Expt

M11 – The ABC of Radioactivity

The prelab notes and exercise has introduced you to the ABC of radioactivity – α particles, β particles
and γ rays. After completing the prelab quiz, you should be familiar with

• what they are,

• what radiation source emit each type of radiation,
• what you’ll be using to detect the radiation and,
• most importantly, how you’ll experiment safely with them.

This experiment is divided up into a number of sections; each has its own experimental aim.

Experimental Aim
1. To investigate the counting plateau and detector efficiency of the two detectors with
respect to α, β and γ.
2. To measure the background radiation of the first year Physics laboratory.
3. To determine the half-life of Ba-137.
4. To investigate the random nature of radioactive emissions.
5. To investigate how effectively α, β and γ are absorbed by paper, aluminium and lead.

Skills under development

Through this experiment we want you to further develop your experimental skills. This is what your
lab demonstrator will be looking for when they mark your work.

By the end of the session,

You will be confident and competent controlling the SPECTECH ST360 Radiation counter via
its software.
You will have shown your understanding of the hazards of this experiment by always
handling radiation sources, lead and high-voltage power safely.
You will have graphed your results, using the ST360 counter software and Excel, and
interpreted the graphs to derive results.
You will have answered questions showing your understanding of statistical uncertainty.
You will have designed a valid experiment to determine the absorption coefficient of
aluminium and lead with respect to β particles and γ rays.

Before you start…Hazard alert!!

The prelab exercise has already alerted you to the fact that you need to

• use gloves and tongs to handle solid radiation sources,

• use gloves and goggles to experiment with the Ba-137 liquid solution,
• and take your gloves off when typing on the computer keyboard to prevent cross-
contamination.

However, there’s a few more hazards you need to be aware of before you begin.

You will be using a SPECTECH model ST360 radiation counter to measure radiation in the
experiment. This counter applies high voltages to a detector via sockets at the rear of the counter
and a coaxial cable that is attached to either one of the detectors. These voltages are dangerous!
Ensure that the high voltage is set to zero, or the counter is turned OFF before connecting or
disconnecting a detector.

In addition, one section of the experiment requires you to use lead as radioactive absorbers. Lead is
classified as hazardous! When handling lead wear the gloves provided. Wash your hands at the
conclusion of the experiment.

Counting plateau and detector efficiency

The Geiger Müller (GM) tube detector and the scintillator/photomultiplier (PM) tube detector have a
characteristic called a counting plateau.

Figure 1:Shape of counting curve from a GM or PM detector. Taken from [1].

Figure 1 shows the detectors need a certain minimum voltage applied before they begin to count. If
the voltage is too high they exhibit a condition called avalanche, where the detector’s output is a
result of the voltage being too high rather than being caused by radioactive particles. The counting
plateau occurs somewhere in between these two conditions, and the normal operating voltage of
the detector usually lies half way along the plateau.

As well as finding the counting plateau and normal operating voltage for the GM and PM detector,
you’re going to find out which detector is most efficient at detecting α, β and γ radiation. The
graphs you will plot to determine counting plateau for each detector using α, β and γ radiation, will
also reveal the detectors’ efficiencies.

Procedure
1. Make sure the SPECTECH ST360 radiation counter is turned off. The red on/off switch is on
the back panel, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: SPECTECH ST360 radiation counter.
 2. Connect the GM tube to the socket at the back labelled GM.
3. Place the Sr-90 (β) source under the detector’s window, with the radiation symbol towards
the window.
4. Turn the counter on.
5. Start the software on the PC by doing the following:
a) Open the shortcut on the PC desktop named “Lab Programmes”,
b) Open the folder named “M11 Radiation”,
c) Start the software named “STX x64”.
6. Set up the software by clicking Experiments, then select Plateau.
7. In the Plateau window, input the following counting parameters:
a) High Voltage Range: Start 0V, End 600V
b) Step Voltage: 25V
c) Time per step: 5

This means when you start the run, the counter will start to take counts for 5 second
periods, starting at 0V and increasing the voltage for each run in 25V steps.

