Mohammed ArshadNETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS By MUHAMMAD ARSHAD Deptt. of Electrical & Electronics Engg. Ajay Kumar Garg Engg. College Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD BANGALORE ¢ CHENNAI ¢ COCHIN * GUWAHATI ¢ JALANDHAR « KOLKATA * LUCKNOW « MUMBAI * RANCHI NEW DELHIPublished by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 118, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone : 011-43 53 25 00 Fax : 011-43 53 25 28 info@laxmipublications.com © All rights reserved with the Publishers. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Price : Rs. 200.00 Only. First Edition : 2006 Reprint : 2006 Offices : India USA « Bangalore (Phone : 080-26 61 15 61) © Boston Chennai (Phone : 044-24 34 47 26) 11, Leavitt Street, Hingham, @ Cochin (Phone : 0484-239 70 04) MA 02043, USA © Guwahati (Phones : 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81) Phone : 781-740-4487 © Hyderabad (Phone : 040-24 75 02 47) Jalandhar City (Phone : 0181-222 12 72) © Kolkata (Phones : 033-22 27 37 73, 22 27 52 47) Lucknow (Phone : 0522-220 95 78) © Mumbai (Phones : 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69) © Ranchi (Phone : 0651-230 77 64) ENA-0688-200-NETWORK ANALYSIS & SYNTH (C—12959/06/08 ‘Typesetted at : Shubham Composer, Delhi. Printed at : Sanjeev Offset Printers, Delhi.Contents 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 What is A Network ? 1.2 System 1.3 Electrical Energy Sources 14 Dependent Source or Controlled Source 1.5 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) 1.6_ Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) Kirchhoff's 1.7_ Mesh Analysis 18 Nodal Analysis 1.9 Passive Elements 1.11 Voltage Division Formula for Two Resistors 1.12 Power andRMS Values 2 KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Branch Current Method 3._GRAPH THEORY 3.1_Introduction 3.2 Rules for Drawing A Graph 3.3. Some Useful Definitions 3.4 Complete Incidence Matrix (A,) 3.5 Drawing A Graph from an Incidence Matrix 3.6 Drawing A Graph from a Reduced Incidence Matrix 3._Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) 3.8_Fundamental Loops of A Graph 3.9 CutSet 3.10 Fundamental Cut-Sets or F-Cut-Sets 3.11 Nodal Analysis Based on Graph Theory 3.12 Loop Analysis Based on Graph Theory 4. LAPLACE TRANSFORM 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Laplace Transform of Some Commonly used Functions 4.3 Basic Laplace Transform Theorem 44 Laplace Transform of Some Other Functions 45 Initial Value Theorem Sermon = BEES 8 8 BRRBSSESARSTSR BS B8eeEeviii Contents 46 Final Value Theorem 4.7 Inverse Laplace Transformation 5. BASIC SIGNALS AND WAVEFORM SYNTHESIS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Step Function 5.3. Ramp Function 5.4 Parabolic Function 5.5 Impulse Function or Dirac Delta Function 5.6 Exponential Function 5.7 Sinusoidal Signal 5.8 Relation Between Parabolic, Ramp, Unit Step and Imj 5.9 Synthesis of General Waveforms 6. CIRCUIT ANALYSIS BY CLASSICAL METHOD 6.1 Introduction 6.2_Linear Differential Equations 6.3 Determination of Complementary Function (C.F.) 6.4_Determination of Particular Integral (P.1.) 66 Transient Response of Series R-L Circuit Having D.C. Excitation 6.7_ Transient Response of Series R-C Circuit Having D.C. Excitation 68 Transient Response of Series R-L-C Circuit Having D.C. Excitation 7. APPLICATION OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM 171 7.1 Introduction am 7.2 Transformed Circuit Components Representation 173 8 NETWORK THEOREMS 201 8.1 Introduction to Network Theorems 201 8.2 Millman's Theorem 201 83 Superposition Theorem 206 84 Thevenin's Theorem 212 85 Norton’s Theorem 215 86_Millman's Theorem Revisited 221 8.7_ Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 224 88 A-Yand Y-A Conversions 226 89 Compensation Theorem 231 8.10 Tellegen's Theorem 234 238 264 264 265 3 ae 3 1 BEREBREREEEEEEEES 8.11 Reciprocity Theorem 9, NETWORK FUNCTIONS; POLES AND ZEROS 9.1 Introduction ;work Functions for One-Port NetworkContents ix 10. 93 94 95 96 9.7 98 99 9.10 Network Functions for a Two-Port Network Network Functions as a Quotient of Polynomials in S Poles and Zeros of Network Functions Significance of Poles and Zeros in Network Functions Restrictions on Locations of Poles and Zeros in Driving Point Functions Restrictions on Locations of Poles and Zeros for Transfer Functions Time Domain Response from Pole and Zero Plot Routh Criterion TWO PORT NETWORKS 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 11.1 11.2 113 14 115 116 17 11.8 11.9 12.1 12.2 12.3 124 125 126 12.7 12.8 Introduction Open Circuit Impedance or |Z] Parameters Short Circuit Admittance or [¥] Parameters ABCD or Transmission Parameters Hybrid or h Parameters Inverse Hybrid (or g) Parameters Inter-Relationship of Parameters Condition for Reciprocity Condition for Symmetry Interconnections of Two-Port Networks Lattice Networks Image Parameters |. NETWORK SYNTHESIS Introduction Analysis and Design Elements of Realizability Theory Hurwitz Polynomial Procedure for Obtaining the Continued Fraction Expansion Positive Real Functions Synthesis of One Port Networks With Two Elements (R, L, C) L-C Immittance Function or LC Network Synthesis R-C Impedance or R-L Admittance Function . RESONANCE AND SELECTIVITY Introduction Series Resonance Phasor Diagram of Series RLC Circuit Reactance and Impedance Curves of a Series RLC Circuit Vibration of Current and Voltages with Frequency in a Series RLC Circuit Selectivity and Bandwidth Quality Factor or Q Factor Series Resonance and Selectivity of Series RLC Circuit with Frequency Variable 311 £S8e8ee ERGESES SSSRBEER RR EE gx Contents 12.9 Selectivity or Series RLC Circuit with Capacitance Variable 12.10 Selectivity of Series RLC Circuit with L Variable 12.11 Parallel Resonance 12.12 Impedance of Parallel Tuned Circuit 12.13 Selectivity and Bandwidth of Parallel Tuned Circuit 13. FILTERS 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Parameters of a Filter 13.3 Decibel and Neper 13.4 Propagation Constant 13.5 Classification of Filters 136 Basic Filter Networks 13.7 Cut-Off Frequencies 138 Constanth-Filters 139 m-Derived Filters 13.10 m-Derived Band Pass Filter Appendix-1 Appendix -2 Appendix -3 Appendix -4 Appendix -5 Appendix -6 Index as SERSRRSRRSSSS S AGH a = 1 BESIntroduction 1.1 WHAT IS ANETWORK ? In general terms, network is a combination of elements. The interconnection of two or more simple elements (Active and Passive) is called an electrical network. 1.1.1. Active elements. Elements, which can generate energy are known as active elements eg., Battery, Generator. 1.1.2 Passive elements. Elements, which cannot generate energy but can dissipate or stored energy are known as passive elements e.g., Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor. A network which contains at least one active element is known as active network. A net- work which does not contain any active elements is a passive network. R Re Ry Ry Rs ‘Active Network Passive Network Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Ifa network contains at least one energised closed path. It is also an electric circuit. Every circuit is a network but not all networks are circuits. e.g., T Networks. o—aI (24 (24 ° H Lo 0 o- T-Network (No-close path therefore we cannot say a circuit) (a) Fig. 1.3, T-Network. (Close path but itis a network because close path is not ‘energised closed path) (b)2 Network Analysis and Synthesis (This is a circuit. There is a energised closed path) Fig. 14 1.1.3. Unilateral or bilateral elements. A unilateral network has different relationship for the two possible directions of current between voltage and current e.g., diodes, SCR Se i L Le ih i= = 28722454 V (I= 0 due to diode is in sv (25972215 A) sv ( ok dea Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6 In the above example relation between voltage and current is different. Therefore diode is aunilateral element. A bilateral network has same relationship between voltages and current for the two possible directions of current eg., R, L, C (Non-polar capacitor only). 