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CTgi-cn s
ISLAMIC
GLASS
A BRIEFHISTORY

MarilynJenkins

THE METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM OF ART

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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 Islamicglass has been greatlyadmired
in the Westforcenturies. Duringthe Cru-
sades, splendid enamel-paintedobjects
foundtheirway to Europe,where they
were particularlyprizedand tooktheir
place among preciousworksof art in the
great churchtreasuries.The Venetian
glassmakers and others in Europewere
indebtedto the Islamictraditionformany
of theirtechniques and designs. Later,in
America,LouisComfortTiffany'sfamed
Favrileglass, withits shimmeringirides-
cence and flowingcontours,also showed
the influenceof glass fromthe Muslim
world.Infact, 96 of the approximately
580 objects in the Metropolitan'scollec-
tionof Islamicglass came to the Museum
in 1891as a giftof EdwardC. Moore,a
designer and directorof Tiffany&Co.,
who shared LouisTiffany'sinterestin
orientalartand who has been credited
withintroducingthe "Saracenicstyle"
at the firm.Today,as much as ever,
Islamicglass continues to command
ouradmiration.
Partof ourfascinationwiththis glass
lies inthe fragilityof the medium.We
marvelthatobjects so delicate have
survivedthroughthe centuries. Insome
cases, a subtle and richpatinahas been
acquiredovertime:the special irides-
cence seen on some of the excavated
objects is actuallypartof the disintegra-
tive process caused by theirburial.Ironi-
cally,this radiantqualityhas been as
inspiringto Westernglassmakers as
the grace of form,richness of colorand
decoration,and technical masteryof
Islamicglass.
Islamiccraftsmenmade majorcontri-
butionsto the art of glassmaking-most
notably,luster-paintedglass (noblyrep-
resented by the Museum'sspectacular
bowl,no. 20), relief-cutglass (see espe-
ciallynos. 22-27), and the renowned
enamel-paintedglass of the thirteenth
and fourteenthcenturies(see cover,nos.
45-49). The originalfunctionof surviving
examples of Islamicglass cannot always
be identifiedtoday,butwhetherthe ob-
jects served as mosque lamps,jewelry,
coin weights, or vessels forwine, cos-
metics, or perfume,theiruniversalaes-
thetic appeal endures.
This Bulletin,writtenby Marilyn
Jenkins, Associate Curatorin the De-
partmentof IslamicArt,presents a brief
historyof Islamicglass based on ninety-
two objects selected fromthe Museum's
collection,one of onlya few in the world
withthe resources to illustratesuch a
survey.Notonlydo ourholdingsofferthe
requisitegeographical,chronological,
and stylisticrange, butthey are also par-
ticularlystrongin early materialand
includeone of the best collectionsout-
side Egyptof the enamel-paintedgroup.
Amongour Islamicglass pieces are
abouta hundredfinds fromtwo series of
excavationssponsored by the Museum
at Nishapur,Iran,and at Ctesiphon,Iraq.
The currentissue is a welcome com-
panionto the author'sSpring1983 Bulle-
tinon Islamicpottery,a subject better
knownand charted.The scholarlylitera-
tureon Islamicglass, and on ancient
glass in general, is relativelyscant,
and this volumeis the firstpublication
devoted to the MetropolitanMuseum's
distinguishedcollection.
PHILIPPE DEMONTEBELLO
Director

The MetropolitanMuseumof Art Bulletin Fall 1986

VolumeXLIV,Number2 (ISSN0026-1521)
Publishedquarterly? 1986 by The Metropolitan Museumof Art,FifthAvenueand 82nd Street,NewYork,N.Y.10028. Second-class postage paidat
NewYork,N.Y.and AdditionalMailingOffices. TheMetropolitan Museumof ArtBulletinis providedas a benefitto Museummembersand availableby
subscription.Subscriptions$18.00 a year. Single copies $4.75. Fourweeks' notice requiredfor change of address. POSTMASTER:Send address
changes to MembershipDepartment,The Metropolitan Museumof Art,FifthAvenueand 82nd Street, NewYork,N.Y.10028. Back issues available
on microfilm,fromUniversityMicrofilms,313 N. FirstStreet,AnnArbor,Michigan.VolumesI-XXVIII (1905-1942)availableas a clothboundreprintset
or as individualyearlyvolumesfromThe AyerCompany,Publishers,Inc.,99 MainStreet,Salem, N.H.03079, orfromthe Museum,Box 700, Middle
Village,N.Y.11379.GeneralManagerof Publications:John P.O'Neill.Editorin Chiefof the Bulletin:Joan Holt.Editor:Joanna Ekman.Design:Alvin
Grossman. Photographyof frontand back covers, nos. 10-16, 18, 20-25, 27, 34-45, 47-49, 52-80 by CarmelWilson, MetropolitanMuseum
PhotographStudio;nos. 17, 19,26,28-29,46,50-51 by Sheldan Collins;pp. 4-9 by DonaldA. Frey,Instituteof NauticalArchaeology,TexasA &M
University;inside covers courtesyof TopkapiPalace Museum,Istanbul.
Front cover: Mosque lamp. Free-blownand tooled with applied handles, enameled and gilded. Eastern Mediterranean,1st half 14th century.
Bequest of EdwardC. Moore,1891(91.1.1530)
Title page; back cover: Windows.Coloredglass set in molded-and-carvedstucco. Egypt,Ottomanperiod.Giftof WilliamR. Ware,1893(93.26.3,15)
Inside covers: Paradeof the Guildof Glass-blowers.Slirnume-iHumsyun.Turkey,ca. 1582. TopkapiPalace Museumlibrary(H. 1344, folios 32b-33a)

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Congealed of air,
Condensed of sunbeam motes,
Molded of the light of the open plain,
Orpeeled froma white pearl
al-Har7ri(d. 1122), Maqamat
Glass has become so commonplace
that it no longer inspires the wonder
expressed in al-HarirV'spoetic recipe
for a glass vessel. When we stop to
consider that this material is essen-
tially the product of sand and ashes,
however, how can we fail to stand
in awe of the beautiful objects illus-
trated here, representing a thousand
years of Islamic glassmaking?
When and where the making of
glass was discovered has yet to be
determined. Itappears that core-
formed vessels were produced in
both Mesopotamia and Egypt from
about 1500 B.C.and that glass beads
and jewelry inlays imitating precious
and semi-precious stones were made
there even earlier.
Glassmaking is a long-lived and
Introduction
verytraditionalcraft;it has been said
that if a glassmaker of the second
century A.D.from Rome, Alexandria,
Tyre, or Cologne were to walk into
a nonmechanized, wood-fired
twentieth-century glass house any-
where in the world, he would be able
to start working immediately, so little
have the recipes, furnace types,
and tools changed in two millennia.
Basically there are only two ingre-
dients in the recipe for glass. The first
is silica, which is usually in the form
of sand. The other is an alkali, which
came from two principalsources in
the Islamic period: plant ash and
natural carbonate of soda, or natron.
The latter resulted from the evapora-
tion and drying up of lakes and land-
locked seas. Inthe presence of
intense heat, the alkalis acted as a
flux, causing the silica to fuse. Lime
was often added-as a stabilizing
substance, increasing strength and
durability-as were other ingredi-
ents, depending on the type of glass
is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to
being made. In its natural state glass
has a greenish cast, an accidental
coloring due to the presence of iron
or aluminum in the raw materials.
Ifcrystal clear, colorless glass was
desired, a certain amount of manga-
nese oxide was included in the batch
(mixture of raw materials). In different
proportions, manganese oxide
colored the glass aubergine purple.
Cobalt, copper, and iron oxides were
other popular coloring agents, and
tin oxide was used as an opacifier.
The cooking of the batch, or melt-
ing, was done in a three-part furnace
much like that depicted in the minia-
ture on the inside front cover of this
publication. The process was often
accelerated by adding cullet (broken
glass), a practice that was also
economical because it recycled the
waste from the glass house. Wood
was burned in the furnace's lowest
compartment. The crucibles were
placed on the floor of the middle
storey, the oven, so that they were
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin ®
www.jstor.org
 Nauticalarchaeologists
explorethe mappinggrid
duringexcavationsof the
shipwreckin the Aegean Sea
at Serge Limani,off the
southwest coast of Turkey.
accessible through the arched open-
ings called boccas, two of which can
be seen in the miniature. The upper,
annealing, compartment was where
the finished glass vessels were
placed to cool gradually.
Once the meltingwas completed
and the metal,or melted batch,was
viscous and extremelyductile,the
actualmanufactureof the vessels
could begin. The tools of the trade
were, and stillare, verysimple in
formand few in number.Using a
blowpipe(a tool inventedin Syria
nearthe end of the firstmillennium
B.C.that revolutionized glassmaking
by making mass production pos-
sible), the gaffer "gathered" a portion
of the metal on the end of the hollow
tube by repeatedly dipping the instru-
4
ment in the crucible and twisting it.
This gather was rolled into a prelimi-
nary form on a marver,or flat slab,
and then inflated into a parison, or
glass bubble. The glassblower in the
right foreground of the miniature can
be seen using a marver,and the
craftsman immediately above him
is swinging a parison to elongate
it. Once the desired shape was
achieved, the parison was removed
from the blowpipe and transferred to
a pontil, or rod, for further shaping
and decorating. The former refine-
ment was accomplished with one
basic metal spring tool, the pucellas,
four of which can be seen in the
miniature.
Glass is one of the least-studied me-
dia in Islamic art. The main sources
on Islamic glass are still two books by
Carl Johan Lamm published in 1928
and 1930. Why have Islamicists over
the last sixty years, a period during
which the field has greatly matured,
largely refrained from undertaking
a scholarly investigation of glass?
A number of factors may have
contributed to this phenomenon.
First, there is very little information
inherent in the Islamic glass objects
themselves. Only a few pieces bear
inscriptions containing either per-
sonal names that can be historically
placed or city names that can be
geographically located.
Moreover,terrestrial excavations
during the past century have contrib-
uted very little to our knowledge of

Islamic glass that is conclusive and is nodefiniteterminusantequem
unequivocal, with only two excep- forthesite.
tions. In 1965 excavations in Fustat, Thestudyof Islamicglass is fur-
Egypt, yielded an undisturbed pit thercomplicated bythefactthat
thatwasverycarefullybracketedin glassmakers inthe Muslimworld
timeby,atone end,a coinweight seem to havemovedfromone place
bearingthedate750and,atthe to another.Forexample,documents
other,a fragmentary glass measuring fromtheCairoGeniza(literally a
vessel datableto between762 and repositoryof discardedwritings),an
774. Thus, its contents provide a invaluablesourceforMediterranean
guidelineforthe placingof similarob- historyfromtheelevenththroughthe
jectsinthethirdquarteroftheeighth mid-thirteenth century,mentionthat
century.Thedateofthefoundingof intheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies
Samarra,northof Baghdad,as the glassmakersfromGreaterSyria,
temporary capital of the Abbasids fleeingthe almostpermanent state
providesus witha terminuspost ofwarthere,cameto Egyptinsuch
quemof 836forthe manyobjects massesthattheywerecompeting
foundthereduringGermanand withlocalartisans.Suchemigrations
Iraqiexcavations,butcontrary to wouldaccountforthe numerous
whatwas previously thought,there internationalstylesintheshapeand
An overheadview of tables
coveredwithfragmentsto be
sortedgives an idea of the
complexityof the glass puzzle
yieldedby the excavationsat
the wreck.
ornamentation of glass objects
encounteredindifferentcountries
andon differentcontinents;itis only
naturalthatcraftsmenwouldhave
createdfamiliarproductsintheirnew
venues.
Notonlytheglassmakersbutalso
theglass productsthemselves
movedfromcountryto country. The
Genizacontainsa documentdated
1011 in which it is noted that thirty-
seven balesof glass weresentfrom
Tyre,presumably to Egypt;inthe
EarlyMedievalperiod(eleventhto
mid-thirteenthcentury),as today,
suchimportsfosterednewvogues.
Variousproductswerealso packaged
inglass vessels forexport.
Anotherfactorcontributing to the
dearthof scholarshiponthesubject
5

