Problems and Solutions

Reviewed work(s):
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 119, No. 1 (January 2012), pp. 68-75
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.4169/amer.math.monthly.119.01.068 .
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 PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Edited by Gerald A. Edgar, Doug Hensley, Douglas B. West
with the collaboration of Mike Bennett, Itshak Borosh, Paul Bracken, Ezra A. Brown,
Randall Dougherty, Tamás Erdélyi, Zachary Franco, Christian Friesen, Ira M. Ges-
sel, László Lipták, Frederick W. Luttmann, Vania Mascioni, Frank B. Miles, Richard
Pfiefer, Cecil C. Rousseau, Leonard Smiley, Kenneth Stolarsky, Richard Stong, Walter
Stromquist, Daniel Ullman, Charles Vanden Eynden, Sam Vandervelde, and Fuzhen
Zhang.

Proposed problems and solutions should be sent in duplicate to the MONTHLY

problems address on the back of the title page. Proposed problems should never
be under submission concurrently to more than one journal. Submitted solutions
should arrive before May 31, 2012. Additional information, such as generaliza-
tions and references, is welcome. The problem number and the solver’s name
and address should appear on each solution. An asterisk (*) after the number of
a problem or a part of a problem indicates that no solution is currently available.

PROBLEMS
11614. Proposed by Moubinool Omarjee, Lycée Jean-Lurçat, Paris, France. Let α be
a real number with α > 1, and let {u n }n∈N be a sequence of positive numbers such
P that
limn→∞ u n = 0 and limn→∞ (u n − u n+1 )/u αn exists and is nonzero. Prove that ∞n=1 u n
converges if and only if α < 2.
11615. Proposed by Constantin Mateescu, Zinca Golescu High School, Pitesti, Roma-
nia. Let A, B, and C be the vertices of a triangle, and let K be a point in the plane
distinct from these vertices and the lines connecting them. Let M, N , and P be the
midpoints of BC, C A, and AB, respectively. Let D, E, and F be the intersections of
the lines through M K and N P, N K and P M, and P K and M N , respectively. Prove
that the parallels from D, E, and F to AK , B K , and C K , respectively, are concurrent.
11616. Proposed by Stefano Siboni, University of Trento, Trento, Italy. Let x1 , . . . , xn
be distinct points in R3 , and let k1 , . . . , kn be positive real numbers. A test object at x
is attracted to each of x1 , . . . , xn with a force along the line from x to x j of magnitude
k j kx − x j k2 , where kuk denotes the usual euclidean norm of u. Show that when n ≥ 2
there is a unique point x ∗ at which the net force on the test object is zero.
11617. Proposed by Greg Oman, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, Col-
orado Springs, CO. Let C be the ring of continuous functions on R, equipped with
pointwise addition and pointwise multiplication. Let D be the ring of differentiable
functions on R, equipped with the same addition and multiplication. The ring identity
in both cases is the function f 1 on R that sends every real number to 1. Is there a
subring E of D, containing f 1 , that is isomorphic to C? (The ring isomorphism must
carry f 1 to f 1 .)
11618. Proposed by Pál Péter Dályay, Szeged, Hungary. Let a, b, c, and d be real
numbers such that a < c < d < b and b − a = 2(d − c). Let S be the set of twice-
differentiable functions from [a, b] to R with continuous second derivative such that
http://dx.doi.org/10.4169/amer.math.monthly.119.01.068

68 c THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 119

 Rb
f (c) = f (d) = 0 and x=a f (x) d x 6 = 0. Let p be a real number with p > 1. Show
that the map φ from S to R given by
R b 00
| f (x)| p d x
φ( f ) = aR p
 b
f (x) d x

 a 

attains a minimum on S, and find that minimum in terms of p, a, b, c, d.

11619. Proposed by Christopher Hillar, Mathematical Research Sciences Institute,
Berkeley, CA. Given an n × n complex matrix A, its field of values F (A) is given
by
F (A) = {x ∗ Ax : x ∗ x = 1} .
(Here, x ∗ is the conjugate transpose of x.) Call a matrix A completely invertible if 0
is not an element of F (A). Prove that if A is completely invertible then A−1 is also
completely invertible.
11620. Proposed by Mathew Rogers, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada. Let
2 k 2
Hk be the kth Hermite polynomial, given by Hk (x) = (−1)k e x ddx k e−x . Suppose
   1 1
··· 1  1 
1 ρ1 +ρ1 ρ1 +ρ2 ρ1 +ρ M ρ1
1 1 1 1
1  ρ2 +ρ1 ρ2 +ρ2
··· ρ2 +ρ M
 
ρ2
. =   . ,
 ... .. .. ..
 
