Article

School Psychology International

2015, Vol. 36(4) 410–427
Indian adolescents’ cyber ! The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/0143034315584696

and cultural values: spi.sagepub.com

The moderation of
peer attachment
Michelle F. Wright
Masaryk University, Czech Republic

Shanmukh V. Kamble
Karnatak University, India

Shruti P. Soudi
Karnatak University, India

Abstract
Although research on cyberbullying and cyber aggression is growing, little attention has
been given to examinations of these behaviors among adolescents in Asian countries,
particularly in India. The present study examined the relationships among cyber aggres-
sion involvement and cultural values (i.e. individualism, collectivism), along with peer
attachment as a moderator in these associations, while controlling for gender and face-
to-face aggression involvement. Participants were 480 adolescents (ages 13- to
15-years-old) from India. Findings revealed that individualism and collectivism were
related positively to peer attachment. In addition, individualism was associated positively
with cyber aggression perpetration and cyber victimization, whereas these relationships
were negative for collectivism. Peer attachment was related negatively to cyber aggres-
sion involvement. At lower levels of peer attachment, the association between cyber
aggression perpetration and individualism was stronger. In contrast, the relationships
between cyber aggression involvement (i.e. perpetration, victimization) and collectivism
were more negative at higher levels of peer attachment. These results are discussed in
the context of cultural values and peer attachment, and recommendations are given for
future research and for school personnel in India.

Corresponding author:
Michelle F. Wright, Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University, Joštova 218/10, 60200 Brno, Czech
Republic.
Email: michelle.wright@mail.muni.cz

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Wright et al. 411

Keywords
Adolescents, collectivism, cultural values, cyber aggression, cyber victimization,
cyberbullying, India, individualism, peer attachment

Many adolescents do not remember a world without access to digital technologies

and the internet. Technology has benefited adolescents in various ways, including
having almost instantaneous connections with their friends and families as well as
having a wealth of information at their fingertips. The usage of technologies and
the internet has not been without consequences. One consequence of adolescents’
technology usage is cyber aggression. This study utilizes the terminology of cyber
aggression, instead of cyberbullying. Cyber aggression encompasses a variety of
intentionally harmful behaviors, including verbal assaults, spreading rumors, send-
ing nasty messages, hacking someone’s online accounts, and impersonating some-
one else in an effort to get others to dislike this person (Grigg, 2010). Directed
toward others who find such behaviors unwanted and offensive, these behaviors
occur through social networking sites, text messages, email, instant messaging,
blogging sites, and discussion boards. In comparison to cyberbullying, cyber
aggression is a broader form of negative online behaviors, and these behaviors
do not have to be repetitive or include an imbalance of power, which are central
to the traditional definitions of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Another
difference between cyber aggression and cyberbullying is that cyber aggression
also includes behaviors which do not have a face-to-face equivalent, like hacking
someone’s online accounts. Although some researchers measure cyber aggression
in their articles, many utilize the terminologies of cyberbullying and cyber aggres-
sion interchangeably or include cyberbullying as the only terminology.
Research on cyberbullying and cyber aggression is burgeoning, with many inves-
tigations aimed at understanding the risk and protective factors associated with
adolescents’ involvement in these behaviors (Ang & Goh, 2010; Bauman, 2010;
Fanti, Demetriou, & Hawa, 2012; Patchin & Hinduja, 2011; Pornari & Wood,
2010; Sontag, Clemans, Graber, & Lyndon, 2011; Topcu & Erder-Baker, 2012;
Wright & Li, 2013). Peer attachment is one variable that has been examined in
association with cyberbullying involvement, and it has been identified as serving
either as a risk or mitigating factor, depending on adolescents’ endorsement of low
or high levels of peer attachment (Burton, Florell, & Wygant, 2013). Some research
on cyberbullying and cyber aggression involvement has been conducted in coun-
tries other than the United States and Europe, revealing these behaviors as a global
concern. However, research is still lacking in other countries, such as India, and it is
also unclear whether peer attachment and cultural values might have a role in
Indian adolescents’ involvement in aggressive acts through the cyber context. To
this end, the aim of the present study was to examine the associations among
cultural values (i.e. individualism, collectivism), peer attachment, and Indian ado-
lescents’ cyber aggression involvement. Another goal was to investigate the

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412 School Psychology International 36(4)

moderation of peer attachment in the relationships among cultural values and

cyber aggression involvement.

