d u c k would follow t h e k e y precisely a s t h e one at
t h e fair h a d followed t h e piece of b r e a d . W e saw t h a t
some t i m e or o t h e r we m i g h t o b s e r v e t h e direction in which t h e
d u c k t u r n e d w h e n left to itself u p o n t h e w a t e r . B u t a b s o r b e d
a t t h a t t i m e b y a n o t h e r object, we w a n t e d n o t h i n g m o r e .
T h a t e v e n i n g , h a v i n g in our p o c k e t s b r e a d p r e p a r e d for
t h e occasion, we r e t u r n e d t o t h e fair. A s s o o n a s t h e m o u n t e -
b a n k b a d p e r f o r m e d his f e a t m y little p h i l o s o p h e r , scarcely
3

able to contain himself, t o l d him t h a t t h e t h i n g w a s n o t h a r d

t o d o , a n d t h a t h e could d o it himself. H e w a s t a k e n a t his
w o r d . I n s t a n t l y he t o o k from his p o c k e t t h e b r e a d in which
he h a d h i d d e n t h e b i t of i r o n . A p p r o a c h i n g t h e t a b l e his
h e a r t b e a t f a s t ; a l m o s t t r e m b l i n g l y , he p r e s e n t e d t h e b r e a d .
T h e d u c k c a m e t o w a r d it a n d followed i t ; t h e child s h o u t e d
a n d d a n c e d for j o y . A t t h e c l a p p i n g of h a n d s , a n d t h e
a c c l a m a t i o n s of all p r e s e n t , his h e a d s w a m , a n d he w a s a l m o s t
beside himself. T h e j u g g l e r w a s a s t o n i s h e d , b u t e m b r a c e d
a n d c o n g r a t u l a t e d h i m , b e g g i n g t h a t we would h o n o r h i m
a g a i n b y our p r e s e n c e o n t h e following d a y , a d d i n g t h a t he
woiuld t a k e care to h a v e a l a r g e r c o m p a n y p r e s e n t to a p p l a u d
o u r skill. M y little n a t u r a l i s t , filled with p r i d e , b e g a n t o
p r a t t l e ; b u t I silenced h i m , a n d led h i m a w a y l o a d e d with
p r a i s e s . T h e child c o u n t e d t h e m i n u t e s u n t i l t h e m o r r o w
with i m p a t i e n c e t h a t m a d e m e smile. H e invited e v e r y b o d y
h e m e t ; g l a d l y w o u l d h e h a v e h a d all m a n k i n d as w i t n e s s e s
of his t r i u m p h . H e could scarcely wait for t h e hour a g r e e d
u p o n , a n d , l o n g before it c a m e , flew to the place a p p o i n t e d .
T h e hall w a s a l r e a d y full, a n d on e n t e r i n g , his little h e a r t
beat fast. O t h e r f e a t s were t o come first; t h e j u g g l e r o u t d i d
himself, a n d t h e r e were some r e a l l y wonderful p e r f o r m ­
a n c e s . T h e child p a i d n o a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e . H i s e x c i t e ­
m e n t h a d t h r o w n h i m into a p e r s p i r a t i o n ; h e w a s a l m o s t
b r e a t h l e s s , a n d fingered t h e b r e a d in his p o c k e t with a h a n d
t r e m b l i n g with i m p a t i e n c e .
A t l a s t his t u r n c a m e , a n d t h e m a s t e r p o m p o u s l y a n n o u n c e d
t h e fact. R a t h e r bashfully t h e boy d r e w n e a r a n d held forth
his b r e a d . A l a s for t h e c h a n g e s in h u m a n affairs ! T h e
d u c k , y e s t e r d a y so t a m e , h a d g r o w n wild. I n s t e a d of p r e ­
s e n t i n g its bill, it t u r n e d a b o u t a n d s w a m a w a y , a v o i d i n g t h e
b r e a d a n d t h e h a n d which p r e s e n t e d it, a s carefully a s it h a d
before followed t h e m . A f t e r m a n y fruitless a t t e m p t s , each
received with derision, t h e child c o m p l a i n e d t h a t a t r i c k w a s
p l a y e d on h i m , a n d defied t h e j u g g l e r to a t t r a c t t h e d u c k .
T h e m a n , w i t h o u t a w o r d , t o o k a piece of b r e a d a n d p r e ­
s e n t e d it t o t h e d u c k , which i n s t a n t l y followed it, a n d c a m e
t o w a r d s his h a n d . T h e child took t h e s a m e bit of b r e a d ;
b u t far from h a v i n g b e t t e r s u c c e s s , h e s a w t h e d u c k m a k e
s p o r t of him b y whirling r o u n d a n d r o u n d as it s w a m a b o u t
t h e edge of t h e b a s i n . A t l a s t he r e t i r e d in g r e a t confusion,
n o longer d a r i n g t o e n c o u n t e r t h e hisses which followed.
T h e n t h e j u g g l e r t o o k t h e b i t of b r e a d t h e child h a d
b r o u g h t , a n d succeeded as well with it as with his o w n . In
the p r e s e n c e of t h e entire c o m p a n y h e d r e w o u t t h e n e e d l e ,
m a k i n g a n o t h e r j o k e at our e x p e n s e ; t h e n , with t h e b r e a d
t h u s disarmed., he a t t r a c t e d t h e d u c k a s b e f o r e . H e did t h e
s a m e t h i n g with a piece of b r e a d which a t h i r d p e r s o n cut off
in t h e p r e s e n c e of a l l ; a g a i n , with his g l o v e , a n d with t h e
t i p of his finger. A t l a s t , g o i n g t o t h e middle of t h e r o o m ,
h e declared in t h e e m p h a t i c t o n e peculiar t o his sort, t h a t t h e
d u c k would obey his voice quite a s well as his g e s t u r e . He
s p o k e , a n d t h e d u c k o b e y e d h i m ; c o m m a n d e d it to g o t o t h e
r i g h t , a n d it w e n t to t h e r i g h t ; to r e t u r n , a n d it did s o ; t o
t u r n , a n d it t u r n e d itself a b o u t . E a c h m o v e m e n t w a s as
p r o m p t as t h e c o m m a n d . T h e r e d o u b l e d a p p l a u s e w a s a r e ­
p e a t e d affront to u s . W e stole a w a y u n m o l e s t e d , a n d s h u t
ourselves up in our r o o m , w i t h o u t proclaiming our success
far a n d wide as we h a d m e a n t to d o .
T h e r e w a s a k n o c k a t our d o o r n e x t m o r n i n g ; I o p e n e d it,
a n d t h e r e s t o o d t h e m o u n t e b a n k , who m o d e s t l y c o m p l a i n e d Of
our c o n d u c t . W h a t h a d he d o n e to u s t h a t we should t r y t o
throw discredit on his p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d t a k e a w a y his liveli­
hood ? W h a t is so w o n d e r f u l in t h e a r t of a t t r a c t i n g a w a x
d u c k , t h a t t h e h o n o r should b e w o r t h t h e price of a n h o n e s t
m a n ' s l i v i n g ? " F a i t h , g e n t l e m e n , if I h a d a n y o t h e r w a y
of e a r n i n g m y b r e a d , I should b o a s t v e r y little of this w a y .
Y o u m a y well believe t h a t a m a n who h a s s p e n t his life in
p r a c t i s i n g this pitiful t r a d e u n d e r s t a n d s it m u c h b e t t e r t h a n
y o u , who d e v o t e only a few m i n u t e s to it. If I did n o t show
y o u m y b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e s t h e first t i m e , it w a s b e c a u s e a m a n
o u g h t n o t t o b e such a fool as t o p a r a d e e v e r y t h i n g he k n o w s .
I a l w a y s t a k e care t o k e e p m y b e s t t h i n g s for a fit o c c a s i o n ;
and I have others, too, to rebuke young and thoughtless peo­
p l e . B e s i d e s , g e n t l e m e n , I a m g o i n g t o t e a c h y o u , in t h e
g o o d n e s s of m y h e a r t , t h e secret which p u z z l e d y o u so
m u c h , b e g g i n g t h a t y o u will n o t a b u s e y o u r k n o w l e d g e of
it to injure m e , a n d t h a t a n o t h e r time y o u will use m o r e
discretion."
T h e n h e s h o w e d u s his a p p a r a t u s , a n d we s a w , to our sur­
p r i s e , t h a t it c o n s i s t e d only of a powerful m a g n e t m o v e d b y
a child concealed b e n e a t h t h e t a b l e . T h e m a n p u t u p his
m a c h i n e a g a i n ; a n d after t h a n k i n g h i m a n d m a k i n g d u e
apologies, we offered h i m a p r e s e n t . H e refused, s a y i n g ,
" N o , g e n t l e m e n , I a m n o t so well p l e a s e d with y o u as t o
a c c e p t p r e s e n t s from y o u . Y o u c a n n o t help b e i n g u n d e r
a n obligation to m e , a n d t h a t is r e v e n g e e n o u g h . B u t , y o u
s e e , g e n e r o s i t y is t o b e f o u n d in e v e r y s t a t i o n in life ; I t a k e
p a y for m y p e r f o r m a n c e s , n o t for m y l e s s o n s . "
A s h e w a s g o i n g out, h e r e p r i m a n d e d m e p o i n t e d l y a n d
a l o u d . " I willingly p a r d o n this c h i l d , " said h e ; " h e h a s
offended only t h r o u g h i g n o r a n c e . B u t y o u , sir, m u s t h a v e
k n o w n t h e n a t u r e of his f a u l t ; w h y did y o u allow him t o
commit such a fault? Since y o u live t o g e t h e r , y o u , who
a r e older, o u g h t t o h a v e t a k e n t h e t r o u b l e of a d v i s i n g h i m ;
t h e a u t h o r i t y of y o u r e x p e r i e n c e should h a v e g u i d e d h i m .
W h e n h e is old e n o u g h t o r e p r o a c h y o u for his childish e r r o r s ,
he will certainly b l a m e y o u for t h o s e of which y o u did n o t
1
warn him."
H e w e n t a w a y , leaving u s g r e a t l y a b a s h e d . I t o o k u]3on
myself the b l a m e of m y easy compliance, a n d p r o m i s e d the
child t h a t , a n o t h e r t i m e , I would sacrifice it to his i n t e r e s t ,
a n d w a r n h i m of his faults before they were c o m m i t t e d .
F o r a time w a s coming w h e n our relations would b e c h a n g e d ,
a n d t h e severity of the t u t o r m u s t succeed to the complai­
sance of a n equal. T h i s c h a n g e shoald be g r a d u a l ; every­
t h i n g m u s t be foreseen, a n d t h a t long b e f o r e h a n d .
T h e following d a y we r e t u r n e d to t h e fair, to see once
m o r e the trick whose secret we h a d l e a r n e d . W e a p p r o a c h e d
our j u g g l i n g S o c r a t e s with deep r e s p e c t , h a r d l y v e n t u r i n g to
look at h i m . H e o v e r w h e l m e d us with civilities, a n d s e a t e d
u s with a m a r k e d a t t e n t i o n which a d d e d to our humiliation.
H e p e r f o r m e d his tricks as u s u a l , b u t t o o k p a i n s to a m u s e
himself for a l o n g time with the d u c k trick, often looking a t
u s with a r a t h e r defiant air. • W e u n d e r s t o o d it perfectly, a n d
did n o t b r e a t h e a syllable. If m y pupil h a d even d a r e d t o
open his m o u t h , h e would h a v e d e s e r v e d to b e annihilated.
A l l the details of this illustration are far m o r e i m p o r t a n t
t h a n they a p p e a r . H o w m a n y lessons are h e r e combined in
one ! H o w m a n y mortifying effects does t h e first feeling of
v a n i t y b r i n g u p o n u s ! Y o u n g t e a c h e r s , w a t c h carefully its
first m a n i f e s t a t i o n . If y o u c a n t h u s t u r n it into humiliation
a n d d i s g r a c e , b e a s s u r e d t h a t a second lesson will n o t soon b e
necessary.
" W h a t a n a m o u n t of p r e p a r a t i o n ! " you will s a y . T r u e ;
a n d all to m a k e us a c o m p a s s to use i n s t e a d of a m e r i d i a n
line !
1
Rousseau here informs his readers that even these reproaches are ex­
pected, he having dictated them beforehand to the mountebank; all this
scene has been arranged to deceive the child. What a refinement of artifice
in this passionate lover of the natural!
 H a v i n g l e a r n e d t h a t a m a g n e t acts t h r o u g h o t h e r bodies,
we were all i m p a t i e n c e until we h a d m a d e a n a p p a r a t u s like
the one we h a d seen, — a hollow t a b l e - t o p w i t h a very shallow
b a s i n a d j u s t e d u p o n *it a n d filled with w a t e r , a d u c k r a t h e r
m o r e carefully m a d e , a n d so o n . W a t c h i n g this a p p a r a t u s
a t t e n t i v e l y a n d often, we finally o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e d u c k , when
a t r e s t , n e a r l y always t u r n e d in t h e s a m e direction. Follow­
ing u p t h e e x p e r i m e n t b y e x a m i n i n g this direction, we f o u n d
it t o b e from s o u t h t o n o r t h . N o t h i n g m o r e w a s n e c e s s a r y ;
our c o m p a s s w a s i n v e n t e d , or m i g h t as well h a v e b e e n . We
h a d b e g u n to s t u d y p h y s i c s .