 ..   .   .. 
. .
1 1 1 1 1
ρ M +ρ1 ρ M +ρ2
··· ρ M +ρ M ρM

where ρ1 , . . . , ρ M are complex numbers for which k=1 1/ρk > 0. Prove that each ρk
PM
is a root of the equation
√
HM (i x) − i 2M HM−1 (i x) = 0.

SOLUTIONS

Steiner–Lehmus Theorem
11511 [2010, 558]. Proposed by Retkes Zoltan, Szeged, Hungary. For a triangle ABC,
let f A denote the distance from A to the intersection of the line bisecting angle B AC
with edge BC, and define f B and f C similarly. Prove that ABC is equilateral if and
only if f A = f B = f C .
Solution by H. T. Tang, Hayward, CA. The “only if” part is clear. The “if” part fol-
lows from the Steiner–Lehmus Theorem: If the bisectors of the base angles of a tri-
angle are equal, then the triangle is isosceles. This problem was proposed in 1840 by
D. C. Lehmus (1780–1863) to Jacob Steiner (1796–1863). For a proof of the Steiner–
Lehmus Theorem, see for example N. Altschiller-Court, College Geometry (Johnson
Pub. Co., Richmond, VA, 1925), p. 72–73; or L. S. Shiveley, An Introduction to Mod-
ern Geometry (Wiley & Sons, New York, 1884), p. 141.
Also solved by R. Bagby, M. Bataille (France), D. Beckwith, P. Budney, M. Can, R. Chapman (U. K.), R.
Cheplyaka & V. Lucic & L. Pebody, J. E. Cooper III, C. Curtis, P. P. Dályay (Hungary), P. De (India), M. J.
Englefield (Australia), D. Fleischman, V. V. Garcı́a (Spain), J. Grivaux (France), E. A. Herman, L. Herot,

January 2012] PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 69

J. W. Kang (Korea), I. E. Leonard (Canada), J. H. Lindsey II, O. P. Lossers (Netherlands), R. E. Prather, J.
Schaer (Canada), J. Simons (U. K.), S. Song (Korea), R. Stong, M. Tetiva (Romania), M. Vowe (Switzerland),
S. V. Witt, Ellington Management Problem Solving Group, Szeged Problem Solving Group “Fejéntaláltuka”
(Hungary), GCHQ Problem Solving Group (U. K.), Mathramz Problem Solving Group, and the proposer.

Special Points on the Sphere

11521 [2010, 550]. Proposed by Marius Cavachi, “Ovidius” University of Constanta,
Constanta, Romania. Let n be a positive integer and let A1 , . . . , An , B1 , . . . , Bn ,
C1 , . . . , Cn be points on the unit two-dimensional sphere S2 . Let d(X, Y ) denote the
geodesic distance on the sphere from X to Y , and let e(X, Y ) be the Euclidean distance
across the chord from X to Y . Show Pnthat
d(P, Ai ) = Pi=1 d(P, Bi ) = i=1 d(P, Ci ).
Pn Pn
(a) There exists P ∈ S2 such that Pi=1
(b) There exists Q ∈ S2 such that i=1 n
e(Q, Ai ) = i=1 n
e(Q, Bi ).
(c) There exist a positive integer
Pn n, and pointsPnA1 , . . . , An ,B1 , . P
. . , Bn , C1 , . . . , Cn on
S2 , such that for all R ∈ S2 , i=1 e(R, Ai ), i=1 e(R, Bi ), and i=1 n
e(R, Ci ) are not
all equal. (That is, part (b) cannot be strengthened to read like part (a).)
Solution by Texas State Problem Solving Group, Texas State University, San Marcos,
TX.
(a) If P and Q are any pair of points on S2 , then Q lies on a great circle connect-
ing
Pn P and its antipode −P,Pnso d(P, Q) + d(−P, Q) =Pd(P, −P) = π. Let f (P) =
i=1 d(P, Ai ), g(P) = i=1 d(P, Bi ), and h(P) = i=1 d(P, C i ). Note F(P) =
n