Cyber aggression and cultural values

Previous research has focused on classifying the types of cyberbullying and cyber
aggressive behaviors and understanding the frequency rates of these behaviors. The
most current research has focused extensively on the predictors and consequences
associated with adolescents’ involvement in cyberbullying and cyber aggression.
This literature has identified face-to-face aggression (i.e. an intentionally harmful
action directed to another person that does not occur online or through text
messages; Anderson & Bushman, 2002), face-to-face victimization, and cyber vic-
timization as factors associated with cyberbullying and cyber aggression perpetra-
tion (Bauman, 2010; Patchin & Hinduja, 2011; Pornari & Wood, 2010; Sontag
et al., 2011; Topcu & Erder-Baker, 2012; Wright & Li, 2013). Other research has
focused on the role of peer rejection, a lack of empathy, peer status, and narcissism
in adolescents’ cyberbullying and cyber aggression perpetration (Ang & Goh, 2010;
Fanti et al., 2012; Wright & Li, 2013). Gender is another extensively examined
variable of interest when investigating cyberbullying and cyber aggression.
However, research findings on gender in relation to cyberbullying and cyber
aggression involvement are mixed. For instance, some researchers have found
that boys were more likely to perpetrate and be victims of these behaviors (Ang
& Goh, 2010; Erdur-Baker, 2010; Huang & Chou, 2010; Li, 2006; Wang, Iannoti,
& Luk, 2012). On the other hand, other researchers have found that girls were more
likely to experience and engage in cyberbullying and cyber aggression (Bauman,
Toomey, & Walker, 2013; Rivers & Noret, 2010). Yet some researchers have found
no gender differences in cyberbullying and cyber aggression perpetration and vic-
timization (Gradinger, Strohmeier, & Spiel, 2009; Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007;
Wright & Li, 2013). Therefore, gender might be an inconsistent predictor of ado-
lescents’ involvement in cyberbullying and cyber aggression.
Researchers argue that more research should be conducted on adolescents’
cyberbullying and cyber aggression involvement as these behaviors relate to depres-
sion, anxiety, loneliness, and suicidal ideation (Campbell, Spears, Slee, Bulter, &
Kift, 2012; Kowalski & Limber, 2013; Schenk, Fremouw, & Keelan, 2013). Studies
also reveal that cyberbullying and cyber aggression are often perpetrated by ado-
lescents’ peers at their school (Hinduja & Patchin, 2013; Wright, 2014). As a result
of this research, researchers began to examine the effects of adolescents’ involve-
ment in these behaviors on academic performance. This research suggests that
adolescents’ involvement in cyberbullying and cyber aggression are linked to
poor academic performance, increased school absences, and truancy (Beran &
Li, 2007; Huang & Chou, 2010; Katzer, Fetchenhauer, & Belschak, 2009;
Ybarra, Diener-West, & Leaf, 2007).
As more researchers in various countries examine cyberbullying and cyber
aggression involvement, it is becoming clear that these behaviors are a global