8. Tick the box to Show Graph Results and then click the Run button (green diamond on it).

The software will now control the counter, collect the data and plot the graph. When the graph
is plotted, you should set the ranges of the graph axes manually as you will also graph the
plateau’s of the GM tube when using the two other types of radiation. Having identical axes
scales will make it easier to compare graphs.

9. To set the ranges of the graph axes, click Options on the graph and select Axis Range
Adjustment.
10. In the window that opens, tick the Counts box in the Y-Axis panel and then set the Max value
to a little higher than the highest count that has been graphed.
11. Print the graph, label what source and detector were used on the hardcopy of it and stick
the hardcopy in your lab book.
12. Close the graph in the software.
13. Replace the Sr-90 (β) source with the Am-241 (α) source.
14. Graph the new plateau by clicking Experiments then Plateau.
15. The software will then ask if you want to Clear Existing Data – click Yes.
16. When it asks to save the remaining data, click No.
17. Repeat steps 8-12 to graph the new plateau for the α source. Remember to set the Y-Axes
Max to the same value that you set for the β source.
18. Repeat steps 13-17 for the Co-60 (γ) source.

Now you will repeat a similar procedure to establish the counting plateau of the PM detector.

19. Turn the counter off, unplug the GM detector and connect the PM detector to the socket
labelled SCINT (see Figure 2).
20. Place the Co-60 (γ) source in front of the PM detector using the modelling clay to secure it in
position. The exact distance between the window of the PM and the source doesn’t matter
but measure and record it so you can place the other two sources the same distance away
later on.
21. Turn the counter on.
22. You’ll need to reset the counting parameters for the PM detector so click on Experiments,
then select Plateau.
 23. In the Plateau window, input the following counting parameters:
a) High Voltage Range: Start 0 V, End 1200 V
b) Step Voltage: 25 V
c) Time per step: 5
24. Tick the box to Show Graph Results and then click the Run button.
25. Before printing out your graph, adjust your Y-Axes Max value to be a little more than the
highest reading.
26. Graph the plateau of the PM tube for the α and the β sources, remembering to manually
scale the Y-Axes Max to be the same for all.
µ By analysing your graphs, at what voltages do the plateaus start and end for each
radiation/detector pair?
µ What is the maximum start voltage and the minimum end voltage of the plateau for
each detector, no matter what radiation it’s detecting?
µ Hence, recommend a working voltage for each detector.
µ Look at the relative heights of the GM detector curves when it was detecting α, β
and γ radiation.
o Which type of radiation was it most responsive to?
o Which type of radiation was it least sensitive to?
o Are the answers the same for the PM detector, based on its plateau curves?
µ Hence, recommend which detector is best to use to detect each of the three types
of radiation.

Background radiation
Natural background radiation exists all around us and it may be necessary to take the background
radiation into account when conducting your experiments. Once you know the background count,
you can subtract it from the total counts displayed on the counter, leaving you with the counts from
just the radioactive source. The time period must be the same as the period of the count intervals
that you set for each of the investigations.

Procedure
1. Remove any radiation sources from the immediate area, i.e. move them to as far away as
possible on your desk from the detector.
2. Your PM detector should still be connected to your counter. Check with your lab
demonstrator that your recommended working voltage for the PM detector (and the GM
detector) is safe to use.
3. In the software, select Setup, then HV Setting and a Set High Voltage window should appear.
a. Type in your working voltage for the PM detector.
b. If the Step Voltage parameter appears as well, select Off for Step Voltage Enable.
c. Now press OK.
4. Now select Preset in the software, followed by Preset Time. You want to set the time the
counter counts background radiation to 60 seconds.
a. Either select 60 seconds from the scroll-down Preset time menu or type 60 in
directly in the Current setting window. Then press OK.
5. Again select Preset in the software, followed by Runs. You need to count background
radiation over a number of 60 s intervals.
a. Set Number of Runs to 5, then press OK.
6. Finally, press the Run button.
7. When complete, record the five different counts of background radiation in your lab book.
 8. Turn off your counter and disconnect the PM detector.
9. Connect the GM detector to the counter, then turn the counter back on.
10. Set the HV Setting to your recommended working voltage for the GM detector.
11. Press the Run button.
12. When complete, record the five different counts of background radiation in your lab book.