nπ − f (−P), and the analogous equations hold for g and h. Let r (P) = f (P) − g(P)
and s(P) = f (P) − h(P). Now
r (−P) = f (−P)−g(−P) = nπ − f (P)−(nπ −g(P)) = g(P)− f (P) = −r (P).
Similarly, s(P) = −s(P). Thus P → (r (P), s(P)) defines a continuous function
from the sphere S2 into the plane R 2 . The two-dimensional Borsuk-Ulam theorem says
that for any continuous map from S2 to R 2 , there exist antipodal points P and −P in
S2 that map to the same value. If (r (P), s(P)) = (r (−P), s(−P)) = −(r (P), s(P)),
then r (P) = s(P) = 0 and f (P) = g(P) = h(P) as required. R
(b) For P ∈ S2 we can compute the average distance ē P = Q∈S2 e(Q, P) dσ 4π
over the
sphere from P. The group of isometries of the sphere is transitive, soP this average does
not depend on the point P, and we denote it by ē. Now let w(Q) = i=1 e(Q, Ai ) −
n

i=1 e(Q, Bi ). Computing w̄ = Q∈S2 w(Q) 4π term by term yields w̄ = n ē − n ē =

Pn R dσ

0. Pick any Q 1 ∈ S2 with w(Q 1 ) 6 = 0. Without loss of generality, we may assume

w(Q 1 ) > 0. Since w̄ = 0, there must exist some point Q 2 ∈ S2 such that w(Q 2 ) < 0.
Now by the Intermediate Value Theorem, any continuous arc joining Q 1 and Q 2 must
contain a point Q with w(Q) = 0 as required.
(c) Let A1 = A2 = A3 = (0, 0, 1). Let B1 = B2 = B3 = (0, 0, −1). Let C1 , C2 , C3 be
three points equally spaced on the great circle x3 = 0. If a point Q contradicts the claim
e(Q, Ai ) = i=1 e(Q, Bi ). Note that Q must lie on the
P3 P3
of (c), then i=1 √ horizontal
great circle (x3 = 0) and we have i=1 e(Q, Ai ) = i=1 e(Q, Bi ) = 3 2. We may
P3 P3
assume without loss of generality that Q lies on the arc of length 2π/3 on the great
circle connecting C1 and C2 . Now e(Q, C1 ) + e(Q, C2 ) < d(Q, C1 ) + d(Q,√ C2 ) =
2π/3. Also e(Q, C3 ) ≤ 2, so i=1 e(Q, Ci ) < 2π/3 + 2. Since 2π/3 + 2 < 3 2, no
P3

point Q exists such that e(Q, Ai ) = i=1 e(Q, Bi ) = i=1 e(Q, Ci ).

P3 P3

Editorial comment. The result can easily be generalized to collections of points on

Sm for m > 2. We may apply the general Borsuk-Ulam theorem for maps from Sm to
Rm and the method of part (a) to obtain that if Ai, j is a point on the sphere Sm for

70 c THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 119

1P≤ i ≤ n and 1 ≤ j ≤ m + 1, then there is some P ∈ Sm such that the m + 1 sums
i=1 d(P, Ai, j ) are of part (b) shows that there exists a point
n
Pequal. Also, the method
n
e(P, Ai,1 ) = i=1 e(P, Ai,2 ).
Pn
P ∈ Sm such that i=1
To see that in higher dimensions (b) cannot be strengthened to read like (a), let
Ai,1 = E m+1 and let Ai,2 = −E m+1 for 1 ≤ i ≤ 2m, where E i is the vector with 1 in
position i and other entries 0. Let AP i,3 = E i and A m+i,3P = −E i for 1 ≤ i ≤ m. If P =
(x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) is a point such
√ that n
i=1 e(P, A i,1 ) = i=1 e(P, Ai,2 ), then x n+1 = 0
n