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Wright et al. 413

phenomenon, not localized to one region of the world. Cyberbullying and cyber
aggression involvement occur in Cyprus, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Turkey, and the
United Kingdom (Brighi, Guarini, Melotti, Galli, & Genta, 2012; Fanti et al., 2012;
Katzer et al., 2009; Laftman, Modin, & Ostberg, 2013; Topcu & Erder-Baker,
2012). Though slower to develop than research in Europe, some attention has
been given to cyberbullying and cyber aggression involvement in Asia. This
research reveals that these behaviors and experiences are also prevalent among
adolescents from China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan (Huang & Chou,
2010; Jang, Song, & Kim, 2014; Kwan & Skoric, 2013; Zhou, Tang, Tian, Wei,
Zhang, & Morrison, 2013). In some Asian countries, cyberbullying and cyber
aggression research has been slower to develop. One such country is India.
Investigations of cyberbullying and cyber aggression involvement in India are
imperative as this country ranks as number three in the world in terms of internet
usage (Internet Live Stats, 2015). Understanding levels of internet consumption is
important as access to the internet is a risk factor related to cyberbullying and
cyber aggression involvement (Park, Na, & Kim, 2014; Wright & Li, 2013). In
Karnataka, a southern state in India, the spoken language is Kannada. The
word for bullying is peedisi oppisu. Cyber nidane is the word for cyberbullying.
In one of the few studies conducted on cyber aggression involvement in India, the
researchers found that adolescents from India had higher rates of cyber aggression
perpetration and cyber victimization than adolescents from China and Japan
(Wright et al., 2015). Other research on negative online behaviors in India has
focused on cyber gender harassment, a form of cyber harassment involving similar
behaviors as cyber aggression, except these behaviors target female adults (Halder
& Jaishankar, 2011). Findings from this research reveal that online negative beha-
viors do occur among adults in India. The sparse research on adolescents’ cyber-
bullying and cyber aggression in India as well as their high levels of internet usage
indicates that more research should be conducted on understanding these behaviors
among adolescents in this country. Although little attention has been given to
cyberbullying and cyber aggression involvement among Indian adolescents, numer-
ous studies have documented face-to-face aggression and bullying involvement
among this population (Bowker, Ostrov, & Raja, 2012; Narayanan & Betts,
2014; Correia, Kamble, & Dalbert, 2009). Furthermore, research indicates that
cyber aggression involvement is linked to face-to-face aggression involvement,
suggesting overlaps between adolescents’ experiences with these behaviors
(Bauman, 2010; Patchin & Hinduja, 2011; Pornari & Wood, 2010; Sontag et al.,
2011; Topcu & Erder-Baker, 2012; Wright & Li, 2013). Such findings further
underscore the importance of investigating Indian adolescents’ involvement in
cyber aggression.
Cultural values, such as individualism and collectivism, are variables which have
not received much attention in relation to cyber aggression involvement.
Collectivistic countries prime and reinforce people for behaving consistently with
an interdependent sense of self-construal, and these countries include China and
Japan (Singelis, 1994). On the other hand, individualistic countries (e.g. the

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414 School Psychology International 36(4)

United States) emphasize an independent self-construal. India is considered both a

collectivistic and an individualistic country. Group values, family orientation, and
self-identity permeate Indian cultural values (Banerjee, 2008). Individual achieve-
ments are also important and these are typically considered in relation to family
and societal achievements. Furthermore, identity is not separate from the group as
individuals are socialized to also receive input from their culture (Dev & Babu,
2007). Life in India also includes the interplay of high power distance and social
hierarchy, along with materialism (D’Cruz, 2012). Each of these contributes to the
complexity of interactions in Indian society. In the literature on face-to-face aggres-
sion, adolescents’ involvement in these behaviors is linked positively to individu-
alism, whereas collectivism usually has a negative relationship with face-to-face
aggression involvement (Huang, Hong, & Espelage, 2013; Menzer & Torney-
Purta, 2012; Nesdale & Naito, 2005). It is unclear whether similar patterns
would be found among Indian adolescents, considering that their culture endorses
both collectivistic and individualistic cultural values.