Experimental Physics.

T H E e a r t h h a s different climates, a n d t h e s e h a v e different

temperatures. A s we a p p r o a c h t h e poles t h e v a r i a t i o n of
s e a s o n s is m o r e p e r c e p t i b l e , — all bodies c o n t r a c t w i t h cold
a n d e x p a n d with h e a t . T h i s effect is m o r e readily m e a s u r e d
in liquids, a n d is p a r t i c u l a r l y noticeable in spirituous liquors.
T h i s fact s u g g e s t e d t h e idea of t h e t h e r m o m e t e r . T h e w i n d
strikes our faces ; air is therefore a b o d y , a fluid; we feel it
t h o u g h we c a n n o t see it. T u r n a g l a s s vessel u p s i d e d o w n in
w a t e r , a n d t h e w a t e r will n o t fill it u n l e s s you l e a v e a v e n t
for t h e air ; t h e r e f o r e air is capable of r e s i s t a n c e . Sink
t h e g l a s s lower, a n d t h e w a t e r rises in t h e air-filled r e g i o n of
t h e g l a s s , a l t h o u g h it does n o t entirely fill t h a t s p a c e . A i r
is t h e r e f o r e t o some e x t e n t c o m p r e s s i b l e . A ball filled w i t h
c o m p r e s s e d air b o u n d s m u c h b e t t e r t h a n w h e n filled with
a n y t h i n g else : air is t h e r e f o r e elastic. W h e n lying a t full
l e n g t h in t h e b a t h , r a i s e t h e a r m h o r i z o n t a l l y o u t of t h e
w a t e r , a n d you feel it b u r d e n e d b y a g r e a t w e i g h t : air is t h e r e ­
fore h e a v y . P u t air in equilibrium w i t h other b o d i e s , a n d
you c a n m e a s u r e its w e i g h t . F r o m t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s were
constructed the barometer, the siphon, the air-gnn, and the
a i r - p u m p . A l l t h e laws of s t a t i c s a n d h y d r o s t a t i c s w e r e d i s ­
covered b y e x p e r i m e n t s as simple as t h e s e . I would n o t
h a v e m y pupil s t u d y t h e m in a l a b o r a t o r y of e x p e r i m e n t a l
p h y s i c s . I dislike all t h a t a r r a y of m a c h i n e s a n d i n s t r u m e n t s .
T h e p a r a d e of science is f a t a l to science itself. A l l t h o s e
m a c h i n e s frighten t h e c h i l d ; or else their s i n g u l a r forms
divide a n d d i s t r a c t t h e a t t e n t i o n he o u g h t t o give to their
effects.
I would m a k e all our own m a c h i n e s , a n d n o t b e g i n b y m a k ­
ing t h e i n s t r u m e n t b e f o r e t h e e x p e r i m e n t h a s b e e n t r i e d .
B u t after a p p a r e n t l y lighting b y c h a n c e on t h e e x p e r i m e n t ,
I should b y d e g r e e s i n v e n t i n s t r u m e n t s for verifying it.
T h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s slloulcl n o t b e so perfect a n d e x a c t as our
i d e a s of w h a t t h e y should be a n d of t h e o p e r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g
from t h e m .
N
F o r the first lesson in s t a t i c s , i n s t e a d of u s i n g b a l a n c e s , I
p u t a stick a c r o s s t h e b a c k of a chair, a n d w h e n evenly bal­
a n c e d , m e a s u r e its t w o p o r t i o n s . I a d d w e i g h t s t o each p a r t ,
sometimes equal, s o m e t i m e s u n e q u a l . P u s h i n g it t o or fro as
m a y b e n e c e s s a r y , I finally discover t h a t equilibrium r e s u l t s
from a reciprocal p r o p o r t i o n b e t w e e n t h e a m o u n t of weight
a n d t h e l e n g t h of t h e l e v e r s . T h u s m y little s t u d e n t of p h y s ­
ics c a n rectify b a l a n c e s w i t h o u t h a v i n g ever seen t h e m .
"When we t h u s l e a r n b y ourselves i n s t e a d of l e a r n i n g from
o t h e r s , our ideas are far m o r e definite a n d clear. B e s i d e s , if
our r e a s o n is n o t a c c u s t o m e d to slavish submission t o au­
thority, this d i s c o v e r i n g r e l a t i o n s , l i n k i n g one idea t o a n o t h e r ,
a n d i n v e n t i n g a p p a r a t u s , r e n d e r s us m u c h m o r e ingenious".
If, i n s t e a d , we t a k e e v e r y t h i n g j u s t as it is g i v e n to u s , we
allow our m i n d s t o sink d o w n into indifference ; j u s t a s a m a n
who always lets his s e r v a n t s d r e s s him a n d w a i t on him, a n d
his horses c a r r y h i m a b o u t , loses finally n o t only t h e vigor
b u t even t h e use of Ms l i m b s . Boileau b o a s t e d t b a t he h a d
t a u g h t R a c i n e t o r h y m e with difficulty. There are many ex­
cellent l a b o r - s a v i n g m e t h o d s for s t u d y i n g science ; b u t we a r e
in sore n e e d of one t o t e a c h us h o w to l e a r n t h e m with m o r e
effort of our o w n .
T h e m o s t m a n i f e s t value of t h e s e slow a n d l a b o r i o u s r e ­
s e a r c h e s i s , t h a t a m i d speculative studies t h e y m a i n t a i n t h e
activity a n d s u p p l e n e s s of t h e b o d y , b y t r a i n i n g t h e h a n d s t o
l a b o r , a n d c r e a t i n g h a b i t s useful to a n y m a n . So m a n y in­
s t r u m e n t s are i n v e n t e d to aid in our e x p e r i m e n t s a n d to s u p ­
p l e m e n t t h e action of our s e n s e s , t h a t we neglect to use t h e
s e n s e s t h e m s e l v e s . If the g r a p h o m e t e r m e a s u r e s t h e size of
a n angle for u s , we n e e d n o t e s t i m a t e it ourselves. T h e eye
w h i c h m e a s u r e d d i s t a n c e s with precision* i n t r u s t s this w o r k to
t h e c h a i n ; t h e s t e e l y a r d s a v e s m e t h e t r o u b l e of m e a s u r i n g
w e i g h t s b y t h e h a n d . T h e m o r e ingenious our a p p a r a t u s , t h e
m o r e clumsy a n d a w k w a r d do our o r g a n s b e c o m e . If we
s u r r o u n d ourselves with i n s t r u m e n t s , we shall n o longer find
t h e m within ourselves.
B u t w h e n , in m a k i n g t h e a p p a r a t u s , we employ t h e skill
a n d s a g a c i t y required in doing w i t h o u t t h e m , we do n o t lose,
b u t g a i n . B y a d d i n g a r t to n a t u r e , we b e c o m e more in­
genious a n d n o less skilful. If, i n s t e a d of k e e p i n g a child
a t his b o o k s , I k e e p h i m b u s y in a w o r k s h o p , his h a n d s labor
to his m i n d ' s a d v a n t a g e : while he r e g a r d s himself only as a
w o r k m a n he is g r o w i n g i n t o a p h i l o s o p h e r . T h i s k i n d of
exercise h a s other u s e s , of which I will s p e a k h e r e a f t e r ; a n d
we shall see how philosophic a m u s e m e n t s p r e p a r e us for t h e
t r u e functions of m a n h o o d .
I h a v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d t h a t purely speculative studies are
r a r e l y a d a p t e d t o children, even w h e n a p p r o a c h i n g t h e period
of y o u t h ; b u t w i t h o u t m a k i n g them e n t e r v e r y deeply into
s y s t e m a t i c p h y s i c s , let all t h e e x p e r i m e n t s be c o n n e c t e d b y
 NOTHING TO BE TAKEN UPON AUTHORITY; 141

