Introduction to metal cutting Machining or metal and reduce the power consumption. 3.
sumption. 3. It Shear plane and shear angle As the tool is
Metal Cutting Process of removing unwanted
material to get desired shape using sharp
wedged tool. Advantages of metal Cutting
features compared to casting/forging (other
shaping process):  Closer dimensional accuracy
 Better Surface texture/finish  Economical 
Complex shape and size Disadvantages 
Wasteful of material: Chips generated in
machining are wasted material  Time
consuming or low material removal rate: A
machining operation generally takes more time
to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy,
or forming
Elements of Metal Cutting:
Cutting speed refers to the speed at which the
tool point of the cutter moves with respect to
the work measured in meter per minute In
turning, it is given by the surface speed of the
work piece, V = π DoN in m/min where Do is the
diameter of the work piece in meter N is the
RPM of work or spindle speed. Feed –
advancement of tool through the work piece in
one rotation of spindle, (f mm/rev) Depth of cut
– distance by which tool penetrates in the work-
piece (Do-Df)/2 Df= dia of finished work piece
Cutting rate or MRR = volume / time Volume of
material removes = length * width * depth of
the chip In orthogonal cutting Thickness of cut=
feed Width of cut= depth of cut MRR = v f d
mm3 /min Where v = cutting speed; f = feed and
d = depth of cut
Processes parameters (Independent variables) 
Work material  Tool material  Tool geometry 
Cutting parameters o Cutting velocity o Feed o
Depth of cut o Cutting fluid etc. Performance
parameters (Dependent variable)  Material
removal rate  Surface finish  Tool wear
rate/tool life  Dimensional accuracy  Power
requirement  Cutting temperature etc
Types of cutting tools Cutting tools may be
classified according to the number of major
cutting edges (points) involved as follows: 1.
Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping,
planning and slotting tools and boring tools. 2.
Double (two) point: e.g., drills. 3. Multipoint
(more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching
tools, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.
Geometry /nomenclature/signature of Single
Point Tool (Basic tool angles)
1. Back rake: It is defined as the angle between
the face of the tool and a line parallel to the
base 2. Side rake angle: It is the angle by which
the face of the tool is inclined sideways. 3. Front
clearance angle / End relief angles: The angle
between front surface of the tool & line normal
to base of the tool is known as a front clearance
angle. It avoids rubbing of work piece against
tool. 4. Side clearance /side relief angle: Angle
formed by the side surface of the tool with a
plane normal to the base of the tool. It avoids
rubbing between flank and work piece when
tool is fed longitudinally. It also provides easy
entering and leaving off from the work. 5. End
cutting edge angle: This is the angle between
end cutting edge and line normal to tool shank.
Large cutting angle weakens the tool. Large
angle weakens the tool also. It prevents rubbing
or drag between machined surface & the trailing
part of cutting edge. 6. Side cutting edge angle
(lead angle): It is the angle between side cutting
edge & side of tool flank. With lager side cutting
edge angle the chips produced will be thinner &
wider which will distribute the cutting forces &
heat produced more over cutting edge. 7. Nose
radius: It is curvature of the tool tip expressed in
“mm” or angle
Effect of tool geometry angle on cutting
performance characteristics Tool geometry of
the cutting tools play very important roles on
their performances in achieving performance,
efficiency and overall economy of machining.
Angles means inclination of some faces with
respect to some reference planes. Rake and
clearance angles are most important. Geometry
or angles of a cutting tool is determined by
factors:  Properties of the tool material 
Properties of the work piece  Processes
parameters like feed, cutting speed and depth of
cut, temperature etc.  Performance like finish,
MRR and accuracy and economy required
Rake angle: The side rake angle and the back-
rake angle combine to form the effective rake
angle. This is also called true rake angle. Rake
angle can be defined as the inclination tool
surface with the plane perpendicular to cutting
velocity vector. It makes the cutting easier. Rake
angle functions 1. It allows the chip to flow in
convenient direction and provide easy cutting. 2.
It reduces the cutting force required to shear the
breaker 1. In-built type 2. Clamped or
improves the surface finish. Rake angle can be
positive or negative  Positive: reduce cutting
forces and less deflection of work and machine 
Negative: Negative rake is used to increase
edge-strength and life of the tool. Used to
machine harder metals and where heavy cuts
require with strong cutting edge.  Zero rake to
simplify the design and manufacture of the form
tools.