Cyber aggression and peer attachment

Because research on cyber aggression involvement suggests that many victims
experience these behaviors perpetrated by a known peer at their school, researchers
have begun to examine the role of peer attachment in adolescents’ involvement in
cyber aggression (Hinduja & Patchin, 2013; Wright, 2014). Like attachment to
caregivers, peer attachment represents adolescents’ internal representation of the
knowledge concerning whether their peers will be there for them, with high peer
attachment indicating that adolescents know that their peers will be available and
responsive to them when needed (Nickerson & Nagle, 2005). Adolescents with
higher rates of victimization and those who bully others are more likely to perceive
their peer relationships as poor, given the high likelihood that these adolescents will
be less integrated within the peer group (DeMonchy, Pijl, & Zandberg, 2004). When
adolescents hold higher peer attachment, they are likely to be more sympathetic
toward their peers, and engage in less delinquency and aggression (Laible, Carlo,
& Raffaelli, 2000). These adolescents are also unlikely to perpetrate face-to-face
bullying and to be the targets of victimization (Burton et al., 2013). Examinations
of peer attachment have occurred in other countries, but it is less frequently
researched in Asian countries. In one of these few studies, Yang, Cai, and He
(2010) found that Chinese adolescents’ poor attachment related positively to aggres-
sion and delinquency, suggesting similar findings as those found in the United States.
However, it is unclear whether similar patterns would be found in India, and if
cultural values might have a role in these adolescents’ peer attachment.

Present study
There were two major goals of the present study. For the first, we examined the
relationships among Indian adolescents’ cultural values (i.e. individualism,

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Wright et al. 415

collectivism), peer attachment, cyber aggression perpetration, and cyber victimiza-

tion. The second goal investigated the moderating effect of peer attachment on the
relationships between cultural values and cyber aggression involvement. Gender
and face-to-face aggression involvement (i.e. perpetration, victimization) were
included as covariates. The following research questions were generated for this
study:

1. What is the relationship between individualism and peer attachment?

2. What is the relationship between collectivism and peer attachment?
3. What is the relationship between individualism and cyber aggression involve-
ment (i.e. perpetration, victimization)?
4. What is the relationship between collectivism and cyber aggression involvement?
5. What moderating effect will peer attachment have on the relationship between
individualism and cyber aggression involvement?
6. What moderating effect will peer attachment have on the relationship between
collectivism and cyber aggression involvement?

Method
Participants
Participants were 480 adolescents from India (53.3% boys), with ages ranging from
13- to 15-years-old. They were from six private schools in the Karnataka state of
India. Students were from predominantly middle socioeconomic backgrounds.
Data collection began in October of 2013, and it was completed in November of
2013. The Indian school system begins in late May and students stay in the same
classroom throughout the whole school day. All schools were English primary
schools in which all lessons are taught in English. In order to keep consistent
with students’ lessons, the questionnaires were administered in English and not
Kannada, the language spoken in the Karnataka state.

Procedure and measures

Prior to school recruitment, the study was approved by the IRB from the authors’
universities. Eight private schools were initially contacted for recruitment by send-
ing an email to the school principals. The email described the purpose of the study,
how students could participate, and what they would be expected to do. Two out of
the eight private schools failed to respond to the initial email. After the six school
principals expressed an interest in the study, a meeting was set up with school
principals and teachers to discuss the study in more detail. All school principals
and teachers agreed to allow their students to participate in the study. On the same
day of the meeting, consent documents were sent home with adolescents, and these
were returned to their teachers within the next week. There were 513 parental
permission slips passed out and, of these, six parents did not provide consent

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416 School Psychology International 36(4)

while 480 parents provided consent for their child’s participation in the study. The
adolescents included in this study were those who had parental permission. Data
were collected on separate days at each of the six schools. Each school was allotted
an additional day for students who were absent or unavailable on the day of data
collection. Assent was obtained from adolescents before they participated in the
study. All adolescents agreed to participate. The data for this study is from a larger
study on the psychosocial development of adolescents from various countries
around the world. The major focus of the larger study is to understand how con-
textual factors influence adolescents’ involvement in face-to-face and cyber aggres-
sion. For this current study, adolescents completed questionnaires on their cyber
aggression involvement, face-to-face aggression involvement, cultural values, and
peer attachment.

