COMPRESSIBILITY  An earth slope is an unsupported, inclined surface FRICTION CIRCLE METHOD  Failure slip surface is

The property of the soil due to which a decrease in
volume occurs under compressive compressive
forces is knowns as compressibility of soil.
Consolidation of soil can be divided into 3 stages.
Initial Consolidation  The reduction in volume of soil
just after the application of load  It is due to
compression of solid particle Primary Consolidation 
After initial consolidation, reduction in volume occur
due to expulsion of water from voids Secondary
Consolidation  The reduction in volume continues
even after the primary consolidation is over.  It is
due to the rearrangement of soil and water particles.
SPRING ANALOGY FOR CONSOLIDATION
 Given by Terzaghi  The process of consolidation is
explained with the help of spring analogy  The
system consists of a cylinder fitted with a piston
having a valve. The cylinder is filled with water and
contains a spring.  Consider initially the length of
spring is 100 mm  When a load P (say 1N) is applied
to the piston, with valve closed, the entire load is
taken by water. No load is taken by Spring o Load
taken by water = 1N o Load taken by spring = 0 2  If
the valve is gradually opened, water starts escaping
from the cylinder. The spring starts sharing the load
and a decrease in its length occurs  As more and
more water escapes from cylinder, the load carried
by the spring increases  Finally steady conditions
are established and the total load is taken by the
spring. The load causes a decrease in its length to 90
mm  Now if the load P is increased to 2N, the
process of transfer of load repeats and finally the
spring takes the complete load and its length
become 80 mm. Likewise the process is repeated.
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
One which has never been subjected to a pressure
greater than the present existing pressure and has
been fully consolidated under the existing pressure –
Portion AB in the curve
OVER CONSOLIDATED or PRECONSOLIDATED CLAYS
Fully consolidated in the past under a pressure
greater than the Fully consolidated in the past under
a pressure greater than the present overburden
pressure. – Portion CD in the curve Portion CD in the
curve
UNDER CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
Not fully consolidated under the existing overburden
pressure
of soil mass.  They are formed for railway assumed as circular arc Procedure 1. Determine c, ϕ,
formations, highway embankments, earth dams, γ and slope angle i 2. Assume several values of ϕm 3.
canal banks and many other locations.  The failure Determine Fϕ for each ϕm assumed
of slope may lead to loss of life and property.
Therefore it is essential to check the stability of
slopes  The stability of soil slope depends on the
strength of the Soil slope. If the shear stress 4. For the slope angle i, determine Sn For each ϕm
developed in the soil slope is more than the shear from the stability charts 5. Determine cm for each Sn
strength of the soil slope, then it will fail.  The
factors causing slope failures can be classified into
two: 1) The factors which cause an increase in the 6. Calculate Fc for each cm Fc=c/cm
shear stresses.- stresses may increase due to weight 7. Plot a graph between Fc and Fϕ and determine
of water causing saturation of soils, surcharge loads, the factor of safety Fc = Fϕ = Fs
seepage pressure, steepening of slopes or any other
cause. 2) The factors which cause a decrease in the
shear strength of the soil – loss of shear strength
may occur due to an increase in water content,
increase in pore water pressure, shock or cyclic loads
or any other cause.
TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURE
Rotational failure  Failure occurs by the rotation
along a slip surface by downward and outward
COMPACTION OF SOIL  Compaction means pressing
movement of soil mass  The slip surface is generally
the soil particles close to each other by mechanical
circular. Rotational failures are further divided into a)
methods  Air during compaction is expelled from
Toe failure: The failure occurs along the surface that
the void space in the soil mass and hence mass
passes through the toe b) Slope failure: The failure
density is increased  Compaction is an entirely
occurs along the surface that intersect the slope
different process than consolidation
above the toe. - Weak plane exists above toe c) Base
Basic differences between compaction and
failure: The failure occurs along the surface that
consolidation are:
passes below the toe. - Weak plane exist below toe