Clearance angle (γ) It is essentially provided to
avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the
machined surface which causes loss of energy
and damages of both the tool and the job
surface. If clearance angle increases, it reduces
flank wear but weaken the cutting edge. Side
cutting edge angle The following are the
advantages of increasing this angle, 1. Provides
gradual entering of tool to the work for
smoothness of cut 2. Reduces the tool wear for
the same depth of cut; as the cutting force is
distributed on a wider surface (increases tool
life) 3. It dissipates heat quickly for having wider
cutting edge and increases tool life 4. Large side
cutting edge angles cause the tool to chatter.
Nose radius It provides strengthening of the tool
nose and better surface finish. Increase of nose
radius increase the friction also which increases
the cutting force. Slight nose radius is usually
provided to increase the surface finish. Too large
nose radius makes vibration/chatter. Slight
increases of nose radius 1. Improves surface
finish 2. Higher tool life (Stronger edge) 3. Heavy
feed rates and large depths of cut can be given
End cutting edge angle The function of end
cutting edge angle is to prevent the trailing front
cutting edge of the tool from rubbing against the
work. A large end cutting edge angle
unnecessarily weakens the tool. It varies from 8
to 15 degrees.
Types of metal cutting Principally there are two
types of metal cutting: 1. Orthogonal cutting,
and 2. Oblique cutting. Orthogonal Cutting This
orthogonal cutting is also known as Two
Dimensional (2-D) Cutting. 1. The cutting edge of
the tool remains at 900 to the cutting velocity
vector or feed movement 2. The chip flows in a
direction normal to the cutting edge of the tool
(chip flow orthogonally) 3. The tool life is lower
than oblique cutting (for same conditions of
cutting). 4. Orthogonal cutting involves only two
forces, (cutting and feed force). Also called two
dimensional cutting. 5. Tool life is less 6.
Examples are facing a pipe, slot cuttings in lathe
and straight broaching process etc. Oblique
Cutting 1. The cutting edge of tool is inclined at
an acute angle to the direction of feed/ velocity
vector 2. The direction of the chip flow is not
normal to the cutting edge. 3. Here three
components of forces are acting: cutting force,
radial force and thrust force. So metal cutting
may be considered as three dimensional cutting.
4. The cutting edge being oblique, the shear
force acts on a larger area and tool life is
increased. In actual machining, majority of the
cutting operations (turning, milling, etc.) are
oblique cutting.
Mechanism of chip formation/cutting  During
continuous machining the uncut layer of the
work material just ahead of the cutting tool is
subjected to compression.  Due to such
compression, shear stress develops,  If shear
stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of
that work material in the deformation region,
yielding or slip takes place resulting shear
deformation in that region The formation of chip
takes place in zone extending from the tool
cutting edge to the junction between the
surfaces of the chip and work piece: This zone is
known as primary deformation zone. To deform
the material in this manner the forces must be
transmitted to chip across the interface between
the chip and tool are sufficient to deform the
lower layers of chip as it slides along the tool
face (secondary deformation zone) Piispanen
modeled the shear process of chip formation
mechanism as a deck of cards where one card at
a time slides forward with cutting tool
progresses
Shear zone During metal cutting the work
material ahead of the too tip suffers plastic
deformation and also while sliding on the rake
face of the tool, goes to form chip. Two plastic
deformation zones, namely the primary shear
zone and the secondary shear zone have been
commonly accepted.  Primary shear zone-
where shearing of chip from parent materials
takes place.  Secondary shear zone- chip - tool
interface deformation due to friction between
tool and chip At high velocity it is found that
shear plane is a narrow (thin) plane and at low
velocity metal shear plane is thick
forced into the material, the chip is formed by
shear deformation along a plane called the
shear plane, which is oriented at an angle Ф with
the surface of the work. Shear plane separates
the deformed and un-deformed work material.
If all other factors remain the same, a higher
shear angle results in a smaller shear plane area.
Since the shear strength is applied across this
area, the shear force required to form the chip
will decrease when the shear plane area is
decreased.
Derive expression for velocities in metal cutting
Types of chips produced during the metal
cutting There are three different types of chips
1. Continuous chips, 2. Discontinuous chips 3.
Continuous chips with built up edge Types of
chip formation depends on work material, tool
materials, tool geometry and cutting condition
(velocity, feed rate, depth, cutting fluid etc.).
Continuous chip: when machining ductile
materials at high speeds with low feeds and
positive rake angle long continuous chips are
formed. Example mild steel Favorable factors for
continuous chip formation  work material –
ductile  Cutting velocity – high  Feed – low 
Rake angle – positive and large  Cutting fluid –
both cooling and lubricating Discontinuous
chips: Discontinuous chip: when machining
relatively brittle materials at low cutting speeds,
the chips often form into separated segments.