some k i n d of d e p e n d e n c e b y which t h e child c a n a r r a n g e t h e m

in his m i n d a n d recall t h e m a t n e e d . F o r we c a n n o t w i t h ­
o u t s o m e t h i n g of this s o r t r e t a i n isolated f a c t s or e v e n r e a ­
s o n i n g s long in m e m o r y .
I n i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e l a w s of n a t u r e , a l w a y s b e g i n with t h e
m o s t c o m m o n a n d m o s t easily o b s e r v e d p h e n o m e n a , a n d a c ­
c u s t o m y o u r pupil n o t to consider t h e s e p h e n o m e n a a s r e a s o n s ,
b u t as f a c t s . T a k i n g a s t o n e , I p r e t e n d t o lay it u p o n t h e
a i r ; o p e n i n g m y h a n d , t h e s t o n e falls. L o o k i n g a t E m i l e ,
who is w a t c h i n g m y m o t i o n s , I s a y t o h i m , " W h y did t h e
s t o n e fall ? "
N o child will h e s i t a t e in a n s w e r i n g such a q u e s t i o n , n o t
even fimile, u n l e s s I h a v e t a k e n g r e a t c a r e t h a t he shall n o t
k n o w h o w . A n y child will s a y t h a t t h e s t o n e falls b e c a u s e
it is heavy. " A n d w h a t d o e s h e a v y m e a n ? " " W h a t e v e r
falls is h e a v y . " H e r e my little p h i l o s o p h e r is really a t a
s t a n d . W h e t h e r this first lesson in e x p e r i m e n t a l physics
aids him in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t s u b j e c t or n o t , it will a l w a y s
b e a p r a c t i c a l lesson.

N o t h i n g to-be T a k e n u p o n Authority. L e a r n i n g from

the Pupil's o w n Necessities.

A s t h e child's u n d e r s t a n d i n g m a t u r e s , o t h e r i m p o r t a n t con­
siderations d e m a n d t h a t we choose his o c c u p a t i o n s w i t h m o r e
care. A s soon as he u n d e r s t a n d s himself a n d all t h a t r e l a t e s
to him well e n o u g h a n d b r o a d l y e n o u g h t o d i s c e r n w h a t is t o
his a d v a n t a g e a n d w h a t is b e c o m i n g in h i m , h e c a n a p p r e c i a t e
the difference b e t w e e n work a n d p l a y , a n d t o r e g a r d t h e o n e
solely as r e l a x a t i o n , from t h e o t h e r , O b j e c t s really useful
m a y then b e . included a m o n g his s t u d i e s , a n d he will p a y
more attention t o t h e m t h a n if a m u s e m e n t alone w e r e con­
cerned. T h e e v e r - p r e s e n t l a w of necessity early t e a c h e s u s
t o d o w h a t we dislike, t o e s c a p e evils we should dislike e v e n
m o r e . S u c h is t h e u s e of foresight from which, judicious or
injudicious, s p r i n g s all t h e w i s d o m or all t h e u n h a p p i n e s s of
mankind.
W e all l o n g for h a p p i n e s s , b u t t o acquire it we o u g h t first
t o k n o w w h a t it i s . T o t h e n a t u r a l m a n it is as simple as his
m o d e of life ; it m e a n s h e a l t h , liberty, a n d t h e n e c e s s a r i e s of
life, a n d freedom from suffering. T h e h a p p i n e s s of m a n a s a
m o r a l b e i n g is a n o t h e r t h i n g , foreign t o t h e p r e s e n t q u e s t i o n .
I c a n n o t t o o often r e p e a t t h a t only o b j e c t s p u r e l y p h y s i c a l
c a n i n t e r e s t children, especially t h o s e w h o h a v e n o t h a d their
v a n i t y a r o u s e d a n d their n a t u r e c o r r u p t e d b y t h e poison of
opinion.
W h e n t h e y p r o v i d e b e f o r e h a n d for t h e i r o w n w a n t s , their
u n d e r s t a n d i n g is s o m e w h a t developed, a n d t h e y a r e b e g i n n i n g
t o l e a r n t h e v a l u e of t i m e . W e o u g h t t h e n b y all m e a n s to
a c c u s t o m a n d t o direct t h e m t o its e m p l o y m e n t t o useful e n d s ,
t h e s e b e i n g such a s a r e useful a t their a g e a n d r e a d i l y u n d e r ­
s t o o d b y t h e m . T h e s u b j e c t of m o r a l o r d e r a n d t h e u s a g e s
of society s h o u l d n o t y e t b e p r e s e n t e d , b e c a u s e children are
n o t in a condition t o u n d e r s t a n d such t h i n g s . T o force their
a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h i n g s which, as we v a g u e l y tell t h e m , will b e
for their g o o d , w h e n t h e y d o n o t k n o w w h a t this g o o d m e a n s ,
is foolish. I t is n o less foolish t o a s s u r e t h e m t h a t such
t h i n g s will benefit t h e m when g r o w n ; for t h e y t a k e n o inter­
e s t in t h i s s u p p o s e d benefit, which t h e y c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d .
L e t t h e child t a k e n o t h i n g for g r a n t e d b e c a u s e some one
s a y s it is so. N o t h i n g is g o o d to h i m b u t w h a t h e feels t o
b e g o o d . Y o u t h i n k it far s i g h t e d to p u s h h i m b e y o n d his
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h i n g s , b u t y o u a r e m i s t a k e n . F o r the
s a k e of a r m i n g h i m w i t h w e a p o n s h e d o e s n o t k n o w h o w t o
u s e , y o u t a k e from h i m o n e u n i v e r s a l a m o n g m e n . c o m m o n
s e n s e : y o u t e a c h h i m t o allow himself a l w a y s to be led,
never to b e m o r e t h a n a m a c h i n e in t h e h a n d s of o t h e r s . I f
you will h a v e h i m docile while h e is y o u n g , y o u will m a k e
him a credulous d u p e w h e n h e is a, m a n . Y o u a r e c o n t i n u ­
ally s a y i n g t o h i m , " A l l I r e q u i r e of y o u is for y o u r o w n
good, b u t you c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d it y e t . W h a t does it
m a t t e r to m e w h e t h e r you do w h a t I require or n o t ? Y o u
are doing it entirely for y o u r o w n s a k e . " W i t h such fine
speeches you are p a v i n g t h e w a y for some k i n d of t r i c k s t e r
or fool, — some v i s i o n a r y b a b b l e r or c h a r l a t a n , — w h o will
e n t r a p him or p e r s u a d e h i m t o a d o p t his own folly.
A m a n m a y b e well a c q u a i n t e d with t h i n g s whose utility a
child c a n n o t c o m p r e h e n d ; b u t is it r i g h t , or e v e n p o s s i b l e ,
for a child t o l e a r n w h a t a m a n o u g h t to k n o w ? T r y to
t e a c h t h e child all t h a t is useful to h i m n o w , a n d you will
k e e p h i m b u s y all the t i m e . W h y would you injure t h e
studies suitable to h i m a t his age b y g i v i n g h i m those of a n
a g e he m a y n e v e r a t t a i n ? " B u t , " you s a y , " will t h e r e b e
time for l e a r n i n g w h a t h e o u g h t t o k n o w w h e n t h e time t o
use it h a s a l r e a d y come ? " I do n o t k n o w ; b u t I a m sure
t h a t he c a n n o t l e a r n it sooner. F o r e x p e r i e n c e a n d feeling
a r e our r e a l t e a c h e r s , a n d we n e v e r u n d e r s t a n d t h o r o u g h l y
w h a t is b e s t for us e x c e p t from the c i r c u m s t a n c e s of our
c a s e . A child k n o w s t h a t he will one d a y be a m a n . All
t h e ideas of m a n h o o d t h a t he can u n d e r s t a n d give us o p ­
p o r t u n i t i e s of t e a c h i n g h i m ; b u t of t h o s e h e c a n n o t u n d e r ­
s t a n d he should r e m a i n in absolute i g n o r a n c e . T h i s e n t i r e
b o o k is only a c o n t i n u e d d e m o n s t r a t i o n of this principle of
education.

