988 TRANSIENT FLOWS #K az? IK aK cb. eo op (9.32) For a problem of one-dimensional vertical infiltration from the ground surface toward the water table, the initial and boundary conditions in terms of the dimensionless variables are K(Z0) = Q, — (Oy - ee = KZ) (9.33a) K(O,T) = e~* (9.33b) aK S + els =O (9.33c) where hy is a prescribed suction head at the water table (typically assumed hy = 0) and L is the distance from the ground surface to the water table. Equation (9.33a) represents the initial steady state under a constant suction head condition. Equation (9.336) reflects the constant suction head condition at the water table. Equation (9.33c) reflects the constant flux condition at the ground surface. Applying the Laplace transform to eq. (9.32) and considering these initial and boundary conditions, Srivastava and Yeh (1991) arrived at the following analytical solution for normalized (dimensionless) hydraulic conductivity: K = Qp — (Qn ~ €P™)e~* - 4p - Oye? e $02) sin Le A 1th Del one where i, is the th root of the equation tan(AL) + 2h = (9.34b) The outflow at the water table (Z = 0) at any time was derived as aK QT) = k, [= + x = kp — 4k, (Qn - Ose? e=™ A jz=0 Sd, sind, Ler” x> eso 9.35 Zit in= ML ue) The following examples demonstrate the analytical solutions given by eqs. (9.34) and (9.35) for a homogeneous unsaturated soil layer with a thickness of 100 cm (ic., the groundwater table is located 100 cm below the ground surface). Steady-state infiltration profiles are used as initial conditions for two8.3. TRANSIENT SUCTION AND MOISTURE PROFILES © 389 soils designated soil | and soil 2. Saturated fiydraulic conductivity k, for both soils is 1.0 om/h. Soil 1 is described by a pore size distribution index B = 0.1 cm, saturated water content 0, = 0.4, and residual water content 0, = 0.06. Soil 2 is described by B = 0.01 cm™', 0, = 0.45, and 0, = 0.2, Figure 9.10 shows the corresponding hydraulic conductivity function (Fig. 9.10a) and soil-water characteristic curve (Fig. 9.10b) for each soil modeled using the exponential eqs. (9:30a) and (9.30b). The modeling parameters for soil | and soil 2 are selected to represent relatively coarse-grained soil and relatively fine-grained soil, respectively. Figure 9.1 1a shows suction head profiles for soil 1 at several times during a transient infiltration process calculated using eqs. (9.34) and (9.30a). The initial suction head profile (at r = 0) is the steady-state profile for a simulated ground surface infiltration rate q, equal to 0.1 cm/h. For times greater than zero, a larger infiltration rate gy = 0.9 cm/h is applied, Note that during the carly times the suction head significantly increases (becomes less negative) for depths relatively close to the ground surface. This trend gradually pro- gresses downward toward the water table as the wetting front advances. After 100 h, the suction head profile reaches steady state at a value close to zero. Similar patterns in time and space are illustrated in Fig. 9.11b for the cal- culated volumetric water content profiles. Suction head profiles for soil 1 during a subsequent drainage process are shown in Fig. 9.12. Here, it is assumed that the hydraulic conductivity func- Won and soil-water characteristic curve are again described by eqs. (9.30a) and (9.30b) (ie., hysteresis is ignored). Drainage is simulated by allowing the infiltration rate at the ground surface to be suddenly reduced from 0.9 to 0.1 cm/h. Under these conditions, the suction head initially decreases near the ground surface. The increasingly negative suction profile then migrates down- __ward toward the water table with time, After 100 h, the suction head profile “reiurns to the previous steady-state condition for a ground surface flux equal to 0.1 em/h. Figures 9.13 and 9.13b show suction head and volumetric water content profiles for soil 2, respectively. Note that the initial steady-state profiles are nearly linear with depth (ie., where q, = 0.1 em/h at r = 0). Compared with the relatively sharp wetting fronts noted for soil 1, the wetting fronts in soil 2 are dispersed to a relatively large distance. The suction head profile for the Subsequent drainage process in soil 2 is shown in Fig. 9.14, The discharge rate to the water table can be calculated by eq. (9.35) and is plotted for both soils during the wetting process in Fig. 9.15. As illustrated, the increase in discharge from the soil with relatively small (the finer. grained soil) tends to occur earlier and the outflow reaches a new steady state faster than for the soil with the relatively large ® value (the coarser-grained soil). 