BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Regulation
of breathing

2. Effect of
exercise and
high altitude

3. Homeostatic
imbalance

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Students should able to:
1. Describe the neural mechanism and generation of
breathing rhythm.
2. Describe the factors influencing the rate and depth of
breathing.
3. Describe the effects of exercise.
4. Describe the effects of high altitude, symptoms of
altitude sickness, body adjustment to high altitude.
5. Describe the homeostatic imbalance in respiratory
function : COPD (asthma, bronchitis, emphysema),
tuberculosis and lung cancer

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 Why does cold weather
cause runny nose?
(Rhinorrhea)

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

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Can you control
your breathing?

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

• Voluntary control of breathing
is limited.

• When oxygen supply is low, CO2

high or blood pH drop
respiratory centers will simply
ignore messages from cortex
(our wishes)

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 The activity of the respiratory muscles, diaphragm and
external intercostal, is regulated by nerve impulses
transmitted to them from the brain by the phrenic and
intercostal nerves.
 The neural centres that control respiratory rhythm and
depth are located:
 Medulla : sets the basic rhythm of breathing
 Pons smooth out the basic rhythm of inspiration and expiration
set by the medulla.
 When the bronchioles and alveoli are overinflated,
impulses are sent from the stretch receptors to the medulla
by vagus nerve.
 Eupnea: the normal breathing pattern of 12-15
respirations/min.
 During exercise, we breathe more vigorously and deeply
because the brain centres send more impulses to the
respiratory muscles (Hyperpnea)
 Apnea: the cessation of breathing.

• Hyperventilation: the breathing pattern that we breathe

more rapidly and deeply.
• Hypoventilation: the breathing pattern that we breathe
more slower and shallower.
• Contraction and relaxation of breathing muscles is
controlled by motor neurons from two areas of the
brain.
• Voluntary breathing:
• from cerebral cortex
• Involuntary breathing:
• from respiratory control centers
of the medulla oblongata and pons

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 CO2 in the blood increases (pH decreases),
Breathing becomes more deeply and more rapidly (hyperventilation).
As a result, more carbon dioxide is blown off.
CO2 in the blood decreases and pH increases back to normal.

CO2 in the blood decreases (pH increases),

breathing becomes slower and more shallow (hypoventilation).
As a result, more carbon dioxide is accumulated in the blood.
CO2 in the blood increases and pH decreases back to normal.

 Oxygen levels do not change as rapidly because of

oxygen reserves in hemoglobin, so O2 levels are not
a good index for control of breathing.
BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM
 Ventilation is controlled to maintain constant levels
of CO2 in the blood.
 Oxygen levels naturally follow.

Inversely related: Total

minute volume increase,
PCO2 decrease

Amount of air in
each breath,
multiple by no. of
breaths per minute
BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM
Factors influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
CHEMICAL FACTORS
(CO2, O2, H+, pH)

PHYSICAL FACTORS
(Talking, coughing, singing)

VOLITION
(Conscious control)

EMOTIONAL FACTORS
(Anger, pain, exciting)
 REGULATION OF
PULMONARY VENTILATION
1) Chemical factors

 Factors influencing breathing rate and depth are

changing levels of CO2, O2, and H+ in arterial blood.
 Sensors respond to the fluctuation :
chemoreceptors.
 Controlled by the medulla oblongata.
• Chemoreceptors are sensitive to:
 PCO , PO , or pH of blood or CSF.
2 2
 There are two types of chemoreceptors:

a. The Central Chemoreceptors : medulla

b. The Peripheral Chemoreceptors.
BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM
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 When increased CO2 in the
fluids of the brain decrease
pH, this is sensed by
chemoreceptors in the
medulla, and ventilation is
increased.