Cyber aggression involvement. This questionnaire included 18 items used to assess how
often adolescents perpetrated cyber aggression (nine items; e.g. how often do you
spread bad rumors about another peer online or through text messages) and/or
were victimized by cyber aggression (nine items: e.g. how often does a peer spread
bad rumors about you online or through text messages; Wright, 2014). At the
beginning of the questionnaire, adolescents were asked to consider any behavior
described in the items as occurring within the current school year. Items were rated
on a scale of 1 (Never) to 5 (All of the Time). Cronbach’s alphas were acceptable
for both subscales (0.83 for cyber aggression perpetration; 0.81 for cyber victimiza-
tion). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed that these items had significant
factor loadings for both subscales (ps < 0.001).

Face-to-face aggression involvement. Adolescents completed this questionnaire con-

cerning how often they perpetrated face-to-face aggression (e.g. how often do
you tell a peer that you will not like him or her unless he or she does what you
want) and how often they were victimized by face-to-face aggression (e.g. how
often does a peer say they won’t like you unless you do what he or she wants
you to do; Wright, Li, & Shi, 2014). Adolescents were asked to consider the
behaviors described in the items as occurring within the current school year.
The 18 items (nine per subscale) were rated on a scale of 1 (Never) to 5 (All of
the Time). The two subscales demonstrated adequate reliability, with Cronbach’s
alphas of 0.80 for both subscales. All factor loadings for each subscale were
significant (ps < 0.001).

Cultural values. For this questionnaire, adolescents were asked about their endorse-
ment of individualism and collectivism (Li, Wang, Wang, & Shi, 2010). Li and
colleagues adapted this questionnaire from the Horizontal and Vertical
Individualism and Collectivism measure (Triandis & Gelfand, 1998) by changing
items to make them more suitable for adolescents (e.g. ‘It is important that I do my
work better than others’ was changed to ‘It is important that I do my schoolwork
better than others’). There were a total of 16 items included in this questionnaire,

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Wright et al. 417

with eight for individualism (e.g. ‘Winning is everything’) and eight for collectivism
(e.g. ‘Family members should stick together, no matter what sacrifices are
required’). All items were rated on a scale of 1 (Absolutely disagree) to 9
(Absolutely agree). The subscales had adequate reliability ( ¼ 0.86 for individual-
ism;  ¼ 0.81 for collectivism). Significant factor loadings (ps < 0.001) were found
for each subscale.

Peer attachment. Adolescents rated their perceptions of the positive and negative
dimensions of their peer relationships, using the peer attachment subscale from the
Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment questionnaire (Armsden & Greenberg,
1987). They rated 25 items on a scale of 1 (All Never or Never True) to 5 (Almost
Always or Always True). Cronbach’s alpha was 0.83 for this questionnaire, and
CFA revealed significant factor loadings (ps < 0.001).

Results
Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that all constructs were well measured
with significant factor loadings (2 ¼ 203.79, df ¼ 44, p < 0.001, CFI ¼ 0.85,
TLI ¼ 0.81, RMSEA ¼ 0.11, SRMR ¼ 0.07). Correlations were conducted on
the scaled scores for all variables included in this study, and these are displayed
in Table 1. Peer attachment was related positively to both individualism and
collectivism, but it was associated negatively with face-to-face and cyber
aggression involvement. Individualism was linked positively to collectivism,
and face-to-face and cyber aggression perpetration. Face-to-face and cyber vic-
timization were not associated with individualism. On the other hand, collecti-
vism was related negatively to face-to-face and cyber aggression involvement.