may be the background in Roman
glass needed to scientifically exam-
ine products of the same medium
made in the Islamic world. Glass-
making under Muslim aegis was
greatly indebted to the Roman
Imperialglass industry, and glass
manufactured during the Early period
(seventh to tenth century), especially,
shows a great deal of Roman influ-
ence in its shapes and decorative
techniques.
Also discouraging to scholars
might have been the many glass-
making centers and their products
mentioned in contemporary texts
that have defied identification.
A final and very major deterrent,
however, must have been the com-
plete lack of glass scientifically dat-
6
able to the Early Medieval period;
except for a few pieces that scholars
labeled "Iran,twelfth century,"very
few glass objects were even attrib-
uted to this period. The Early Medie-
val period, having witnessed the rise
and fall of such major dynasties as
the Fatimids and Ayyubids in Egypt
and Syria and the Saljuqs in Iranand
Turkey,was of great political and
artistic importance in the Near and
Middle East. The decorative arts pro-
duced under these houses were leg-
endary in the West as well as the
East. Where, then, was their glass?
Three metric tons of it were lying
under 110 feet of water off the south-
western coast of Turkeyuntilthe
spring of 1977.
The story of the recovery of this
Amongthe objects found
intactat Serge Limaniare a
beaker(left)and a carafe
(opposite),both withwheel-
cut decoration,thatare very
closely relatedto objects
excavatedby the Metropolitan
Museumat Nishapur,Iran(see
nos. 28, 29).
find began in 1973, when a retired
Turkish
spongediverdirectedGeorge
Bass,thenpresidentandnowar-
chaeologicaldirector
ofthe Institute
of Nautical
Archaeology atTexas
A&MUniversity,to a spot where he
hadseen spongediversbringingup
piecesof glass. Itwas locatedina
naturalharborknownas SerQe
Limani (Sparrow Harbor)situatedoff
thesouthwestcoastof Turkey, just
oppositethe islandof Rhodes.Capa-
bleof suddenlyandunpredictably
becominga cauldronof swirling
winds,thisbeautifulsiteoverthe
centurieshadbeenthe burialground
forseveralseagoingvessels.
Onthe basisof a fewtrialdives,
whichproducedreportsthatthirty-
threemetersbelowthe surface
therewas "glasseverywhere" Bass
decidedthatthe locationappeared
to offerenoughpotentialto commit
hisinstitute,itsequipment,anda
largesumof moneyto an excava-
tion.Inthespringof 1977he started
a full-scaledigat Serce Limani.
When it was discovered that the re-
mainsof a shipalso layunderwater,
he knewthatthe expensivegamble
was notinvain.
Thefirststep inthe recoveryof the
shipanditscontentswasto con-
structa metalgridcomposedoftwo-
meter-square sections,each of which
was numbered,overtheentirearea
ofthewreck(see photograph, p. 4).
Thegridwas used muchlikea map
to pinpoint
theexactlocationofthe
objectsstrewn on the sea floor.Then
beganthe painstaking andoften
hazardous(manydiverswerecutin
the processof bringinguptheglass)
processof salvagingtheshipand
allitscontents.
Theretrievaltookthreeseasons,
butthe resultswereastounding.
Amongthe remainsgatheredbythe
teamof diverswerecoppercoinsof
the ByzantineemperorBasilIIand
Fatimidgoldcoinsandglass coin
weights.Thelatestamongthese,
threeoftheweights,permitthe
datingoftheship'ssinkingto around
A.D.1025. As the site seemed almost
uncontaminated byearlierorlater
artifactsfrompassingships,this
wreckis a timecapsuleof a single
voyagemadelateinthefirstorearly
inthesecondquarteroftheelev-
enth century. As such, it serves as
an invaluabletoolfordating,anditis
revolutionizingourviewof a major
periodof Islamicarthistory.
Although one shouldnotunder-
estimatethe importance ofthe pottery,
jewelry,arms,metalwork, andwooden
objectsfound, allof whichaddnew
andimportant dimensionsto our
knowledgeofthese media,thesingle
mostimportant cargoonthismer-
chantshipwas itsglass. Morethan
eightyintactpieceswerefoundin
locationsthatindicatetheyhadbeen
carriedinthe livingquartersatthe
bowandthesternandthusprobably
belongedto the merchantstraveling
inthosecabins.Anyexcavation
yieldingeightysuchpieceswouldbe
judgeda success, butthatat Serce
7

Limaniprovided an additionalthree
metrictonsof glass cullet,whichhad
beenstowedinthe afterholdarea.
Roughlytwotonswereintheformof
heavychunksof rawglass upto
thirtycentimeterslong.Theremain-
ingtonwas intheformof smallfrag-
mentsof glass, ina brokencondition
whenloadedon board;some had
beenfactorywasteandsome,show-
ingsignsofwear,probably hadbeen
bought fromhouseholds in muchthe
same manneras inthe MiddleEast
today,whereitinerant dealersgoing
fromhouseto housepurchasebro-
kenglassto sellto glass factories.
Theuse forwhichthe Serce Limani
culletwas intendedis unknown since
the ship'sportsof departure anddes-
tinationhaveyetto be determined.
8
As mentionedearlier,culletwasoften
addedto the batchto speed upthe
meltingandto economize.Wealso
knowfromtextsofthe Lateperiod
(sixteenthto nineteenthcentury)that
culletfromVeniceandEnglandwas
broughtto IndiaandTurkey to serve
as foreign-producedrawmaterialfor
glass objectsthatweremadelocally.
Aftertheexcavatingteamhad
broughtup,separated,washed,
dried,anc numberedeachofthe
morethanhalfa millionfragments
of glass andhadfailedto makeany
joinsbasedon findlocations,a deci-
sionwas madeto trysortingthe
fragmentsbycolor.Firsttheywere
dividedintomorethana dozenbasic
groups,thenbyshadesofthesame
color.Eachcolorgroup-consisting
A bowl (above)and a
fragmentarylamp(below),
both of whichwere recovered
fromthe wreck,help to date
similarobjects at the
Metropolitan and those in
othercollectionsas well (see
nos. 39, 40).
of thousandsof fragments,eachthe
size of a quarter-wassorteduntil
justa fewpiecesremainedthathad
the identicalshade,thicknessof
metal,anddesign.Thesewerethen
assembled.Todate,approximately
twohundredobjectshavebeenput
togetherbythisverytime-consuming
andpainstaking process.
Representativeof overtwohun-
dredvessel shapesandcomprising
fragmentsfrommorethantenthou-
sandobjects,thiscomplexglass
puzzlewillprobably withstandthe
test oftimeas the mostimportant
findinthismediumevermade.More
thaneighthundredbeakersandtwo
hundredandfiftylampshavebeen
identified,andas thejoinscontinue
to be made,shapesareappearing
 Thecup fromSerGeLimani
shown here is a miracleof
preservationafteralmost a
thousandyears beneath
the sea.

that previously were totally unknown. contemporary travelers'accounts further unequivocal evidence
The precise dating and broad scope andpictorial representations,forthe available to them.
ofthisfindarefinallymakingitpos- Lateperiod(sixteenthto nineteenth
sibleto discussglass ofthe Early century).Applying thisinformation CHRONOLOGY
Medievalperiodwithconfidence. to thecomprehensive collectionof 622 Flight(Hegira)of the prophet
MuhammadfromMecca,markingthe
Itis nowfeasibleforthefirsttimeto Islamicglass inthe Metropolitan beginningof Islamichistory
begindelineating a historyof Islamic Museum,Ihaveattemptedto provide 632-61 The FourOrthodoxor RightlyGuided
glass fromtheseventhto the nine- sucha historyinthese pages. 661-750
Caliphs
The UmayyadCaliphs
teenthcentury,usingknowledge Inmyeffortto laysomesolidfoun- 749-1258 The AbbasidCaliphs
dationsonwhichotherscan build, 756-1031 The Spanish Umayyads
gleanedfromthe undisturbed pitat 909-1171 The Fatimids
Fustatandtheterminuspostquem ithas seemed prudentto stateonly 819-1005 The Samanids
forSamarra,forthe Earlyperiod whatis reasonablycertainandto 977-1186 The Ghaznavids
1038-1194 The Saljuqs
(seventhto tenthcentury); the Serpe speakingeneraltermsaboutthe 1077-1307 The RumSaljuqs
Limani shipwreck andother,better rest.Itwillbe noticed,forexample, 1256-1353
1226-1502
The ll-Khanids(Mongols)
The GoldenHorde(Mongols)
documented,media,forthe Early thatIhaveattributed nothingto Iran 1230-1492 The Nasrids
Medieval period(eleventhto mid- beforethe nineteenthcenturyand 1169-1260
1250-1517
The Ayyubids
The Mamluks
thirteenthcentury); datedmetalwork that,incertaincases, onlya broad 1281-1924 The Ottomans
anddatableenameledglass objects, periodis giveninlieuof a date. 1370-1506
1501-1732
The Timurids
The Safavids
forthe LateMedievalperiod(mid- Ileaveprecisioninsuch matters 1526-1858 The Mughals
thirteenthto fifteenthcentury);and to futurescholarswhowillhave 1779-1924 The Qajars

9
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 <V
!fc 4
Duringthe earlycenturiesof Islam,the
principalsource of inspirationforthe
artof glassmakingwas the late antique
tradition-particularlyRomanImperial
shapes and techniques.The most tech-
nicallyinnovativeglass houses of the
RomanEmpirewere those on the eastern
shores of the MediterraneanSea, in cit-
ies such as Tyreand Sidon. Notonlydid
these houses continueproductionafter
the Muslimconquests inthe earlysev-
enth century,butthey also functionedas
repositoriesof glassmakingtechniques,
whichsucceeding generationsof glass-
makersinthe Muslimworldpreserved
and added to duringthe next eight hun-
dredyears. The techniquesthen, in turn,
were passed on to the Venetians,who
werethe immediateancestors of our
modernWester glass industry.
Afteran initialperiodof adoptionand
adaptationinwhichthe considerable
skillsof the craftsmenwere directed
principallytowardachievingdecorative
effects by manipulatingthe hotglass
surface,the Islamicglassmakersbegan
to experimentwithnew methodsof deco-
ration.Theyinaugurateda periodof inno-
vationthatbroughtthem increasingly
furtherfromRomanImperialglass and
culminatedinthe superband quintes-
sentiallyIslamicluster-paintedand
relief-cutvessels.
1. Judgingfromthe numberthat have
survived,it is safe to postulatethat
single, double,or quadrupleglass cos-
metictubes, usuallyelaboratelydeco-
1
Early Glass
SEVENTHTOTENTHCENTURY
ratedwithtrailedthreadsand multiple
handles,were extremelypopularin the
eastern Mediterraneanbeforethe Arab
conquest. Islamicadaptationsof these
late RomanImperialbalsamariahave
been foundin Egypt,Syria,Iraq,and
Iran,attestingnotonlyto theircontinued
popularity, butto an internationalvogue
forthem in the EarlyIslamicperiod.
UnliketheirRomanImperialprototypes,
the Islamicobjectsare almostinvariably
inthe formof packanimalsthatcarry
the tubes-or, moreoften, bottles-on
their backs.
Thisunusuallybeautifulbutcharacter-
isticexampleof these so-calleddrome-
daryflasks, as wellas the groupas a
whole, can be dated by means of the ves-
sel inthis particularpiece. Bottlesof the
same shape are commonlyfounddeco-
ratedwithappliedplaindiscs, which
also appearon a bottlein the Bahrain
Museum,Manama,the bodyof whichre-
sembles a doughnutwitha sheet of glass
overthe hole;such a vessel, withoutthe
discs, was foundinthe undisturbedpitin
Fustat.Numerousotherbottlesshaped
likethe one inthe piece shown here bear
a type of applieddecorationresembling
an animalskin;thatpatternalso appears
on a smallvessel in the CorningMuseum
of Glass, Corning,N.Y.,whose unusual
shape is identicalto thatof one exca-
vated at Samarra.
2,3. A numberof glass objectswere
foundat Earlyperiodsites in Egypt,
GreaterSyria,and Iraqthatare surely
adaptationsof the zoomorphicflasks
currentin the eastern Mediterranean
provincesof the late RomanEmpire.Both
examples illustratedhere are birdswith
free-blown,dolphin-shapedbodies;ap-
pliedopaque redwings, claws, and head;
and a ringforsuspension. As neitherhas
an orificeand the bodyof each encloses
a rodof glass thatcreates a noise when
the piece is shaken,the objectsdid not
havethe same functionas theirRoman
ancestors,and theirexact use remains
a mystery.
The decorativetechnique,knownas
marveredand combed, employedto cre-
ate the patternon the bodyof one bird
(no. 2) has a long pre-lslamichistory
inthe NearEast;its ultimateoriginslie
in Egyptiancore-formedvessels of the
EighteenthDynasty.Itwouldbe used by
glassmakersinthe Islamicworlduntilat
least the thirteenthcentury(see no. 50).
Thistype of decorationwas executed
by windinga threadof contrastingcolor
aroundthe piece and subsequently
marvering,or pressingthe threadinto
the surfaceby rollingthe vessel on a flat
stone slab. A combliketoolwas then
utilizedto createthe featherlikedesign.
The iridescenceon the birdwiththe
transparentemeraldgreen body(no. 3)
-a sheen foundon manyotherobjectsil-
lustratedinthis publication-was created
overthe centuriesas moisturein the soil
leached outthe alkalifromthe surfaceof
the buriedobject.Oftenexquisitein their
laminated,partlydisintegratedcondition,
such pieces inspiredimitationsby Louis
ComfortTiffany.
11
 4-7. The shape of the dish at the left
(no.4) was a verypopularone, judging
fromthe numberof completeorfragmen-
taryexamplesthathavesurvived.Not
onlyis itfoundwithorwithoutthe folded
rimas seen here,butitalso occursin
moldedunglazedorglazed potteryas
wellas inan unglazedtype bearinga red
slip-painteddecorationon a whiteengobe,
orthinwash of the bodymaterial.The un-
disturbedpitdiscoveredin Fustatcon-
tainedsuch a glass dish as wellas one of
slip-paintedpottery.Furthercorrobora-
tionfora date in the earlyAbbasidperiod
(A.D.750-1258) is providedby a compara-
ble glass dishthatwas foundat Raqqa,
Syria,togetherwitha coin dated A.H.189/
A.D.804-5.
The vessel at the insideright(no.5) is
an enlargedand moreelaborateversion
of the plaindishjustdiscussed. Three
feet have been added, as wellas a trailed
decorationconsistingof threeflatcoils
runningverticallydownthe sides of the
straight-walledvessel, threeverticalcoil
handles,and a single staplelikeprotuber-
ance. Likethe smallerdish,this object
has parallelsin pottery.Whilethe func-
tionof the piece is unknown,the factthat
it is equippedwithhandlesforsuspen-
sion suggests thatit mayhave served as
a lampthatcould be hungor,alterna-
tively,placedon a flatsurface.The hori-