 Takes longer, but responsible for

70−80% of increased ventilation

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

Chemoreceptors in the Medulla

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

• Two kinds of peripheral
chemoreceptors:
a. The Carotid Bodies
b. The Aortic Bodies
• Aortic and carotid bodies
respond to rise in H+ due to
increased CO2 levels.
• Activate the brain to stimulate
the respiratory centers to
increase respiration to rid the
body of carbon dioxide.
 Respond much quicker
BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM
Breathing control centers, sensory inputs, and effector nerves.

Breathing control centers:

• Pons centers
• Medulla centers

Afferent Efferent nerve impulses from

impulses to medulla trigger contraction
medulla of inspiratory muscles.
• Phrenic nerves
• Intercostal nerves
Breathing control centers
stimulated by:

CO2 increase in blood Nerve impulse

(acts directly on medulla from O2 sensor Intercostal
centers by causing a indicating O2 muscles
drop in pH of CSF) decrease Diaphragm

O2 sensor
in aortic body
CSF in of aortic arch
brain
sinus BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM
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 Indirectly
affects ventilation by affecting
chemoreceptor sensitivity to PCO2

 Low blood O2 makes the carotid bodies more sensitive

to CO2.

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

Effect of Blood Gases and pH
on Ventilation

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 REGULATION OF
PULMONARY VENTILATION
2) Influence of higher brain center
a)Hypothalamic controls
• Acting through the hypothalamus and the rest of the
limbic system.
• Strong emotion, pain send signals to respiratory
center breathing rate and depth is modified.
• Eg: Holding breathe when you angry, increased
respiratory rate when you gets excited.

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 REGULATION OF
PULMONARY VENTILATION

2) Influence of higher brain center

Cortical controls
• Conscious (voluntary) control over the
rate and depth of breathing
• Eg: take a deep breathe, hold our
breathe – our ability to voluntarily
hold our breathe is limited, but brain
stem respiratory center automatically
reinitiate breathing when CO2 reaches
its critical level.

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

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 Exercise produces deeper, faster breathing to
match O2 utilization and CO2 production.
 Called hyperpnea = increased ventilation in
response to metabolic need (extra oxygen
needs).
 (Arterial blood CO2 values are not changed
during hyperpnea because the increased
ventilation is matched to an increased metabolic
rate)

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 Rapid and deep breathing continues after exercise
is stopped due to humoral (chemical) factors.

 PCO2 and pH differences at sensors

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 Ventilation does not deliver enough O2 at the beginning
of exercise.
 Anaerobic respiration occurs to obtain energy.
 Involve incomplete breakdown of glucose
 If heavy exercise continues, lactic acid fermentation will
be used again.
 Skeletal muscle produce and release lactic acid.
 The lactate threshold is the maximum rate of oxygen
consumption attained before lactic acid levels rise.

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

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 Most people live between sea level and altitude approx.
2400m (8000 feet).
 Differences in atmospheric pressure is not great enough
to cause healthy people any problems.
 Travel quickly from sea level to elevations above 8000 ft,
(atmospheric pressure and PO2 are lower), body may
responds AMS (acute mountain sickness)

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 When you move on long term basis from sea level to
the mountains, body makes respiratory and
hematopoietic adjustments.
 Adaptive response called ACCLIMATIZATION

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 Adjustmentsmust be made to compensate for
lower atmospheric PO2.
a) Changes in ventilation
b) Hemoglobin affinity
for oxygen
c) Increase hemoglobin
production

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 Respiratory
 Decline in PO2 stimulates
peripheral chemoreceptor
ventilation increase
 Hyperventilation lowers PCO2,
causing respiratory alkalosis.
 Kidneys increase urinary
excretion of bicarbonate to
compensate.