Discontinuous chip formation may cause
vibration, surface roughness and reduced tool
life. Machining brittle material with medium or
large feed and negative rake angles favours
discontinuous chips  work material- brittle 
feed – large  tool rake – negative  cutting fluid
– absent or inadequate Continuous chips with
BUE:  Built Up Edge (BUE) is the accumulation
of work piece material onto the rake face of the
tool. This material welds under pressure, and is
separate from the chip.  While machining
ductile materials with medium cutting speed and
large feed, due to high temperature, pressure
and friction at the tool chip interface, there are
possibilities of work material to weld to the
cutting edge of tool and thus forming built up
edges (BUE).  Successive layers are added to
the build-up edge. When this edge becomes
large and unstable it is broken and part of it is
carried up the face of the tool along with chip
while remaining is left in the surface being
machined. Thus, contributing to the roughness
of surface. Built up edge protects the cutting
edge of tool, thus changing the geometry of the
cutting tool.
Chip breakers: Continuous machining of ductile
metals produces continuous chips, which leads
to their handling and disposal problems. The
problems become acute when ductile but strong
metals like steels are machined at high cutting
velocity for high MRR. The function of chip
breakers is to reduce the radius of curvature of
chips and thus break it. 1. becomes dangerous
to the operator and the other people working in
the vicinity 2. may cause damage to work piece
surface and machine tool 3. creates difficulties in
easy collection and disposal of chips There are
three principle methods to produce the
favorable discontinuous chip: 1. proper selection
of cutting conditions 2. use of chip breakers 3.
change in the work material properties The
principles and methods of chip breaking are
generally classified as follows: a. Self-breaking:
accomplished without using a separate chip-
breaker b. Forced chip breaking by additional
tool geometrical features or devices: Self-
breaking 1. By natural fracturing of the strain
hardened chip after sufficient cooling and spring
back 2. By striking against the cutting surface of
the job 3. By striking against the tool flank after
each half to full turn as indicated Forced chip
attachment type In-built breakers are in the
form of step or groove at the rake surface near
the cutting edges of the tools. Clamped chip
breaker is also used as shown in figure to reduce
the radius of curvature and made to break.
Merchant Theory Merchant’s hypothesis is that
the shear plane is located to minimize the
cutting force, or where the shear stress is
maximum. Of all the possible angles at which
shear deformation could occur, the work
material will select a shear plane angle which
minimizes energy. Merchant’s derived an
equation between shear angle, rake angle, and
friction angle from the merchant circle diagram.
Assumption in merchant analysis  Thin shear
zone  Shearing in a plane  Continuous chip is
formed  Orthogonal cutting (edge
perpendicular to cutting velocity)  Perfectly
sharp cutting edge
Forces acting in orthogonal cutting The forces
acting during a metal cutting process are the
following 1. Fs =shear force acting along the
shear plane 2. Fn= force acting normal to shear
plane 3. F= Frictional force acting against the
chip flow acting along the tool 4. N= force
normal to tool face (friction force)
Advantages of Merchant’s diagram  Easy,
quick and reasonably accurate determination of
several other forces from a few known forces 
Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield
shear strength can be easily determined 
Equations relating the different forces can be
easily derived. Limitations of use of Merchant’s
Circle diagram  MCD is valid only for orthogonal
cutting  It is based on single shear plane theory
 It gives apparent (not actual) coefficient of
friction. Assumptions in merchant circle analysis
Merchant established relationship between
various forces acting on the chip during
orthogonal metal cutting with following
assumptions  Thin shear zone  Continuous
chip is formed  Orthogonal cutting (edge
perpendicular to cutting velocity)  Perfectly
sharp cutting edge  Shearing in a plane
Development of cutting tool Needs and
Chronological Development of Cutting Tool
Materials With the progress of the industrial
world it has been needed to continuously
develop and improve the cutting tool materials
and geometry;  To meet the growing demands
for high productivity, quality and economy of
machining  To enable effective and efficient
machining of the exotic materials that are
coming up  For precision and ultra-precision
machining  For micro and even nano machining
demanded by the day and future. Properties of
Cutting Tool Materials The cutting tool material
should possess the following properties 1. Hot
hardness It is the ability of the tool material to
retain its hardness and cutting edge at elevated
temperatures. 2. Wear Resistance Ability of the
tool material to resist wear when operating at
high speeds can be increased by adding carbon
and alloying elements. 3. Toughness Ability to
resist shock and vibrations without failure is
important for interrupted cuts. 4. High thermal
conductivity and specific heat To conduct the
heat generated at the cutting edge. 5.