9.3.3 Numerical Modeling of Transient Unsaturated Flow Numerical solution of the Richards’ equation is necessary for many practical problems due to complications in initial and boundary conditions, fiow do- \300 TRANSIENT FLOWS. oa ty, k (omth) Soll 2 B=0.01 em? Hydraulle Conduct 0.01 0.001 “ ot 1 10 100 1000 Matric Suction Head, A (cm) (a) 05 Volumetric Water Content, @ on 1 10 100 1000 Matric Suction Head, fy (em) (b) Figure 9.10 Hydrologic relationships for soil 1 (coarse) and soil 2 (fine) modeled using exponential functions: (a) hydraulic conductivity functions, (A) and (6) soil- water characteristic curves, @(h).93 TRANSIENT SUCTION AND MOISTURE PROFILES 391 Ground oa ue t=Oh 1p 20] 20 50 = a0] n eo = 6 # 00 5 3 & w zd = x0 — 40 ae) & & 3 30] 3 30] 3 2 B 20 8 a Water 10 10] Table errs ete a e Qo Bs 20 5 ao So ia On eos ne Suction Head, hem) Volumetric Water Content, 0 (a) (b) Figure 9.11 Infiltration (wetting) profiles for homogeneous coarse unsaturated soil layer with B = 0.1 cm: (a) suction head profiles and (b) volumetric water content Profiles (Srivastava and Yeh, 1991; modified by permission of the American Geo- physical Union), Ground Surface t=0h fee ‘ 3 ies: SVE Zahe 30 20| Distancetrom Water Table, 2 (cm) 19) Water Table 0 “80-25 20 45 40 6 0 ‘Suction Head, h (em) Figure 9.12 Drainage (drying) profiles of suction head for homogeneous coarse un: Saturated soil layer with B = 0.1 em~' (Srivastava and Yeh, 1991; modified by per. mission of the American Geophysical Union).9892 TRANSIENT FLOWS Ground Sue joo t=O 15 1020400 jg, toh _1_§ 10_ 100, aon _ NX 80] § 20] 2 7 = 70 a 2 5 6 = 00 zs 5 2 60 = 50 = = 2 0 = 40 = £ E20 8 30 5S 2 & 20 6 Water dete <2 2 =. 9 ol Soo 20-80 40-200 020s 08 05 ‘Suction Head, f (em) Volumetric Water Contant, @ Cc) Figure 9.13 Infiltration (wetting) profiles for homogeneous fine unsaturated soil layer with 8 = 0.01 cm: (a) suction head profiles and (b) volumetric ‘water content profiles (Srivastava and Yeh, 1991; modified by permission of the American Geophysical Union). Ground Surface 2010 5 4_t=oh Ree 80F 100 80 70 60 50 4a| 30 Distance from Water Table, z (em) 20F 10] Water Table = 0} Soo 80 60 ~40 20 0 Suction Head, h (em) Figure 9.14 Drainage (drying) profiles of suction head for homogeneous fine unsat- trated soil layer with B = 0.01 cm™ (Srivastava and Yeh, 1991; modified by permis- sion of the American Geophysical Union).9.3. TRANSIENT SUCTION AND MOISTURE PROFILES: 393 0.9 He or = os \ sas 3 os 3 Ena 03 oo a ie aa ee ase Figure 9.15 Outflow at water table during wetting process for soil 1 (coarse) and soil 2 (fine) (Srivastava and Yeh, 191; modified by permission of the American Geo- physical Union), main geometry, soil heterogeneity, and the nonlinear hydrologic properties of the soil (c.g., the soil-water characteristic curve and the hydraulic conductivity function). Developing numerical methods that can account for these inherent complexities in typical settings for practical flow problems has been the sub- ject of intense research over the past 30 years in the fields of hydrology, soil science, and environmental and geotechnical engineering. The most common modeling approaches include methods based on finite differences, finite ele- ments, and integrated finite differences. An extensive list of computer soft- ware available for numerical flow modeling applications can be found in Tindall and Kunkel (1999), An example modeling application is described here to illustrate the flexi- bility that numerical methods can offer in dealing with complicated boundary conditions for unsaturated Auid flow applications. An integrated finite- difference method (Pruess, 1991) is used to simulate vertical transient fluid flow following a sudden precipitation event in a 12-m-thick, one-dimensional deposit of alluvium overlying a fractured rock layer. The example, which was originally developed to model deep infiltration processes at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, during the 1998 E] Nifio year (Lu and LeCain, 2003), illustrates the large scales in both time and space typically involved in practical transient unsaturated fluid flow problems, ‘The soil deposit under consideration is a clayey soil with hydrologic func- tions described by the van Genuchten (1980) model (Chapter 12), The soil- water characteristic curve is described in terms of effective water content @ or effective degree of saturation S, as394 TRANSIENT FLOWS: 2 as 0-8, [; + a oe) where specific parameters for the soil under consideration are as follows: « = 0.2 kPa"!, n = 1.3, and m = 0.231. The saturated volumetric water content 4. The hydraulic conductivity function for the soil may be written in terms of relative hydraulic conductivity &,,, using these parameters as follows: Ke = S201 = (1 = Steyn (9.36b) Results from the numerical analysis are shown in Fig. 9.16. Steady-state profiles for effective degree of saturation were initially modeled for a steady infiltration rate of 20 mm/year (labeled February 7, 1998). To simulate a sudden precipitation event, a total flux of 1000 mm was then allowed to percolate into the soil uniformly in time between February 7, 1998, and Feb- ruary 21, 1998. As shown in the results, the sudden precipitation event causes the wetting front to propagate downward toward the underlying fractured rock. By February 14, 1998, the effective degree of saturation in the upper 3 m of the deposit has reached 93%. By March 21, 1998, the wetting front has reached the bottom of the alluvium layer (12 m from the ground surface) and Initration: Prior o 02/07/4998 = 20 mmiyr (2 (02/07/1996 - 02/21/1896 = 1000 mm total inftraton Aiter 02/21/1988 = 20 mm/yr Etfective Degree of Saturation, Se GwoundSwiace (0304 8 08) OF) 085) 08 19 2 c2m7/908. 