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

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 Hb O2 saturation at sea level : 98%
 At higher altitude : 67%
 But Hb unloads only 20 – 25% of its
O2 at sea level; even at high
altitude the O2 needs of the tissues
are still met adequately.
 2,3-diphosphoglycerate or 2,3-DPG
concentration increases .
 Oxygen affinity decreases, so a
higher proportion of oxygen is
unloaded.
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 Kidneycells sense decreased
PO2 and produce
erythropoietin.
 This stimulates bone marrow to
produce more RBCs and
hemoglobin.
 Increase oxygen content of
blood

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

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 RESPIRATORY DISEASES
AND DISORDERS
• Respiratory abnormalities associated with serious
diseases such as:
a. Pneumonia (inflammation of the lungs)
b.Emphysema (damage to the alveoli (air sacs) in the
lungs)
c. Chronic bronchitis
d.Asthma (narrowing of the bronchi).
e. Tuberculosis
f. Lung cancer
g. Pulmonary fibrosis
41

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

▪ Collective group of respiratory disorders
▪ Includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis
▪ Chronic inflammation, narrowing of the airways, and
alveolar destruction
▪ Excessive mucus production and inflammation triggered
by smoking
▪ There is no cure.
▪ 5th leading cause of death

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

▪ Key physiological features:
i. Decrease in the ability to force air out of the lungs.
ii. Dyspnea: difficult or labored breathing, often referred to as
‘air hunger’
iii. Coughing and pulmonary infection are common
iv. COPD victims are hypoxic, retain CO2, and have respiratory
acidosis and ultimately respiratory failure.

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 Permanent enlargement of the alveoli, accompanied by
destruction of alveoli.
 Lung lose their elasticity airways collapse during
expiration.
 Reduces surface area for gas exchange
 Smoking is the most common cause. It triggers
inflammation and destruction of alveoli by immune cells

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 EMPHYSEMA

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 Mucosa of the lower respiratory
passages becomes severely
inflamed
 Excessive mucus production impairs
ventilation and gas exchange
 Patients become cyanotic and are
sometimes called “blue bloaters” as
a result of chronic hypoxia

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

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The pathogenesis of COPD
• Tobacco smoke
• Air pollution

Continual bronchial Breakdown of elastin

irritation and in connective tissue
inflammation of lungs

Chronic bronchitis Emphysema

• Excessive mucus • Destruction of
produced, alveolar walls
• Chronic productive • Loss of lung elasticity
cough

• Airway obstruction
or air trapping
• Dyspnea
• Frequent infections

Respiratory
failure
BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM
 Characterized by dyspnea (subjective difficulty in
breathing), wheezing, and chest tightness.
 Caused by inflammation, mucus secretion, and
constriction of bronchioles.
• Airways thickened with
inflammatory exudates
magnify the effect of
bronchospasms
• Often called airway
hyperresponsiveness

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

• Allergic asthma: triggered by allergens stimulating T
lymphocytes to secrete cytokines and recruit
eosinophils and mast cells, which contribute to
inflammation
• Can also be triggered by cold or dry air
• Reversible with bronchodilator
– Albuterol

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 Infectious
disease caused by the bacterium
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Spread by coughing and enters body through inhaled air
 Symptoms include fever, night sweats, weight loss,
a racking cough, and spitting up blood.
• Treatment entails a 12-month course of antibiotics

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

 Ordinarily nasal hairs, sticky mucus and cilia, do a fine
job of protecting the lungs from chemical and
biological irritants.
 Due to smoking, these devices are overwhelmed and
stop functioning
 Smoking paralyzes the cilia
that clear mucus from the
airways, allowing pathogens
and irritants to accumulate.
 Free radicals and carcinogens
present in tobacco smoke
worsen this event.

BIO310 / Respiratory / NHM

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 Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the US
 90% of all patients with lung cancer were smokers
 The three most common types are:
 Squamous cell carcinoma (20–40% of cases) arises in
bronchial epithelium
 Adenocarcinoma (25–35% of cases) originates in peripheral
lung area
 Small cell carcinoma (20–25% of cases) contains
lymphocyte-like cells that originate in the primary bronchi
and subsequently metastasize

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 Somepeople accumulate fibrous tissues in the lungs
when alveoli are damaged.
(Normal structure of the lung is disrupted by the
accumulation of fibrous connective tissue proteins)
 May be due to inhalation of small particles
 Example: black lung in miners

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