µ Was the background radiation count the same for every 60 s interval for each
detector?
µ If not, why? What does this indicate about the process of nuclear decay?
µ What was the average background radiation count measured in 60 s for each
detector?
µ What was the standard deviation of the background radiation counts?
µ If you did a different experiment that counted over intervals of 5 seconds, what
average background count would you need to subtract off if you used a GM
detector? A PM detector?

Half-life determination
When a process occurs where the rate of change of a population is proportional to the size of the
population, then it is found that the population changes exponentially. This is expressed
mathematically as,
'() *
&
+,/)
𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁$ 𝑒 , (1)

Where 𝑁$ is the amount of parent nuclei at time 𝑡 = 0, 𝑁(𝑡) is the amount of parent nuclei left at
time 𝑡 and 𝑇2/3 is the half-life – the time it takes for 50% of the parent nuclei to decay.

Now we can’t easily determine the amount of parent nuclei left at any particular time with an
experiment, but we can measure a radioactive sample’s activity. The activity of the sample 𝑅, is the
number of disintegrations of the sample per second, and this also falls exponentially according to

𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑅$ 𝑒 &56 = 𝑅$ 𝑒 & 783 6/9,/)

, (2)

Where 𝜆 is the disintegration constant, which is related to half-life by

𝜆 = 𝑙𝑛2/𝑇2/3 . (3)

You’ll now investigate the exponential decay of Ba-137 by gamma emission and determine the half-
life of the decay by measuring the activity of the sample as a function of time.

Procedure
1. Turn the counter off.
2. Connect the PM detector to the counter and turn the counter on.
3. In the software, select Experiments, then Half Life.
4. Set the following parameters in the Half Life Set Up window:
a. Number of Runs: 50
b. Count Time: 5 (seconds)
c. High Voltage: 800
d. Click Graph Results, but DO NOT click Start yet!
 5. Now you need to ask the laboratory demonstrator, or the laboratory professional staff for
the liquid radioactive solution of Ba-137. Don’t ask for it unless you are ready to use it
because it has a short half-life, of the order of minutes, not years!
6. Put on your safety goggles and gloves, ready to handle the liquid solution.
7. Place the container with the radioactive solution in it, adjacent to the end of the PM tube, as
shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Container of Ba-137 radioactive solution placed adjacent to the end of the PM tube.

8. Click the Start button in the Half Life Set Up window.

The software will now plot a graph showing he exponential decay of the Ba-137. Do not clear
your data – you’ll need this for later analysis.

9. Print the graph and label it appropriately, noting the detector and source used, and stick it in
your lab book.
µ Estimate the half-life of Ba-137 and the uncertainty of your result in your lab book.
µ Also record your method of estimation in your lab book.

10. To save your data, click File and then Save or Save As. Save the TSV file in a location where
you will easily find it, using a descriptive filename.
11. Locate your saved file and double click it to open it in Excel.

Notice that the data does not contain the time variable.

12. Insert a column containing the elapsed time in it, with the time steps the same as the
Present time. An example is shown in Figure 4.


Figure 4: Time column inserted into the result file, based on the accumulated elapsed time.

In the previous section you calculate the average background count for the PM detector in a 5
second interval.

µ Compare that value to the number of counts you just measured in each 5 second interval.
o What percentage of the counts are due to background radiation?
o Is it significant? Do you need to adjust your raw count measurement before
proceeding?
13. Now plot the counts 𝑅 as a function of time 𝑡.
14. Change the Y axes to a log scale.
15. Print the graph and stick it in your lab book.
16. Manually determine the half-life 𝑇2/3 , and its uncertainty, from the graph using Figure 5 as a
guide.

Figure 5: Calculating the half-life from the slope of the log R versus t graph.

µ Compare the two estimates of Ba-137 half-life you obtained from the two graphs.
µ Which is the better method to determine half-life and why?


Counting statistics and uncertainties

It is known that all truly random events occurring at a low rate are described by the Poisson
distribution. If radioactive emissions are random in nature, and happen at a low rate, the probability
of measuring a count of 𝑁 emissions, that is 𝑃(𝑁), would be given by,

?@A &B B C
𝑃 𝑁 = , (4)
B!