Finding out the Bast. The Forest of

Montmorency.
I DO n o t like e x p l a n a t o r y l e c t u r e s ; y o u n g people p a y
very little a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m , a n d seldom r e m e m b e r t h e m .
T h i n g s ! t h i n g s ! I canriot r e p e a t often e n o u g h t h a t we
a t t a c h too m u c h i m p o r t a n c e t o w o r d s . O u r b a b b l i n g e d u c a ­
tion p r o d u c e s n o t h i n g b u t b a b b l e r s .
S u p p o s e t h a t while we a r e s t u d y i n g t h e course of t h e s u n ,
aWd t h e m a n n e r of finding w h e r e t h e e a s t i s , E m i l e all a t
o n c e i n t e r r u p t s m e , t o a s k , " W h a t is t h e u s e of all t h i s ? "
W h a t a n o p p o r t u n i t y for a fine d i s c o u r s e ! How many
t h i n g s I could tell him of in a n s w e r i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n , e s p e ­
cially if a n y b o d y were b y t o l i s t e n ! I could m e n t i o n t h e
a d v a n t a g e s of t r a v e l a n d of c o m m e r c e ; t h e p e c u l i a r p r o d u c t s
of each c l i m a t e ; t h e m a n n e r s of different n a t i o n s ; t h e use
of t h e c a l e n d a r ; t h e calculation of s e a s o n s in a g r i c u l t u r e ;
the a r t of n a v i g a t i o n , a n d the m a n n e r of t r a v e l l i n g b y sea,
following t h e t r u e course w i t h o u t k n o w i n g w h e r e we a r e . I
m i g h t t a k e u p politics, n a t u r a l h i s t o r y , a s t r o n o m y , e v e n
ethics a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, b y w a y of giving m y pupil a n
e x a l t e d idea of all t h e s e sciences, a n d a s t r o n g desire to
l e a r n them. x W h e n I h a v e d o n e , the b o y will n o t h a v e
u n d e r s t o o d a single idea o u t of all m y p e d a n t i c d i s p l a y . Ho
would like t o a s k a g a i n , " W h a t is t h e use of finding o u t
w h e r e t h e e a s t i s ? " b u t d a r e s n o t , lest I m i g h t b e a n g r y .
H e finds it m o r e to his i n t e r e s t to p r e t e n d to u n d e r s t a n d
w h a t h e h a s b e e n compelled to h e a r . T h i s is n o t a t all a n
u n c o m m o n case in s u p e r i o r e d u c a t i o n , so-called.
B u t o u r iDmile, b r o u g h t u p m o r e like a r u s t i c , a n d c a r e ­
fully t a u g h t t o t h i n k v e r y slowly, will n o t listen t o all this.
H e will r u n a w a y a t t h e first w o r d he d o e s n o t u n d e r s t a n d ,
a n d pla}^ a b o u t t h e r o o m , l e a v i n g me to h a r a n g u e all b y
myself. L e t u s find a simpler w a y ; t h i s scientific d i s p l a y
does h i m n a good.
W e w e r e notfeing^ ther p o s i t r o n of t h e f o r e s t n o r t h of
M o n t m o r e n c y , w h e n he i n t e r r u p t e d m e w i t h t h e e a g e r q u e s ­
t i o n , " W h a t is t h e u s e of k n o w i n g t h a t ? " " Yon may be
r i g h t , " s a i d I ; " w e m u s t t a k e time t o t h i n k a b o u t i t ; a n d
if t h e r e is really n o use in it, we will n o t t r y it a g a i n , for we
h a v e e n o u g h t o d o t h a t is of u s e . " W e w e n t a t s o m e t h i n g
else, a n d t h e r e w a s n o m o r e g e o g r a p h y t h a t d a y .
T h e n e x t m o r n i n g I p r o p o s e d a w a l k before b r e a k f a s t .
N o t h i n g could h a v e p l e a s e d h i m b e t t e r ; c h i l d r e n a r e a l w a y s
r e a d y t o r u n a b o u t , a n d t h i s b o y h a d s t u r d y l e g s of his o w n .
W e w e n t i n t o t h e forest, a n d w a n d e r e d o v e r t h e i i e l d s ; w e
lost o u r s e l v e s , h a v i n g no idea w h e r e we w e r e ; a n d w h e n we
i n t e n d e d to g o h o m e , could n o t find o u r w a y . T i m e p a s s e d ;
t h e h e a t of t h e d a y c a m e on ; we were h u n g r y . I n v a i n did
we h u r r y a b o u t from p l a c e t o p l a c e ; we f o u n d e v e r y w h e r e
n o t h i n g b u t w o o d s , q u a r r i e s , plains,, a n d n o t a l a n d m a r k
t h a t we k n e w . S e a t e d , w o r n o u t with fatigue, a n d v e r y
h u n g r y , our r u n n i n g a b o u t only led u s m o r e a n d m o r e astraj-.
A t last we sat d o w n to r e s t a n d t o t h i n k t h e m a t t e r over.
E m i l e , like a n y o t h e r child, did n o t t h i n k a b o u t i t ; he cried.
H e did n o t k n o w t h a t . w e w e r e n e a r t h e g a t e of M o n t m o r e n c y ,
a n d t h a t only a n a r r o w s t r i p of w o o d l a n d hid it from u s .
B u t t o him t h i s n a r r o w s t r i p of w o o d l a n d was a whole f o r e s t ;
o n e of his s t a t u r e would be lost to s i g h t a m o n g b u s h e s .
A f t e r some m o m e n t s of silence I said to h i m , with a
t r o u b l e d air,
" M y clear E m i l e , w h a t shall we d o t o g e t a w a y from h e r e ? "
E M I L E . \_In a profuse perspiration, and crying bitterly.,] I
d o n ' t k n o w . I ' m tired. I ' m h u n g r y . I ' m t h i r s t y . I c a n ' t
do a n y t h i n g .
J E A N JACQUES. D O you t h i n k I a m b e t t e r off t h a n y o u , or
t h a t I would m i n d crying t o o , if c r y i n g would do for m y
b r e a k f a s t ? T h e r e is n o use in c r y i n g ; t h e t h i n g i s , t o find
our w a y . L e t m e see y o u r w a t c h ; w h a t time is it ?
3£MILE. I t is twelve o'clock, a n d I h a v e n ' t h a d m y b r e a k ­
fast.
 J E A N JACQUES. T h a t is t r u e . I t is twelve o'clock, a n d I
h a v e n ' t h a d m y b r e a k f a s t , either.
E M I L E . O h , h o w h u n g r y you m u s t be !
J E A N JACQUES. T h e w o r s t of it is t h a t m y d i n n e r will n o t
come h e r e to find m e . T w e l v e o'clock? it w a s j u s t this time
y e s t e r d a y t h a t we noticed where M o n t m o r e n c y is. C o u l d we
see w h e r e it is j u s t as well from this f o r e s t ?
E M I L E . Y e s ; b u t y e s t e r d a y we saw t h e forest, a n d we can­
n o t see t h e t o w n from this p l a c e .
J E A N JACQUES. T h a t is a p i t y . I w o n d e r if we could find
o u t w h e r e it is w i t h o u t seeing it ?
E M I L E . O h , m y d e a r friend !
J E A N JACQUES. Did, n o t we s a y t h a t this forest i s — *
E M I L E . N o r t h of M o n t m o r e n c y .
J E A N JACQUES. If that is t r u e , M o n t m o r e n c y m u s t b e —
# £ M I L E . S o u t h of t h e forest.
J E A N JACQUES. T h e r e is a w a y of finding o u t t h e n o r t h a t
Moon.
ISMILE. Y e s ; b y t h e direction of our s h a d o w s .
J E A N JACQUES. B u t t h e s o u t h ?
E M I L E . H o w c a n we find t h a t ?
J E A N JACQUES. T h e s o u t h is o p p o s i t e t h e n o r t h .
E M I L E . T h a t is t r u e ; all we h a v e t o d o is t o find t h e side
opposite t h e s h a d o w s . O h , t h e r e ' s t h e s o u t h ! t h e r e ' s t h e
s o u t h ! M o n t m o r e n c y m u s t surely b e o n t h a t s i d e ; let u s
look on t h a t side.
J E A N JACQUES. P e r h a p s y o u are r i g h t . L e t us t a k e this
p a t h t h r o u g h t h e forest.
E M I L E . [Clapiying his hands, with a joyful shout.'] O h , I
see M o n t m o r e n c y ; t h e r e it i s , j u s t before u s , in plain sight.
L e t u s go to our b r e a k f a s t , our d i n n e r ; let us r u n fast.
A s t r o n o m y is g o o d for s o m e t h i n g !
O b s e r v e t h a t even if h e does n o t u t t e r t h e s e l a s t w o r d s ,
t h e y will be in his m i n d . I t m a t t e r s little so l o n g a s i t is
n o t I who u t t e r t h e m . R e s t a s s u r e d t h a t he will n e v e r in his
life forget this d a y ' s lesson. N o w if I h a d only m a d e him
imagine it. all i n d o o r s , m y l e c t u r e would h a v e b e e n entirely
f o r g o t t e n b y t h e n e x t d a y . W e should t e a c h a s m u c h as
possible b y a c t i o n s , a n d s a y only w h a t we c a n n o t d o .

Robinson Crusoe.
I N h i s l e g i t i m a t e preference f o r t e a c h i n g b y the eye and h a n d
and by real t h i n g s , and in h i s aversion to the barren and e r r o n e o u s
m e t h o d o f t e a c h i n g f r o m b o o k s alone, R o u s s e a u , c o n s t a n t l y carried
a w a y b y the p a s s i o n a t e ardor of h i s nature, r u s h e s .into an o p p o s i t e
extreme, and e x c l a i m s , " I hate b o o k s ; t h e y o n l y t e a c h us t o talk
about w h a t w e do n o t understand." Then, c h e c k e d in the full tide
o f this d e c l a m a t i o n by his o w n g o o d s e n s e , he adds : —