1 29 22 4 - < 4 Sv yp SY. it 1 f 12254 1=25A 1.1.4. Linear or nonlinear elements. A circuit element is linear if the principle of super-position holds and relation between current and voltage involves a constant co-efficient eg., 4 fiat. Anon-linear element is one in which the principle of superposition fail.e.g., Varactor diode. ' di veiRv-La Vv \V-I characteristic of a resistor (linear) Fig. 1.7Introduction 3 1.1.5 Lumped or distributed network. A network W586 in which physically separate resistors, capaci- tors and inductors is known as Lumped Net- work. eg., all network which have different v physically separate elements. In above diagram we can separate any passive element. Anetwork in which network elements are not Hinipad. Netiork physically separable eg., Transmission line, Fig. 18 ‘Transmission line has distributed capacitance, Resistance and Inductance along its length. If length of transmission line increase or decrease, value of effective capacitance resistance and inductance change and these cannot be separated physically. 1.2 SYSTEM A system is a combination of several components to perform a desired task. Everywhere is a system which is working for a desired task. If system components are good, system is good. System perform directly depend on the system components. In this figure on the left hand side of the box we represent the inputs. Suppose there are two inputs excite the system to desired output. Suppose there are ¢; (t) and cy (t). (00. 20 Cit) System xNoe —soc4y Fig.1.9 1 Classification of systems (@) Continuous time and discrete - time systems. (i) Time invariant and time - varying systems. (ii) Linear and non- linear systems. (iv) Inverse systems. (v) Instantaneous and dynamic systems. (vi) Causal and non-causal systems. mC a (Ideal voltage source and v - i characteristic) Fig. 1.104 Network Analysis and Synthesis | 1.2.2 Practical voltage source. Due to the power dissipation temperature rise and value of | internal resistance increases. Hence the internal voltage drop rise and terminal voltage de- crease. (Practical voltage source and v ~ i characteristic) Fig. 1.11 1.2.3 Independent current source. The current source is assumed to deliver energy through its terminal. Ideal current source. Which maintains a constant current i(t) and independent of the value of voltage through its terminals as shown in figure 1.12. t ue Ko) T 7 (deal current source and v — i characteristic) Fig. 1.12 Practical current source. Current through the terminals of the source keep falling as the terminal voltage across it increase. 4.3. ELECTRICAL ENERGY SOURCES ‘There are two types of sources of electrical energy, the voltage source and the current source. ‘They are further classified. 1.3.1. Independent sources. A source in which the voltage is completely independent of the current or the current is completely independent of the voltage.Introduction § 1.3.2 Independent voltage source. The voltage source is assumed to deliver energy with a ter- minal voltage. Ideal voltage source. Which maintains a constant terminal voltage and independent of the value of the current through its terminals as shown in figure (1.10). 1.4 DEPENDENT SOURCE OR CONTROLLED SOURCE They are four types and shown by parallelogram. 1.4.1 Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS). If value of V; change, value of Vd also change hence dependent source voltage (Vd) depends on V, therefore it is known as voltage dependent source. 19 20 + 7 ° - + =o “ 3 fa) (b) Fig. 1.14 1.4.2 Current controlled voltage source (CCVS). Voltage source (Vd) depends on current this type of source is known as current dependent voltage source. 1a 20 + > 4 + o+ f vy=0 > rl A % Vv ; “Vy L -2i,= Vy (@) () Fig. 1.15 1.4.3 Current controlled current source (CCS), dependent current source current (id) depends on current flowing through 1 @ resistor. This type of source is known as current dependent current source. 1a 20 a « wa by oe vt BE _ L he iy (a) (oy Fig. 1.16 1.4.4 Voltage controlled current source (VCS). dependent current source current (id) depends on voltage across 1 resistor. This type of source is known as voltage dependent current source. +My —_— 7 vo Br vy ‘gv, ’% oy 24 le (a) (b) Fig. 1.176 Network Analysis and Synthesis 4.5 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL) “The algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path at any instant is zero”. v(t) = 0 “Algebraic sum of voltage drop is equal to the algebraic sum of voltage rise” Steps for Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law equations { FO Voltage fise Fig. 1.18 1. First show the current direction and value of current. 2. Current entering into passive element make +ve sign at a point where current entering and negative where current leaving. 3. Now start to move from any elements but remember the elements sign should be con- secutive and take a sign which is first. Now equations, let we start from source E, sign -ve first ; —E, +i: Ri + Gi +ig) Ry =0 Similarly - Ey + igRy + (i; + i,)Rp= 0 Example 1.1. Find KVL equation for following circuits : i, +iR, w Fig. 1.19 ~Vy + isRy + (i; + ig) Rp + Vg = 0 Vo + igRy+ (iy +i) Ry =0 Ans. (a)-V, +i;R, + V2= () +i,Ry—Vy +i:Rp + (iy +ig) Ry = 0; KVL follow law of conservation of energy. 4.6 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL) KIRCHHOFF'S “At any instant of time, the algebraic sum of currents at a node is zero”. Yiw=0 noden ; “Algebraic sum of currents entering at a node is equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving”. If the current entering a node are assigned positive sign je, ~iy+ip—igtigtig=0Introduction 7 ig +igtis =i, +ig currents currents entering leaving or or incoming outgoing currents currents Fig. 1.20 Example 1.2. Find KCL equations for following diagrams at given node A: Fig. 1.21 Ans. i + ig + is ~ig= 1.7 MESH ANALYSIS The mesh or loop method of analysis is illustrated by the given circuit. In individual mesh, assume a current there are three mesh in figure and three currents I,, I, and I, respectively. 2). ~) ~~ “oC O Fig. 1.228 Network Analysis and Synthesis Step 1. First show the direction of mesh current. Step 2. Apply KVL and think what is the effective value of current in each elements. (i.e., the effective value of current in 2, is I, ~ I, for mesh 1. Step 3. In every mesh preference is given to its mesh current (i.e., suppose we are applying mesh analysis in mesh 1 and 2. The effective current in mesh 1 at Z» is I, ~ I, and I, ~ I, for mesh 2 I, dominate in mesh 1 and I, dominates in mesh 2). Now Mesh Analysis -V, +2, +(,-1,) Z =0 oo (LD) 4 (Ly Ty) Zp + 1p + (Ip + Ty) Zy = 0 vo (1.2) =Vp + IgZ5+Zq (Ig +1,) =0 w+ (1.3) If any current value is negative. It shows the current direction is opposite. Example 1.3. Find I by using mesh analysis as shown in figure 1.23. Fig. 1.23 Solution. Mesh equations for mesh 1-20 +I, + 2 (I, +I,)=0 31, +21, = 20 .@) For mesh 2 -5+1,+(,+1)2=0 21, +31, =5 (2) by equations 1 and 2, 5A I, =10A,1,= I=1,+1,=10-5=5A. Note : [, negative sign shows the opposite direction of current whatever we assume. It means 5 V battery is not supplying current it is charging as shown in figure 1.24. Fig. 1.24Introduction 9 Example 1.4. Find current in each passive elements by mesh analysis (i.e., I}, Ip I) ete. i rer’ 1 12 Ir . 22 ——10V Fig. 1.25 Ans. I, = 8A, I, = 6A, I, =2A 1.8 NODAL ANALYSIS Nodal analysis is a very useful method if number of parallel branch is more in a given net- work. Step 1. In this method some convenient junction between elements is choosen as a refer- ence or Datum node. ‘Step 2. Show the direction of current and keep in mind current flow from higher potential to lower potential. Step 3. Write down the KCL equation at given node. Now, it is explain by an example. A Datum node Fig. 1.26 By KCL at Node A V,-V, yy; = wt! et I=1,+Iandl RE R, Now, (1.4) Similarly at Node B iil, Va-Vs , Vo-Ve _ Va we (1.5) Ry R, Ry Vaand Vj are variables.10 Network Analysis and Synthesis Example 1.5. Using Nodal method, find the current through rp Fig. 1.27 Solution. By KCL I=]+h+l, 50-V _ Vv eM wwe 20 20” 100° 120°" 30 aftersolving V=31.14V 1,=~ = sat =3114mA. ‘ Example 1.6. Find the current in 1Qresistor by using Nodal analysis. 