Coefficient of friction The coefficient of friction
between the chip and the tool should be as low
as possible 6. Favorable cost, easy to fabricate
and easy to grind and sharpen. 7. It should have
low or zero chemical affinity for the work
material.
Selection of Cutting Tool Materials The
selection of cutting tool material will depend on
the following factors: 1. Volume of production
demanded 2. Cutting condition 3. Type of
machining process 4. Physical and chemical
properties of materials 5. Rigidity of the
machine. Development of cutting tools The
demand for cost efficiency in production and the
development of new products ranging widely in
complexity, material composition, size, and
surface finish have required industry to develop
new cutting materials and to adopt new
machining strategies for optimization of the
machining process. New materials have also
been developed and adopted for cost and
performance optimization in high-speed
machining conditions (HSM), especially high
cutting speed and higher feeds. In addition, and
mainly due to the near-net technology, products
are machined directly to final shape and size should be replaced by a new one or sending it cutting fluids Straight or oil based cutting fluids
after heat treatment. This requires hard cutting for regrinding. Stages of tool wear Rapid initial means undiluted or pure oil based fluids. These
(HC) of the work piece and depends especially wear as the new tool is introduced on to the oils have good lubricating properties but poor
on the features of the cutting tool materials and work. Then wear rate reduces and takes a heat absorption quality. The heat transfer rates
cutting conditions. Global competition uniform rate and finally wear exceeds a limit it by their application are the lowest among
Productivity:  Cutting Speed  Reduce gets failed The width of flank wear land deciding cutting fluids. Thus, they are only suitable for
Machining Time  Improve Tool Life Quality and the wear allowable before regrinding or disposal low cutting speeds. Used for heavy cutting
reliability:  High accuracy & tolerances  Better of tool (measured using tool maker’s process like broaching, threading and gear etc.
surface finish Cost:  Reduce Unnecessary Cost  microscope).  Region AB- rapid wear rate due Poor cooling and smoke formation are the
Reduce non-productive cost the initial broken down of cutting edge  Region disadvantages
Classification of Tool Materials 1. High Carbon BC- uniform wear rate  Region CD- increasing Selection of Cutting Fluids: The guidelines for
Steel 2. High Speed Steel 3. Carbide tools 4. rate selection of cutting fluids are: a) Type of
Ceramics 5. Cermet 6. Sialon 7. CBN 8. Diamond machining process b) Based on tool and work
Sources of heat generation The main heat materials c) Based on cutting condition like
sources of heat generations are shear zones. 1. speed, feed etc. d) Method of application of
Primary shear zone where the shearing of fluid e) Temperature involved
material takes place due plastic deformation.
(The energy required for shearing is converted
into heat 80 to 85%) 2. Secondary deformation
zone (chip – tool interface) where secondary
plastic deformation is due to the friction
between the heated chip and tool takes place. 3. Tool Life A tool cannot cut for an unlimited
Tool-work interface -due to rubbing between period. After using for a certain period, it ceases
the tool and finished surfaces (1 to 3%) to cut satisfactorily unless it is re-sharpened. It
Effects of heat generation in machining 1. has a definite life. The tool life maybe defined as
Affects tool life and wear rate 2. It affects the time elapsed (actual cutting time) between
strength and hardness of tool 3. Surface two consecutive sharpening of the cutting tool.
roughness (oxidation of machined surface and Factors affecting Tool Life (same factors of
deformation) 4. Deformation of work and machinability) 1. Tool and Work Material 2. Tool
machine 5. Lower dimensional accuracy 6. Geometry 3. Cutting Speed 4. Feed and Depth of
Forms build up edge Cut 5. Cutting Fluid 6. Rigidity of tool, work and
Tool failure or tool life Cutting tools generally machine.
fail by: 1. Gradual wear of the cutting tool at its Effect of tool life on rake, clearance angle,
flanks and rake surface. 2. Mechanical breakage cutting time and temperature  Tool life
and chipping due to excessive forces and shocks. increases with increase of rake angle for the
3. Plastic deformation of cutting edge due to given cutting speed. Increase of rake angle
intensive stresses and temperature.
decreases the cutting force and temperature. 