Since we m u s t h a v e b o o k s , t h e r e is o n e which, to m y m i n d ,
furnishes t h e finest of t r e a t i s e s o n e d u c a t i o n a c c o r d i n g to
n a t u r e . M y E m i l e shall r e a d this b o o k before a n y o t h e r ; it
shall for a long time b e his entire l i b r a r y , a n d shall a l w a y s
hold a n h o n o r a b l e p l a c e . I t shall be t h e t e x t on which all
our discussions of n a t u r a l science shall b e only c o m m e n t a r i e s .
I t shall b e a t e s t for all we m e e t d u r i n g our p r o g r e s s t o w a r d
a r i p e n e d j u d g m e n t , a n d so long as our t a s t e is u n s p o i l e d ,
we shall enjoy r e a d i n g it. W h a t wonderful b o o k is t h i s ?
u
A r i s t o t l e ? P l i n y ? Buffon? N o ; it is R o b i n s o n C r u s o e . "
T h e s t o r y of this m a n , alone o n his island, u n a i d e d b y his
fellow-men, w i t h o u t a n y a r t or its i m p l e m e n t s , a n d y e t p r o ­
viding for his o w n p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d s u b s i s t e n c e , e v e n con­
triving t o live in w h a t m i g h t b e called c o m f o r t , is i n t e r e s t i n g
to-persons of all a g e s . I t m a y b e m a d e delightful to chil­
d r e n in a t h o u s a n d w a y s . T h u s we m a k e t h e d e s e r t i s l a n d ,
which I u s e d a t t h e o u t s e t for a c o m p a r i s o n , a r e a l i t y .
 T h i s condition is n o t , I g r a n t , t h a t of m a n in s o c i e t y ; a n d
t o all a p p e a r a n c e E m i l e will n e v e r occupy i t ; b u t from it he
o u g h t to j u d g e of all o t h e r s . T h e s u r e s t w a y t o rise a b o v e
prejudice, a n d to j u d g e of t h i n g s in their t r u e r e l a t i o n s , is to
p u t ourselves in t h e place of an isolated m a n , a n d decide as
he m u s t c o n c e r n i n g their r e a l utility.
D i s e n c u m b e r e d of its less profitable p o r t i o n s , this r o m a n c e
from its b e g i n n i n g , t h e shipwreck of C r u s o e on t h e island, t o
its e n d , t h e a r r i v a l of t h e vessel which t a k e s h i m a w a y , will
yield a m u s e m e n t a n d i n s t r u c t i o n to E m i l e d u r i n g the period
n o w in q u e s t i o n . I would h a v e him completely carried a w a y
b y it, continually t h i n k i n g of C r u s o e ' s fort, his g o a t o , . a n d
his p l a n t a t i o n s . I would h a v e him l e a r n , n o t from b o o k s ,
b u t from r e a l t h i n g s , all he would n e e d to k n o w u n d e r t h e
same circumstances. H e should b e e n c o u r a g e d to p l a y
R o b i n s o n C r u s o e ; to i m a g i n e himself clad in s k i n s , wearing
a g r e a t c a p a n d s w o r d , a n d all t h e a r r a y of t h a t g r o t e s q u e
figure, d o w n to t h e u m b r e l l a , of which he would h a v e n o
need If he h a p p e n s to be in w a n t of a n y t h i n g , I hope he
will contrive s o m e t h i n g to supply its p l a c e . L e t him look
carefully into all t h a t his h e r o did, a n d decide w h e t h e r a n y of
it w a s u n n e c e s s a r y , or m i g h t h a v e b e e n d o n e in a b e t t e r w a y .
L e t h i m notice C r u s o e ' s m i s t a k e s a n d avoid t h e m u n d e r like
c i r c u m s t a n c e s . H e will v e r y likely p l a n for himself sur­
r o u n d i n g s like C r u s o e ' s , —- a r e a l castle in t h e air, n a t u r a l a t
7
his happ} age when we t h i n k o u r s e l v e s rich if we are free
a n d h a v e t h e n e c e s s a r i e s of life. H o w useful this h o b b y
m i g h t be m a d e if some m a n of sense would only s u g g e s t it
a n d t u r n it to g o o d a c c o u n t ! T h e child, e a g e r to build a
s t o r e h o u s e for his island, would b e m o r e d e s i r o u s to l e a r n
t h a n his m a s t e r would b e to t e a c h h i m . H e would be a n x ­
ious t o k n o w e v e r y t h i n g h e could m a k e use of, a n d n o t h i n g
b e s i d e s . Y o u would n o t n e e d t o g u i d e , b u t t o r e s t r a i n h i m .
 Here R o u s s e a u i n s i s t s u p o n g i v i n g a child s o m e trade, n o m a t t e r
w h a t h i s s t a t i o n in l i f e may b e ; and i n 1762 he uttered t h e s e pro­
phetic w o r d s , remarkable indeed, w h e n w e call t o m i n d the d i s o r d e r s
at t h e c l o s e o f t h a t century : —

Y o u t r u s t t o t h e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n of society, w i t h o u t r e ­
flecting t h a t it is subject t o u n a v o i d a b l e r e v o l u t i o n s , a n d t h a t
y o u c a n n e i t h e r foresee n o r p r e v e n t w h a t is t o affect t h e fate
of y o u r o w n children. T h e g r e a t are b r o u g h t low, t h e p o o r
a r e m a d e rich, t h e k i n g b e c o m e s a s u b j e c t . A r e t h e blows
of fate so u n c o m m o n t h a t you c a n e x p e c t t o e s c a p e t h e m ?
W e are a p p r o a c h i n g a crisis, t h e a g e of r e v o l u t i o n s . Who
c a n tell w h a t will b e c o m e of you t h e n ? A l l t h a t m a n h a s
done m a n m a y d e s t r o y . N o c h a r a c t e r s b u t t h o s e s t a m p e d
by n a t u r e a r e ineffaceable ; a n d n a t u r e did n o t m a k e p r i n c e s ,
or rich m e n , or n o b l e s .

T h i s advice w a s f o l l o w e d . In the h i g h e s t g r a d e s o f s o c i e t y it
became the f a s h i o n t o learn s o m e handicraft. I t is w e l l k n o w n that
L o u i s X V I . w a s proud of h i s skill as a l o c k s m i t h . A m o n g the e x i l e s
of a later period, m a n y o w e d their l i v i n g t o the trade t h e y h a d t h u s
learned.
T o return t o E m i l e : R o u s s e a u s e l e c t s f o r him t h e trade of a
joiner, and g o e s s o far as t o e m p l o y h i m and his tutor in that k i n d
of labor f o r one or more clays o f e v e r y w e e k under a m a s t e r w h o
pays t h e m actual w a g e s for their w o r k .

Judging from Appearances. The Broken Stick.