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4-7
zontalprojectionmayhave helda device
forlightingorextinguishingthe lamp.
Thefunctionof the free-blownvessel
on the right(no.6) is moreeasily identi-
fied.Thismeasuringcup withan infolded
rimand ribbedhandlehas as its sole
decorationa disc bearing,in reverse,the
Arabicinscriptionin Kuficscriptqist
wafin,meaning"aqist,fullmeasure."The
disc was decoratedby means of a tech-
niqueknownas moldpressing,inwhich
a die is pressed intoa moltenmass.
The same techniquewas used to deco-
ratethe discs appliedintwostaggered
rowson the largefree-blownvase at the
insideleft(no. 7);each disc inthe upper
rowbearsa long-tailedbirdand each in
the lower,a mountedhorseman.The ves-
sel has a lowfoot,an appliedand tooled
horizontalcoil on the shoulder,and a
chamferedrim.Whileunusuallylarge
forthe type,it belongsto the groupoften
decoratedwithappliedplaindiscs or.de-
signs resemblinganimalskins previously
mentioned(see no. 1)and shouldbe sim-
ilarlydated. Furtherconfirmation of an
Earlyperioddate is providedby a bowlin
East Berlin;thatvessel bears a series of
discs decoratedwithan Arabicinscrip-
tionin an earlyKuficscriptand a Pegasus-
likequadrupedclosely relatedin styleto
the horses on the Metropolitan'svase.
 w.lwnil-elyraveu inscurpuuro inreeK mna,:,
in
-
worladitor reasons tnat may,never e -: reads "Drinkand live long";these words'
Mknownsthis glass type'didnot inspire clearly indicate that te vessel's function'
i'slamic'adaptations,but only adoptions and that of its progeny was to dispense
ilike'these; the vogue for such decoration liquid-a use that would explain the
in the Muslimworlddid not continue green bottle's funnel-shaped mouth.
much after the eighth century, nor does The lack of a pontil mark on the base
it appear to have extended beyond the of either vessel indicates that the glass-
easter shores of the Mediterranean. thread decoration was very quickly,
The "spectacle pattern"as well as the expertly applied and crimped at regular
bands of thick and thin threading seen intervals while the object was still on the
on the neck of the clear, colorless bottle blowpipe. The finding of two similarly
(no. 8) were popular decorative motifs decorated vessels in the undisturbed
and conventions on pre-lslamic glass pit at Fustat permits the placing of the
made in Greater Syria. Museum's bottles in the eighth century.

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 10. The decorationon this bottleis remi- sign diminishesin precisionfrombottom
niscentof the so-called "nip'tdiamond
waies"design popularon late Roman
Imperialglass vessels. Whilethe decora-
tionon the Romanobjectswas executed
withappliedthreadspinceredintoa
chain design, thaton the Metropolitan's
bottlewas achieved by firstblowingthe
gatherintoa verticallyribbedpart-size
(muchsmallerthanthe finishedobject)
dip moldand then removingthe parison,
pinceringthe ribstogetherat variousin-
tervals,and reblowingthe parisonout-
side the mold.A verysimilardesign,
created inthe same way,appearson a
vessel whose formmatchesthose of the
undecoratedpumpkin-shapedbottles
foundinthe undisturbedFustatpitand
numerousothereighth-centurycontexts.
11-13. The techniqueof inflatingthe
gatherof metalin a moldbearinga counter- designs. The bottleon the leftbears a de-
sunk patternwas anotheradoptedfrom
the RomanImperialrepertoire.Likethe
molds used by Romanglassblowers,
those employedinthe Muslimworldwere
usuallymade of clay or wood. Gaffers
inthe EarlyIslamicperiodfrequently
workedwiththickermetalthantheir
Romanpredecessors, however,allowing
them to continueblowingor spinningthe
parison afterthe design was fixed in its foundin al-Minain northernSyriathatis
surface. Inthe cup shown here (no. 13),
the waythe very popularhoneycombde-
10
11-13
to top and the off-centerplacementof the
seventeen-petaledrosetteon the bottom
indicateadditionalinflationafterthe pari-
son was removedfromthe mold(see also
no. 10).
The disintegrativeprocess thatcaused
the cup's iridescencehas leftthe surface
in a conditionthatis rarelymatched-
exhibitingmyriadcolorsand impercepti-
ble deterioration.
The twosmall bottles(nos. 11,12),
whose squareconfigurationpermitted
greatease of packing,belongto a group
of vessels probablymanufacturedas
containersforscented oils and other
preciouscosmetic liquids,whichwere
shippedin largequantitiesthroughout
the Islamicworld.Theyare characterized
by unusuallythickwalls,one or morering
moldingsat theirrims,and mold-blown
sign in high reliefof a palmettelikeplant
whose upperpetalor leaf has been trans-
formedintoa pomegranate.Itmust have
been executed by inflatingthe gatherin
a piece mold(composedof twoor more
pieces);a dip mold(cylindrical,in one
piece, and open at the top) wouldhave
caused a flatteningof the design when
the parisonwas withdrawn.A bottlewas
so close to this one, except in color,that it
must have been made in the same mold.
The same plantmotifcan be seen on sev-
eral monumentsin GreaterSyriadating
fromthe firsthalfof the eighthcentury,
corroborating not onlythe date provided
by the al-Minapiece butalso a Syrian
provenanceformanyin the group.
14. Thisewer,whichwas made in a two-
part,full-sizepiece mold,bears as its
principaldesign an Arabicinscription
containingthe name of its maker-the
name maybe thatof the mold'screatoror
thatof the gaffer,or perhapstheywere
one and the same person-and the place
of its manufacture,Baghdad.Untilthe
initialpublicationin 1958of the groupof
ewers to whichthe Metropolitan's object
belongs, the existence of a glass industry
in Baghdadwas knownonlyfromcon-
temporarywritings.This beautifullypro-
portionedpiece is the firstexample
shown herethatexhibitsEastern(Sasa-
nian)influencesas opposed to Western
(RomanImperial)ones. The pear-shaped
bodywitha narrowfoot,the trefoil-
shaped mouthwitha folded-overrim,
and the pearlborderbelowthe inscription
are very reminiscentof silverand pewter
Sasanian ewers. The closest parallelsin
glass are a ewer in the Shosoin Trea-
sury in Nara,Japan, whichwas dedi-
cated in 756, and a fragmentaryewer
thatwas foundin Samarra.
14
17
 15. The decorationon this bottlewas
executed withthe aid of a rotatingmetal
wheel and an abrasivein an engraving
techniquethat, likemanyalreadydis-
cussed, grewout of the late antiquetradi-
tion.The resultinglines are broaderthan
those scratchedintothe surfacewitha
pointedmetalor diamondtool, as on
no. 16.

16. Whenglassmakersin the Earlyperiod

employedthe incising(as opposed to
engraving)techniquerepresentedby this
goblet, they preferredmetalcolored
auberginepurpleand variousshades of
blue to the colorless varietyutilizedby
the Romans.Thetechniqueitselfcaused
the designs (whichare usuallyarranged
in bands)on these later,coloredvessels
to readas white.A few completevessels
and numerousfragmentaryexamples so
decoratedwere foundin Egypt,Syria,
Iraq,and Iran.
A luster-paintedvessel, identicalin
shape to the cup of this goblet and with
remainson its base of whatmayhave
been a stem, was excavatedat Fustat
in the undisturbedpit;this findprovides
a date inthe thirdquarterof the eighth
centuryforthe Museum'svessel as well
as foran identicallyshaped goblet with
luster-painteddecorationthatwas
excavated in Raqqa,Syria.Because
of the rarityof this particularshape, per-
haps this datingshouldbe considered
forthe incised groupas a whole.