and i=1 e(P, Ai,1 ) = 2m 2. However, for each antipodal pair E i and −E i , there
Pn
exists a great circle of radius√ 1 containing P, E i , and −E i . Now e(P, E i ) + e(P, −E i )
has maximum value 2 2 on this circle, and this maximum is achieved at the two
π/2 Ai,3 ) ≤
Pn
points
√ exactly radians from E i and −E i , where x i = 0. Hence, i=1 e(P,
2m 2, with equality if and only if x1 = x2 = · · · = xn = 0. Since √ x n+1 = 0 and P∈
e(P, Ai,3 ) < 2m 2. Hence no point P
Pn
Sm+1 , we have xi 6 = 0P for some i, and i=1
yields equal values of i=1 n
e(P, Ai, j ) for 1 ≤ j ≤ 3.
Also solved by R. Chapman (U. K.), M. D. Meyerson, J. Simons (U. K.), R. Stong, Barclays Capital Quantita-
tive Analytics Group (U. K.), and the proposer.

A 4-Volume
11522 [2010, 650]. Proposed by Moubinool Omarjee, Lycée Jean Lurçat, Paris,
France. Let E be the set of all real 4-tuples (a, b, c, d) such that if x, y ∈ R, then
(ax + by)2 + (cx + dy)2 ≤ x 2 + y 2 . Find the volume of E in R4 .
Solution by Richard Bagby, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM. The re-
quired volume is 2π 2 /3.
The condition on (a, b, c, d) is equivalent to the requirement that the matrix formed
from the coefficients of the quadratic form q given by

q(x, y) = (1 − a 2 − c2 )x 2 − 2(ab + cd)x y + (1 − b2 − d 2 )y 2

be positive semidefinite. This is equivalent to

(ab + cd)2 ≤ (1 − a 2 − c2 )(1 − b2 − d 2 )

with both of the factors on the right nonnegative. Multiplying this out and simplifying,
we find that E is defined by the inequality,

a 2 + b2 + c2 + d 2 ≤ 1 + (ad − bc)2 , (1)

along with the conditions a 2 + c2 ≤ 1 and b2 + d 2 ≤ 1. We may describe E in terms of

a pair of polar coordinate systems by introducing a = r cos θ , b = r sin θ , c = s cos φ,
d = s sin φ. Now E is parametrized by the conditions r, s ∈ [0, 1] and θ, φ ∈ [−π, π]
with

r 2 + s 2 ≤ 1 + r 2 s 2 sin2 (θ − φ),

which implies

1 − s2
0 ≤ r2 ≤ .
1 − s 2 sin2 (θ − φ)
Calling E 0 the set of all r, s, θ, φ that satisfy these conditions, the volume of E is given
by the integral

January 2012] PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 71

 1 1 π π 1 − s2
Z Z Z Z
|E| = r s dr dsdθdφ = s dθ dφds
E0 2 0 −π −π 1 − s 2 sin2 (θ − φ)
Z 1 Z π/2
1 − s2
= 4π s dθ ds,
0 0 1 − s 2 sin2 θ
by periodicity and symmetry. Note that 0 < 1 − s 2 ≤ 1 − s 2 sin2 (θ − φ) in the interior
of E 0 , so the integrand reflects the bound r ≤ 1. To perform the integration over θ ,
substitute u = s tan θ with s held constant, so that dθ = s du/(s 2 + u 2 ) and sin2 θ =
u 2 /(s 2 + u 2 ). For 0 < s < 1, this yields
Z π/2
s (1 − s 2 ) du πs p
Z ∞ 2
1 − s2
s dθ = = 1 − s2.
0 1 − s 2 sin θ
2
0 s 2 + (1 − s 2 )u 2 2
Therefore, the required volume is
Z 1 p 2
|E| = 2π 2 s 1 − s 2 ds = π 2 .
0 3

Also solved by N. Caro (Brazil), R. Chapman (U. K.), W. J. Cowieson, E. A. Herman, O. Kouba (Syria), J. H.
Lindsey II, W. Nuij (Netherlands), P. Perfetti (Italy), J. Simons (U. K.), W. Song, R. Stong, M. Wildon (U. K.),
L. Zhou, Barclays Capital Quantitative Analytics Group (U. K.), and the proposer.