I F I h a v e t h u s far m a d e myself u n d e r s t o o d , you m a y see

how, with r e g u l a r p h y s i c a l exercise a n d m a n u a l l a b o r , I a m
a t the s a m e time giving my pupil a" t a s t e for reflection a n d
m e d i t a t i o n . T h i s will c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t h e indolence which
m i g h t r e s u l t from his indifference to o t h e r m e n a n d from t h e
d o r m a n t s t a t e of his p a s s i o n s . H e m u s t w o r k like a p e a s a n t
a n d think like a p h i l o s o p h e r , or h e will b e a s idle a s a s a v a g e .
T h e g r e a t secret of e d u c a t i o n is to m a k e p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l
exercises serve as r e l a x a t i o n for e a c h o t h e r . A t first our
p u p i l h a d n o t h i n g b u t s e n s a t i o n s , a n d now he h a s i d e a s .
T h e n he only perceived, b u t now h e j u d g e s . F o r from com­
p a r i s o n of m a n y successive or s i m u l t a n e o u s s e n s a t i o n s ,
with t h e j u d g m e n t s b a s e d on t h e m , arises a k i n d of m i x e d or
c o m p l e x s e n s a t i o n which I call a n i d e a .
T h e different m a n n e r in which i d e a s are f o r m e d g i v e s each
m i n d its peculiar c h a r a c t e r . A m i n d is solid if it s h a p e its
ideas a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t r u e r e l a t i o n s of t h i n g s ; superficial, if
c o n t e n t with their a p p a r e n t r e l a t i o n s ; a c c u r a t e , if it b e h o l d
t h i n g s a s t h e y really a r e ; u n s o u n d , if it u n d e r s t a n d t h e m in­
correctly ; d i s o r d e r e d , if it f a b r i c a t e i m a g i n a r y r e l a t i o n s ,
neither a p p a r e n t n o r r e a l ; imbecile, if it do n o t c o m p a r e
ideas a t all. G r e a t e r or less m e n t a l p o w e r in different m e n
consists in their g r e a t e r or less r e a d i n e s s in c o m p a r i n g ideas
a n d discovering their r e l a t i o n s .
F r o m simple as well a s c o m p l e x s e n s a t i o n s , we form j u d g ­
m e n t s which I will call simple i d e a s . I n a s e n s a t i o n t h e
j u d g m e n t is wholly p a s s i v e , only affirming t h a t we feel w h a t
we feel. I n a p r e c e p t i o n or i d e a , t h e j u d g m e n t is active ; it
brings together, compares, and determines relations not de­
t e r m i n e d b y the s e n s e s . T h i s is t h e only p o i n t of difference,
but*it is i m p o r t a n t . N a t u r e n e v e r deceives us ; it is always
we who deceive o u r s e l v e s .
I see a child eight y e a r s old h e l p e d t o s o m e frozen c u s t a r d .
W i t h o u t k n o w i n g w h a t it i s , h e p u t s a spoonful in his m o u t h ,
44
a n d feeling t h e cold s e n s a t i o n , e x c l a i m s , Ah, that burns !"
H e feels a k e e n s e n s a t i o n ; h e k n o w s of n o n e m o r e so than
h e a t , a n d t h i n k s t h a t is w h a t he now feels. H e is of course
m i s t a k e n ; t h e chill is painful, b u t d o e s n o t b u r n him ; a n d
t h e t w o s e n s a t i o n s a r e n o t alike, since, after e n c o u n t e r i n g
b o t h , we n e v e r m i s t a k e o n e for t h e o t h e r . I t is n o t , t h e r e -
fore, the s e n s a t i o n which m i s l e a d s h i m , b u t t h e j u d g m e n t
b a s e d on it.
I t is t h e s a m e when a n y o n e sees for t h e first t i m e a mir­
ror or optical a p p a r a t u s ; or e n t e r s a d e e p cellar in mid­
w i n t e r or m i d s u m m e r ; or p l u n g e s his h a n d , either v e r y w a r m
or v e r y cold, into tepid w a t e r ; or rolls a little ball b e t w e e n
t w o of his fingers held crosswise. If he is satisfied with
d e s c r i b i n g w h a t he perceives or feels, k e e p i n g his j u d g m e n t
in a b e y a n c e , he c a n n o t b e m i s t a k e n . B u t w h e n he decides
u p o n a p p e a r a n c e s , his j u d g m e n t is a c t i v e ; it c o m p a r e s , a n d
r
infers r e l a t i o n s it d o e s n o t perceive ; a n d i t ma3 t h e n b e
m i s t a k e n . H e will n e e d e x p e r i e n c e t o p r e v e n t o r correct
such m i s t a k e s . S h o w y o u r pupil clouds p a s s i n g o v e r t h e
moon a t n i g h t , a n d he will t h i n k t h a t t h e m o o n is m o v i n g in
a n o p p o s i t e direction, a n d t h a t t h e clouds are a t r e s t . He
will t h e m o r e readily infer t h a t t h i s is t h e case, b e c a u s e he
usually sees small o b j e c t s , n o t l a r g e o n e s , in m o t i o n , a n d
b e c a u s e t h e clouds seem t o him l a r g e r t h a n t h e m o o n , of
whose d i s t a n c e he h a s n o idea. W h e n from a m o v i n g b o a t
he sees t h e s h o r e a t a little d i s t a n c e , h e m a k e s t h e c o n t r a r y
m i s t a k e of t h i n k i n g t h a t the e a r t h m o v e s . F o r , u n c o n s c i o u s
of his own m o t i o n , t h e b o a t , t h e w a t e r , a n d t h e entire
horizon s e e m t o him one i m m o v a b l e whole of which t h e
m o v i n g shore is only one p a r t .
T h e first t i m e a child sees a stick half i m m e r s e d in w a t e r ,
it seems t o be b r o k e n . T h e s e n s a t i o n is a t r u e o n e , a n d
would b e , even if we did n o t k n o w t h e r e a s o n for this
a p p e a r a n c e . If therefore you a s k him w h a t he sees, he
44
a n s w e r s t r u l y , A b r o k e n s t i c k , " b e c a u s e h e is fully con­
scious of t h e s e n s a t i o n of a b r o k e n stick. B u t w h e n , de­
ceived b y his j u d g m e n t , he goes f a r t h e r , a n d after s a y i n g
t h a t he sees a b r o k e n stick, he s a y s a g a i n t h a t t h e stick
really is b r o k e n , he s a y s w h a t is. n o t t r u e ; a n d w h y ?
B e c a u s e his j u d g m e n t b e c o m e s a c t i v e ; he decides n o longer
from o b s e r v a t i o n , b u t from i n f e r e n c e , w h e n he d e c l a r e s a s a
f a c t w h a t he does n o t actually p e r c e i v e ; n a m e l y , t h a t t o u c h
would confirm the j u d g m e n t b a s e d u p o n sight alone.
T h e b e s t w a y of l e a r n i n g to j u d g e correctly is the o n e
w h i c h t e n d s to simplify our e x p e r i e n c e , a n d e n a b l e s us t o
m a k e no m i s t a k e s even w h e n we d i s p e n s e with e x p e r i e n c e
a l t o g e t h e r . I t follows from this t h a t after h a v i n g l o n g veri­
fied t h e t e s t i m o n y of o n e sense b y t h a t of a n o t h e r , we m u s t
further l e a r n t o verify t h e t e s t i m o n y of each sense by itself
w i t h o u t a p p e a l t o a n y o t h e r . T h e n each s e n s a t i o n a t once
b e c o m e s a n i d e a , a n d an idea in a c c o r d a n c e with t h e t r u t h .
W i t h such acquisitions I h a v e e n d e a v o r e d to s t o r e this third
period of h u m a n life.
T o follow t h i s p l a n r e q u i r e s a p a t i e n c e a n d a c i r c u m s p e c ­
tion of which few t e a c h e r s are c a p a b l e , a n d w i t h o u t which
a pupil will n e v e r l e a r n to j u d g e correctly. F o r e x a m p l e :
if, w h e n h e is misled b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a b r o k e n stick,
you e n d e a v o r to show him his m i s t a k e b y t a k i n g t h e stick
quickly o u t of t h e w a t e r , y o u m a y p e r h a p s u n d e c e i v e him,
b u t w h a t will y o u t e a c h h i m ? N o t h i n g h e m i g h t n o t h a v e
l e a r n e d for himself. Y o u o u g h t n o t t h u s t o t e a c h him one
T
d e t a c h e d t r u t h , i n s t e a d of showing him how h e ma} always
discover for himself a n y t r u t h . If y o u really m e a n t o t e a c h
h i m , d o n o t a t once u n d e c e i v e him. L e t E m i l e a n d myself
serve you for e x a m p l e .
I n t h e first place, a n y child e d u c a t e d in t h e o r d i n a r y w a y
w o u l d , t o t h e s e c o n d of t h e two q u e s t i o n s a b o v e m e n t i o n e d ,
a n s w e r , " Of course t h e stick is b r o k e n . " I d o u b t w h e t h e r
E m i l e would give t h i s a n s w e r . S e e i n g n o n e e d of b e i n g
l e a r n e d or of a p p e a r i n g l e a r n e d , he n e v e r j u d g e s hastily, b u t
only' 'from e v i d e n c e . K n o w i n g how easily a p p e a r a n c e s de­
c e i v e u s , a s in t h e case of p e r s p e c t i v e , he is far from
finding t h e evidence in t h e p r e s e n t case sufficient. Besides-
k n o w i n g from e x p e r i e n c e t h a t m y m o s t trivial q u e s t i o n
a l w a y s h a s a n o b j e c t which he does n o t a t once discover, he
is n o t in t h e h a b i t of g i v i n g h e e d l e s s a n s w e r s . O n t h e con­
t r a r y , he is o n his g u a r d a n d a t t e n t i v e ; he looks into t h e
m a t t e r v e r y carefully before r e p l y i n g . H e n e v e r gives m e
a n a n s w e r with which he is n o t himself satisfied, a n d he is
n o t easily satisfied. M o r e o v e r , he a n d I d o n o t p r i d e o u r ­
selves on k n o w i n g facts e x a c t l y , b u t only o n m a k i n g few
m i s t a k e s . W e should be m u c h m o r e d i s c o n c e r t e d if we
found ourselves satisfied w i t h an insufficient r e a s o n t h a n if
we h a d discovered n o n e a t all. T h e confession, " I d o not
k n o w , " suits us b o t h so well, a n d we r e p e a t it so often, t h a t
it costs n e i t h e r of us a n y t h i n g . B u t w h e t h e r for t h i s once
he is careless, or avoids t h e difficulty b y a c o n v e n i e n t " I
do n o t k n o w , " m y a n s w e r is t h e s a m e : " L e t us see ; let us
find o u t . "
T h e stick, half-way in t h e w a t e r , is fixed in a vertical
position. T o find o u t w h e t h e r it is b r o k e n , as it a p p e a r s to
b e , how m u c h we m u s t d o before we t a k e it o u t of t h e w a t e r ,
or even t o u c h i t ! F i r s t , we g o entirely r o u n d it, a n d
observe t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e goes a r o u n d with u s . I t is our
eye alone, t h e n , t h a t c h a n g e s i t ; a n d a g l a n c e c a n n o t m o v e
t h i n g s from place t o p l a c e .
S e c o n d l y , we look directly clown t h e stick, from t h e e n d
outside of t h e w a t e r ; t h e n t h e stick is n o l o n g e r b e n t ,
b e c a u s e t h e e n d n e x t our eye e x a c t l y hides t h e o t h e r e n d
from u s . H a s our eye s t r a i g h t e n e d t h e s t i c k ?
T h i r d l y , we stir t h e surface of t h e w a t e r , a n d see t h e stick
b e n d itself i n t o s e v e r a l c u r v e s , m o v e in a z i g - z a g d i r e c t i o n ,
a n d follow t h e u n d u l a t i o n s of the w a t e r . H a s t h e m o t i o n
we g a v e t h e w a t e r b e e n e n o u g h t h u s to b r e a k , t o soften, a n d
to melt t h e stick ?
 F o u r t h , w e d r a w off t h e w a t e r a n d see t h e stick s t r a i g h t e n
itself as fast as t h e w a t e r is l o w e r e d . I s n o t t h i s m o r e t h a n
e n o u g h t o illustrate t h e fact a n d to find o u t t h e refraction ?
I t is n o t t h e n t r u e t h a t t h e eye deceives u s , since b y its aid
alone we c a n c o r r e c t t h e m i s t a k e s we ascribe to a t .
S u p p o s e t h e child so dull as n o t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e s u l t
of t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s . T h e n we m u s t call t o u c h t o t h e aid
of sight. I n s t e a d of t a k i n g t h e stick out of t h e w a t e r , leave
it t h e r e , a n d let h i m p a s s his h a n d from one e n d of it to t h e
o t h e r . H e will feel n o a n g l e ; t h e stick, t h e r e f o r e , is n o t
broken.
Y o u will tell m e t h a t t h e s e a r e n o t only j u d g m e n t s b u t
formal r e a s o n i n g s . T r u e ; b u t do you n o t see t h a t , a s soon
a s t h e m i n d h a s a t t a i n e d t o i d e a s , all j u d g m e n t is r e a s o n i n g ?
T h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s of a n y s e n s a t i o n is a p r o p o s i t i o n , a j u d g ­
ment. A s s o o n , t h e r e f o r e , as we c o m p a r e one s e n s a t i o n
with a n o t h e r , we r e a s o n . T h e a r t of j u d g i n g a n d t h e a r t of
r e a s o n i n g a r e precisely t h e s a m e .
If, from the lesson of this stick, iDmile d o e s n o t u n d e r ­
s t a n d t h e idea of r e f r a c t i o n , he will n e v e r u n d e r s t a n d it a t
all. H e shall n e v e r d i s s e c t i n s e c t s , or c o u n t t h e s p o t s on t h e
s u n ; he shall n o t even k n o w w h a t a m i c r o s c o p e or a tele­
scope i s .
Y o u r l e a r n e d pupils will l a u g h a t his i g n o r a n c e , a n d will
n o t b e v e r y far w r o n g . F o r before he uses t h e s e i n s t r u ­
m e n t s , I i n t e n d he shall i n v e n t t h e m ; a n d . y o u m a y well
s u p p o s e t h a t this will n o t b e soon d o n e .
T h i s shall b e the spirit of all m y m e t h o d s of t e a c h i n g
d u r i n g this p e r i o d . I f the child rolls a bullet b e t w e e n two
c r o s s e d fingers, I will n o t let him look a t it till h e is o t h e r ­
wise c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e r e is only one b u l l e t t h e r e .
 Result. T h e P u p i l a t t h e Age of Fifteen.