20 2a) sv Fig. 1.28 Ans. 2 Amp. 1.9 PASSIVE ELEMENTS ‘There are three passive elements. 1.9.1. Resistance. Resistance is the property of a material which offers opposition to the eur- rent and dissipate energy. In a conductor the resistance is due to the collision between moving electrons and fixed ions, heat is generated due to the collision, the resistance of a conductor depends upon its length, cross sectional area, material and temperature it is denoted by R. 1 Rept PR internal resistance is shown by r and it is battery own resistance R,= Ry (1 +04) a is +ve for conductor and -ve for insulator and semiconductor. It means, if temperature increase resistance of a conductor increase but resistance of an insulator and semiconductor decrease.Introduction 11 There are certain alloys such as constantan, nickel, chromium and magnin where practi- cally the temperature co-efficients of resistance are negligibly small. Such alloys are used in the manufacture of standard resistors and heating elements In series, equivalent resistance is the sum of resistances. Fig. 1.29 Suppose there are three resistances connected in series. Ryq = Ri +Ry+Ry (1.6) if there are n resistances connected in series Ryq = Ry + Ry + Rg + on + Rye w= (1.7) In series equivalent resistance is always greater than the maximum resistance in the cir- cuit. In parallel a AWW i * R a AWWW Rr $ Fig. 1.30 1 4 2 - 1 a et 1.8) R, RR, for two resistances connected in parallel Ry, = 21-R2_ R,, is less than the minimum resistance in the cireuit. R, +R, 1.9.2. Inductance. Inductance is the property of a circuit element in which it opposes the any change in current, due to the current changing a voltage is induced. It is known as the induced voltage. When the voltage is induced in the element by the current changing in its own circuit the property is called the self inductance (L). voit Volts. (1.9) ‘The property of inductance comes into play only when current in the circuit changes. When oot i di circuit current changes inductance opposes this change. If circuit current is constant, a = there is no induced voltage. 3 LI? Joule. (2.10) When two circuits are so placed that a portion of the magnetic flux produced by one links with the turns of both the circuits, they are said to be mutually coupled. Mutual inductance is Energy stored in an Inductor12 Network Analysis and Synthesis a property of two circuits when a voltage is induced in one circuit by a change of current in the other circuit induced voltage in coil 2, V, = M a by the changing current in coil 1. Ms JIL, w (111) where M is mutual inductance and L, and Ly are self inductance of coil 1 and coil 2. In series. Equivalent inductance of a circuit is equal to the total sum of individual inductance. bea Fig. 131 Lgq = Ly + Ly + Ly. + Lye Similarly inductances are connected in parallel. 11a 1 Gt, -(1.12) if two inductances are connected in parallel. — ale “1 Ly, + Ly 1.9.3 Capacitance. Capacitance is the property of a circuit element or device which is capable of storing charge or energy in electric field. A device which have this property is known as capacitor. A capacitor whose characteristic does not change with time is called a time-invariant capacitor. If the characteristic changes with time, the capacitor is called a time varying capacitor. ++ (1.18) cat ws (114) v is charge stored in a capacitor and v voltage applied across capacitor. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. ++ (1.15) Where A = area of plates d = distance between two plates. Ifq is measured in coulombs and v in volts, the unit of C is the farad (in honour of Michael Faraday) q=it=OV (1.16) current and voltage are related by the equation 4 _ A ieyj-c XN aan a alo ~“ C is assume to be constant, if C is not constant pe 8%, SS w+ (1.18)Introduction 13 Capacitors are also variable and fixed and according to polarity, capacitors are polar and non-polar if we are using polar capacitor or electrolytic capacitors, polarity must be observed when connecting it into a circuit. Capacitor other than electrolytics can be connected into a circuit without concern for proper polarity. If capacitors are connected in series equivalent capacitance of a circuit will be 1 1 1 1 1 weg hey cet, (1.19) Cy Gy GO, G, If capacitors are connected in parallel equivalent capacitance. nq = C1 + C, #03 +... +, (1.20) Source transformation. Any practical voltage source is converted into current source. zy Oo oO 7 = y z, a 7; t ° © Fig. 1.32 Similarly any practical current source can be converted into voltage source. ° Ze © N me id Q v-w, Fig. 1.33 Example 1.7. Convert following current source into voltage source. oboe Fig. 1.34 Example 1.8. Convert following voltage source into current source. Seay : = ea noG sao) Fig. 1.3514° Network Analysis and Synthesis 41.10 CURRENT DIVISION FORMULA Suppose two resistances R, and R, are connected in parallel as shown in figure 1.36. V=IR4=1)R;=1R, Ry .Ry oa R= RGR, Reg I, = —"I (by the above 1 relation) = Ry (aie) Similarly ue(5 A ): 1 +R, thus the current in one of the two parallel resistors is found by multiplying the total current by the other resistance and dividing by the sum of the two resistance. For impedance, Z k= 2 IT , («2z,] Zy = i »-(e2z) Example 1.9. Find I, and I, shown in figure 1.38. Ans. 40A, 60 Fig. 1.37 Example 1.10. Find I, and I, shown in figure1.39. Ans, 15 293.75°, 5 248.73° 4 lk 150 00 A toa’ Fig. 1.38 Fig. 1.39 4.11 VOLTAGE DIVISION FORMULA FOR TWO RESISTORS * ™1, { If there are two resistors connected in series REM < Fig. 1.40Introduction 15 V2 =1R, v,=(—F2_lv. R+R ‘Thus the voltage aeron either of the series resistors is equal to the applied voltage times the ratio of that resistance to the total resistance. For n-resistors connected in series. + } v, = { —_—*» ____ " Gao Similarly for impedance, Vv Fig. 1.41 Z, v, =(——_—22_ __ . aa Example 1.11. Find voltage drop across 5 Qresistor as shown in figure 1.42. Ans. 5 V. 12 2a 3a 4a 5a ASV Fig. 142 Example 1.12. Find voltage drop across Z, as shown in figure 1.43. 2290° 2260" a {2 v Fig. 1.43, Ans. Some important formulas for complex number. (@ M 28=M (cos 0 + J sin 0) Gi) M, 20, xMy 20, = MyM, 20, + 0, ) M2 Mi yy 9 (i) St, ze, ~ M, “°° (iv) My 20, + My 28» = (M, cos 6; + Mz cos 6,) + J (M, sin @, + My sin @,) Example 1.18. find Z; + Zz, Z; Z» Zz and Z,~ Zp where 2 Z, = 10 230°, Z, = 5 230° Ans. 15 230°, 50 260°, 2 20°, 5 230°16 Network Analysis and Synthesis 1.12 POWER AND RMS VALUES The power p converted in a resistor (i.e., the rate of conversion of electrical energy to heat) is pit)= IR = i?R. We use lower case p(t) because this is the expression for the instantaneous power at time. Usually, we are interested in the mean power delivered, which is normally written P . P is the total energy converted in one cycle, divided by the period T of the cycle if Pail wae This set of equations are useful because they are exactly those normally used for a resistor in DC electricity. However, one must remember that P is the average power, and V=V,,/2! and I =I,,/2!”. Looking at the integral above, and dividing by R, we see that ] is equal to the square root of the mean value of i*, so I is called the root-mean-square or RMS value. Similarly, V = V,,/2”? ~ 0.71*V,, is the RMS value of the voltage. When talking of AC, RMS values are so commonly used that, unless otherwise stated, you may assume that RMS values are intended*. For instance, normal domestic AC in india is 220 Volts AC with frequency 50 Hz. The RMS voltage is 240 volts, so the peak value V,, = V.2"?