The Short Vector Problem

11524 [2010, 741]. Proposed by H. A. ShahAli, Tehran, Iran. A vector v in Rn is short
if kvk ≤ 1.
(a) Given six short vectors in R2 that sum to zero, show that some three of them have
a short sum.
(b)∗ Let f (n) be the least M such that, for any finite set T of short vectors in Rn that
sum toP0, and any integer k with 1 ≤ k ≤ |T |, there is a k-element subset S of T such
that k v∈S vk ≤ M. The result of part (a) suggests f (2) = 1. Find f (n) for n ≥ 2.
Solution by the proposer. We need a preliminary result.
Lemma. Given a collection of two or more short vectors in R2 that sum to zero, some
two of them have a short sum.
Proof. If one of the vectors is zero, then together with any other we have a short sum
and are done. Now assume we have m vectors, all nonzero. We show that the angle θ
between some two of them is at least 2π/3, so the cosine of their angle is at most −1/2
and their sum is short. If the two vectors are u and w, with kuk ≤ kwk, then

ku + wk2 = kuk2 + kwk2 + 2 cos θkukkwk ≤ kuk2 + kwk2 − kukkwk

= kwk2 + kuk kuk − kwk ≤ kwk2 ≤ 1.

Write v1 , . . . , vm for the given vectors, with numbering to be determined. We may

rotate coordinates so that one of the vectors, v1 , lies on the positive x-axis; let each
vector v j make angle θ j with the positive x-axis. Thus 0 ≤ θ j < 2π, with θ1 = 0. If
all vectors lie on the x-axis, then (since their sum is 0) one of them (say v2 ) lies on the
negative x-axis, so v1 + v2 is short, and we are done. Now assume not all the vectors
are on the x-axis. Because the sum is 0, at least one vector is in the upper half plane.
Among these, let v2 be one with the largest angle. Thus 0 < θ2 < π . If θ2 ≥ 2π/3,
then v1 + v2 is short and we are done, so we may assume 0 < θ2 < 2π/3.

72 c THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 119

 The sum of all the vectors is zero, and one of them, v1 , is on one side of the line
through 0 and v2 , so another of them, say v3 , is on the other side of that line, hence
θ2 < θ3 < θ2 + π . Now θ2 < θ3 < π is ruled out by the maximal choice for θ2 . If
2π/3 ≤ θ3 ≤ 4π/3, then v1 + v3 is short and we are done. Thus we have θ3 > 4π/3,
so θ3 − θ2 < π and θ3 − θ2 > 4π/3 − 2π/3 = 2π/3, and so v2 + v3 is short.
(a). If one of the vectors is 0, then apply the Lemma to the remaining vectors to get
two with short sum; with the zero vector we then have three with short sum. Now as-
sume the given vectors are all nonzero. We write v1 , . . . , v6 for the given vectors, with
numbering to be determined. Apply the Lemma to {v1 , . . . , v6 } to conclude that some
two have short sum, say v1 and v2 . Now apply the Lemma to {v1 + v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 }
to conclude that some two have short sum. If v1 + v2 + v j is short for some j with
3 ≤ j ≤ 6, we are done. Therefore, we may assume some two from {v3 , . . . , v6 } have
short sum, say v3 and v4 . Now apply the Lemma to {v1 + v2 , v3 + v4 , v5 , v6 } to con-
clude that some two have short sum. If that choice of two is one of v1 + v2 , v3 + v4
and one of v5 , v6 , then we are done. If v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 is short, then so is v5 + v6 .
So we may assume v5 + v6 is short.
Now among the three short vectors u 12 , u 34 , and u 56 given by u 12 = v1 + v2 , u 34 =
v3 + v4 , and u 56 = v5 + v6 , there are two such that the angle θ between them satisfies
θ ≤ 2π/3, since the entire circle has circumference 2π . We consider two cases: First
assume θ > π/3. We rotate again to put the u jk ’s into the x-y plane, and, taking θ jk
to be the signed angle of u jk with the positive x-axis,where −π ≤ θ jk < π , we spin
them so that θ12 = −θ/2 and θ34 = θ/2. The sum is 0, and u 12 and u 34 are both in the
right half-plane, while u 56 is in the left half-plane. Thus at least one of v5 and v6 is in
the left half-plane. Say v5 is in the left half-plane. If v5 is in the upper half-plane, then
the angle between u 12 and v5 is greater than 2π − θ/2 − π , which is more than 2π/3,
and hence u 12 + v5 is short. Similarly, if v5 is in the lower half-plane, then u 34 + v5 is
short.
The other case is θ ≤ π/3, so in particular θ < π/2 and the dot product u 12 · u 34 is
positive. Compute

kv5 + u 12 k2 + kv5 + u 34 k2 + kv6 + u 12 k2 + kv6 + u 34 k2

= 2 kv5 k2 + kv6 k2 + ku 12 k2 + ku 34 k2 + (v5 + v6 ) · (u 12 + u 34 )