24/1996. 2121/1998. 4+ oayearig9e. é 03/07/1998. a 0321/1998- Alluvium 5° teenies a 10/03/1988 8 10 SS Fractured Rock Figure 9.16 Effective degree of saturation profiles modeled using integrated finite- difference method for 12-m-thick alluvium deposit, Saturation profiles show effect of a sudden precipitation event at surface simulated during 1998 El Niflo year (Lu and LeCain, 2003),8.3 TRANSIENT SUCTION AND MOISTURE PROFILES 395 has started to drain into the underlying fractured rock layer, Note also that by this time the soil located near the ground surface has started to drain back toward the original steady-state condition, requiring another 11 months before the original condition is approached (February 6, 1999). Figure 9.17 shows results of an alternative simulation where, prior to the major precipitation event occurring between February 7, 1998, and February 21, 1998, an additional total flux of 200 mm was simulated during the month of December 1997. Here, the first precipitation event causes the effective degree of saturation to inerease to about 68% in the upper 4 m of the alluvium Because the first event “prewets" the soil and thus increases its hydraulic conductivity, the wetting front following the major precipitation event prop- gates to a much greater depth than for the previous simulation, Numerical solutions of transient unsaturated flow problems using tech- niques of finite elements, finite differences, and integrated finite diflerences are becoming common practice in unsaturated soil mechanics and hydrology. The recent shift from analytical to numerical techniques is due to several advantages the numerical methods offer: (1) flexibility in dealing with bound- ary and initial conditions, (2) capability to deal with complex geometry, and (3) ease in implementing various mathematical models for capturing the non- linear soil hydrologic properties. Nevertheless, numerical solutions are most Suitable for specific problems, In the process of better representing the prob- Prior to 12/06/1897 = 20 mye Infitration: 12/06/1987 - 12/31/1987 = 200 mm total infiltration oe 12/31/1997 - 02/07/1998 = 20 mmiyr 02/07/1998 - 02/21/1998 = 1000 mm total infiltration Aller 02/21/1808 = 20 mnvyr Etlective Degree of Saturation, Sp Groundsumace 03 04 08 06 07 08 os 10 = ° 2 1208ng0r. o1v/i088 0207/1998- 4} oartaniocs Ef mpuross = | oxzerises Allwium gf 0226/1998 & _f osaross. 8} cs~ericea 10/03/1998. 10 | 0206/1998. 12 Fractured Rock = a igure 9.17 Effective degree of saturation profiles modeled using integrated finite: difference method for 12-m-thick alluvium deposit. Saturation profiles show effects of vo separated precipitation events simulated during 1998 El Nifio year (Lu and LeCain, 2003).396 TRANSIENT FLOWS Jem geometry and the initial and boundary conditions, as well as unsaturated soil characteristic functions, the generality of the solution is often diminished or lost. In many cases, analytical solutions provide more general and insight- ful information related 10 the flow phenomena and their controlling parameters. 9.4 PRINCIPLES FOR PORE GAS FLOW 9.4.1 Principle of Mass Conservation for Compressible Gas. ‘The governing equation for continuous gas flow in soil can be derived by applying the principle of mass conservation, which states that for a given elemental volume the rate of gain or loss of gas is conservative and is equal to the net flux of inflow and outflow. The mass conservation equation for pore airfiow in unsaturated soil can be expressed as ano. = (9.37) a a a jy (Pals) x (0.0,) — 32 (0.2) = where n, is the air-filled porosity, p, is the density of air, and v,, v,, and v, are the components of flow velocity in the x-, y-, and z-coordinate directions, respectively. For perfectly dry soil, the air-filled porosity n, is equal to the total porosity n. For saturated soil, the air-filled porosity is equal to zero. For most practical problems where the airflow velocity is relatively small and within the laminar flow regime, the flow velocities can be effectively described by Darcy's law as K, i, wax + nt) 0:38) where K,, K,, and K, are intrinsic permeability (m2) in the x, y, and z diree- tions, respectively, y is the viscosity of air (kg/m +s or N+ s/m?), and u, is air pressure (kPa). The second term in the z-coordinate direction reflects the contribution of gravitational acceleration g (m/s?) to the total air pressure. Assuming that pore air can be considered an ideal gas, air density can be expressed as (9.39) we R where o, is the molecular mass of air (kg/mol), R is the universal gas constant (/mol - K), and T is absolute temperature (K). Substituting eqs. (9.38) and (9.39) into eq, (9.37) leads to