15

18
91
 17. Thiscup, alongwithnos. 18 and 19,
was decoratedby means of an implement
resemblingtongs, a tool thatappearsto
have been devised by glassmakersinthe
Earlyperiod.Since bothjaws of the in-
strumentborethe same pattern,the im-
pressed design can be seen on the inside
as wellas the outsideof the vessel. The
sole decorationon the objectis an Arabic
inscriptionin Kuficscript,placed verti-
callyand repeatedeight times, thatpro-
claims "Blessingto its owner."
The shape of this vessel is verysimilar
to one withluster-painteddecorationin
the NationalMuseum,Damascus, bear-
ing an inscription,also arrangedinverti-
cal bands, exhortingits ownerto "drink
and be delighted."Thus,we can be sure
thatsuch cups were used fordrinking-a
functionthatwouldaccountforthe large
numberof variouslydecoratedvessels of
this shape extant.
17
20
18. Unlikethe designs created by blow-
ing a gatherintoa mold,those created
withtongs are subjectto the frailtiesof
the artisanand sometimes are unevenly
spaced or even overlap.Thus, in this
vessel decoratedwitha seven-petaled
rosette radiatingfromits smallfoot, the
space betweenthe petals of the rosette
variesfroman actualoverlapto as much
as ten millimeters.
Otherexamples of the shape are
known,butthe incorporation of handles
here is very unusualand indicatesthat
the vessel may have functionedas a
lamp.These handles closely resemble
those on Romanfuneraryurnsand are
of a formthatwas "stacked"to create
chainlikecomposite handles on glass
ewers withclose parallelsin rockcrystal.
19. This long-neckedbottlerequired
greatertechnicalskillin its execution
18
thandid eitherno. 17 or no. 18 because
itwas made in two parts,each a different
color,thatwere tong-decoratedbefore
being joinedhorizontallyat the shoulder.
The upper,cobaltblue, section bears
petals radiatingfromthe base of the
neck, whilethe colorless bodycontains
a series of five roundels,each of which
is filledwitha prancingquadruped.
Twoobjects decoratedin this tech-
nique-a fragmentin the Benaki
Museum,Athens,and a completepiece
in Berlin-bear inscriptionsstatingthey
were 'amalmisr(made in Cairo).Unfortu-
natelyit is impossibleat this stage in our
knowledgeto say whethervessels exhib-
itingthis techniquewere manufactured
onlyin Egyptand exportedfromthere or
whetherthey were producedin other
places as well;norcan we determineyet
the lengthof timethis decorativetech-
niquewas in vogue.
19
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20. A very small number of complete
glass pieces and relativelyfew fragments
have survived that are decorated by
means of the difficulttechnique known as
luster painting, which was rarely used to
embellish glass. The technique was ap-
plied to glass before pottery, a medium in
which it is better known, more common,
and much longer lived. Its origins lie
withinthe Early period, although exactly
when and where it was firstdiscovered is
still an open question.
There are only two luster-painted ob-
jects extant that are dated (a fragment in
the Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo, bear-
ing the date A.H.163/A.D.779-80) or dat-
able (in the same museum, the bowl of a
goblet found in Fustat containing the
name of an Egyptian governor who
served for only one month in 773). An-
other luster-painted piece, in the National
Museum, Damascus, bears an inscrip-
tion stating that it was made in Damas-
cus. However,we have no way of
determining at this point in our research
II how soon after the discovery of this tech-
,
i,A' nique the dated or datable pieces were
?
,':
I
Atw~~~~~~~~~~4
' ' made or if Damascus was the only place
this luxuryglassware was manufactured.
The century and glass center men-
tioned above seem to be indicated for
this exceptional polychrome luster-
painted bowl with a flaring rim.A glass
21
object with an identical profilewas exca-
vated at the eighth-century site of Jebel
Says, 105 kilometers southeast of
Damascus, and the majorityof the
many glass vessels found during the
excavations were also light green.
21. In addition to the polychrome luster-
painted glass bowl (no. 20), the Metro-
politan possesses a monochrome
mukhula,or bottleforkohl
luster-painted
(used as eye makeup). This free-blown
container is not only the sole example
of exceedingly rare opaque turquoise-
colored glass in the Museum's Islamic
collection but also the only complete
vessel of this type of glass that bears
luster-painted decoration.
Althoughthe mukhulavariedverylittle
in shape and size during the first six cen-
turies of Islam-whether it was made of
ivory,bone, crystal, bronze, or glass-
this example should be dated to the tenth
century on the basis of its monochrome
(as opposed to polychrome) luster-
painted decoration and its type of metal,
which was not used for coin weights
(which are precisely datable) untilthe
reign of the Fatimidcaliph al-'Aziz (975-
96). Because this bottle was acquired in
Egypt and exhibits the pristine surface
associated with a moistureless soil, an
Egyptian provenance is indicated.
23
 22. The techniqueof wheel cuttingwas
broughtto a consummatelevel in the
relief-cutglass of the Earlyperiod.Per-
haps the onlyotherartisansto applythis
exactingand difficultlapidarytechnique
to glass withsuch perfectskillwere the
fashionersof the late antiqueso-called
diatretacups. Indeed,the Earlyperiod
creatorsof relief-cutglass, togetherwith
the originatorsof lusterpaintingon glass,
can be creditedwithtwo of the most im-
portantIslamiccontributionsto technol-
ogy in this medium.
Beforeemployingthis particularwheel-
cuttingtechnique,the artisanwouldform
eithersolid glass blocksor blankswith
especiallythickwallsto withstandthe
22
24
great pressureof the wheel. The surface
was then selectivelycut away,leavingthe
design in relief,withthe highest pointof
the decorationon each piece represent-
ing the originalsurface.
Nos. 22-25 are illustrativeof the ear-
lier-what the authorhas termedgeo-
metric-phase of reliefcuttingduringthis
period,and nos. 26 and 27 representthe
later,vegetal and figural,phase.
The six-lobedvessel shown here, with
horizontalflutes cut intothe interiorsof
alternatelobes, has parallelsin stone,
glazed pottery,and metal,variously
dated betweenthe eighth and the thir-
teenth century.Itsclosest parallelsin
glass are a clear emeraldgreen bowlin
the CorningMuseumof Glass, Corning,
N.Y.,and an opaque turquoiseexample
in the Treasuryof San Marco,Venice,both
relief-cutwithvegetal orfiguraldesigns.
23. Afterthis cosmetic bottlewas wheel-
cut froma rectangularglass block,a thin
channelwas drilledthatwouldeventually
containkohlor scented oil. Vessels of
this shape are knownas molarbottles be-
cause of the resemblanceof theirfeet to
the rootsof such teeth. This example has
a prototypein the free-blownbottlesexca-
vated in Susa withappliedundecorated
ovalbosses and feet that belongto the
groupdecoratedwithappliedplaindiscs
or designs resemblinganimalskins.
C'
 24. The bandof slightlybeveled loz-
enges on this large, handledcup, which
resembles a RomanImperialskyphos, is
borderedat top and bottomby an angular
molding.Contouredto exclude the handle
withits thumbstopfromthe decorative
band,this moldingis reminiscentin form
and functionof thaton the opaque
turquoiselobed bowlin San Marco.The
base of this cup is also relief-cut,contain-
ing a slightlyconcave protruding disc at
its center circumscribedby two angular
moldingsarrangedconcentricallyaround
24
25
26
it.A similardecorationis to be seen on a
flatfragmentfoundin Samarra.The cup
has acquireda spectaculariridescence.
25. The wallsof this sphericalvessel are
decoratedwithtwostaggered rowsof
ten discs, each witha raiseddot, a motif
foundin Samarra.The ten petalsthat ra-
diatefroman identicaldisc on the bottom
of this objectare similarin formto the loz-
enges on the handledcup (no. 24) except
thateach petalhere supportsa smaller
27
versionof itself.A similarconvention
occurs on a fragmentfoundin Samarra
and on the feet and interstitialtriangles
on the green cosmetic bottle(no. 23).
Atthis stage of research,these objects
cannot be ascribedwithany degree of
certaintyto a particularproductioncenter.
However,because of certainaffinitiesbe-
tween them and the fact thatthey have
ninth-ortenth-centuryparallelsin com-
mon, itappearsthattheywere executed
sometimewithinthattwo-hundred-year
period.
26. One of the most beautiful mono-
chrome relief-cut objects extant, this
beaker belongs to a group of exquisite
relief-cut glass vessels with vegetal and
figural decoration that are related to mag-
nificent pieces in rock crystal. Whether
the glass objects led up to or were made
in imitationof the rock-crystal ones is yet
to be determined. This beaker is very
closely related in the style of its carving
and decorative conventions to the
cameo-glass ewer recently acquired by
the Corning Museum of Glass, Corning,
26
N.Y.The latter shares so many features
with a rock-crystal ewer in San Marco
bearing the name of the Fatimid caliph
al-'Aziz that it has been securely ascribed
to the tenth century as well. The decora-
tion of the Metropolitan'sbeaker is even
closer to that on a rock-crystal ewer in the
Louvre that is part of the Treasury of the
Abbey of Saint-Denis.
27. This cup is a good illustrationof the
progressive stylization that relief-cut dec-
oration underwent during the tenth cen-
tury, an evolution that would lead to the
succeeding century's wheel cutting in a
beveled style without differentiation be-
tween background and foreground. The
series of parallel diagonal lines on the
heads and tails of the birds and the treat-
ment of their bodies as a series of over-
lapping scales can both be found on a
relief-cut bottle in the L. A. Mayer Memo-
rial Institute for Islamic Art, Jerusalem;
the scales convention also occurs on the
lions on al-'Aziz's rock-crystal ewer in
San Marco.
27
 i
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 29
Early
ELEVENTHTO MID-THIRTEENTH
Veryshortlyafterthe techniqueof wheel
cuttingreached its Islamiczenithin the
relief-cutglass created at the end of the
Earlyperiod,its gradualsimplification
began. Bythe middleof the eleventhcen-
tury,the trendtowardstylizationbegun in
the precedinghundredyears had led to a
totallybevel-cutdecorationwithno fore-
groundor background.The simplification
of this lapidarytechnique as applied
to glass reached its logical conclusion
in totallyplainbut beautifulvessels
withbodies faceted like gemstones.
Inadditionto experimentingwith
wheel-cuttingtechniques,whichcould
be employedafterthe glass had cooled,
glassmakersinthe EarlyMedievalperiod
continuedto adapttechniquesapplicable
onlyto a hot gatheror parison:mold
blowingand threador coil trailing.
Atthe end of the period,artisanswere
to makeanothergreatcontributionto
glass technologyingeneral. Notonlydid
enamelingattainthe distinctionof luster
paintingand reliefcutting,but it playeda
largerroleinthe Westthan eitherof the
twoearliertechniques.
Medieval Glass
CENTURY
28. On the basis of findsfromthe Serge
Limanishipwreck,this vessel-a version
of a relativelycommonshape-can now
be firmlyplaced inthe firsthalfof the
eleventhcentury.Excavatedby the
Metropolitan Museumat Nishapur,Iran,
this beakerwitha flatbottomand slightly
flaringsides is verysimilarin profileto
examplesfoundin the shipwreckand has
a numberof otherfeaturesin common
withglass fromthatsite.
The wheel-cutdecorationon this piece
is beveled, as is thaton the beakersfrom
the wreckbearingthe most sophisticated
designs (see photograph,p. 6). Other
characteristicsof this vessel are also
closely paralleledinthe Serge Limani
glass: the arrangementof the decoration
intobands and rectangularcompart-
ments;the relationshipof plainto deco-
ratedareas; and individualmotifssuch
as the lappetsat the bottomwitha wheel-
cut linemarkingtheircenters. Inaddi-
tionto numerousindividualexamples,
three beakersof this shape were found
at the site of the wreckstillstacked,
one inside the other.
29. The carafe above, also excavated at
Nishapur, belongs to a large group of
similarly shaped vessels, now in both
domestic and foreign, public and private,
collections, which have been variously
dated between the ninth and the twelfth
century. Like no. 28, this vessel type can
now be securely placed in time with the
help'of the Serce Limanifinds. Many
such carafes from the wreck are deco-
rated with the type of facet cutting on the
neck of this Nishapur example as well
as the wheel-cut circles on its body. This
particularbody profileand several
slightly modified versions of it can also
be seen in some of the seventeen com-
plete or fragmentary carafes recovered
from Serge Limani(see photograph,
p. 7). Parallels for the convention exhib-
ited here of circumscribing the pontil
mark on the base of an object with an
engraved square (common on glass
found at Nishapur) can also be found
on objects from the shipwreck.
29
 9 .. C.