= 339 volts. So the active wire goes from +339 volts to -339 volts and back again 50 times per second. Power in a resistor. In a resistor R, the peak power (achieved instantaneously 100 times per second for 50 Hz AC) is V,2/R =i,2*R. As discussed above, the voltage, current and so the power pass through zero volts 100 times per second, so the average power is less than this. ‘The average is exactly as shown above : P = V,2/2R = V7/R. Power in inductors and capacitors. In ideal inductors and capacitors, a sinusoidal cur- rent produces voltages that are respectively 90° ahead and behind the phase of the current. So if i = I, sin ot, the voltages across the inductor and capacitor are V,, cos wt and - V,, cos at respectively. Now the integral of cos*sin over a whole number of cycles is zero. Consequently, ideal inductors and capacitors do not take power from the circuit. sAa Active power P=VIcos@ Reactive power Q=Vising S?=P?+Q? where ¢ is known as power factor angle. cos ¢ is known as power factor. . Fig. 1.44 Power Triangle AA SOLVE Problems SaaRERNEN IS Problem 1.1. In the network system shown in figure 1.46, find the current through Z, using Nodal method, the values of voltages are given in volts and the impedances are given in ohms. mel e values of voltages are git Pe Solution :Introduction 17 By KCL at Node A l=L+ 100 20°-V _ Vv x V-100 2-60° 6+8J 103 6-85 after solving, V=110.83 2 43.32° V__ 110.83 2-43.32" the sls 5s I — 32°. a the current through %y=1= 55 sO zee 11.089 Z~ 133.32°, Ans. Problem 1.2, Determine the current in 1 Qresistor of the network shown in figure 1.46. (UPTU 2003 C.0.) 42 10 10a 62 4 * 9 “a Fig. 1.46 Solution: 10 A current source and 6 Q resistor are connected in parallel, using the source transformation formula. Now applying the mesh analysis formula. In this problem there are three meshes and three unknown variables (I,, I, and I,) as shown in figure 1.47. Fig. 1.47 For Mesh 1 60 = 61, +4 (I, -I,) + 10 = 51, 21, = 25 @) For Mesh 2 4, -1,)+4(,-I) +h =0 -41, + 91,- 41, = oa i= tht (2) For Mesh 3 -10+4(y—Ip)+ 41, =0 - 4p + 81s = 10 > - 21, + 413 =5 w= (8) By equations (2) and (3) = 2p + (-41, + 91,) = 5 9-41, + T= 5 wn (A) By equations (1) and (4) and 1, =4.63A hence current flowing through resistor 1 9 is 1, = 4.63 A. Ans.18 Nenwork Analysis and Synthesis Problem 1.3. Find i and power absorbed by 30 Qresistor as shown in figure 1.48. 2Va nS rs0 Fig. 148 Solution: Applying KVL 120 = 30i + 2V,-Va, 120 = 30: +V, ~@ Vy =-15i 2) ‘, Now by equations (1) and (2) 15i Py = i? x 80 = 64 x 30 = 1920 W Problem 4.4. Find iz and i; as shown in figure 1.49. ig hs 12sint v © ao Solution: Problem 1.5. Find the power absorbed by each elements as shown in figure 1.50. 52 252 202 2V3+VeIntroduction 19 Solution: Applying KVL, 40 = Vy+ V2 + Vs ~ (2V + V2) + (4V;~Vo) i, Va = 25i, Va = 201 5i — 25i - 201 (ve sign shows iis flowing in opposite direction) 2) x 20 = 80 W 260 W =—29w_ | Not absorbing they are supplying energy. Pho, - 0 Problem 1.6. Find v;, v2 and v3 by using Nodal analysis. aa Solution: By applying KCL 6 8=44i,3i,=4A Vy V3 and i=in +ig > ig+ig= 4...) and 4+ig=i, o (2) Pe py Q e Now i= 92 [Using V = IR] =v 8K i, iy = BPS apo Fig. 1.51 Putting the values of iz, is and i, in equations (1) and (2) 0g +02 — 05 = 4 =9 20y— 05 (8) 440) — 0) = 92 = Buy Buy =-8 wn (4) by equations(3)and(4), 2 = Gand v.=5 it means i, direction is reverse (from v to 22) becuase value of v is higher than v2. i= 4A= = %2 2 =445=9V Problem 4.7. Find i,, iy and iy by using Mesh analysis as shown in figure 1.52.20 Network Analysis and Synthesis Solution: Mesh equations at Mesh (1) -7 + 1 (éj~ ig) + 6 +2 (i, —ig) =0 Bij -ig—2ig = 1 atMesh (2) 1 (ip -i,) +2(2 +3 (ig ig) = 0 iy + Gin —3ig =0 at Mesh (3) 2(ig~i:)—6 + 3 (ig ig) + Lig =O -2i -Bigt Gig =6 after solving equations (1), (2) and (3) i, = A, iz = 2A, ig = 9A. Problem 1.8. Find I by using Mesh and Nodal analysis as shown in figure 1.53. ; yo WW : 1 nove “) 2 Q Gravy Fig. 1.53 Solution: By using Mesh analysis : = 20° £0 + 21, + 25 (I, + I) 10=(14+ D1, +I, a) = 10 290° - 25 1, + (I, +1,) 23 =0 10J = 21, + 291, 21g 1, =5. Ans. Putting value of I, in equation (1) 10-5 - 53 = JI, = 5G-) TL hap xZ e504 D I=1,+1,=5-53-5=-53 =5 2-90°A By Nodal analysis : Applying KCL : mine 1,+l=1 [10 < 90° = 10J]Introduction 21 20-V 10290°-V_ V =20 2s v=10V v 10 aa = gg 775 I= 5 490" Ans. Problem 4.9. Find V, by using Nodal analysis as shown in figure 1.55. Va hy 020 & 1020" Fig. 1.55 Solution: Applying KCL at Node N 1,+10 20°=1, -() he Putting these values in equation (1) 10-Vy Vy 2 10-V, +20 =Vy Wa = 30 Vq= 15 V. Ans. +10= carnioer em eeeetn: eeeneCaENENM VIVA VOCE SP enesmasemese ANTES AES What is a network ? ‘What is the difference between network and circuit ? Define active and passive elements. What is active and passive network ? Define unilateral and bilateral network. What is linearity ? What is lumped and distributed network ? Draw V-I characteristic for ideal source. Draw V-I characteristic for ideal and practical source. What is internal resistance ? Define dependent and independent source. Serer eepr Fs22 Network Analysis and Synthesis 12, 13. 4, 15. 16. 1. 18. 19, 20. Draw a circuit diagram for current dependent current source. Define KVL and KCL. Can KVL and KCL apply for dependent source ? ‘What is a Mesh ? What is the advantage of nodal analysis? Define self and mutual inductance. What do you mean by positive temperature co-efficient ? ‘Temperature of a carbon rod increase its resistance increase or decrease. Give some example which have negative temperature co-efficients. eet co seramescomenmenl Objective Questions sumaxsmeascmemensem ms L ‘Two coils having equal resistance but different inductances are connected in series the time con- stant of the series combination is (GATE.-91, IES-93} (a) Sum of the time-constants of the individual coils. (b) Average of the time-constants of the individual coils. (©) Geometric mean of the time-constants of the individual coils. (@) Product of the time-constants of the individual coils. All the resistances in figure 1.56 are 1 Q each. The value of current I is (GATE-92) 1 2 4 8 a ob) =A =A =A (@ A ® OF @ 3h ¥ Fig. 1.56 An ideal voltage source will charge an ideal capacitor (a) In infinite time () Exponentially (©) Instantaneously (@) None of the above. (GATE-97) A practical current source is usually represented by (@) Aresistance in series with an ideal current source (8) A resistance in parallel with an ideal current source (c) A resistance in parallel with an ideal voltage source (d) None of the above. (GATE-97) If the length of a wire of resistance R is uniformly stretched to n times its original valye ; its new resistance is (a) aR oF © mR @ &. (GATE-98) n m ‘When the plate area of a parallel plate capacitor is increased keeping the capacitor voltage constant, the force between the plates. (GATE-98) (a) Increase (b) DecreaseIntroduction 23 (©) Remains constants (d) May increase or decrease depending on the metal making up the plates. 7. The voltage phaser of a circuit is 10 215° V and the current phaser is 2 2~ 45°A. The active and the reactive powers in the circuit are (GATE-99) (a) 10 W and 17.34 V Ar (6) 5 Wand 8.66 V Ar (©) 20 Wand 60 V Ar (@) 20/2 Wand 10/2 V Ar. 8 The circuit shown in figure 1.57 is equivalent to a load of 4 8 @ 52 ) 59 @ 49 (@) 20. (GATE-2000) ee 20 4a ai Fig. 1.57 9. Inthe circuit shown, the V(t) and i(t) will be (a) 1V, 1A (&) 1V,6A (©) 5V, 5A (d) None of the above. (ES-92) Ko hs of woSta ®, Fig. 1.58 10. Twowires A and B of the same material and length of L and 2L have radius r and 2r, respectively, the ratio of their specific resistance will be (a) 1:1 () 1:2 @ 1:4 (@) 1:8 (ES.92) 11. Unit of capacitance is Coulomb Volt - Daraf. @ Sen o (©) Coulomb Volt (d) Dar 12, ‘The rate of rise of voltage in a capacitor (2uF) is 20p/sec. the value of current passing through the capacitor is (BSNL-2002) @ 40 () 20 © 10A @ 5A 18, The function “LY js called incremental (@) Resistance (6) Capacitor © Constant (@ Inductor. 