Tool wears mechanism / mode of wear
As the clearance angle increases, the tool chip
Mechanical wear
contact area increases which reduces the cutting
Abrasive wear: wear due to the abrasive action
temperature and wear rate ultimately increases
between the chip and tool as the chip passes
the tool life.  Increases of nose radius also
over the rake surface of tool. Adhesive wear:
increases the life to a extent  Wear increases
the tool and the chip weld together at contacts,
with cutting temperature. All types of wear
and wear occurs by the fracture of these welded
accelerate with increase of temperature
junctions. Welding is due to Friction, high
(mechanical, chemical and diffusion wear) 
temperature and pressure Fatigue wear: Due to
Cutting time- tool wear is a time dependent
friction while cutting, compressive force will be
factor. As cutting proceeds, the amount of tool
produced in one side and tensile force on other
wear increases gradually.
side. This causes the crack formation on the
Machineability It can be defined as the ease
surface of tool and fails. Chipping of tool: It
with which a material can be machined by a
refers the breaking away of small chips from the
given tool under a given set of conditions.
cutting edge of tool
Suppose it is states as material A is more
Thermo-chemical wear
machinable than material B, then it means that:
Diffusion wear: When a metal is in sliding
Economics of Metal Cutting The primary aim is
contact with another metal the temperature at
to produce satisfactory parts at the lowest
the interface is high. The high temperature
possible cost and highest possible production
allows the atoms of hard material to diffuse into
rate. As the cutting speed increases the MRR is
softer material matrix. At high temperature,
high giving low cutting cost, but the tool life will
there is an intimate contact between the chip
be shorter and consequently high cutting cost
and the tool rake face. Atoms of the softer metal
per piece. At some intermediate cutting speed,
may also diffuse into harder medium, thus
the tool cost will be minimum. The tool life
weakening the surface of harder material.
corresponding to this speed is economical tool
Diffusion phenomenon is strongly dependent on
life. The total cost per piece is based on:  Non-
temperature
productive cost  Cutting or machining cost 
Chemical wear
tool changing cost The machining cost per
Oxidation wear: Oxidation wear is the result of
component is made up of a number of different
reaction between tool face material and oxygen
costs. Nonproductive cost per component
present in the vicinity. Corrosion wear: may be
includes the cost of loading and unloading
included in wear phenomenon
component, and other non-cutting time costs.
types of wear a) Flank wear b) Crater wear c)
Select speed to achieve a balance between high
Nose wear d) Plastic deformation of tools
metal removal rate and suitably long tool life.
Effects of tool wear Tool wear causes the tool to
Mathematical formulas are available to
lose its original shape and lose its cutting
determine optimal speed Total cost calculation
efficiency. Tool wear is a time dependent
in detail Total cost= Cu = Cm + Cn + Cc + Ct
process. As cutting proceeds, the amount of tool
Cutting Fluid During a metal cutting operation
wear increases gradually. But tool wear must
heat is generated due to plastic deformation of
not be allowed to go beyond a certain limit to
the metal and friction of the tool-work interface.
avoid tool failure. 1. Increase the cutting force 2.
Cutting fluid is used to carry away the heat
Increase the surface roughness 3. Decreases
produced during the machining and reduce the
dimensional accuracy 4. Increase the cutting
friction between the chip and the tool. Cutting
temperature 5. Creates vibration 6. Increase the
fluids in the form of a liquid are applied to the
cost and lower the cutting efficiency
chip formation zone to improve the cutting
Tool wear criteria/tool life criteria
conditions. Functions of the Cutting Fluid 1. To
In practical situation, the time at which a tool
cool the tool and work during machining
ceases to produce work-pieces with desired size,
(dissipate heat) 2. To lubricate (to reduce
surface quality and acceptable dimensional
friction) a. It reduces the power consumption b.
tolerances, usually determines the end of tool
It prevents the formation of BUE c. Increases
life. In most cases the tool wears gradually and
tool life d. Reduces heat generated at the tool
the roughness of the machined surface becomes
chip interface 3. To protect the finished surface
too high, cutting forces rise and cause
from corrosion. 4. To cause the chips break into
intolerable deflections or vibrations etc. As the
small pieces. 5. Chips are disposed off easily 6.
tool wear rate increases, the dimensional
To improve surface finish
tolerances cannot be maintained. When the
Types of cutting fluids
wear reaches a certain size, it will accelerate and
Water based Cutting Fluids To improve the
may lead to a sudden failure of the edge. Flank
cooling and lubricating properties of water, the
wear is normally the most consistent form of
soft soap and mineral oils are added to it.
wear which is easy measurable. So flank wear
Soluble oils are emulsions composed of around
criteria (ISO test) normally used to assess the
80% of water, remaining soap and mineral oils.
tool life. It is measured by the width of flank
The soap acts as the emulsifying agent which
wear (VB/FW shown in figure) is used to define
breaks the oil into minute particles to disperse
the tool life. When the cutting edge of the tool
them throughout water. Straight or oil Based
reaches one of the tool life criterion, the tool