2020 1

Lecture 1
REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS
Newton's Laws of Motion
1st Law: An object will stay in a state of rest or uniform motion unless acted
on by an external force.
2nd Law: This states that the force produced is proportional to the mass
times the acceleration, and can be written as:

3rd Law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

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 The jet engine causes the air in front of it to be drawn into the intake
and accelerated rearwards via the exhaust. Thus we have "a" in
Newton's second law.
 The air has a mass "m" in the equation F = ma. Thus we have force but it
is in the wrong direction - BACKWARDS.
 Newton's 3rd Law comes into play here - for every action (the backwards
force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (a FORWARD force acting
on the engine). So we have forward thrust.

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Continuity equation

 Continuity equation is true for any steady flow system regardless of

cross-sectional area of the duct.

 In a gas turbine engine the medium used is air, which is compressible.

There must, therefore, be a relationship between the pressure and the
velocity of a gas flowing through a duct or a gas turbine engine.

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 This relationship is stated in Bernoulli's theorem. The theorem states
that : The total energy per unit mass of gas is constant for a fluid moving
inside a duct, and that the total energy consists mainly of pressure
energy and kinetic energy (provided there are no losses).

 As an equation is it written as:

 The first term is the pressure energy.

 The second term is the positional energy or potential energy.
 The third term is the kinetic energy or dynamic pressure energy.
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Pressure Energy
In a gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is called the static pressure and
would be the pressure experienced by a body submerged in the fluid flow
and moving with it at the same velocity.
Kinetic Energy
This energy is called dynamic pressure energy and is created by the extra
pressure caused by the movement of the fluid flow and is proportional to
1
1/2 density x velocity2 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ).
2

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Total Energy
 This energy can be measured as a ram pressure and is usually called the
total head or Pitot pressure (PT) (Henri Pitot, French physicist 1695 -
1771). It is measured by placing a ram tube (Pitot tube) in the fluid flow
which is parallel to the flow and the open end facing the flow.
 A gauge connected to this tube always displays the total head or Pitot
pressure regardless of the rate of flow. Where there is no fluid flow the
static pressure (Ps) and the total head pressure (PT) will be the same.
When there is fluid flow the static pressure (Ps) drops while the total
head pressure (PT) will remain the same.

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 As previously stated a gas can be compressed, and as such, flow at
subsonic speeds causes a change in density as it passes through the
various ducts in the engine.

Compressible Fluid Flow

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The relations between velocity, pressure and temperature

Airflow through divergent and

convergent ducts 9
Airflow at supersonic velocities
 When gas flows faster than the speed of sound (supersonic
velocity) through a convergent duct, a shock wave forms at the exit
area of the duct. This exit area is now considered to be in a choked
condition. The shock wave thus formed, will provide a restriction to
any subsequent increase in gas flow velocity and the following will
apply:-
- Pressure will increase
- Velocity will decrease
- Temperature will increase

 To achieve any further increase in velocity, an additional duct must

be added to the existing convergent one. This needs to be a
divergent duct.

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 The resulting device is called a Con-Di (Convergent-Divergent) nozzle.
The gas released into the divergent section will now have the following
properties.
- Pressure will decrease
- Velocity will increase
- Temperature will decrease
 The change in velocity causes an equal and opposite reaction, which is
felt on the walls of the divergent part of the nozzle. This creates an
increase in thrust, which is normally known as Pressure Thrust.

Con-Di Nozzle
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Flow through a convergent-divergent nozzle
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