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30. Thisbottlecan be solidlylinkedto
the firmlydated corpusof materialfrom
Serce Limani,althoughno complete
examples of its particulartype were recov-
ered there.A neckfromsuch a vessel with
facet-cutmotifssimilarto those seen
here was foundat the wreck,as were
pieces exhibitingthe same style of bevel-
cut decorationincludingmanyvolutes.
Such a datingcorroboratesthatgener-
allysuggested forsimilarlyshaped bot-
tles executed in silverand sometimes
decoratedwithparcelgiltand nielloinlay.
The factthatseveralof the manyglass
examples extantare stillequippedwith
a lidexecuted in silverwithnielloinlay
indicatesthatthese, liketheirprecious-
metalcounterparts,functionedas per-
fume bottlesthatwere signs of the
owner'sprestige.
30
31. Aged in a particularlybeautifulway,
this bottlecombinesfeaturesof the
carafeon the precedingpage and the
bevel-cutperfumeflask no. 30. The neck,
slightlytaperedtowardthe top and witha
wide, flatrim,is of a shape invariably
foundon carafes likeno. 29. Itsfacet-cut
decorationis very reminiscentof thaton
the tall,cylindricalnecks of scent bottles
such as no. 30. The sphericalbodyis
decoratedwiththree rowsof ten facet-cut
circlesthatare arrangedso closely as to
have createdhexagons. Such a conven-
tionwas adaptedultimatelyfromRoman
Imperialmodels.
32. The shape of this bottleappearsto
have been extremelypopularduringthe
EarlyMedievalperiod,occurringnotonly
in glass decoratedin a varietyof tech-
32
niques(free-blown,mold-blown,cameo
relief-cut,and bevel-cut),butalso in
metaland glazed pottery.This particular
faceted varietywithhorizontalmoldings
markingthe transitionsbetween different
partsof the vessel has especiallyclose
parallelsin metal.
Atthisjuncturein our researchwe can-
notascertainwhetherthe glass versions
imitatedor gave rise to those in metal
and pottery.However,itdoes appearsafe
to assume thatthey allflourishedat
aboutthe same time and thatthe popu-
larityof this shape as a rose-watersprin-
kler-like thatof any shape-did not last
longerthan a generationortwo.
31
 33. This unusuallytall,gracefulbottle
and no. 35 are the latest examples of
wheel-cutglass illustratedin this publica-
tion.Theirmakersused the lapidarytech-
niqueof wheel cutting-which had an
illustrioushistoryin the Islamicworld-to
create an effect closer to thatfoundon
gemstones thanthaton glass. A series
of longitudinalfacet cuts transformsthe
bottle'scylindricalbodyintoa heptagon,
and the slightlyflaringneck is also
faceted. Similarlydecoratedvessel frag-
ments were excavated at Samarra,
includingthe necks of several carafes
that helpto confirman EarlyMedieval
date forthis object.
34, 35. The smaller,wheel-cut,version
(no. 35) of these twotruncatedpyramidal
vessels was blownas a thickblankinto
whichthe nineplainfacets wereground.
The largervessel (no. 34) was deco-
ratedby blowingthe gatherintoa two-
partfull-sizepiece moldthat borea
countersunkdesign of a bandof recipro-
cal half-palmettes.A carafe excavated at
Nishapurthat is similarin shape to no. 29
displaysthe same color as the larger
vessel here and a variantof the same
design, also withthe idiosyncrasythat
onlythe outlinesof the patternare in
relief.Since stylizedvegetal designs rep-
resented onlyin outlineare to be found
on the most exquisiterelief-cutvessels
that have survived,such as no. 26, the
questionarises, Weremold-blownpieces
decoratedlikethe one shown here made
in imitationof relief-cutobjects orwere
they simplerversionsof such vessels?
36-39. These fourvessels, as well as
no. 34, bearwitness to the continued
adoptionand adaptationof decorative
techniquesfromthe previousperiod,
whichhad in turndrawnuponthose in the
RomanImperialrepertoire.The object
at the inside right(no. 38), likethe cup
no. 13, bearsa pattern-molded decoration
that was created with a part-sizepiece
mold. Afterthe parisonhad been im-
pressed withthe pattern,it was removed
fromthe mold,furtherexpandedby
blowing,and, finally,tooled (refinedin
shape). Patternssuch as this were all
impressedby means of part-sizepiece
moldsas opposed to part-sizedip molds,
whichwere in onlyone piece and there-
fore,as has been said, wouldhave
caused a flatteningof any design involv-
32
ing crossed lines duringwithdrawalof the
parison.The otherthree pieces shown
here and no. 34 were all made in full-size
piece moldsthat'notonlyimpressedthe
ornamentation,butalso providedthe final
bodyshape.
The Serce Limanishipwreckyielded
a very largenumberof bowlsshaped like
no. 38. Manywere also decoratedwith
pattern-moldeddiaperdesigns, none of
whichwere identicalto thatseen here,
however.This particularpattern-which
radiatesfroma hexagonon the base and
consists of two rowsof contiguouspenta-
gons, each containinga palmettethatis
moreclassical than Islamicin spirit-gets
largerand fainteras itapproachesthe
rim,a sure indicationthatthe parisonwas
reblownafterthe design was impressed
on the surface.
Itis possible thatsuch glass vessels
were used as lamps.A medievalIslamic
three-leggedbronzelampstand that
holdsseven such bowlsexists in the L.A.
MayerMemorialInstituteforIslamicArt,
Jerusalem.A polycandelonin the Walters
ArtGallery,Baltimore,is identicalto the
stand in Jerusalemexcept forthe legs,
and consequently,it must have originally
been fittedwiththe same type of vessel.
33 as
Ifthese objectsfunctionedprimarily
the numbers in whichthey
lamps, large
have survivedwouldbe easily explained,
as wouldthe proclivityforhoneycombor
otherdiaperpatterns,whichrefractthe
lightlikefacets.
Parallelsforthe principaldesign of
concentricdiamondson the beautifully
aged and preserved,jewel-likevase
(right,no. 39) can be foundamongthe
objectsfromSerQeLimani(see photo-
graph,p. 8, above).Unlikethe otherEarly
Medievalvessels executed in full-size
piece moldsthat are illustratedhere, this
vase is extremelythick-walledand heavy
forits size.
The mold-blownjug (left,no. 36) and
bottle(insideleft, no. 37) were both made
34,35 in two-partmolds.Theirshapes were
popularwithcontemporaryIslamicpot-
ters, butwhichmediuminfluencedthe
otheris not known.A probleminherentin
workingwithfull-sizepiece moldswas the
maskingof the areas wherethe partsof
the moldjoined.On the bottle,a rose-
watersprinkler,the twoflutes wherethe
joins are effected bear multiplevertical
moldings,whichare easier to matchthan
eitherof the alternatingpatternsof
pearls and diagonal lines.
D
 40. Thissmall lamp,whichwas bought
on the art market,is identicalin shape to
one excavated by the Museumin Nisha-
pur.The dates attributedto these and
similarobjects in othercollectionshave
variedconsiderablyoverthe years, rang-
ing fromthe fifthto the eleventhcentury.
Once again we can turnto the material
fromSerge Limanito findhelp in settling
a datingproblem.Inthis case the evi-
dence is a fragmentarylamp(see photo-
graph,p.8, below)that is identical,except
forits coloration,to the Metropolitan's
two
lightingdevices.
Once an EarlyMedievaldate was
unequivocallydeterminedforsuch glass
lamps, parallelswere easily foundto
corroboratethis reattribution.Analmost
identicalshape exists in glazed pottery
40
datableto the late eleventhor early
twelfthcentury(a turquoiselamp,also
excavatedat Nishapur,and a white
spouted vessel inthe Victoriaand Albert
Museum,London),and a verysimilar
metallampbearingthe date of A.H.483/
A.D.1090 is inthe Museumof Turkishand
IslamicArt,Istanbul.
The suggestion made in connection
withno. 32 thata given shape probably
stayed a la mode forone ortwogenera-
tions is furthersubstantiatedby the
evidence cited above.
41. Ithas been suggested thatthe mold-
blownvessel no. 34 was one illustration
of howglassmakers in the EarlyMedieval
periodattemptedto imitaterelief-cut
designs in less time-consumingtech-
41
34
niques. Thisewer appearsto be another
exampleof such copying.The principal
decoration,executed in trailedthreads, is
suggestive of the undulating,stylized
vegetal scrollsoften executed in the more
difficult,relief-cut,technique,as seen on
the beakerno. 26. The series of horizon-
tal ringson the neck and bodyare paral-
leled on relief-cutglass ewers, as is the
shape, except forthe pedestal-likemodi-
ficationto the foot and the very sharp
returnat the bottomof the vessel.
Imitationsof relief-cutbeakers,deco-
ratedin the same trailed-thread tech-
niqueas such adaptationsof relief-cut
ewers, also survive.Whetherthese less-
expensive versionswere made in the
same centers as the monochromeand
the bichrome,cameo relief-cutglass
objectsorwere provincialcopies of them
is impossibleto say at this point.
42. The undulatingthreadsflankingthe
lowerneck are the onlydecorationon this
beautifullyproportionedand aged per-
fume sprinkler.These handlelikethreads,
the flattenedglobularbody,and the
slender neck withits smallopeningare
allverycharacteristicof such vessels,
which,when shaken, dispensed dropsof
expensive perfumesuspended in a heavy
oil base. Analmostidenticalsprinklerin
the BritishMuseumand severalexecuted
in the marvered-and-combed technique
witha similaropeninginthe body(which
must have been designed forease of
holdingwhen dispensingthe precious
cosmetic)also survive.
42
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i r=?j.-
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jrl
tl 1
*Y... ..I
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r I:
h;,
'"?:L"?ii
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 43, 44. Decoratingglass withtrailed
threadsin a contrastingcolorwas popu-
larinthe EarlyMedievalperiod(see pho-
tograph,p. 9), butthe variationillustrated
by these twovessels seems to have been
quiterare.Afteran initialblowingof each
gather,threads-emerald green and
clear,colorless forthe beaker(no. 43)
and cobaltforthe bottle(no. 44)-were
trailedon the bodies. Theneach object
was reblown,causing the threadsto
become furtherimbeddedinthe matrix
butless so than ifthey had been mar-
vered. Finally,a coil base was appliedto
each and the rimand neckwere also dec-
oratedwitha trailedthread.
Unlikethe beakersexcavatedat the
SerQeLimanishipwreckor at Nishapur
(see no. 28), whichall had slightlyand
graduallyflaringwallsand no foot ring,
the one shown here has a protrudingrim
45
43,44 43,44
and a foot ringknownas a coil base,
whichis composed of a single thread.
Thistype of beakerappearsto have been
quitecommonduringthe firsthalfof the
periodbutwas laterreplacedby a variety
witha moreflaringrimthat is commonly
decoratedwithenamel painting.Perhaps
the type illustratedhere should be seen
as a linkbetweenthe earlyeleventh-
centurybeakertype and thatwhichcame
intovogue duringthe late twelfthcentury.
The authorknowsof no otherIslamic
bottleof the shape seen here, butthis
piece is clearlyrelatedto a footed, luster-
paintedbottlewitha flaringneck in the
MuseumfurIslamischeKunst,Berlin-
Dahlem,and it must have been the pre-
cursorof a shape seen in a numberof
enamel-paintedbottlesof the Mamluk
period,such as the types illustratedby
nos. 48 and 49.
45. This perfumesprinkleris an intact
exampleof an extremelyraretype of
enamel-paintedglass thatforthe most
parthas survivedonlyin fragments.
Usuallyexecuted in eithercobaltblue or
manganese purpleglass, the design is
customarilypaintedin eitherwhite,lapis
lazuli,orturquoiseblue enamel or in a
combinationof whiteand turquoiseblue,
outlinedand highlightedwithgold.
The example shown is a textbookcase
of howthe glassmakers in the Islamic
worldmade adaptationsfromthe glass
of earlierperiods.Inthis instance,they
adaptedthe effect created by marvering
and combingto enameling,a new tech-
niquethatwas totallytheirown creation
and one thatwouldassume a distin-
guished positionwithinthe universal
historyof glassmaking.
37
37
m>A -i
46. Althoughpreviouslyconsideredto quiteapartfromobjectsshowingpre-
be a productof the Mamlukperiod,this cisely the same techniquethatwere
superbgildedand enameledtazza made underthe aegis of the Mamluk
appearsto stand muchmorein the earlier, dynastyduringthe LateMedievalperiod;
Ayyubid,tradition.Usingdatableenamel- the laterpieces are generallylargerand
paintedobjectsto establisha chronologi- exhibitfewercolors,less gilding,and a
cal sequence withinthe historyof this muchsimplericonography.
techniquein the Muslimworld,we can Virtualbestiariesof bothrealand fan-
postulatethatthe abundanceof gilding tasticanimals,entertainers,geometric
on thistazza and the tentativeapplication designs, arabesques(threehere end in
of enamelcolorsin a highlyvariedpalette humanheads), and secularinscrip-
(red,blue,yellow,green, white,and tions-all seen on thistazza-are typi-
black)are clues suggesting an early callyfoundon variousmediafromthe
date. These features,combinedwiththe firsthalfof the thirteenthcentury.How-
style, scale, and richdecorativevocabu- ever,it is in metalworkthatthe closest
laryof the designs displayedinthe hori- parallelsare encountered,particularly on
zontalbands of varyingwidthsseparated those objectsmade forSultanal-Malik
by narrowborders,seem to set this drink- al-NasirIISalah al-Din(1237-60),the last
ingvessel, whichmayhave been lidded, Ayyubidrulerof Aleppoand Damascus.