Table 1. Correlations among peer attachment, individualism, collectivism, cyber aggression

involvement, and face-to-face aggression involvement.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Peer attachment –
2. Individualism 0.25*** –
3. Collectivism 0.31*** 0.73*** –
4. Cyber aggression perpetration 0.23*** 0.13** 0.16*** –
5. Cyber victimization 0.24*** 0.04 0.19** 0.67*** –
6. Face-to-face aggression perpetration 0.20*** 0.20*** 0.21*** 0.11* 0.23*** –
7. Face-to-face aggression victimization 0.31*** 0.07 0.20*** 0.14** 0.13** 0.31*** –
M (SD) 3.74 6.14 6.42 1.97 1.92 2.81 2.93
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

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418 School Psychology International 36(4)

Face-to-face and cyber aggression involvement were also associated positively

with each other.
To test the hypotheses, a structural model was created with gender and face-
to-face aggression involvement (i.e. perpetration, victimization) as covariates by
allowing these variables to predict cyber aggression perpetration and cyber victi-
mization (using Mplus 6.12). Paths were specified from peer attachment to indivi-
dualism and collectivism, and from peer attachment to cyber aggression
involvement. Two other paths were added from individualism to cyber aggression
involvement and from collectivism to cyber aggression involvement. Interactions
were also included between individualism and peer attachment, and collectivism
and peer attachment. The model demonstrated adequate fit, 2 ¼ 1665.09,
df ¼ 1077, p < 0.001, CFI ¼ 0.93, TLI ¼ 0.93, RMSEA ¼ 0.04, SRMR ¼ 0.05 (see
Figure 1). Peer attachment was related positively to both individualism ( ¼ 0.29,
p < 0.001) and collectivism ( ¼ 0.36, p < 0.001). However, peer attachment was
associated negatively with cyber aggression perpetration ( ¼ 0.18, p < 0.01)
and cyber victimization ( ¼ 0.18, p < 0.01). Individualism was linked positively
to cyber aggression involvement, both perpetration ( ¼ 0.42, p < 0.01) and victi-
mization ( ¼ 0.40, p < 0.01), whereas collectivism was related negatively to these
variables ( ¼ 0.36, p < 0.001 for cyber aggression perpetration;  ¼ 0.28,
p < 0.001 for cyber aggression victimization). Although gender was included as a
covariate and is not a focus of this study, there were some gender differences worth
noting. Boys engaged in more cyber aggression perpetration ( ¼ 0.12, p < 0.05)
and they were victimized more by cyber aggression ( ¼ 0.12, p < 0.05) when com-
pared to girls. Girls had higher peer attachment than boys ( ¼ 0.20, p < 0.001).

Figure 1. Structural equation model for individualism, collectivism, peer attachment, and
cyber aggression involvement.
Note: Gender, face-to-face aggression perpetration, and face-to-face victimization were included as covariates.
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

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Wright et al. 419

Figure 2. Interaction between individualism and peer attachment when predicting cyber
aggression perpetration.
Note: Gender, face-to-face aggression perpetration, and face-to-face victimization were included as covariates.
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