CONSOLIDATION TEST
Procedure: 1. The consolidation ring is cleaned and
weighed, measure the area (A). 2. Place a moistened
filter paper at the bottom of the ring and prepare the
sample ensuring that there are no air voids. 3. Place
the top filter paper; note the thickness of the soil
sample in cm (2H) placed in the ring. 4. Place the ring
over the bottom porous stone kept on the base
plate. 3 5. Place the top porous stone, the guide ring,
the top loading plate and ball. 6. Transfer the
assembly to the loading device and fix the
compression dial gauge. Make the loading arm
horizontal. Connect the water reservoir line to the
mould. 7. Apply a seating load of 0.05kg/cm2 . Keep
this load until there is no change in the dial gauge
reading for two consecutive hours or for a maximum
of 24 hours. Note and record this dial gauge reading
(R0). 8. Take the initial dial reading and apply the
specified load increment without causing any shock.
Start the stopwatch simultaneously. 9. Take dial
gauge reading at time intervals of 0.25, 1, 2.25, 4,
6.25, 9, 12.25, 16, 20.25, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121,
144, 169, 196, 225, 256, 289, 324, 361, 400, 500, 600
and 1440 minutes (Rf corresponding to 1440
minutes), after applying 0.25 kg/cm2 load or much
longer till the dial gauge reading is not changing.
Record the last reading as Rf (For a full consolidation
test, repeat the above procedure for a number of
times, successively doubling the applied load and
recording the elapsed time and the corresponding
dial gauge reading). 10. Find the time and magnitude
of various stages of consolidation from the curves
plotted.
Coefficient of compressibility and volume
compressibility
Compression Index
PRECONSOLIDATION PRESSURE
 Preconsolidation: If a soil is consolidated before
the stages of construction, it is said to be
preconsolidation  Preconsolidation Pressure: It is
the maximum stress experienced by a soil in its life
history - When the over consolidated specimen is
loaded in the consolidation test, the initial portion
AB of the compression curve ABCD is actually a
recompression curve. - The initial flat portion AB is
followed by a straight line CD with a steep slope
which indicates the compression of a normally
consolidated clay. - In the transition stage BC, the
slope gradually changes. The preconsolidation
pressure falls in this range. - It can be obtained using
the method given by Casagrande
Causes of Preconsolidation 1. Due to loads from
building and other structures which had been
demolished 2. Due to overburden of soil which is
later removed by erosion 3. Due to melting of ice
which covered the soil deposit in the past 4. Due to
capillary pressure which acted on the soil in the past
but was later destroyed due to a rise in water table.
5. Due to tectonic force (Earthquake) which becomes
less severe.
TERZAGHI’S THEORY OF PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION
Assumptions  Soil is homogenous and isotropic 
Soil is fully saturated  Solid particle and water are
incompressible  Coefficient of permeability is same
at all points  Darcy’s law is valid  Soil is laterally
confined and consolidation takes place only in the
axial direction.  Time lag in consolidation is entirely
due to the low permeability of the soil  The unique
relationship between void ratio and effective stress
remains constant
Coefficient of Consolidation
Time Factor
Translational failure  Occurs in infinite slope 
Occurs along the surface parallel to the slope
Compound failure  Combination of rotational failure
and translational failure  A compound failure is