= 2 kv5 k2 + kv6 k2 + ku 12 k2 + ku 34 k2 + u 56 · (u 12 + u 34 )

= 2 kv5 k2 + kv6 k2 + ku 12 k2 + ku 34 k2 − (u 12 + u 34 ) · (u 12 + u 34 )

= 2 kv5 k2 + kv6 k2 − 2 u 12 · u 34 ≤ 4.

Therefore at least one vector in {v5 + u 12 , v5 + u 34 , v6 + u 12 , v6 + u 34 } is short.

Editorial comment. The other solution for (a) also involves taking
q cases. No solution
for (b) was received. The proposer conjectures that f (n) = 2 − max{2,n}
2
, which is
achieved when k = 2 and the vectors are the vertices of the regular simplex centered
at the origin.
Part (a) also solved by Barclays Capital Quantitative Analytics Group (U. K.).

Plane Geometric Arrangements

11525 [2010, 741]. Proposed by Grigory Galperin, Eastern Illinois University,
Charleston, IL, and Yury Ionin, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI.

January 2012] PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 73

(a) Prove that for each n ≥ 3 there is a set of regular n-gons in the plane such that
every line contains a side of exactly one polygon from this set.
(b) Is there a set of circles in the plane such that every line in the plane is tangent to
exactly one circle from the set?
(c) Is there a set of circles in the plane such that every line in the plane is tangent to
exactly two circles from the set?
(d) Is there a set of circles in the plane such that every line in the plane is tangent to
exactly three circles from the set?
Composite Solution by Jim Simons, Cheltenham, U. K., and Barclays Capital Quanti-
tative Analytics Group, London, U. K.
(a) For odd n, consider any regular n-gon W . Choose a direction d that is not paral-
lel to any side of W , and consider the set of all translations of W in the direction d.
Clearly, if a line l is parallel to a side of W , then it is a side of exactly one of these
n-gons.
Now take the n-gons described above and rotate each of them clockwise about the
origin by all possible angles in the range [0, 2π n
). Every line l can be made parallel to
a side of W by rotating it counterclockwise around the origin by exactly one angle in
this range. Thus, every line is the side of exactly one of these n-gons.
For even n, the construction above does not quite work. Since opposite sides of
W are parallel, the construction above would produce a set of polygons with every
line containing a side of two of them. We modify the construction by choosing the
direction d more carefully and allowing only certain translates. Suppose the initial
polygon has width w between two parallel sides and the direction d makes an angle
α with these sides. The two polygons that differ by a translation in the d direction
through a distance w csc α have sides that lie on the same line. Suppose we choose a
set X ⊂ R of translation amounts such that for all x exactly one of {x, x + w csc α} is
in X . Every line parallel to this pair of sides will contain a side of exactly one translate,
as required.
Let m = n/2. The m pairs of parallel sides all have the same width w and make
angles of α + 2π k/n with d, where 0 ≤ k ≤ m − 1. Thus we need only show that
there is a subset X ⊂ R such that for every x and every k exactly one of {x, x +
w csc(α + 2πk/n)} lies in X . For 0 ≤ k ≤ m − 1, let Dk = w csc(α + 2π k/n). If
these Dk are linearly dependent over Q, then there are integers rk , not all zero, such
that m−1
P
k=0 r k csc(α + 2π k/n) = 0. The left side of this equation written in terms of
complex exponentials is a rational function of eiα . If rk 6 = 0, then this rational function
has a pole at eiα = e−2πik/n and hence is non-trivial. Hence the equation has only
finitely many solutions. Thus there are only countably many α for which the Dk are
linearly dependent over Q.
Choose the direction d so that the distances Dk are linearly independent over Q.
Choose a Hamel basis of R containing these distances, and for a ∈ R let pk (a) be the
coefficient of Dk in the expansion of a in this basis. Now one can take
( m−1 )
X
X= a: b pk (a)c ≡ 0 (mod 2)
k=0

as the set of translations. This set has the required property.