I THINK t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s will suffice to m a r k d i s t i n c t l y

the a d v a n c e m y pupil's m i n d h a s h i t h e r t o m a d e , a n d the
r o u t e b y which h e h a s a d v a n c e d . Y o u are p r o b a b l y a l a r m e d
a t t h e n u m b e r of s u b j e c t s I h a v e b r o u g h t to his n o t i c e . Y o u
a r e afraid I will overwhelm his m i n d with all this k n o w l e d g e .
B u t I t e a c h h i m r a t h e r n o t to k n o w t h e m t h a n to k n o w t h e m .
I a m showing h i m a p a t h t o k n o w l e d g e n o t i n d e e d difficult,
b u t w i t h o u t limit, slowly m e a s u r e d , l o n g , or r a t h e r e n d l e s s ,
a n d tedious to follow. I a m showing h i m h o w to t a k e t h e
first s t e p s , so t h a t h e m a y k n o w its b e g i n n i n g , b u t allow h i m
to go no farther.
Obliged to l e a r n b y his own effort, he employs his o w n
r e a s o n , n o t t h a t of a n o t h e r . M o s t of o u r m i s t a k e s arise less
within ourselves t h a n from o t h e r s ; so t h a t if he is n o t t o b e
ruled b y opinion, he m u s t receive n o t h i n g u p o n a u t h o r i t y .
S u c h continual exercise m u s t i n v i g o r a t e t h e m i n d as l a b o r
a n d fatigue s t r e n g t h e n t h e b o d y .
T h e m i n d as well as t h e b o d y c a n b e a r only w h a t its
s t r e n g t h will allow. W h e n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g fully m a s t e r s
a t h i n g before i n t r u s t i n g it t o t h e m e m o r y , w h a t it a f t e r w a r d
d r a w s t h e r e f r o m is in reality its o w n . B u t if i n s t e a d we l o a d
t h e m e m o r y with m a t t e r s t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s n o t m a s t e r e d ,
we r u n t h e r i s k of n e v e r finding t h e r e a n y t h i n g t h a t b e l o n g s
to it.
rtmile h a s little k n o w l e d g e , b u t it is really his own ; h e
k n o w s n o t h i n g b y halves ; a n d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t fact is t h a t
he does n o t n o w k n o w t h i n g s he will one d a y k n o w ; t h a t
m a n y t h i n g s k n o w n t o o t h e r people h e n e v e r will k n o w ; a n d
t h a t there is an infinity of t h i n g s which neither he n o r a n y
one else £yer will k n o w . H e is p r e p a r e d for (knowledge of
every k i n d ; n o t b e c a u s e he h a s so m u c h , b u t because, h e
k n o w s how t o acquire i t ; his m i n d is o p e n t o it, a n d , as M o n ­
t a i g n e s a y s , if n o t t a u g h t , h e is a t l e a s t t e a c h a b l e . I shall b e
satisfied if h e k n o w s h o w to find o u t t h e " w h e r e f o r e " of
u
e v e r y t h i n g he k n o w s a n d t h e w h y " of e v e r y t h i n g he b e ­
lieves. I r e p e a t t h a t m y object is n o t t o give h i m k n o w l e d g e ,
b u t to t e a c h him h o w to acquire it a t n e e d ; t o e s t i m a t e it a t
r
its t r u e v a l u e , a n d a b o v e all t h i n g s , t o love t h e t r u t h . B }
this m e t h o d we a d v a n c e slowly, b u t t a k e no useless s t e p s , a n d
a r e n o t obliged to r e t r a c e a single o n e .
iSmile u n d e r s t a n d s only the n a t u r a l a n d p u r e l y physical
s c i e n c e s . H e d o e s n o t even k n o w t h e n a m e of h i s t o r y , or t h e
m e a n i n g of m e t a p h y s i c s a n d ethics. H e k n o w s t h e e s s e n t i a l
r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n m e n a n d t h i n g s , b u t n o t h i n g of t h e m o r a l
relations between m a n and man. H e does not readily gener­
alize or conceive of a b s t r a c t i o n s . H e o b s e r v e s t h e qualities
c o m m o n t o c e r t a i n bodies w i t h o u t r e a s o n i n g a b o u t t h e quali­
ties t h e m s e l v e s . W i t h t h e aid of g e o m e t r i c figures a n d al­
g e b r a i c s i g n s , he k n o w s s o m e t h i n g of e x t e n s i o n a n d q u a n t i t y .
U p o n t h e s e figures a n d signs his s e n s e s r e s t t h e i r k n o w l e d g e
of t h e a b s t r a c t i o n s j u s t n a m e d . H e m a k e s n o a t t e m p t to
l e a r n t h e n a t u r e of t h i n g s , b u t only such of their r e l a t i o n s a s
c o n c e r n himself. H e e s t i m a t e s e x t e r n a l t h i n g s o n l y b y t h e i r
relation t o him ; b u t this e s t i m a t e is e x a c t a n d p o s i t i v e , a n d
in it fancies a n d conventionalities h a v e n o s h a r e . H e v a l u e s
m o s t t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t a r e m o s t useful t o him ; a n d n e v e r d e ­
v i a t i n g from this s t a n d a r d , is n o t influenced b y g e n e r a l
opinion.
E m i l e is i n d u s t r i o u s , t e m p e r a t e , p a t i e n t , s t e a d f a s t , a n d full
of c o u r a g e . H i s i m a g i n a t i o n , n e v e r a r o u s e d , d o e s n o t e x a g ­
g e r a t e d a n g e r s . H e feels few d i s c o m f o r t s , a n d can b e a r
p a i n with .fortitude, b e c a u s e he h a s n e v e r l e a r n e d to c o n t e n d
with f a t e . j t £ d o e s n o t y e t k n o w e x a c t l y w h a t d e a t h is, b u t ,
a c c u s t o m e d t o yield to the. law of n e c e s s i t y , h e will die w h e n
h e m u s t , w i t h o u t a g r o a n or a s t r u g g l e . N a t u r e c a n clo n o
m o r e a t t h a t m o m e n t a b h o r r e d b y all. T o live free a n d t o
ha,ve little t o d o with h u m a n affairs is t h e b e s t w a y of l e a r n ­
ing how to die.
I n a word, iSmile h a s e v e r y virtue which affects himself.
T o h a v e t h e social v i r t u e s as well, he only n e e d s t o k n o w t h e
relations which m a k e t h e m n e c e s s a i y ; a n d this k n o w l e d g e
his m i n d is r e a d y t o receive. H e considers himself i n d e p e n d ­
ently of o t h e r s , a n d is satisfied w h e n o t h e r s clo n o t t h i n k of
him a t all. H e e x a c t s n o t h i n g from o t h e r s , a n d n e v e r t h i n k s
of owing a n y t h i n g t o t h e m . H e is alone in h u m a n society,
a n d d e p e n d s solely u p o n himself. H e h a s t h e b e s t r i g h t of
all t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t , for he is all t h a t a n y o n e can b e a t his
a g e . H e h a s n o e r r o r s b u t such as a h u m a n b e i n g m u s t
h a v e ; n o vices b u t t h o s e from which n o o n e c a n w a r r a n t him­
self e x e m p t . H e h a s a sound c o n s t i t u t i o n , active l i m b s , a
fair a n d u n p r e j u d i c e d m i n d , a h e a r t free a n d w i t h o u t p a s s i o n s .
Self-love, t h e first a n d m o s t n a t u r a l of all, h a s scarcely m a n i ­
fested itself a t all. W i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g a n y one's peace of
mind he h a s l e d a h a p p y , c o n t e n t e d life, a s free as n a t u r e
will allow. D o y o u t h i n k a 3<outh w h o h a s t h u s a t t a i n e d his
fifteenth y e a r h a s lost t h e y e a r s t h a t h a v e g o n e before ?

Press of Berwick 6^ Smith, 118 Purchase Street.

 Pestalozzi 's Leonard and Gertrude.
Translated and abridged by E V A CHANNING. With an Introduction by G .
STANLEY HALL, Professor of Pedagogy in Johns Hopkins University.
Cloth. 1 9 3 pp. Price by mail, 85 cts.

T N these days, when the prosperity of a young and flourishing nation is

powerless to relieve much of the poverty and distress which glare at
us on every side; when selfishness still reigns supreme in all classes of
society ; when corruption prevails in the high places, and the grog-shop
lays its snares for the weak and unwary at every street corner, — in the
midst of these evils, it is both instructive and interesting to go back a
hundred years, and see how the same battle was fought against poverty,
ignorance, and vice, in a little village of Switzerland. If, in " Leonard
and Gertrude," we find the picture even darker than we behold it in
this country to-day, this should be an encouragement to us, as a sign
that the world is growing better; but there is so much need of
regeneration, even under our improved conditions, that Pestalozzi's
little book cannot fail to be a help to every thoughtful person who
reads it.
There is a quaint simplicity and naturalness about it which would
certainly make it intelligible to all classes, and it might do untold good
if placed in the hands of those people, both young and old, who are
especially in need of the lessons it teaches. But its ethical value is by
no means its only merit. The book has an intense living interest, and
we can hardly divest ourselves of the impression that its characters
really breathe and speak.
Dr. G. Stanley Hall says in his Introduction: " It is a story of deep
and ardent love, not for an individual, but for the wretched, the weak,
and for children. It is of peasants who kick their wives, of hungry
children who steal a handful of raw potatoes, and who only on gala-
days have the cream left on their milk; of literal dunghills and stable
drains. It is, moreover, fairly packed with incident and character.
The hypocrite, the fool, the gossip, the miser, the sot, the sycophant,
the schemer, the just judge, the good parson, the intriguing woman
from the court, the old schoolmaster enraged at a new departure in
education, the quack doctor sentenced to dig the graves of those he
kills, and many more, stand out from these pages in as sharp relief as
1-
words can well paint them. '
Of the many notices furnished by the press, testifying to the value
and interest of the work, a few are subjoined : —
 . Mrs. E. D . C h e n e y , i n L a w a n d
O r d e r : This chaiming little story
gives the history of a small German
village which was redeemed fiom vice,
immorality, and poverty by the wise
administration of a benevolent land­
lord, seconded by the influence of a
good mother and an intelligent teacher.
Are not these just the influences that
are needed to redeem our towns and
villages from vice, intemperance, and
crime, to sobriety, industry, and com­
fort? We are apt to consider the
tempeiance movement as a modem
reform ; but Pestalozzi presents an un­
scrupulous innkeeper, who tempts the
men to waste their substance in drink­
ing, as the very embodiment of evil in
the community.
P r o v i d e n c e S u n d a y S t a r : Un­
der the veil of a sweet stoiy, the princi­
ples of love, of virtue, of learning, and
of right, of respect and reverence for
women, and of detestation of vice, are
clearly brought out, and the great
writer of a past century has given to
his period noble sentiments that be­
long to all time, nor are confined to a
single land.
San Francisco E v e n i n g Bulle­
t i n : It is a story full of inteiest and
action, of wit and wisdom, of humor
and pathos.
Pennsylvania School Journal:
Even those who do not care for Pes-
talozzi's educational theories will find
Leonard and Gertrude interesting for
the sweetness of the story and the emi­
nently faithful, delineation of Swiss
scenery and peasant life therein de-
picted.
A n n A r b o r U n i v e r s i t y : The
book is so catholic that we wonder
that the Associated Charities have not
claimed it as a text-book of theii ac­
tivities ; the advocates of the industrial
schools adopted it as setting forth their
views, and the state prison reformers
quoted it from their standpoint. It
can be heartily recommended to all, its
very blemishes being wholesome.
Ohio E d u c a t i o n a l M o n t h l y :
This is a lealistic tale of peasant life
in Euiope a hundred yeais ago. It
breathes tender love for the weak and
wretched, and especially for childreri.
Gertrude is the " excellent woman," the
true wife and mother, in a miserable
hamlet where nothing thrives but the
alehouse. This good woman training
her childien presents the author's ideal
of home education. The story, as a
whole, is a picture of the renovation
and elevation of a degraded commu­
nity by woman's love and devotion.
Z i o n ' s H e r a l d : It is a simple story
of Swiss life, in which are portrayed the
great schoolmaster's manner of teach­
ing and illustrating the morals and vir­
tues of daily life, his mode of develop­
ing the humblest lives, and of laboring
successfully for the uplifting of society.