14, An element having characteristic in current (i) and flux (6) plane is called (a) Resistor (®) Capacitor (©) Inductor (@) Current flux. 15. Two voltage sources can be connected in parallel they have equal (a) Magnitude (b) Frequency (©) Phase (d) All of these.24 Network Analysis and Synthesis 16. The number of independent equations to solve a network is equal to numbre of (@) Branches (b) Nodes (© (Nodes- 1) (@) Chords. 17. ‘Two equal impedance 10 260° are connected in parallel their equivalent impedance will be (a) 20 260° (b) 10 2120° (c) 15 2120° (d) 5 260°. 18. Two series connected batteries supplying 2A, each carries a current of (a) 1A (b) 2A @) 4A (d) BA. 19. A 40.0 capacitor is connected in series with 300 resistor across a100 V single phase supply. The power dissipated in the circuit will be (a) 30 () 60 © 100 (d) 120. 20. The voltage source transformation of current source between AB in figure 1.59 will be a series combination of (a) 10V,32 () 15V,2a © 15V,89 (d) -15V,39 At 22 EX B- Fig. 1.59 Answers 1 ®) 2d) 3. ©) 4. (6) 5. ©) 6. (a) 1. 8. () %. (©) 10. (a) IL (@) 12. (a) 13. (6) 14. @) 15. @) 16. (d) 11.@ 18. (6) 19. (d) 20. (d) Unsolved Problems samemsemmmmamzumemcssre 1. Determine i,, ig and, by using Mesh analysis as shown in figure 1.60. TAns. 9A, 2.5A, 2A] (Ans. 15A, 11A, 17A]Introduction 25 | 8. Find I by using Nodal and Mesh analysis as shown in figure 1.62. | 20 1020" VQ) 24 Fig. 1.62 [Ans. I = 52 - 90°A] 4. Find I by using Nodal and Mesh analysis as shown in figure 1.63. TOOTS 1k 2 2 1020 vO) 2: 10200" v Fig. 1.63, {Ans, 11.18 2 63.3°A] 5. Determine voltage drop across 2 @ resistor by using Nodal analysis as shown in figure 1.64, Fig. 1.64 6. Find voltage drop across 20 resistor by using Mesh analysis (figure 1.64). 7. Find voltage drop across 2 Q resistor as shown in figure 1.65 by using Nodal analysis. WWW AWWW 12 10 102007 ya 1)520°A o 1020°V Fig. 1.6526 Network Analysis and Synthesis 8. Find I,, 1, by using Mesh analysis as shown in figure 1.66. LI 8 12a 10v— 30 Fig. 1.66 9, Determine I, by using Nodal analysis as shown in figure. 1.67. I 2a 4a 220" 2 “0g Qearv Fig. 1.67 [Ans. I, = 3.6 2123.7° A]Kirchhoff’s Laws and Their Applications 2.1 INTRODUCTION Generally speaking, network analysis is any structured technique used to mathematically analyze a circuit (a “network” of interconnected components). This chapter presents a few techniques useful in analyzing such complex circuits, we wn Fig.2.1 ‘To analyze the above circuit, one would first find the equivalent of R, and R, in parallel, then add R, in series to arrive at a total resistance. Then, taking the voltage of battery E, with that total circuit resistance, the total current could be calculated through the use of Ohm’s law (1 = E/R), then that current figure used to calculate voltage drops in the circuit. All in all, a fairly simple procedure. However, the addition of just one more battery could change all of that : Ry Rs Fig.2228 Network Analysis and Synthesis Resistors R, and R, are no longer in parallel with each other, because E,, has been inserted into R,’s branch of the circuit. Upon closer inspection, it appears there are no two resistors in this circuit directly in series or parallel with each other. This is the crux of our problem : in series-parallel analysis, we started off by identifying sets of resistors that were directly in series or parallel with each other, and then reduce them to single, equivalent resistances. If there are no resistors in a simple series or parallel configuration with each other, then what can we do? It should be clear that this seemingly simple circuit, with only three resistors, is impossible to reduce as a combination of simple series and simple parallel sections : It is something different altogether. Fig. 2.3 Here we have a bridge circuit, and for the sake of example we will suppose that it is not balanced (ratio R/R, not equal to ratio RY/R,). If it were balanced, there would be zero current through Ry, and it could be approached as a series/parallel combination circuit (R,-Ry // R,-R,). However, any current through R, makes a series/parallel analysis impossible. R, is not in series with R, because there's another path for electrons to flow through Ry. Neither is. R, in series with R, for the same reason. Likewise, R, is not in parallel with R, because R; is separating their bottom leads. Neither is R, in parallel with Rg. ‘Example 2.1. Find the value of current in resistance Ry shown in figure 2.3 where Ry = 1.2 Ry =2 2 R,=3 QR; =6 Qand Ry =2 QE, =10V. Solution.Kirchbofps Laws and their Applications 29 Rilke Ry Rs therefore current flowing through R, = 0A (balanced bridge circuit). Example 2.2. Find the value of current in R, as shown in figure 2.3 other parameters are same as use in Example 2.1. Ans. I = 2.54 Although it might not be apparent at this point, the heart of the problem is the existence of multiple unknown quantities. At least in a series/parallel combination circuit, there was a way to find total resistance and total voltage, leaving total current as a single unknown value to calculate (and then that current was used to satisfy previously unknown variables in the reduction process until the entire circuit could be analyzed). With these problems, more than one parameter (variable) is unknown at the most basic level of circuit simplification. With the two-battery circuit, there is no way to arrive at a value for “total resistance”, because there are two sources of power to provide voltage and current (we would need two “total” resistances in order to proceed with any Ohm’s Law calculations). With the unbalanced bridge circuit, there is such a thing as total resistance across the one battery (paving the way for a calculation of total current), but that total current immediately splits up into unknown proportions at each end of the bridge, so no further Ohm’s Law calculations for voltage (E=IR) can be carried out. ‘So what can we do when we are faced with multiple unknowns in a circuit ? The answer is initially found in a mathematical process known as simultaneous equations or systems of equations, whereby multiple unknown variables are solved by relating them to each other in multiple equations. In a scenario with only one unknown (such as every Ohm’s Law equation we have dealt with thus far), there only needs to be a single equation to solve for the single unknown. E=IR(E is unknown ; I and R are known) we (2.1), or I= z (lis unknown ; E and R are known) (2.2) or R= © (Ris unknown ; E and I are known) (2.3) However, when we are solving for multiple unknown values, we need to have the same number of equations as we have unknowns in order to reach a solution. There are several methods of solving simultaneous equations, all rather intimidiating and all too complex for explanation in this chapter. Later on we'll see that some clever people have found tricks to avoid having to use simulta- ‘neous equations on these types of circuits. We call these tricks network theorems, and we will explore a few later in chapter 8. Note: * Some circuit configurations (“networks”) cannot be solved by reduction according to series/parallel circuit rules, due to multiple unknown values. * Mathematical techniques to solve for multiple unknowns (called “simultaneous equations” or “systems”) can be applied to basic Laws of circuits to solve networks. 