Where 𝑁 is the average count of emissions measured. Figure 6 shows examples of the Poisson
distribution when 𝑁 = 1, 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10. It is interesting to note how the shape of the Poisson
distribution changes with 𝑁.

Figure 6: Examples of Poisson Distribution for different means. Taken from [2].

You are now going to confirm, by experiment, that Equation (4) does apply to β decay of Sr-90.

Procedure
1. Turn off the counter and disconnect the PM detector.
2. Connect the GM detector to the counter and turn the counter on.
3. Using tongs and gloves on, place the Sr-90 (β)-source under the GM tube and move it off
centre.
4. In the software window,
a. click Setup, then HV Setting.
b. Set the High Voltage to 400.
c. Click Preset, then Time.
d. Set the Time to 6 (seconds).
e. Click Preset, then Number of Runs.
 f. Set the Number of Runs to 1.
g. Clear any data by pressing the Erase All Data button (button marked with cross).
h. Press the Start button (button marked with green diamond).

The counter will now count for 6 seconds and stop. Ideally the number of counts at the end of 6
second will be between 3 and 9 counts.

5. If your count was too high (or low), move the Sr-90 source further away from (or closer to)
the GM tube.
6. Press the Start button again to repeat the 6 s count.
7. Repeat steps 5-6, until your counts fall between 3 and 9.
8. Now leave your Sr-90 source in this position.
9. Clear data again by pressing the Erase All Data button.
10. Now set the Number of Runs to at least 50, then start the counter off.
11. When the software has finished collecting the data, save the data as a TSV file in a location
you can find it.
12. Locate and open your data file in Excel.
13. Calculate the average β count, 𝑁, for a 6 second interval and record it in your lab book.

Making a histogram in Excel

14. Inspect your count data and establish the maximum count measurement (i.e. the highest
count that you recorded for any 6 s interval); we’ll call it 𝑀.
15. In a new column in Excel, fill the column with the values 0 → (𝑀 + 1). These are going to be
the “bins” that Excel needs to make a Histogram.
16. In Excel, check that your installation has the Data Analysis ToolPak enabled but going to File
à Options à Add-Ins à Go (next to Manage at the bottom) à make sure Analysis ToolPak
is checked.
17. In Excel, go to the Data menu and select Data Analysis on the far right of the ribbon.
a. Select Histogram from the scroll-down Data Analysis menu that appears.
b. In the Histogram menu, specify the Input Range as the column of count values you
want to make a histogram from.
c. Specify the Bin Range as the column containing the values 0 → (𝑀 + 1).
d. Click on Output Range and specify an empty cell in the spreadsheet well separate
from all other data. This is the top left cell where the Histogram results will be
written.
e. Now press OK and the histogram results should appear.
18. Plot your histogram as a column chart.

Adding the Poisson distribution for comparison

19. Click on the PC desktop shortcut “Lab Programmes”,
a. Open the folder named “M11 Radioactivity”,
b. Then open the spreadsheet named “Poisson”.
20. Enter the average β count you measured in your experiment (the 𝑁 value you calculated in
step 13) and the number of runs you used to calculate the average value. From step 10, 𝑁 ≥
50.

The Poisson spreadsheet will then calculate the theoretical histogram of the number of times
each count should have occurred if the β emission followed a Poisson distribution with the
parameters, 𝑁 and 𝑁, you specified.
 21. Copy the theoretical histogram results into the column in your Excel spreadsheet with your
experimental histogram.
22. Add the theoretical histogram as a new series to your experimental histogram graph, for
easy comparison.
23. Print out the table of histogram values and your graph and stick them in your lab book.
µ How well did your experimental histogram agree with the theoretical predictions?
µ Can you conclude that your results follow a Poisson distribution and are thus random?

Uncertainty associated with a count N

Figure 6 shows the change in shape of the Poisson distribution as 𝑁 increases from 1, to 5, to 10. The
middle of the distribution shifts to the right, since the distribution’s mean is increasing from 1 to 5 to
10. The distribution also becomes more spread out, so that a larger range of number of occurrences
of an event are possible. Standard deviation is a measure of this spread, and a Poisson distribution’s
standard deviation is given by 𝜎 = √𝑁.