A gentle?nan of Boston, who comes in contact with many young

men without means or employment, thinks the book would be of es­
pecial benefit to them. He writes to the publishers : " I am charmed
1
with Pestalozzi's Leonard and G e r t r u d e ' ; henceforth it will be one of
1
my bibles.'

D. C HEATH & CO., Publishers,

BOSTON, N E W Y O R K , AND CHICAGO.
Monographs on Education.

M ANY contributions to the theory or the practice of teaching are

yearly lost.to the profession, because they are embodied in arti­
cles which are too long, or too profound, or too limited as to number
of interested readers, for popular magazine articles, and yet not suffi­
cient in volume for books. W e propose to publish from time to time,
under the title of Monographs on Education, just such essays, prepared
by specialists, choice in matter, practical in treatment, and of unques­
tionable value to teachers. Our plan is to furnish the monographs in
paper covers, and at low prices. W e shall continue the series as long
as teachers buy freely enough to allow the publishers to recover merely
the money invested.
For the plait of publication, and for the series so far as issued, we
have many good words, such a$ the following: —

S c i e n c e , New York: Every teacher and mark an epoch in educational'

should welcome such contributions to matters. {Nov. 22, 1886.)
pedagogics when presented in so at-,
tractive a form. E d u c a t i o n a l G a z e t t e , Rochester,
(i

N.Y.r All admiiable little works on their

S c h o o l E d u c a t i o n : Heath & Go. respective subjects. {January, 1887.)
are doing the profession a service in pub­
lishing these monographs. {Jan., 1887.) W i s c o n s i n J o u r n a l of E d u c a ­
t i o n : The series deserves the patron­
Ann A r b o r C h r o n i c l e : They are age of teachers. {November, 1886.)
the best things of the kind in the country,
and are worth the careful attention of all T h e Critic, NY.: This series has
our students of pedagogy. {Dec. 18,1886.) alteady shown that it has a place.

N. E. J o u r n a l : A series that will be B u f f a l o E x p r e s s : They are exceed­

gladly welcomed- by teachers. This is a ingly interesting and suggestive. Eveiy
capital plan, worthy of hearty encourage­ teacher of these times ought to freshen
ment. {Feb. 24, 1887.) up his thoughts by the peiusal of such
essays as these; and their value Hvill be
U n i v e r s i t y Q u a r t e r l y : These are found to lie not only in tne suggestions
valuable contributions to the theory and they make, and the errors they point
practice of teaching, . {April, 1887.) out, but in the stimulus they impart to a
teacher's own powers of investigation
S. W . J o u r n a l of E d u c a t i o n : and invention, {March 13, 1887.)
A valuable series, and teachers would do
jvell to subscribe for them. {Dec, 1886.) E. S. C o x , Stept. of Schools, Ports-
mouth, Ohio: I cannot commend too
T h e H a r t f o r d P o s t : These motio- highly your Monographs on Education.
Waphs are of $he utmost importance; {Jan. i 1887.) 3 >
Levana; or, the Doctrine of Education.
A Translation from JEAN P A U L F R E D E R I C H RICHTER. 5 by 7 ^ inches.
Cloth, xliv + 4 1 3 pages. Price by mail, $ 1 . 3 5 ; Introduction price, $ 1 . 2 5 .

" ^ ^ E add this volume to our series of *«Educational Classics" in

the belief that it will tend to ameliorate that department of
education which is most neglected and yet needs most care, — home
training.
Among other topics, it treats of: —
The Impoitance of Education. Development of the Desire for Intel-
The Spirit and Principle of Education. lectual Progress.
s
To Discover and to Appreciate the Speech and Writing.
Individuality of the Ideal Man. Attention and the Power of Adaptive
Religious Education. Combination.
The Beginning of Education. Development of Wit.
The Joyousness of Children. Development of Reflection.
Games of Children. Abstraction and Self-Knowledge, to-
Music. gether with an extra paragraph on
Commands, Prohibitions, Punish- the Powers of Action and Business.
ments. On the Education of the Recollection
Physical Education. — n o t of the Memory.
Female Education. ' Development of the Sense of Beauty.
The Moral Education of Boys. Classical Education.

A Descriptive Bibliography of Education.

Arranged by topics. By G. STANLEY H A L L , Professor of Psychology and
Pedagogy, Johns Hopkins University, and JOHN M. MANSFIELD. 5 ^ by
7 ^ inches. Cloth, xv + 3 0 9 pages. Price by mail, # 1 . 7 5 . Introduction
price, $ 1 . 6 0 . Interleaved edition, $ 2 . 0 0 .

T N his preface to this book, Dr. Hall says : —

In the field of more strictly pedagogic literature, which is rela­
;
tively limited, the material is yet far too great to be mastered in a life­
time of the most diligent reading, and the reading time of most
teachers is quite limited. Hence they cannot be too select in their
choice of books. . . . T h e habit of reading what is beneath one's
level, whether fostered by a sense of duty, or, worst of all, by a false
sense of the authority of things printed, is belittling, and the exact
inverse of educational.
" Teachers who will be as select in their reading as we should all
be in the society we keep, and who will vigorously reject the second
best, — to say nothing of the tenths or twentieth best, and making all
reasonable reservations, — may, I believe, in the time at their disposal,
and now squandered on print unworthy of them, reasonably hope to
master most of the best, if they confine themselves to one language
and one department.
" To do this, however, not only is some hardihood of self-denial, but
also some knowledge of the good and evil in pedagogic print, needed,
and just this is what American teachers are at present seeking with
more interest and in more ways, as I believe, than ever before. In
seeking the best there is much to mislead and little to guide teachers.
In the great work of designating and grouping the best, the present
volume is only a hint, a first suggestion. It is, in the phrase of an
educational leader td whom its writer has been chiefly indebted for
suggestions during its preparation, only a foot-path roughly blazed,
and by no means a finished highway, though the latter may eventually
follow about this course. . . .
" In the general reading of every teacher, of whatever grade, should
be included some work on the history of education, and some psycho­
logical and some hygienic literature. Every teacher should also select
some departnfent or topic, connected in many cases probably with the
teaching they prefer, about which the reading should centre. In this
field they would in time come to know the best that had been done or
said, and themselves become more or less an authoritative * centre of
information for others about them, and perhaps make contributions
that would render many their debtors, not only by positive additions
to their knowledge, but in guiding their reading, which is one of the
greatest aids one person can render another. As teachers thus gradu­
ally become specialists in some such limited sense, their influence will
do more than has yet been accomplished to realize the ideal of making
their work professional in a way in some degree worthy that high term,
and they will be able gradually to effect a greatly needed reform in the
present character of text-books, and all who would lead in public school
education will slowly come to see the need of thorough and extended
professional study."

N . B. J o u r , of E d u c a t i o n : Prof. We know of no man who is better

G. Stanley Hall's Bibliography of Educa­ equipped for such service; and he has
tional Literatuie promises to be the taken the time and been given all the
most valuable teacher's aid in J°ome assistance necessary for the perfection of
study ever issued. the enterprise.
 ENGLISH.
Hyde's Lessons in English. Book I. (Price, 3 5 cents.)
For third and fourth years of school. Contains exercises for reproduction, picture
lessons, letter-writing, uses of parts of speech, etc.
Hyde's Lessons in English. Book II. (Price, 5 4 cents.)
For grammar schools. Has enough technical grammar for correct use of language.
Meiklejohn's English Grammar. (Price, 8 0 cents.)
Also composition, versification, paraphrasing, etc. For high schools and colleges.
Meiklejohn's English Literature. (Price, 8 0 cents.)
For high schools and colleges. A compact and reliable statement of the essentials.
Meiklejohn's English Language. (Price, $ 1 . 3 0 . )
The above* two books in one volume. Readable style. Treats salient features with a
master's skill and with the utmost clearness and simplicity.
Williams''s Composition and Rhetoric by Practice. (Price, 7 5 cents.)
For high school and college. Combines the smallest amount of theory with an abun­
dance of practice.
Strang's Exercises in English. (Price, 3 0 cents.)
Examples in Syntax, Accidence, and Style for criticism and correction.
Hodgkin's Studies in English Literature. (Price, 5 cents; $ 3 . 0 0 per hund.)
Gives full list of aids for laboratory method. Twenty-four authors. A separate pam­
phlet for each author.

plujfcttt's English in the Preparatory School. (Price, 1 5 cents.)

Presents, as practically as possible, some of the advanced methbds of teaching English
grammar and composition in the secondary schools.
Woodward's Study of English. (Price, 1 5 cents.)
Discusses English teaching from primary school to high collegiate work.
Genung's Study of Rhetoric. (Price, 1 5 cents.)
Shows the most practical discipline of students for the making of literature.
George's Wordsworth's Prelude. (Price, paper, 5 0 cents; cloth, $ 1 . 0 0 . )
For high school and college. The only separate edition now in print.
George's Selections from Wordsworth. (In press.)
Corson's Introduction to Browning. (Price, paper, 5 0 cents; cloth, $ 1 . 4 0 . )
A guide to the Study of Browning's Poetry. Also has thirty-three poems with notes.
Cook's Judith. (Price, $ 1 . 2 5 . )
The old English Epic poem, with introduction, translation, and glossary.
Simond's Sir Thomas Wyatt and his Poems. (In press.)

D. 0. HEATH & CO., Publishers,

BOSTON* NEW Y O R K , A N D CHICAGO.