2.2. BRANCH CURRENT METHOD ‘The first and most straight forward network analysis technique is called the Branch Current * Method. In this method, we assume directions of currents in.a network, then write equations30 Network Analysis and Synthesis describing their relationships to each other through Kirchhoff's and Ohm's Laws. Once we have one equation for every unknown current, we can solve the simultaneous equations and determine all currents, and therefore all voltage drops in the network. Let’s use this circuit to illustrate the method. Ry Ry vv VW 4a 19 20 SR Fig.2.4 The first step is to choose a node (junction of wires) in the circuit to use as a point of reference for our unknown currents. I'll choose the node joining the right of R,, the top of Ry, and the left of Ry. ‘Chosen node Bi | Ry WW WW 420 18 2a Sk, Fig. 2.5 At this node, guess which directions the three wires’ currents take, labeling the three currents as I,,I,, and Iy, respectively. Bear in mind that these directions of current are specu- lative at this point. Fortunately, if it turns out that any of our guesses were wrong, we will know when we mathematically solve for the currents (any “wrong” current directions will show up as negative numbers in our solution). Fig. 2.6 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) tells us that the algebraic sum of currents entering and exiting a node must equal to zero, so we can relate these three currents (Ij, Iz and I,) to eachKirchhoff's Laws and their Applications 31 other in a single equation. For the sake of convention, I'll denote any current entering the node as positive in sign, and any current exiting the node as negative in sign. According to KCL, Algebraic sum of currents entering the node = Algebraic sum of current exiting the node. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) applied to currents at node (N) I,+-l=0 wo (2.4) The next step is to label all voltage drop polarities across resistors according to the assumed directions of the currents. Remember that the “upstream” end of a resistor will always be negative, and the “downstream” end of a resistor positive with respect to each other, since electrons are negatively charged : WV + WV arya iy “— “18. h 20 SP Fig. 2.7 The battery polarities, of course, remain as they were according to their symbology (short end negative, long end positive). It is okay if the polarity of a resistor’s voltage drop doesn’t match with the polarity of the nearest battery, so long as the resistor voltage polarity is correctly based on the assumed direction of current through it. In some cases we may discover that current will be forced backwards through a battery, causing this very effect. The impor- tant thing to remember here is to base all your resistor polarities and subsequent calculations on the directions of current(s) initially assumed. As stated earlier, if your assumption happens to be incorrect, it will be apparent once the equations have been solved (by means of a nega- tive solution). The magnitude of the solution, however, will still be correct. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) tells us that the algebraic sum of all voltages (Drop or rise) ina loop must equal zero, so we can create more equations with current terms (I,, I, and I) for our simultaneous equations. To obtain a KVL equation, we must tally voltage drops in a loop of the circuit, as though we were measuring with a real voltmeter. I'll choose to trace the left loop of this circuit first, starting from the upper-left corner and moving counter-clockwise (the choice of starting points and directions is arbitrary). The result will look like this : Voltmeter indicates : - 28 V Ry Ry Fig.2.8Fig.2.9 Voltmeter indicates ; a positive voltage Voltmeter indicates : a positive voltage Fig. 2.11 Having completed our trace of the left loop, we add these voltage indications together for a sum of zero : Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) applied to voltage drops in left loop —28 +0+ Ep + Epi =0 w= (2.5) Ofcourse, we don't yet know what the voltage is across R, or Ry, so we can't insert those values into the equation as numerical figures at this point. However, we do know that all three voltages must algebraically add to zero, so the equation is true. We can goa step further and express the unknown voltages as the product of the corresponding unknown currents (I, and I,) and their respective resistors, following Ohm's Law (E = IR), as well as eliminate the 0 term : ~28 + Eg + Egy =0 w= (2.6)Kirchhoff’s Laws and their Applications 33 Ohm's Law = E=IR ... Substituting IR for E in the KVL equation ... —28+1,R,+1,R, =0 (2.7) Since we know what the values of all the resistors are in ohms, we can just substitute those figures into the equation to simplify things a bit : ~28 + 21, +41, =0 (2,8) You might be wondering why we went through all the trouble of manipulating this equation from its initial form (~ 28 + Epp + Ep). After all, the last two terms are still unknown, so what advantage is there to expressing them in terms of unknown voltages or as unknown currents (multiplied by resistances) ? The purpose in doing this is to get the KVL equation expressed using the same unknown variables as the KCL equation, for this is a necessary requirement for any simultaneous equation solution method. To solve for three unknown currents (I, Ip, and I;), we must have three equations relating these three currents (not voltages !) together. Applying the same steps to the right loop of the circuit (starting at the chosen node and moving counter-clockwise), we get another KVL equation : Voltmeter indicates: a negative voltage (Voltage drop) Ry Fig. 2.12 Voltmeter indicates : OV R, WW Re Black) Red Fig. 2.13, Voltmeter indicates : + 7V Fig.2.1434 _Nenwork Analysis and Synthesis Voltmeter indicates ; @ negative voltage Ry Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) applied to voltage drops in right loop Epo +0+7-Ens = 0 (2.9) Knowing now that the voltage across each resistor can be and should be expressed as the product of the corresponding current and the (known) resistance of each resistor, we can re- write the equation as such : ~2,+7- 11, =0 (2.10) [Epp = IgRy = 21) Now by equation 2.4, 2.8 and 2.10, I,-1,+1,=0 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 41, + 21; + 01, = 28 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law O1, - 21, - 11, =-7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law LT | All three variables represented in all three equations Using whatever solution techniques are available to us, we should arrive at a solution for the three unknown current values : Solution: i So, I, is 5 amps, I, is 4 amps, and I, is a negative 1 amp. But what does “negative” current mean ? In this case, it means that our assumed direction for 1, was opposite of its real direc- tion. Going back to our original circuit, we can re-draw the current arrow for I; (and re-draw the polarity of R,’s voltage drop to match).Kirchhoff's Laws and their Applications 35 Now that we know the magnitude of all currents in this circuit, we can calculate voltage drops across all resistors with Ohm’s Law (E = IR): Eq = IR, = (5 A) (4.9)=20V Eqe = IpRz = (4 A) (2)=8V Egg = 1gR, = (1A) (19)=1V Example 2.3. Find the value of I as shown in figure 2.17. Solution. By applying KCL — Algebraic sum of current entering at Node N = Algebraic sum of current exiting at Node N Fig. 2.17 Example 2.4. Find V; and I; with the help of Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL). V, = e™ and I, = 2e* Ans. I, = 10.5(e*-1), V, =21(1-t-e) Note: Steps to follow for the “Branch Current” method of analysis : 1, Choose a node and assume directions of currents. (Current en- tering into a passive clement is assume to be positive and leaving as to be negative.) [—\WwWwWw7—_] Fig. 2.18 2. Write a KCL equation relating currents at the node. 3. Write KVL equations for each loop of the circuit, substituting the product IR for E in each resistor term of the equations. 4. Solve for unknown branch currents (simultaneous equations). 5. Ifany solution is negative, then the assumed direction of current for that solution is wrong ! 