Now if β emission from Sr-90 is a random event happening at a low rate described by the Poisson
distribution, then the standard deviation of a set of counts is given by 𝜎 = √𝑁.

24. Calculate the standard deviation of the same 𝑁 ≥ 50 raw count values you used to
calculate 𝑁. (The Excel function =stdev is very helpful.)
25. Calculate the square root of your average count, i.e. √𝑁.

µ Compare the two. Do your results indicate 𝜎 = √𝑁?
µ If 𝜎 is a measure of the uncertainty in your average number of β-emissions 𝑁, what is
Q
the mathematical expression for the relative uncertainty =?
B
µ Hence, what could you do to decrease the relative uncertainty in your estimate of 𝑁?
µ What does that translate to in terms of experimental method?

26. Without moving your β source, repeat the β-emission counting experiment, implementing
the experimental change you just recommended.
a. An experimental setting can be changed as per step 4.
b. Steps 9-25 will then need to be repeated.
27. Compare the new experimental distribution with the new theoretical Poisson distribution.
µ Did their means and standard deviations agree more closely?

When you take a measurement of the number of β emissions over a time interval, your result is an
estimate of the mean of the Poisson distribution describing that random event. The uncertainty in
your count is therefore the standard deviation of the Poisson distribution with that mean. What
happens to the relative uncertainty in your count the larger your count is?

µ Complete the following table to demonstrate:

Counts Uncertainty Time Interval Count rate Uncertainty in Relative

𝑵 𝝈 = √𝑵 (s) (counts/s) count rate uncertainty
(counts/s) in count
rate
10 1
100 10
1000 100

 µ Why might it be better to count random events over long time periods?

Theory predicts that there is less than 1% chance of getting a count outside the limits 𝑁 ± 3𝜎.

µ What is your largest deviation from the mean count for each set of experimental
results?
µ How far away from 𝑁 are they in terms of the distance σ?
µ Do your results support the theory of 99% of data falls within the range 𝑁 ± 3𝜎 ?

Absorption of α particles, β particles and γ rays

Radiation absorption should follow the exponential curve,

𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑅$ 𝑒 &WX , (5)

Where 𝑅 𝑥 is the count rate which depends on thickness, 𝑥, of the absorber with absorption
coefficient µ. 𝑅$ is the count rate without the absorber present.

Now the range of α particles in air is small. You will experiment to see if you can stop them with a
piece of paper. To do this you’ll have to hold the α source right against the detector window. It is not
necessary to do this when you’re experimenting with the β and γ sources. The range of β particles in
air is greater than α particles, and the range of γ rays are greater again.

When you experiment to find out what the absorption coefficient of aluminium and lead are for β
particles and γ rays, the sources will be either left in the holder below the GM detector (Figure 7a) or
sat in the V-shaped metal block, secured with modelling clay, in front of the PM detector (Figure 7b).

Figure 7: Positioning of β and γ sources when measured by the (a) GM detector and (b) PM detector.

Procedure
1. While wearing gloves, or using tongs, hold the α source (Am-241) close to the end window of
the GM tube.
2. Record the counts for 60 seconds.
3. Place a piece of paper between the source and the detector, holding the α source the same
distance to the GM tube as before.
4. Record the counts for 60 seconds.
µ Comment on your results. Did you stop the α particles with a piece of paper?

Do not conclude that alpha particle emitters are harmless. If ingested they are usually “bone
seekers” and the short range ionising α particles are extremely destructive to cells.
5. Working with your lab partner, design an experiment to investigate the absorption of 𝛽
particles and γ rays with aluminium and lead.

Make sure you consider the following issues:

• Is the aluminium or the lead probably more absorbing?

• What safety precautions should be taken with lead?
• How is the thickness of the aluminium and lead sheeting to be measured?
• Which detector is appropriate for each type of radiation?
• What voltage should each detector be operated at?
• What time interval should counts be measured over?
• Do the effects of background radiation need to be account for in the results?
• How will you plot your results?
• How will you determine the absorption from the graphs?
• How will you estimate uncertainties?
6. After you have written up your experiment design in your lab book, get it checked with your
lab demonstrator.
7. Once your plan is approved, carry out your experiment and document your results in your
lab book.