No gender differences were found for individualism, but girls endorsed more col-
lectivism than boys ( ¼ 0.18, p < 0.001). Face-to-face aggression perpetration
was related positively to cyber aggression perpetration ( ¼ 0.19, p < 0.01) and
cyber victimization ( ¼ 0.10, p < 0.05). In addition, face-to-face victimization
was linked positively to cyber aggression perpetration ( ¼ 0.12, p < 0.05) and
cyber victimization ( ¼ 0.21, p < 0.001).
For cyber aggression perpetration, the interaction between individualism and
peer attachment was significant (see Figure 2). Probing the interaction further with
the Interaction program revealed that at lower levels of peer attachment, the rela-
tionship between individualism and cyber aggression perpetration was more posi-
tive (simple slope: B ¼ 0.07, SE ¼ 0.02, p < 0.05 at 1 SD; B ¼ 0.02, SE ¼ 0.01,
p < n.s. at the mean; B ¼ 0.01, SE ¼ 0.02, p < n.s. at +1 SD). In addition, the asso-
ciation between collectivism and cyber aggression perpetration was more negative
at higher levels of peer attachment (simple slope: B ¼ 0.05, SE ¼ 0.02, p < 0.001 at
+1 SD; B ¼ 0.03, SE ¼ 0.01, p < n.s. at the mean; B ¼ 0.01, SE ¼ 0.01, p < n.s. at
1 SD; see Figure 3). For cyber victimization, at higher levels of peer attachment,
the relationship between collectivism and cyber victimization was more negative
(simple slope: B ¼ 0.04, SE ¼ 0.02, p < 0.05 at +1 SD; B ¼ 0.02, SE ¼ 0.01,
p < n.s. at the mean; B ¼ 0.01, SE ¼ 0.02, p < n.s. at 1 SD; see Figure 4)

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420 School Psychology International 36(4)

Figure 3. Interaction between collectivism and peer attachment when predicting cyber
aggression perpetration.
Note: Gender, face-to-face aggression perpetration, and face-to-face victimization were included as covariates.
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Discussion
This study investigated the influence of cultural values and peer attachment on
cyber aggression involvement among Indian adolescents. Results from the study
suggest that adolescents in India are involved in cyber aggression, further indi-
cating that these behaviors are a global concern. Findings revealed that indivi-
dualism and collectivism were both associated positively with peer attachment.
Such results are supported by the literature, indicating that peer relationships are
important in a variety of countries, including those that endorse individualistic
and collectivistic cultural values (Schwarz et al., 2012). From the correlational
analyses, we did not find that individualism was related to either cyber or face-to-
face victimization, which is consistent with Bergmüller’s (2013) findings concern-
ing face-to-face victimization. In addition, these findings also extend the previous
research on face-to-face aggression and cultural values to the cyber context,
revealing similar associations (Huang et al., 2013; Menzer & Torney-Purta,
2012; Nesdale & Naito, 2005). Like Burton and colleagures’ (2013) findings,
the present study also found that peer attachment was related negatively to
cyber aggression involvement.
The relationships among peer attachment, cultural values, and cyber aggression
perpetration are better understood through the significant two-way interactions.

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Wright et al. 421

Figure 4. Interaction between collectivism and peer attachment when predicting cyber
victimization.
Note: Gender, face-to-face aggression perpetration, and face-to-face victimization were included as covariates.
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Probing the first significant two-way interaction between individualism and peer
attachment further revealed that the relationship between cyber aggression perpe-
tration and individualism was more positive at lower levels of peer attachment.
This finding might suggest that low levels of peer attachment are a risk factor
associated with cyber aggression perpetration, especially when adolescents also
endorse individualism. Such a result is potentially supported by the literature as
both individualism and poor peer attachment are indicative of face-to-face aggres-
sion perpetration (Burton et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2013). Thus, some Indian
adolescents are at risk for cyber aggression perpetration because they endorse
both individualism and lower peer attachment. It was also expected that the inter-
action between individualism and poor peer attachment would be found for cyber
victimization as well. However, findings from this study did not support this asso-
ciation. More research should be conducted on this topic to further understand the
complex relationships among individualism, peer attachment, and cyber
victimization.
There were also significant relationships found between high peer attachment
and collectivism when predicting cyber aggression involvement, both cyber aggres-
sion perpetration and cyber victimization. That is, the associations between collec-
tivism and cyber aggression involvement were more negative at higher levels of peer

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422 School Psychology International 36(4)

attachment. Collectivism and high peer attachment are typically linked to lower
levels of cyberbullying and cyber victimization (Burton et al., 2013; Huang et al.,
2013). Such findings suggest that high peer attachment serves a buffering effect in
these relationships. Furthermore, Huang and colleagues (2013) proposed that an
emphasis on collectivism might reduce the likelihood that Chinese children and
adolescents are involved in face-to-face victimization. This proposal might also
apply to Indian adolescents as they also endorse collectivistic cultural values.
Thus, having higher peer attachment and endorsing collectivism could reduce the
risk of perpetrating and being victimized by cyber aggression among Indian
adolescents.