6. Solve for voltage drops across all resistors (E = IR).36 Network Analysis and Synthesis Example 2.5. Find the value of current in Ry by using Kirchhoff's Laws. Solution. By Applying KCL at Node N y I+ =I; (Q) In this case there are three close loop (10 V, Ry, Ry, 5 V1, 15 V, Rp, Ry, 5 VI and [10 V, Ry, Ry, 5 V1] Now applying the KVL in first and second loop. ~10 + 21, ~ 2p +5 =0 = 21, -21y=5 (2) -5 +2, +1,-5=0= 2, +1,=10 8) By equation (1) and (3) 2y +1, +1y = 101, + 31, = 10 w= (A) By equation (2) and (4) 15 35 =F andl, = 2 Current flowing in Ry =1;=1,+1p= 2 = 6.25 Amp. Example 2.6. Find the value of current in Ry by using Kirchhoff's Laws. ‘Ans. 3.75 A “Spiov Mesh Current Method The Mesh current method is quite similar to the branch current method in that it uses simul- taneous equations, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, and Ohm's Law to determine unknown currents in a network. It differs from the branch current method in that it does not use Kirchhoff's Current Law, and it is usually able to solve a circuit with less unknown variables and less simultaneous equations, which is especially nice if you are forced to solve without a caleula- tor.Kirchhoff's Laws and their Applications 37 Let's see how this method works on the same example problem : Ry Ry ’ we 2 SR Fig. 2.19 The first step in the mesh current method is to identify “loops” within the circuit encom- passing all components. In our example circuit, the loop formed by Ey, Rj, and R, will be the first while the loop formed by Ey, Ry, and R, will be the second. The strangest part of the mesh current method is envisioning circulating currents in each of the loops. Fig. 2.20 The choice of each current’s direction is entirely arbitrary, just as in the branch current method, but the resulting equations are easier to solve if the currents and going the same direction through intersecting components (note how currents I, and I, are both going “up” through resistor Rj, where they “mesh”, or intersect). If the assumed direction of a mesh current is wrong, the answer for that current will have a negative value. R, Ry WW WS 4a 19 aG) £,— Vv 2a Fig.2.21 Using Kirehhoff’s Voltage Law, we can now step around each of these loops, generating equations representative of the component voltage drops and polarities. As with the branch current method, we will denote a resistor’s voltage drop as the product of the resistance (in ohms) and its respective mesh current (that quantity being unknown at this point). Where two currents mesh together, we will write that term in the equation with resistor current being the sum of the two meshing currents.38 Network Analysis and Synthests -28+2(1, +1,) +41, =0 «+. (2.11) [For mesh 1] Notice that the middle term of the equation uses the sum of mesh currents I, and I, as the current through resistor R,. This is because mesh currents I, and I; are going the same direction through Rp, and thus complement each other. Distributing the coefficient of 2 to the I, and I, terms, and then combining I, terms in the equation, we can simplify as such : ~28+2 (I, +1,)+41, =0 Original form of equation distributing to terms within parentheses = 28 + 21; +21, +41, =0 combining like terms - 28 +61, + 2, = 0 31, +1, = 14 w= (2.12) Simplified form of equation At this time we have one equation with two unknowns. To be able to solve for two unknown mesh currents, we must have two equations. If we trace the other loop of the circuit, we can obtain another KVL equation and have enough data to solve for the two currents. -7+1,+2(,+1,)=0 (2.18) ‘Simplifying the equation as before, we end up with : 21, +31, =7 (2.14) Now, with two equations, we can use one of several methods to mathematically solve for the unknown currents I, and Ij. Now by equation 2.12 and 2.14, Solutions : =5A L=-1A Knowing that these solutions are values for mesh currents, notbranch currents, we must go back to our diagram to see how they fit together to give currents through all components : Fig. 2.22 The solution of - 1 amp for 1, means that our initially assumed direction of current was incorrect. In actuality, Iy is flowing in a clockwise direction at a value of (positive) 1 amp:Kirchhoff’s Laws and their Applications 39 This change of current direction from what was first assumed will alter the polarity of the voltage drops across R, and R, due to current Ij. From here, we can say that the current through R, is 5 amps, with the voltage drop across R, being the product of current and resist- ance (E = IR), 20 volts (positive on the left and negative on the right). Also, we can safely say that the current through R, is 1 amp, with a voltage drop of Ivolt (E = IR), positive on the left and negative on the right. But what is happening at Ry ? Mesh current I; is going “down” through R,, while mesh current I, is going “up” through Rp. To determine the actual current through Rp, we must see how mesh currents I, and I, interact (in this case they're in opposition), and algebraically add them to arrive at a final value. Since 1, is going “down” at 5 amps, and I, is going “up” at 1 amp, thereal current through R, must be a value of 4 amps, going “down”. + Ry 49 hia 12 28V Fig. 2.24 Acurrent of 4 amps through R,’s resistance of 2 gives us a voltage drop of 8 volts (E = IR), positive on the top and negative on the bottom. ‘The primary advantage of mesh current analysis is that it generally allows for the solution of a large network with fewer unknown values and fewer simultaneous equations. Our exam- ple problem took three equations to solve the branch current method and only two equations using the mesh current method. This advantage is much greater as networks increase in complexity : v Wie Fig. 2.25 To solve this network using branch currents, we would have to establish five variables to account for each and every unique current in the circuit (I, through I;). This would require five equations for solution, in the form of two KCL equations and three KVL equations (two equations for KCL at the nodes, and three equations for KVL in each loop) :40 Network Analysis and Synthesis Fig. 2.26 (2.15) Kirchhoff’s Current Law at node 1 . (2.16) Kirchhoff’s Current Law at node 2 (2.17) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in left loop = 1,Ry + Ry + IR, = 0 ... (2.18) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in middle loop ~1,Ry + Ey—I;R, = 0... (2.19) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in right loop I suppose if you have nothing better to do with your time than to solve for five unknown variables with five equations, you might not mind using the branch current method of analysis for this circuit. For those of us who have better things to do with our time, the mesh current method is a whole lot easier, requiring only three unknowns and three equations to solve : Ry Ry Fig. 2.27 -E, +R, (1, +1,)+1,R, = 0... (2.20) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in left loop =~ Ry (Ig + 1) - Ry (Ip + Ig) - Rye 0... (2.21) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in middle loop R, (Ig + Ip) + Ey + IgRs = 0 ... (2.22) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in right loop Less equations to work with is a decided advantage, especially when performing simultane- ous equation solution by hand (without a calculator). Another type of circuit that lends itself well to mesh current is the unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge. Take this cir Since the ratios of R,/R, and R/R, are unequal, we know that there will be voltage across resistor R, and some amount of current passing through it. As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, this type of circuit is irreducible by normal series-parallel analysis, and may only be analyzed by some other method.Kirchboff’s Laws and their Applications 41 Fig. 2.28 We could apply the branch current method to this circuit, but it would require six currents (1, through I,), leading to a very large set of simultaneous equations to solve. Using the mesh current method, though, we may solve for all currents and voltages with much fewer vari- ables. The first step in the mesh current method is to draw just enough mesh currents to account for all components in the circuit. Looking at our bridge circuit, it