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39
47
 Late
MID-THIRTEENTH
As we have seen, the EarlyMedievalper-
iodwitnessed the tentativebeginning
and earlydevelopmentof enamel paint-
ing on glass. Therewas a furtherflores-
cence of the techniqueduringthe
succeeding period,when artisanspro-
duced some of the most luxuriousglass
objects ever made in the Islamicworld.
AI-Qazwini (d. 1283),a famousArabcos-
mographerand geographer,attested to
the fact thatthis glass was a legend even
in its owntime:he wrotethatin the thir-
teenth centuryone of the wondersof
Aleppowas its glass bazaarfilledwithso
many"tasteful"objects,whichwere
exportedwidely,thata visitorto the suq
(marketplace)did notwantto leave it.
Virtuallythe onlytypes of glass to have
survivedthatcan be attributedto the
LateMedievalperiodwithany degree
of certaintyare enameled objects,
extremelywell representedin the Metro-
politan'scollection,and marvered-and-
combed examples, althoughother
techniqueswere surelyemployedat this
time. Contemporarytexts referto a num-
berof very importantproductioncenters
and to variousproducts,manyof which
remainunidentifiedto this day.The glass
made in Hebronis mentioned,as is
glassware"inlaid"withgold and silver
(probablygildedand enameled)from
Damascusthatwas exportedto Egypt,
Iraq,and Asia Minor,as wellas glass
fromIraq,includingvessels fromwhich
fruitwas served withwoodenspoons. A
Chinese source of the periodmentions
engravedopaque glass fromBaghdad
Medieval Glass
TOFIFTEENTH
CENTURY
and Asia Minorand fromGhazniand
Kabulin present-dayAfghanistan.
Descendingprecipitouslyfromthese
gloriousheights,the artof glassmaking
reached its nadirin the Islamicworldby
the end of the LateMedievalperiod.By
around1400, Timur(Tamerlane)had
devastatedSyria,includingAleppoand
Damascus.We are toldthat he tookthe
famousglassmakersof these cities with
himto Samarkand,althoughno glass
productsof his CentralAsiancapitalare
known.Timur'sinvasiondoes appearto
have broughta definitiveend, however,to
the great, unbroken,two-millennia-long
traditionof glassmakingin GreaterSyria.
The new venue wouldsoon be Europe:
by the end of the fifteenthcentury,the
Mamlukswere orderingenameled
mosque lampsfromVenice.
47. Anynumberof Europeanchurch
treasuriesbearwitness to the esteem in
whichthe glass of the Muslimworldwas
held inthe West.One of the most popular
types was the enamel-paintedvariety,
whichwas often notonlymountedin pre-
cious metal,butalso protectedin beauti-
fulleathercases. The so-calledGobletof
Charlemagneat ChartresCathedral,the
Gobletof the EightPriestsat Douai
Cathedral,and the beakerknownas the
Luckof Edenhall,nowat the Victoriaand
AlbertMuseum,London,are threewell-
knowntestamentsto the prestigeof this
enameled glass, muchof whichfoundits
wayto Europeat the timeof the Crusades.
Inadditionto such secularpieces, the
manufactureof largelampsforspecific
religiousfoundationswas, judgingfrom
the greatnumberthathavesurvived,a
very importantpartof the predominantly
Syrianenamel-paintingindustry,particu-
larlyinthe latethirteenthand fourteenth
centuries.Commissionedby the sultan
himselfor his amirs,these lampsare
characteristically decoratedwiththe
name of the patronand his blazonorcoat
of arms,as wellas withthe "LightVerse"
('Ayatal-NOr) of the Koran(sura24,
verse 35):
Godis the Lightof the heavens
and the earth;
the likenessof HisLightis as a
niche
whereinis a lamp
(thelampin a glass,
the glass as it werea glittering
star)
kindledfroma Blessed Tree,
an olivethatis neitherof the East
norof the West
whose oilwellnighwouldshine,
even if no firetouchedit;
LightuponLight;
(Godguides to HisLightwhom
He will.)
Thisearlyexamplewas commissioned
forthe mausoleumin Cairoof the amir
Aydakin,who died in 1285. His blazon,
repeatedninetimes on this lamp,con-
sists of twoaddorsedbowson a circular
redfield-indicating thathe had served
as bunduqdar(bowman)to a sultan.
41
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48. Thisverylarge bottlein pristinecon-
ditionis oftendiscussed in the scholarly
literature.Itis generallyconsidereda
productof Damascusfrombefore1360
and illustrativeof the Chinese influence
thatenteredthe Islamicrepertoireby way
of the Mongolinvasions,morespecifically
those of the Il-Khanids. The bottle's
iconography,motifs,decorativeconven-
tions, and design layoutare so close to
those foundon lateAyyubidand early
Mamlukmetalwork,however,thatthe
piece should be dated to the end of the
thirteenthcenturyinsteadof the firsthalf
of the fourteenthas had been generally liaritiesof headdress (bothhats and tur-
accepted previously.The uninterrupted bans) and robe,as wellas the treatment
wide bandof mountedwarriorswielding of birds(thatappearto floaton the hori-
maces, swords,lances, bows and arrows, zon), horses, and leaves formingthe
and shields on a verysparselydecorated groundlineare allto be foundon that
backgroundand the threevigorousand famous metalobject.
extremelycomplexarabesques are remi- The closest glass parallelin shape and
niscentof the decorationon Ayyubid decorativelayoutis one in the Museumof
metalwork,particularly that made forthe IslamicArt,Cairo,whichshares the fea-
last sultan,al-Malikal-NasirIISalah al- tureof three large roundelson the shoul-
DTn(1237-60);butthey are even closer to der,as wellas the phoenix(feng-huang)
the ornamentationon the so-called Bap- and flankingborderson the long neck.
tisterede Saint Louis,dated to between
1290and 1310,at the Louvre.The pecu-

43
 I *1

: '?; I
I. . 1?

A). ?~ ~(
r~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 49. Thistype of vessel must have been
used as a decanterforwine, as it is repre-
sented, alongwithgoblets, in many
contemporaryrevelingor banqueting
scenes, in severaldifferentmedia.The
earliestdatableexampleof this decanter
type is inthe Museumof IslamicArt,
Cairo,and bears the name of Sultan
al-Malikal-NasirIISalah al-Din.The latest
knownto the authoris inthe FreerGal-
leryof Art,Washington,D.C.,bearingthe
name of al-Malikal-Mujahid Saif al-Din
'Ali,a Rasulidsultanof the Yemen(1321-
63). The Metropolitan's example,which
shouldbe placed in the firsthalfof the
fourteenthcentury,has a bandof very
vigorousanimalscoursingaroundthe
base of its tallneck and a successful
maindesign of a Chinese cloud-collar
framewithlobed panels, fourof which
terminatein a pointand enclose a birdof
49
50
50
preyattackinga goose. However,by the
second halfof the centurythe decline of
enamel-paintedglass had begun, and
except fora briefrevivalat the end of the
century,itwouldcontinueunabatedwhile
Venice'sstarwas risingin the West.
50. We have seen thatdecorationexe-
cuted inthe marvered-and-combed tech-
nique,aftera longand distinguished
pre-lslamichistory,became partof the
repertoireof glassmakersin the Muslim
worldinthe very beginningof the Early
period(see no. 2). This beautifullidded
bowlis ample proofthatthe technique
remainedpopularat least untilthe Late
Medievalperiod.
Afterbothpartsof the bowlwere free-
blownand tooled intoshape, an opaque
whitethreadwas woundaroundeach of
them and subsequentlymarveredin
flushwiththe surface.The featherlike
design was then createdwitha comb-
liketool.
AlthoughmanyLateMedievalobjects
decoratedin this techniqueare extant,
this liddedbowlis unique,the onlycom-
plete container(a few lidswithouttheir
bowlsexist)so ornamented.An enamel-
paintedparallelin the FreerGalleryof
Art,Washington,D.C.,seems to place
the Metropolitan's exceptionalbowlin the
second halfof the thirteenthcentury.We
knowfromthe CairoGenizadocuments
that red (manganese-colored)glass was
a specialtyof Beirut,and the provenance
of this objectis reportedto have been
nearbySidon;in this particularcase,
therefore,GreaterSyriacan be suggested
as the place of manufacture.
45
45
 -.
.2

ar
ExtantmaterialindicatesthatEuro-
pean importswerethe stimulusforglass
producedlocallyunderthe Mughals,
Ottomans,and Safavids.The examples
here are representativeof the final
chapterin the historyof'lslamicglass.
51
centers was being importedintoIndia groupwerevery unventuresomeWith:
fromthe sixteenththroughthe eighteenth regardto shapes and oftenconfined :
centuryand thatthese importsfulfilled themselves to paintedand gildeddesigns
a numberof differentfunctions. moresuited to paperthan glass. :
Survivingexamples of glass produced Allfourof the bottles shown (nos. 51-
on the Indiansubcontinentitselfduring 54) were made in two-partmolds.The,
the Lateperioddate mainlyfromthe sec- shape illustratedby the threesquare-
ond halfof the eighteenthcenturyor later bottomedexamples (nos. 51.-53)has no
and are illustrativeof an imitativeas MiddleEasternprototype,butis a minia-
47
tureversionof the commonDutchgin
bottle;it is believedthatthese vessels,
producedand decoratedin India,were
made inAhmedabadorSurat,bothcities
wherethe Dutchwerestronglyestab-
lished.The threesquare-bottomed
bottlesalso have similardecoration;
each face bears an archsupportedby
columns,and allthe arches and allthe
capitalshave identicaloutlines.The motif
is verycommonin a varietyof media,
includingcarpets,textiles,ivory,and
stone architecturalelements, produced
on the subcontinentat this time.While
the hexagonalbottle(no:54) does not
share its shape withthe others,it displays
paintingconventionsthatclosely relate
to those used in the floraldecorationon
the bottlebearingfiguraldesigns (no.51).
52-54
 55. Forinformation aboutthe fashionin
glass underthe Ottomansbeforethe
eighteenthcentury,we are againforced
to relyon contemporaryaccountsand
illustratedmanuscripts.
Fromdocumentsof the timewe know
thatimports,particularly Venetianprod-
ucts, were popular.The accountbooksof
a Venetianmerchantat Constantinople
duringthe second quarterof the fifteenth
centuryrecordan orderfor2,500 glass
objectsfromVeniceincluding1,600
footedgoblets;a letterwrittenby the
Venetianambassadorto the Sublime
Porte(Turkish government)to the Signoria
(governingcouncil)inVeniceinthe third
quarterof the sixteenthcenturypasses
alonga request,completewithdraw-
ings, for900 lampsneeded fora new
mosque. ProductsfromBohemia,Spain,
and Englandfoundtheirwayto the
Ottomancapitalas well.Veryfew of
these importedvarietieshave survived.
Glass was also producedinTurkeyat
thistime. Detailedbuildingrecordsimply
thatwindowpanesand glass vessels
were being manufacturedinConstanti-
nopleinthe middleof the sixteenthcen-
tury,and not muchlater,the Surname-i
Humayunof 1582(see insidecovers)
providespictorialevidenceof local
glaziersand glassblowers.Inthe following
century,the writerand travelerEwliya
Celebi(d. 1679)wrotethatin Constanti-
nopletherewere 105glass-dishmakers
with45 shops, the same numberof bottle
makerswith4 shops, and glass factories
at 4 differentlocations.
Noexamplesof sixteenth-orseven-
teenth-centuryglass made locallyhave
been identified,butsuch objectsfromthe
eighteenthcenturyare quiteplentiful.A
verycommonvariety,whichis character-
ized by a thinand bubblymetalwith
opaque red marbling,can be seen here.
Thiselegant objectfunctionedas a rose-
watersprinkler.

f
. IIN

r
it
. '.