curved at both ends and plane in the middle Wedge
failure  A failure along an inclined plane  It occurs
when distinct blocks of soil are get separated
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
- The stability of slopes depends on the stress
developed and the strength of the slope. - The ratio
of strength to the stress developed is defined as the
factor of safety of slope. - The slope is stable if the
factor of safety is greater than 1. - The Factor of
safety for slope is defined in three different terms
1. Factor of safety with respect to Shear strength (Fs)
S – shear strength τm – Shear stress developed or
mobilized shear strength c – cohesion cm – Cohesion
mobilized (developed) σ – Normal presusure ϕ –
friction angle ϕm – friction angle mobilized
(developed)
2. Factor of safety with respect to Cohesion (Fc)
3. Factor of safety with respect to friction (Fϕ)
Stability number
The stability number (Sn) is defines as
Stability charts - Stability charts indicates the
stability number for different slope angle i and
friction angle ϕm. There are 5 parameters, viz cm, γ,
H, I and φm.
Uses - The stability number can be used to
determine the factor of safety of a given slope. - The
stability charts can also be used to determine the
steepest slope for a given factor of safety
SWEDISH CIRCLE METHOD
 It is also called method of slices  Actual shape of
slip surface in the case of finite slopes is curvilinear.
For convenience, it is approximated as circular
Procedure 1. Consider a slope ADB 2. AB be the
circular surface with radius r and center O 3. Take a
trial wedge (AB) and divide it into number of slices
4. Determine weight of each slice 5. The weight is
resolved into normal and tangential components
Normal component = N Tangential component = T
6. The curved length of each slice is determined 7.
The factor of safety is determined using equation
Objectives of compaction  To increase strength and
bearing capacity of soil  To reduce the settlement of
soil  To reduce the permeability of soil
LIGHT COMPACTION TEST (STANDARD PROCTOR
TEST) Test Apparatus 1. Cylindrical mould with
diameter of 100mm and height of 127.3 mm. 2.
Hammer with a mass of 2.6 kg and free fall height of
310 mm.
Procedure: 1. 3 kg soil passing through 4.75 mm
sieve is taken. 2. Water is added to the soil to bring
its water content to about 4% if the soil is
coarsegrained and to about 8% if it is fine-grained. 3.
Mould is cleaned and greased lightly. 4. Mass of
empty mould without collar and with base plate is
taken. 5. Collar is fitted to the mould. 6. The soil is
filled in three equal layers in the mould and each
layer is compacted by 25 blows of rammer with a
free fall of 310 mm. 7. Collar is removed and soil is
trimmed off. 8. Mass of mould with base plate and
compacted soil is taken. 9. The bulk density of
compaction can be calculated as bulk density = wet
weight of soil/volume of mould. 10. Dry density of
soil is calculated as Dry density = Bulk density / (1+
water content)
The values of dry density determined can be plotted
against the corresponding moisture contents - Dry
density first increases with increase in water content
till maximum density is attained. With further
increase in water content dry density decreases.
Water content corresponding to maximum dry
density is known as Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) or Optimum Water Content.
- For a given water content, theoretical maximum
density, (ρd) theomax is obtained corresponding to
the condition when there are no air voids (ie
S=100%) - Theoretical maximum dry density is also
known as saturated dry density, (ρd)sat.