(b) There is no such set of circles. If two circles are not nested, then there is a line
tangent to both. Therefore in any such set the circles would have to be nested, to-
tally ordered by radius. The intersection of the compact circular discs defined by these
circles would be a non-empty closed set F and any line intersecting F would not be
tangent to any of the circles.

74 c THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 119

(c, d). Using the Axiom of Choice, we will show that for any k > 1, there is a set of
circles in the plane such that every line in the plane is tangent to exactly k circles from
the set.
Let c be the cardinality of the real numbers, and let ωc be the first ordinal of this
cardinality. There are c lines in the plane, so they can be indexed as {lα : α < ωc }.
Using transfinite induction, we construct the set C of circles and simultaneously the
set L of lines in the plane tangent to precisely k of the circles in C. Initially C and L
are empty. Throughout the induction we will have no line in the plane tangent to more
than k of the circles in C, and |C| < c. Note that for each pair
of circles there are at
most 4 lines tangent to both of them, and therefore |L| ≤ 4  C2  < c.
For the inductive step, let α be the smallest ordinal for which lα ∈/ L. At any given
point of lα there are c circles tangent to lα , but fewer than c of these are already in
C or are tangent to a line in L. Hence we can choose a circle, not already in C, that
is tangent to lα , and whose addition does not produce a line tangent to more than k
circles. Repeating this construction at most k times, we shall be adding lα to L. At the
point when we are up to step α in the induction, we have |C| ≤ k|α| < c as required
for the induction step. The construction ends when we reach ordinal ωc , and at this
point L is all lines in the plane.
Editorial comment. The proposers showed that (c) holds without requiring the Axiom
of Choice. Simply take the set to consist of all circles whose radius is an odd integer
and whose center is on the unit circle.
We did not count a single point as a degenerate polygon or circle.
Also solved by GCHQ Problem Solving Group (U. K.)(part b), and the proposers (parts a–c).

Expanders Increase Dimension

11526 [2010, 742]. Proposed by Marius Cavachi, “Ovidius” University of Constanta,
Constanta, Romania. Prove that there is no function f from R3 to R2 with the property
that k f (x) − f (y)k ≥ kx − yk for all x, y ∈ R3 .
Solution by Ralph Howard, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC. When (X, d)
is a metric space and k ∈ (0, ∞), write H(X,d)
k
for the k-dimensional Hausdorff outer
measure defined on the subsets of X . The Hausdorff dimension of (X, d) is
dimH (X, d) = inf{k ∈ (0, ∞) : H(X,d)
k
(X ) = 0}.
Recall that, with the usual metric, dimH (Rn ) = n.
If (X, d X ) and (Y, dY ) are metric spaces, call a map f : X → Y an expanding map if
dY ( f (x1 ), f (x2 )) ≥ d X (x1 , x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ∈ X . Such a map need not be continuous,
but it is clearly injective. It suffices to prove the following: if there is an expanding
map from (X, d X ) to (Y, dY ), then dimH (X, d X ) ≤ dimH (Y, dY ).
Let f : X → Y be an expanding map. The image f [X ] is a subset of Y , so
dimH ( f [X ]) ≤ dimH (Y ). Without loss of generality, we may replace Y by f [X ]
and assume that f is surjective and thus bijective. Now f has an inverse g : Y → X .
As f is an expanding map, g is a contraction; that is, d X (g(y1 ), g(y2 )) ≤ dY (y1 , y2 )
for all y1 , y2 ∈ Y . For k > 0 and S ⊆ Y , it follows directly from the definition of the
Hausdorff outer measures that H(X,d k
X)
(g[S]) ≤ H(Y,dk
Y)
(S). Thus, since g is surjective,
we have dimH (X, d X ) ≤ dimH (Y, dY ).
Also solved by N. Eldredge, O. Geupel (Germany), J. Grivaux (France), E. A. Herman, O. P. Lossers (Nether-
lands), K. Schilling, J. Simons (U. K.), R. Stong, Barclays Capital Quantitative Analytics Group (U. K.), and
the proposer.

January 2012] PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 75