11.

In constructivist learning theory, Piaget describes two cognitive processes: assimilation and
accommodation. When we assimilate, we fit new experiences into existing mental models. When we
accommodate, we revise existing mental models to fit new experiences.

Assimilation occurs when we modify or change new information to fit into our schemas (what we
already know). It keeps the new information or experience and adds to what already exists in our minds.
Accomodation is when we restructure of modify what we already know so that new information can fit
in better.

Initially proposed by Jean Piaget, the term accommodation refers to the part of the adaptation process.
The process of accommodation involves altering one's existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

The term "knowledge" can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit
(as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); formal
or informal; systematic or particular.

14. send ko messenger

15. The “melting pot” metaphor is used to describe how immigrants who come to America eventually
become assimilated into American culture, thus creating multiple cultures that have blended into one.

The “salad bowl” metaphor is a different view describing that immigrants who come to America
combine their cultures with others, but still retain their own cultural identity. Basically, America is one
big integration of unique, distinct cultures.

similarity;

These two metaphors are used to describe America’s multiculturalism. The United States is home to
immigrants from all over the world, which has resulted in such a high amount of multiculturalism.
Immigrants are constantly coming to America and bringing their unique cultures with them.

16. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on the school of thought in
psychology known as behaviorism. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning
is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus. Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally
occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and
the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with
the environmental stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.

17. Thorndike’s Laws ofLearning:

1) Law of Readiness:-
First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’,
which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory
adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn,
learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing
prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner.

2) Law of Exercise:-

The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing
efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the connections are
strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is
discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which
case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples of this
case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or
memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various
movements and actions many times.

3) Law of Effect:-

The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in
the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection,
whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. In
fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected,
while those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator
must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be
the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of effect’.

18. Multiple intelligences refers to a theory describing the different ways students learn and acquire
information. These multiple intelligences range from the use of words, numbers, pictures and music, to
the importance of social interactions, introspection, physical movement and being in tune with nature.
Accordingly, an understanding of which type(s) of intelligence a student may possess can help teachers
adjust learning styles, and suggest certain career paths for learners.

* Visual-Spatial Intelligence
People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are
often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.3

> Strengths

Visual and spatial judgment

>Characteristics

People with visual-spatial intelligence:

Read and write for enjoyment

Are good at putting puzzles together

Interpret pictures, graphs, and charts well

Enjoy drawing, painting, and the visual arts

Recognize patterns easily

* Verywell Mind

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THEORIES COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

By Kendra Cherry Reviewed by Amy Morin, LCSW Updated on July 17, 2019

When you hear the word intelligence, the concept of IQ testing may immediately come to mind.
Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are born with, something that
can be measured, and a capacity that is difficult to change.
In recent years, however, other views of intelligence have emerged. One such conception is the theory
of multiple intelligences proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner.

gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

Illustration by JR Bee, Verywell

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner first
outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, where he
suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences."

Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth
known as "existentialist intelligence."1

In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes that
people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including musical,
interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligences.

While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, he or she
most likely possesses a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong in verbal, musical,
and naturalistic intelligence.

Criticism

Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These critics argue
that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different "intelligences" simply
represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of supporting
empirical research.

Despite this, the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with educators. Many
teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophies and work to integrate Gardner’s
theory into the classroom.2
Learning more about the multiple intelligences can help you better understand your own strengths.
Continue reading to learn more about the major characteristics of each type of intelligence, and if you
still aren't sure which type describes you best, this quiz can help you figure it out.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are
often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.3

Strengths

Visual and spatial judgment

Characteristics

People with visual-spatial intelligence:

Read and write for enjoyment

Are good at putting puzzles together

Interpret pictures, graphs, and charts well

Enjoy drawing, painting, and the visual arts

Recognize patterns easily

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are:

Architect

Artist

Engineer
2

* Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and
speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and
reading.1

> Strengths

Words, language, and writing

> Characteristics

People with linguistic-verbal intelligence:

Remember written and spoken information

Enjoy reading and writing

Debate or give persuasive speeches

Are able to explain things well

Use humor when telling stories

* Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns,
and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers,
relationships, and patterns.4

> Strengths

Analyzing problems and mathematical operations

> Characteristics

People with logical-mathematical intelligence:

Have excellent problem-solving skills

Enjoy thinking about abstract ideas

Like conducting scientific experiments

Can solve complex computations

excellent physical coordination

Remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing

* Musical Intelligence

People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They
have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance.5

> Strengths

Rhythm and music

> Characteristics

People with musical intelligence:

Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments

Recognize musical patterns and tones easily

Remember songs and melodies

Have a rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes

* Interpersonal Intelligence

Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other
people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of
those around them.5

> Strengths

Understanding and relating to other people

> Characteristics

People with interpersonal intelligence:

Communicate well verbally

Are skilled at nonverbal communication

See situations from different perspectives

Create positive relationships with others

Resolve conflicts in group settings

*Intrapersonal Intelligence
Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional
states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming,
exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths.

> Strengths

Introspection and self-reflection

> Characteristics

People with intrapersonal intelligence:

Analyze their strengths and weaknesses well

Enjoy analyzing theories and ideas

Have excellent self-awareness

Understand the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings

* Naturalistic Intelligence

Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance than
his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of
intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the
environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even
subtle changes to their environments.1

> Strengths

Finding patterns and relationships to nature

> Characteristics

People with naturalistic intelligence:

Are interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology

Categorize and catalog information easily

Enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors

Dislikes learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature.

19. Visual learners

How to recognize visual learners in your class: Someone with a preference for visual learning is partial to
seeing and observing things, including pictures, diagrams, written directions and more. This is also
referred to as the “spatial” learning style. Students who learn through sight understand information
better when it’s presented in a visual way. These are your doodling students, your list makers and your
students who take notes.

Auditory learners

How to recognize auditory learners in your class: Auditory learners tend to learn better when the subject
matter is reinforced by sound. These students would much rather listen to a lecture than read written
notes, and they often use their own voices to reinforce new concepts and ideas. These types of learners
prefer reading out loud to themselves. They aren’t afraid to speak up in class and are great at verbally
explaining things. Additionally, they may be slower at reading and may often repeat things a teacher
tells them.

Kinesthetic learners

How to recognize kinesthetic learners in your class: Kinesthetic learners, sometimes called tactile
learners, learn through experiencing or doing things. They like to get involved by acting out events or
using their hands to touch and handle in order to understand concepts. These types of learners might
struggle to sit still and often excel at sports or like to dance. They may need to take more frequent
breaks when studying.

Reading/writing learners

How to recognize reading/writing learners in your class: According to the VARK Modalities theory
developed by Fleming and Mills in 1992, reading/writing learners prefer to learn through written words.
While there is some overlap with visual learning, these types of learners are drawn to expression
through writing, reading articles or books, writing in diaries, looking up words in the dictionary and
searching the internet for just about everything.