Degree of Consolidation 8. The whole procedure is repeated for a new trial

Change in void ratio Method
wedge and corresponding factor of safety is
determined 9. The circular wedge which gives the
minimum factor of safety is the critical circle

STABILITY OF SLOPES
Height of solids method
HEAVY COMPACTION TEST (MODIFIED PROCTOR
TEST) Test Apparatus 1. Cylindrical mold with
diameter of 100mm and height of 127.3 mm. 2.
Hammer with a mass of 4.89 kg and free fall of 450
mm. Procedure: - The procedure is same as that of
light compaction test. The soil taken is 5 kg. The soil
is compacted in five layers with 25 tamping. - Dry
densities are obtained for different water contents
and compaction curve is drawn
water jet and rotating eccentric weight to cause
vibration 5. Compaction by Pounding • Also called
dynamic compaction • Dropping a heavy mass from
a large height • A closely spaced grid pattern is
selected for compaction • Suitable for granular soil
RELATIVE COMPACTION - The maximum dry density
obtained in the field may be different from
maximum dry density obtained in the lab - The ratio
of dry density in the field to the maximum density
obtained in the lab is known as the Relative
Compaction

- The curve is higher than and to the left of that
obtained from a standard Proctor test. - The heavier
compaction increases the maximum density but
decreases the optimum water content
COMPACTION OF SANDS - In case of pure sandy
soils, effect of water content on dry density is not
well defined when the water content is below the
optimum value. - Dry density decreases with an
increase in water content, due to capillary tension in
pore water. - Capillary tension resists the tendency
of soil particles to take a dense state and hence the
volume increase. This phenomenon is known as
bulking of sand. - Maximum bulking occurs at a
water content of about 4 to 5% - With further
increase in water content dry density increases as
the meniscus is destroyed and particles are able to
shift and take a closer packing. Maximum dry density
occurs when the soil is fully saturated - If the water
content is increased beyond this point, the dry
density again decreases.
COMPACTION CONTROL  It is necessary to check
the density and water content in the field to achieve
effective compaction  Compaction control is done
by measuring the dry density and water content of
the compacted soil in the field Control of Density 
Dry density in the field are measured by core cutter
method or sand replacement method Control of
Water content  Water content in the field is
measured by calcium carbide method, alcohol
method, sand bath method and Proctor needle
method
Compaction control by Proctor needle method 
Used to measure the water content in the field
indirectly  Proctor’s needle consists of a rod
attached to a spring-loaded plunger. The stem of
plunger is marked to read the resistance recorded
during the test.  The needle shank has graduations
to indicate the depth of penetration  Varying cross
sections of needle points are available.  The needle
is penetrated into the soil after the soil has been
compacted at a given water content in the
compaction test in the laboratory  The penetration
force is read on stem at top  The force required for
penetration depends upon the water content  A
calibration curve is prepared between water content
and penetration resistance  Water content is
determined from the calibration curve
corresponding to the penetration resistance of the
compacted soil in the field

FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION 1. Type of soil :

Coarse grained soil attain high dry density at low
OMC than that of fine grained soil 2. Water content:
Initially the dry density increases with water content.
Beyond a certain limit the dry density decreases.
Initially at lower water content, soil is stiff. As the
water content increases the soil get lubricated.
Hence on compaction the soil particles slide over the
other and achieve most dense state increasing the
density of soil. But beyond optimum, water takes up
the spaces that would have been occupied by the
solid particles. Hence density decreases. 3.
Compaction effort: As the amount of compaction (or
number of blow) increases, the dry density also
increases 4. Method of compaction: The soils in the
fields are compacted using different methods. The
density achieved also depends on the methods
adopted. 5. Admixtures: The compaction of a soil can
be improved by adding some admixtures. The
commonly using admixtures are lime, cement and
bitumen
EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON PROPERTIES OF SOIL

FIELD COMPACTION METHODS

1. Tampers  Tampers used to compact soil adjacent
to existing structures, where other methods cannot
be used  Can be used to compact all types of soil (i)
Hand operated tamper a. consist of block of iron
connected to a wooden rod b. Tamper is lifted and
dropped to the soil to be compacted (ii) Mechanical
operated tamper c. Powered by compresses air or
gasoline
2. Rollers Types of rollers 1. Smooth wheel roller 2.
Pneumatic-tyred roller 3. Sheep foot roller Smooth
wheel roller  Consist of three wheels  2 large wheel
at the rear & 1 small wheel in the front  Front wheel
made of heavy steel  Powered by diesel engines 
Used for finishing operations  Used for compaction
of granular base course of highways Pneumatic-tyred
roller • Consist of 9 to 11 heavy wheels 13 •
Compact the soil by kneading action • Used for both
cohesive and cohesionless soils • Best roller for
general use Sheep foot roller • Consist of a hollow
drum with large number of projections • Hollow
drum is filled with water or aggregates to increase
the weight • Ideally used for cohesive soil •
Compaction done by tamping and kneading action
3. Vibratory Compactors • Vibrations are induced in
the soil during compaction • Suitable for granular
soil • Vibratory roller • Vibrating plate compactor 4.
Vibroflotation Method • For compacting thick , loose
sandy soil • Consist of a cylindrical tube fitted with