I ;,

55 71
 56-61. The pictureof glassmakingin
IslamicIranbeforearound1600is not
clear,butaccountsof travelers,miniature
andwallpaintings,and businessdocu-
mentsfromthattimeon shed lightupon
localproduction andindicatea brisk
importbusiness.
The FrenchtravelerJean-Baptiste
Tavernier, whojourneyedto Persiainthe
middleof the seventeenthcentury,specif-
Ir
icallymentionsthatShirazhadthreeor
fourglass houses thatmanufactured
largeandsmallbottlesforrosewaterand 'V.~~~"9 .I
li*

otherlocallymadeperfumesas wellas
manytypesof containersforpickled i,M
fruitsexportedabroad.Anothercontem-
porarytravelerwritesthatShirazwine
was takento the Gulfportof Gombroonin
long-neckedbottlesthatwereprotected
bywickercoverings.Severalof the
seventeenth-century travelers'accounts
pointedlynotehowunsuccessfulthe
Persianswereatglassmaking.Itappears '1
thatverylittle,ifany,of thisSafavidglass
has survived.
Fromthe latesixteenthcenturyon, we
haverecordsshowingthatVenetianglass
vessels, beads, mirrors, windowpanes,
andspectacleswerebeingsent to Persia.
Amongthe mostpopularitemswere
kalians,orhuqqabases, forsmoking
tobacco.
The six objectsshownherewereall I
producedin nineteenth-century Persia
andaretypicalintheirminimalsurface
ornamentation, theirrathergraceful
shapes, and, insome cases, theirindebt-
edness to earlierEuropeanglass. The
kalianwiththe flowersinsideits base
I
(no.58) is a good exampleof thisWestern
influence;numerouseighteenth-century
documentsrecordthe Persianpenchant
forVenetian-made huqqabases with
lampwork (rodsof glass workedintovar-
iousformsoveran openflame)fruitsand ;.S I
flowersenclosedwithinthem.Anearly
nineteenth-century travelerobserved
thatcopies of such objectsweremadein I,(

Shiraz,andthe Metropolitan's
is probablyone of these.
example I,>I I'I

4
I

6 r-
566 4 1*

56-61

50
L9

do*-tl

I
I
t

--
- -.11
-4
-.
41-n_,e
)l

it
62-65
Althoughthe vast majorityof the glass
producedinthe Muslimworldwas made
intovessels of varioustypes, the glass-
maker'scraftwas also employedto make
otherkindsof objects.The finalpages of
this historyof Islamicglass are devoted
to foursuch applications:gamingpieces;
weightsof severaldifferenttypes;archi-
tecturaldecoration;and objectsof per-
sonal adornment.
62-65. Boththe game of chess and that
of backgammonare MiddleEasternin or-
igin.The former,accordingto the Persian
poet Ferdowsiin his epic Shah-nameh,
was inventedin India,whence itwas
broughtby an envoyto the Persiancourt
duringthe reignof KhosrowI(531-78).
The envoycame withan ultimatumthat
unless the Persianscouldnamethe
pieces and figureoutthe movesof
the game, Indiawouldnotpaytribute.
A counselorto the shah saved the day by
recognizingthatitwas a game of war
betweensymbolicarmiescommanded
bythe kingand his vizier(queen, in
the West).Eacharmyconsisted of four
branches:chariotry(representedbythe
rook,fromthe Persianrukh,or "castle");
elephantcorps(bishop);cavalry(knight);
and infantry(pawn).The storyconcludes
withthe same wise counselorjourneying
to Indiato presenthis own invention,nard
(backgammon),whichneitherthe rajah
norhis advisorscouldfathom.
The marvered-and-combed glass ob-
ject (no. 63) is definitelya chess piece,
eithera kingora vizier;its shape is
variouslyinterpretedas a throne,a styl-
ized seated humanfigure,ora ruleron a
throneatopan elephant'sback. Itis not
certainwhetherthe otherpieces illus-
tratedherewere used forchess, back-
gammon,or anotherboardgame,
however.
Gamingpieces are verydifficultto
date. The formsof the variouspieces in
the partialwoodenchess set, datableto
the firsthalfof the eleventhcentury,
foundin the Serce Limaniwreckare not
unlikethose of the partialivoryset exca-
vated by the Museumat Nishapurthat
was dated to the earlyninthcentury.This
correspondencesuggests thatthese
shapes mayhave been traditional,con-
tinuingforcenturies,butuntilother
groupsthatcan be assigned firmdates or
provenancescome to light,we mustbe
satisfiedwitha broadattribution formost
gamingpieces.
 66-74. Glass served a fiducialfunctionin
the Islamicworld,primarily inthe Egyp-
tianmonetarysystem betweenthe eighth
and the fifteenthcentury.The coins of
gold (dinar),silver(dirham),and copper
(fals)thatwere in circulationduringthe
twelvehundredyears underdiscussion in
this publicationwere handcraftedand,
unlikeourmodernmachine-madecoin-
age, did not have a preciselycalibrated
weight.Thus,a simplepaymentin
coins foran itemof a stated pricewas
not possible.
Toremedythis problem,a system was
devised utilizingglass weightsthatwere
the preciseequivalents(orfractionsor
multiples)of the standardunitweightsof
the threedenominationsof coins. When
a business transactionwas carriedout,
66-74
coins were weighed in bulkagainstglass
weightsequalingthe priceof the pur-
chase. InEarlyMedievalbusiness docu-
mentsthe Arabicverbwazana(toweigh)
was used forany transactionin which
moneychanged hands.The issuingof
weightswas carefullyregulatedand was
generallydelegated by the caliphto the
governororviceroy,when one existed;
to the financedirector;orto both.
The eight coin weightsillustratedhere,
whichrepresentonlya fractionof the
Metropolitan's collectionof these fiducial
tools, rangefroma very preciselyidenti-
fied one-dinarweight(green,at the
centerforeground,no. 66) issued by
al-Qasimibn 'UbaydAllah,who was fi-
nance directorin Egyptfrom734 to 742,
to the Mamlukone-half-dirham weight
(aubergineand opaque white,at the bot-
tom right,no. 73) withan unintelligible
Arabicinscription.
Anothertype of weight,knownas a
ringweight(topleft,no. 74), was used for
weighingmeat, grapes, and othercom-
modities.Whileapproximately ten thou-
sand coin weights are extantin public
and privatecollectionshere and abroad,
completeexamples of the largerring
weights-equaling a rati(a unitof
weight),its double,or its fractions-
numberless than one hundred.Such
objectsare usuallyfoundin fragmentary
conditionbecause when a new governor,
viceroy,orfinancedirectorwas ap-
pointed,weightswere issued in the new
appointee'sname and old weightswere
ordereddestroyed.
53
 SM

75-80. Accordingto accountsfromthe

Earlyperiodonward,glass was employed
to decoratethe interiorsof buildingsin
the Muslimworld,butfew architectural
elementsexecutedinorincorporating
glass havesurvivedfrombeforethe Late
period.The excavationsat Samarra,
whichyieldeda numberof differenttypes
of such architectural decoration,arethe
richestsourceof such elementsfromthe
Earlyperiod.Theso-calledmillefiori
(meaning"thousandflowers")tiles must
havegivena mostdazzlingand kaleido-
scopiceffect.Twofragmentsof such Io

tiles-which we know,frommorecom- .'i

pleteexamples,measuredapproximately
22 centimeterssquare-are seen above x-
(no.75).A methodused by Romanglass-
makerswas employedto constructthe
tiles. First,glass canes of variouscolors
werearrangedin differingpatternsand
fused togetherina series of cylindrical
molds.The resultingcylinderswerethen
stretchedintolongtubes, fromwhich
individual pieces weresliced off and ar-
rangedside byside in an open moldto
forma pattern.Finalheatingand polish-
ing producedthe finishedtile.
The hollow,clear,colorlessobjectto
the rightof the millefiori
fragments
(no.76) belongsto a ratherlargegroup
composedof elementsof variousgeo-
metricshapes foundinthe mostluxuri-
ouslydecoratedareaof Samarra's
JausaqPalace-the harem.Itis impos-
sibleto say howthese pieces wereused.
Eachhas a flangelikeborderthatsome-
howmusthavesecuredthe element to
anothersurface,perhapsone of stucco.
 Windowglass was in commonuse in
Samarraas well,in severalvarieties.The
panes wereset in stucco;lead or putty
was neverused as inthe West.The tradi-
_.s
tionof settingcoloredorcolorlessglass
intoa trellisworkof stucco wouldcontinue
, inthe Nearand MiddleEast untilthe
c
. ,. .YIY?~
_
presentday.TwobeautifulLateperiod
/I I
examplesthatwere made underthe
Ottomanscan be seen inthis publica-
tion(backcoverand titlepage).
Objectsof personaladornmentwere
also fashionedby Islamicglassmakers.
Nodoubtcertainof these jewelryitems,
such as particulartypes of beads,
crossed social boundaries,as is the case
today,and others,likesome seen here-
the emeraldgreen glass ringand the
beads coloredlikeemerald,ruby,tur-
quoise, amethyst,and lapislazuli-were
used onlybythe lowerclasses, in imita-
tionof moreexpensiveobjectswornby
theirsocial superiors.
Atthis pointin ourknowledge,a pre-
cise chronologicalsequence of itemsof
jewelryexecuted inglass cannotbe de-
termined.Wecan assume, however,that
such objectswere producedwherever
glassmakingwas practicedand thattheir
shapes and techniquesshouldhelpto
place and date these colorfulbutinex-
pensiveitems.