Future directions and limitations

This study adds to the literature on cyber aggression involvement in other coun-
tries, and fills a much needed gap concerning cyber aggression perpetration and
cyber victimization among Indian adolescents. Despite these important findings,
there are a few limitations which should be noted to advance our understanding of
Indian adolescents’ cyber aggression involvement. First, this study utilized a con-
current research design. Based on this study’s design, it is difficult to understand the
temporal ordering of cyber aggression involvement and peer attachment. This
study examined cyber aggression involvement as an outcome and peer attachment
as a predictor and a moderator variable. It might be just as likely that peer attach-
ment could serve as an outcome variable as well. Therefore, future research should
investigate such relationships through longitudinal designs in which the temporal
ordering of these relationships can be delineated. Another limitation of this
research is that it relied on self-reports of cyber aggression perpetration and
cyber victimization. Follow-up research should be conducted utilizing multiple
informants, such as peers. Research using peer-nominations to assess cyber aggres-
sion perpetrations has found that utilizing peer informants is a valid option when
investigating peer-directed versions of cyber aggression (Wright, 2014; Wright &
Li, 2013). Questionnaires for this study were administered in English because
students attended English primary schools where lessons are taught in English.
Follow-up research should be conducted in the Karnataka state and in other
parts of India to understand more about other adolescents’ experiences with cyber-
bullying and cyber aggression. Such research is important as adolescents in this
study might have unique experiences regarding their involvement in cyber aggres-
sion when compared to adolescents in other non-English language schools.

Conclusions
The present study investigated the role of cultural values and peer attachment in
Indian adolescents’ cyber aggression perpetration and cyber victimization. Another
goal of this research was to examine peer attachment as a moderator in the rela-
tionships among cyber aggression involvement, individualism, and collectivism.

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Wright et al. 423

This study is among a handful of studies to examine cyber aggression involvement

in India as well as one of the few to control for face-to-face aggression involvement
and gender. Controlling for face-to-face aggression involvement and gender is a
methodological improvement and an important methodological consideration for
future research.
Findings from the present study indicate the importance of further investiga-
tions aimed at understanding cyber aggression involvement in India as adolescents’
endorsement of individualism and low levels of peer attachment are risk factors. In
contrast, collectivism and high levels of peer attachment might have mitigating
effects on adolescents’ experience of cyber victimization. This study informs
school personnel in India, who might be concerned with identifying risk factors
associated with adolescents’ cyber aggression involvement. Understanding adoles-
cents’ peer attachment could help identify adolescents at significant risk for cyber
aggression perpetration and/or cyber victimization.

Note
This work was supported by the project ‘Employment of Best Young Scientists for
International Cooperation Empowerment’ (CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0037) co-financed by the
European Social Fund and the state budget of the Czech Republic.

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Author biographies
Michelle F. Wright is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at Masaryk University in the
Czech Republic. Her major research interests include the contextual influences, par-
ticularly cultural and familial, on adolescents’ social behaviors, and their pursuit and
achievement of peer status. For the past several years, she has studied victimization
and aggression through electronic technologies among children, adolescents, and
young adults.

Shanmukh V. Kamble is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at

Karnatak University in India. Shanmukh works in the field of positive psychology.
His research interests are in Just World Beliefs, coping, religion, emotions, bioeth-
ics, values, bullying, and cyberbullying.

Shruti P. Soudi is a Research Scholar in the Department of Psychology at

Karnatak University in India. Shruti’s research aims to understand adolescents’
well-being. Her research interests are in music, well-being, bullying, cyberbullying,
and crying.

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