' ft,

lqq

\ t
?IF
:
 Credits

1. COSMETIC BOTTLE. Tooledand free-blown,with 25. VESSEL.Free-blown and relief-cut. 9th-10th 50. BOWL WITH COVER. Free-blown,marvered-and-
trailedthreaddecoration,pontilon base. Eastern centuryor later.H. 23/4in.Purchase,Joseph Pulitzer combedthreaddecoration,pontilon base and on knob
Mediterranean, 8th-9thcentury.H.43/ in.Giftof Mrs. Bequest,1965(65.172.1) of lid.EasternMediterranean,
2nd half13thcentury
CharlesS. Payson,1969(69.153) 26. BEAKER. Free-blown and relief-cut. 10thcenturyor H. 77/8in.Fundsfromvariousdonors,1926(26.77ab)
2, 3. PENDANTS. EasternMediterranean, Earlyperiod. later.H.53/8in. Purchase,RogersFundand JackA. 51-54. BOTTLES. India,2nd half18thcenturyNos.51
No. 2: Free-blownwithmarvered-and-combed and Josephson,Dr.and Mrs.LewisBalamuthand Mr.and and 54: Mold-blown,enameledand gilded,pontilon
unmarvered threaddecoration,pontilon chest. Mrs.AlvinW.PearsonGifts,1974(1974.45) base. No.52: Mold-blown and gilded,pontilon base.
L.215/16in. Bequestof MaryAnnaPalmerDraper,1914 No.53: Mold-blown, paintedwithsilveror palladiumand
27. CUP.Free-blown and relief-cut.10thcenturyor later.
(15.43.248)No.3: Free-blown withunmarvered thread
H. 23/8in. Purchase,RogersFundand Margaret gilded, pontilon base. H. 51/2in.; 21/2in.; 53/4in.; 51/2in.;
decoration,pontilon chest. L.3 in.TheodoreM.Davis MushekianGift,1975(1975.442) No.51:RogersFund,1921(21.26.11).Nos.52-54:
Collection,Bequest of Theodore M. Davis,1915 FletcherFund,1975(1975.194.2;1975.64;1975.194.1)
(30.95.196). 28. BEAKER. Free-blown andwheel-cut,pontilon base.
1st half11thcenturyH.515/16 in.RogersFund,1940 55. BOTTLE. Free-blownandtooled,pontilon base.
4. DISH.Free-blownandtooled,pontilon base. 8th-9th 18thcenturyH.9 in.Giftof HenryG. Marquand,
(40.170.55) Turkey,
century.Diam.37/8in.Giftof HelenMillerGould,1910 1883(83.7.230)
(10.130.2643) 29. CARAFE. Free-blown, tooled,and wheel-cut,pontil
on base. 1st half11thcenturyH.85/8in.RogersFund, 56. BOTTLE. Mold-blown andfree-blownandtooled,
5. THREE-FOOTED VESSEL.Free-blownwithapplied
decoration.8th-9thcentury.Gr.Diam.73/4in. Purchase, 1948 (48.101.10) pontilon base. Iran(Shiraz),early19thcentury.H. 12 in.
EdwardC. MooreCollection,Bequestof EdwardC.
Joseph PulitzerBequest,1965(65.173.2) 30. BOTTLE. Free-blown, tooled,andwheel-cut.11th Moore,1891(91.1.1557)
6. MEASURING CUP Free-blownandtooledwith centuryH.91/8in.HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,1963 57. KALIAN
(63.157.2) BASE(?).Mold-blown andfree-blownand
appliedhandleand mold-presseddisc, pontilmarkon tooledwithappliedthreaddecorationandfoot,pontilon
base. EasternMediterranean, Earlyperiod.H.with 31. BOTTLE. Free-blown, tooled,and wheel-cut.11th base. Iran,19thcentury.H. 127/8in.EdwardC. Moore
handle3 in.Capacity12/3fl.oz. Giftof HelenMiller century.H.67/16in.HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,1963 Collection,Bequestof EdwardC. Moore,1891
Gould,1910(10.130.2648) (63.159.5) (91.1.1600)
7. VASE.Free-blown and tooledwithappliedmold- 32. BOTTLE. Free-blown, tooled,and wheel-cut.11th 58. KALIAN BASE.Free-blown andtooledwith
presseddiscs and unmarvered threaddecoration,pontil centuryH. 55/8in.Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest, lampwork flowersand appliedthreaddecoration,pontil
on base. EasternMediterranean, 8th-9thcentury. 1965(65.172.2) on base. Iran(Shiraz),19thcenturyH. 12 in.Giftof
H.6 in. RogersFund,1937 (37.56) 33. BOTTLE. Free-blown, tooled,andwheel-cut,pontil HenryG. Marquand, 1883(83.7.260)
8. BOTTLE. Free-blown withunmarveredandtooled on base. 11thcenturyH.67/16in.RogersFund,1924 59. BOTTLE. Mold-blown andfree-blownandtooled,
threaddecoration.EasternMediterranean, 8thcentury. (24.2.34)
H. 75/16in. Museum Accession (X.21.210) pontilon base. Iran,2nd half19thcentury.H. 15 in.Gift
34, 35. VESSELS.11thcenturyNo.34: Mold-blown, of J. PierpontMorgan,1917(17.190.829)
9. BOTTLE. Free-blown withunmarveredand tooled pontilon base. H. 31/2in. Bequestof WalterC. Baker,
threaddecoration.EasternMediterranean, 8thcentury. 1971(1972.118.179). No.35: Free-blown, tooled,and 60. EWER.Mold-blown andfree-blownandtooledwith
H.69/16in.Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917(17.194.291) wheel-cut,pontilon base. H.23/4in.Giftof Dr.Marilyn appliedthreaddecoration,handleand spout,pontilon
base. Iran,19thcenturyH.6 in. EdwardC. Moore
10. BOTTLE. Mold-blown, tooled,andfree-blown,pontil Jenkins,inmemoryof herfather,Dr.ArthurM.Jenkins, Collection,Bequestof EdwardC. Moore,1891
on base. 8th-9thcentury.H. 47/16in.Giftof Mrs. 1982(1982.478.7)
CarletonS. Coon, 1963(63.184.2) (91.1.1554)
36. JUG.Mold-blown withappliedhandle,pontilon 61. BOTTLE. Mold-blown andfree-blownandtooled,
11. BOTTLE. Mold-blown, pontilon base. Eastern base. EarlyMedievalperiod.H.53/4in.RogersFund,
7th-9thcentury.H. 17/8 in.TheodoreM. 1947 (47.85.2) pontilon base. Iran(Shiraz),2nd half19thcentury
Mediterranean, H. 121/4in.Giftof HenryG. Marquand,1883(83.7.227)
DavisCollection,Bequestof TheodoreM.Davis,1915 37. BOTTLE. Mold-blown withunmarvered thread
(30.115.14) decoration,pontilon base. EasternMediterranean, 62. NINEGAMING PIECESFROMSETOFSIXTEEN.
12. BOTTLE. Mold-blown. EasternMediterranean, 7th- Early Medieval period. H. 101/2 in. Purchase,Joseph Earlyperiod.Round:Gr.H.5/8 in.Conical:Gr.
Millefiori.
9th century.H. 21/4in.Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917 PulitzerBequest,1964(64.255) H.7/8in. PfeifferFund,1972(1972.9.4-6,8,9,13-15,19)
(17.194.243) 38. LAMP. Mold-blown andfree-blown,pontilon base. 63. KINGORQUEENCHESSPIECE.Marvered-and-
13. CUP Mold-blown and free-blown,pontilon base. 11thcenturyH. 23/4in.Giftof Charlesand Irma combedthreaddecoration.EasternMediterranean,
Early period or later.H. 41/8in. Rogers Fund, 1964 Wilkinson, inmemoryof RichardEttinghausen, 1979 Earlyor EarlyMedievalperiod.H. 115/16in. PfeifferFund,
(64.241.2) (1979.315) 1972(1972.9.3)
14. EWER.Mold-blown andtooledwithappliedhandle. 39. VASE.Mold-blown andtooled.11thcentury 64. GAMING PIECE.Tooled.Earlyor EarlyMedieval
Iraq(Baghdad),8th-9thcentury.H.43/8in. Museum H. 23/8in.Giftof EverettB. Birch,1984(1984.502) period.H. 11/4in.RogersFund,1974(1974.98.6)
Accession(X.21.191)
40. LAMPFree-blown andtooled,withappliedhandles 65. THREEGAMING PIECES. Tooled.Earlyor Early
15. BOTTLE. Free-blown, tooled,and engraved,pontil and cylinderforwick,pontilon base. 11thcentury.H. Medievalperiod.H. 13/8in. PfeifferFund,1967
on base. Earlyperiod.H.47/8in. RogersFund,1930 41/4in. Harris BrisbaneDickFund,1964(64.133.1) (67.151.4);PfeifferFund,1972(1972.9.1,2)
(30.40.4)
16. GOBLET. Free-blownand incisedwithtooledstem 41. EWER.Free-blown andtooledwithunmarvered 66-74. WEIGHTS: one-d7nar(green),25/36 fals(bottle
andfootappliedseparately,pontilon base. Eastern threaddecorationand appliedhandleandfoot,pontil green),one-dinar(yellowgreen),one-dirham (brown),
on base. 11thcenturyH.at spout55/8in.RogersFund, one-dirham(blue),one-half-dirham (opaqueturquoise),
Mediterranean, 8th-9thcentury.H.411/16in. Purchase, 1962(62.172) double-dirham (opaquewhite),one-half-dirham, one-rat/
Joseph PulitzerBequest,1965(65.173.1)
17. CUP Free-blownwithimpresseddecoration,pontil 42. PERFUME SPRINKLER. Free-blown andtooled ringweightinnameof Abbasidcaliphal-Mutawakkil.
withappliedfootand "handles',pontilon base. Early Nos.66-72: Mold-pressed. No.73: Marvered thread
on base. EasternMediterranean, Earlyperiod.H33/8in. decorationand mold-pressed.No.74: Tooledand
Purchase,Joseph V. McMullan Gift,1974 (1974.15) Medievalperiod.H. 101/4in.Purchase,RichardS.
PerkinsGift,1977(1977.164) stamped.Egypt.A.D.734-42; 762-69; 778; 1021-36;
18. HANDLED VESSEL.Free-blownandtooledwith 1036-94; 1101-30;1160-71;LateMedievalperiod;
impressed decoration and appliedhandles,pontil on 43, 44. BEAKER ANDBOTTLE. Free-blown andtooled 847-61. Diam. ca. 11/8 in.; 13/16 in.; 11/8 in.; 5/8 in.; 1 in.;
base. EasternMediterranean, 10thcenturyH.31116in. withunmarvered threaddecorationand coilbase, pontil 5/8 in.;1 in.; 5/8 in. No. 74: 23/4 21/2x 2 in.Wt.4.221 gm.;
Giftof HelenMillerGould,1910(10.130.2644) on base. EasternMediterranean, EarlyMedievalperiod. 5.125gm.;4.242 gm.;2.966 gm.;3.017gm.; 1.055
19. BOTTLE. Free-blownintwo partswithimpressed H.43/8in.;43/4in.Bequestof Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, gm.;5.934 gm.; 1.499gm.;381.5 gm. Nos.66-68: Gift
1929, H.O. Havemeyer Collection (29.100.83,87) of Mrs.LucyW.Drexel,1889(89.2.241-43). Nos.69-
decoration,pontilon base. EasternMediterranean,
Earlyperiod.H. 71/2in.RogersFund,1908 (08.138.2) 45. PERFUME SPRINKLER. Free-blown, enamel- 74: RogersFund,1908(08.256.46,23,66,29,56,1)
20. BOWL.Free-blownand luster-painted, pontilon paintedand gilded,pontilon base. EarlyMedieval 75. TWOFRAGMENTS OFWALL TILE.Millefiori.
Early
base. EasternMediterranean, 8th-9thcentury.H.41/8in. period. H. 21/2in. Bequest of Walter C. Baker, 1971 period. 11/2 x 11/ in.; 11/8 x 1 in. Rogers Fund, 1923
Purchase,RogersFundand Giftsof RichardS. Perkins, (1972.118.42) (23.75.15ab)
Mr.and Mrs.CharlesWrightsman, Mr.and Mrs.LouisE. 46. TAZZA. Mold-blown intwo parts,tooled,enamel- 76. DECORATIVE ELEMENT. Mold-blown. Earlyperiod.
Seley,WalterD. Binger,Margaret Mushekian,Mrs. paintedand gilded,pontilon base. Eastern L.13/4in.,W.13/8in.RogersFund,1923(23.75.2d)
MildredT.Keally,Hess Foundation,MehdiMahboubian Mediterranean, 1st half13thcentury H. 73/16in.
and Mr.and Mrs.BruceJ. Westcott,1974(1974.74) EdwardC. MooreCollection,Bequestof EdwardC. 77. NECKLACE. Marvered-and-combed thread
21. COSMETIC BOTTLE. Free-blownand luster- Moore, 1891 (91.1.1538) decorationandtooled.EasternMediterranean, Earlyor
painted,pontilon base. EasternMediterranean, 10th 47. MOSQUELAMPFree-blown andtooledwith EarlyMedievalperiod.L.201/4in. PfeifferFund,1973
century. H. 4 in. Gift
of HelenMillerGould,1910 appliedhandles,enameledand gilded,pontilon base. (1973.347)
(10.130.2649) Eastern Mediterranean, ca. 1285. H. 101/2in.Giftof 78. BRACELET. Fusedslicesof cane wrappedaround
22. BOWL.Mold-blown and wheel-cut.9thcentury. J. PierpontMorgan,1917(17.190.985) core of darkglass. EasternMediterranean,Earlyperiod.
H. 27/16in.RogersFund,1970(1970.20) 48. LARGEBOTTLE. Free-blown andtooled,enameled OuterDiam.21/2in.Giftof HelenMillerGould,1910
23. COSMETIC BOTTLE. Relief-cutfromblock.9th and gilded,pontilon base. EasternMediterranean, late (10.130.1097)
century. H. 41/2in. Gift
of Mr. and Mrs. ArthurG. Altschul, 13th century. H. 171/8in. Rogers Fund, 1941(41.150) 79. RING.Mold-pressed. EasternMediterranean. Diam.
1985(1985.316) 1 in.Giftof HelenMiller
Gould,1910(10.130.975)
49. TALL BOTTLE. Free-blown andtooledwithapplied
24. HANDLED CUP Free-blownand relief-cutwith foot,enameledand gilded,pontilon base. Eastern 80. BEADS.Cutand polished(.86a)and molded
applied,wheel-cuthandle.9th-10thcenturyH.31/8in. Mediterranean, 1st half14thcentury.H. 193/4in. (.84b;90c,o,u;192c,e).Earlyor EarlyMedievalperiod.
Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest,1969(69.223) Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest,1936(36.33) Rogers Fund, 1948 (48.101.84b;86a;90c,o,u;192c,e)

56
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