should be obvious where to place two of these currents. Fig. 2.29 ‘The directions of these mesh currents, of course, is arbitrary. However, two mesh currents is not enough in this circuit, because neither I, nor I, goes through the battery. So, we must add a third mesh current, I, :42 Network Analysis and Synthesis ‘Here, Ihave chosen I, to loop from the bottom side of the battery, through R,, through Rj, and back to the top side of the battery. This is not the only path I could have chosen for Is, but it seems the simplest. Fig. 2.31 Notice something very important here : at resistor Ry, the polarities for the respective mesh currents do not agree. This is because those mesh currents (I, and I,) are going through R, in different directions. Normally, we try to avoid this when establishing out mesh curtent directions, but in a bridge circuit it is unavoidable : Two of the mesh currents will inevitably clash through a component. Generating a KVL equation for the top loop of the bridge, starting from the top node and tracing in a anti-clockwise direction: 501, + 100 (1, + I) + 150 (1, +1,)=0 (2.23) Original form of equation distributing to terms within parentheses 501 + 1001, + 1001, + 1501, + 1501, = 0 vw: (2,24) combining like terms 3001, +1001,+1501,=0 ...(2.25) Simplified form of equation In this equation, we represent the common directions of currents by their sums through common resistors. For example, resistor Rs, with a value of 100 Q, has its voltage drop repre- sented in the above KVL equation by the expression 100 (1, + I,), since both currents I, and I, go through R, from right to left. The same may be said for resistor Ry, with its voltage drop expression shown as 150 (I, + I,), since both I, and I, go from bottom to top through that resistor, and thus work together to generate its voltage drop. Generating a KVL equation for the bottom loop of the bridge will not be so easy, since we have two currents going against each other through resistor Ry. Here is how I do it (starting at the right-hand node, and tracing clockwise) : 100 (1, + I,) + 300 (II) + 2501, = 0 Origina’ forr, equation ... (2.26) distributing to terms within parentheses 1001, + 1001, + 3001, ~ 3001 + 2501, = 0 ... (2.27) combining like terms - * 1001, + 6501, . ‘Simplified form of equation Note how the second term in the equation’s original form has resistor R,’s value of 300 2 multiplied by the difference between I, and I, (I~ Ig). This is how we represent the combined effect of two mesh currents going in opposite directions through the same component. Choos- ing the appropriate mathematical signs is very important here : 300 (Iz —I,) does not mean the same thing as 300 (I, —I,). I chose to write 300 (I, - I,) because I was thinking first of I's effectKirchhofps Laws and their Applications 43 (creating a positive voltage drop, measuring with an imaginary voltmeter across R,, red lead on the bottom and black lead on the top), and secondarily of Iy's effect (creating a negative voltage drop, red lead on the bottom and black lead on the top). If had thought in terms of I,'s effect first and I,'s effect secondarily, holding my imaginary voltmeter leads in the same posi- tions (red on bottom and black on top), the expression would have been — 300 (I; - I,). Note that this expression is mathematically equivalent to the first one : + 300 (I, ~ I). Well, that takes care of two equations, but I still need a third equation to complete my simultaneous equation set of three variables, three equations. This third equation must also include the battery's voltage, which up to this point does not appear in either two of the previous KVL equations. To generate this equation, I will trace a loop again with my imagi- nary voltmeter starting from the battery’s bottom (negative) terminal, stepping anti-clockwise (again, the direction in which I step is arbitrary, and does not need to be the same as the direction of the mesh current in that loop) : 24 — 150 (I, + 1,) - 300 (I,-I,) = 0 (2.29) Original form of equation distributing to terms within parentheses 24 — 15013 — 1501, - 3001, + 3001, = 0 (2.30) combining like terms ~ 1501, + 3001, - 4501, =- 24... (2.31) Simplified form of equation Solving for I,, Ip, and I; using whatever simultaneous equation method we prefer = 3001, + 1001, + 1501, 1001, + 6501, - 3001, 1501, + 3001, - 4501, Solutions : By the above three equations I, =-93.793 mA 1, =77.241 mA I, = 136.092 mA ‘The negative value arrived at for I, tells us that the assumed direction for that mesh cur- rent was incorrect. Thus, the actual current values through each resistor is a3 such : Fig. 2.32 136.092 mA - 93.793 mA = 42.299 mA. 13.793 mA gg = 1, - 1p = 93.793 mA - 77.241 mA = 16.552 mA 3-h, 36.092 mA — 77.241 mA = 58.851 mA. 7.241 mA44 Network Analysis and Synthesis Calculating voltage drops across each resistor : Fig. 2.33 Ey = IgiRy = (42.299 mA) (1509) = 6.3448 V Epo = IpaRp = (93.793 mA) (50.2) = 4.6897 V Eg = IpgRg = (16.552 mA) (100.9) = 1.6552 V Expy = IpaRy = (58.851 mA) (3002) = 17.6552 V Eps = IpgRs = (77.241 mA) (250) = 19.3103 V Note : Steps to follow for the“Mesh Current” method of analysis : 1. Draw mesh currents in each loops of circuit, enough to account for all components. 2. Write KVL equations for loop of the circuit, substituting the product IR for E in each resistor term of the equation. Where two mesh currents intersect through a component, express the current as the algebraic sum of those two mesh currents (é.., I, + I,) if the currents go in the same direction through that component. If not, express the current as the difference (i.e., Iy—I,). Solve for unknown mesh currents (simultaneous equations). If any solution is negative, then the assumed current direction is wrong ! Algebraically add mesh currents to find current in components sharing multiple mesh currents. Solve for voltage drop across all resistors (E = IR). Spe Soon ehucter mores Solved Problems m@smwununmsrssaemen=mm Problem 2.1. Find value of current passing through R,, Ry Ry R, and Rg using loop current analysis or mesh analysis. Solution: Assume the loop currents are I, and I, as shown in figure 2.34. R212 = 6.82 Wt SEWN y= 150 Lo ov G) TE) = 15V Rvaze Ra Fig. 2.34Kirchloff’s Laws and their Applications 45 By applying the KVL in mesh (1) and (2) -10+1, +1.5(1,-1y)+2.21,=0 = 4.71, - 1.51, = 10 (D) 1.5 (1, -1,) + 6.81, + 15-4.71, =0 1.51, - 131, = 15 wn (2) By equations (1) and (2) I, =-2.59 A and 1, =-145A Negative sign shows the direction of current is opposite at we assume. The direction of currents I, and I, are as shown in figure. 19 esa WV v= ©) 150 () iv 222 472 Current passing through R, = I, = 2.59 A Current passing through R, = I = 1.45 A Current passing through R, = I, - 1, = 2.59-1.45 =114A Current passing through R, = I, = 2.59 A Current passing through R, = I, = 1.45 A Problem 2.2. Determine the values of I, and I, by using mesh analysis (figure 2.35). Zz cs 620° a4 Na e ezov©) G)« Hl @) Z,|320° 2 Fig. 2.35 Solution: By using mesh analysis in mesh (1) and (2) for mesh 1 -920° + (620°) I, - 33 (1, I) = 0 or 620° I, 35 (1, -1,) = 920° (2-J) 1, + Jy ~V, = 2V, + 320° I 33.1, -1)) =I46 Network Analysis and Synthesis By solving equations (1) and (2) I, = 1.3 22.4°A and I, = 1.24 2-16°A Problem 2.3. Determine V; by using mesh analysis as shown in figure 2.36. Fig. 2.36 Solution: Applying the source transformation method and converting the dependent current source with parallel resistance 6 to dependent voltage source, as shown in figure 2.37. Wwe 102 + .? Sea “9 Or Og Dry, Fig. 2.37 Now applying mesh analysis for mesh 1 100 + 121, +2(I;-I,)=0 or 141, - 21, = 100 oo @) for Mesh 2, 2 (ly -1,) + 101, + 61, + 3V,= 0 => — 21, + 181, =-3V, and V, =~ 2(ly-I,) or 2, -I) ~21, + 181, = - 61, + 61, > 41, + 121, = w= (2) by equations (1) and (2) 1, =6.32A, 1 =-2.27A Problem 2.4. Determine I, by using mesh analysis as shown in figure 2.38. Fig. 2.38Kirchhofp's Laws and their Applications 47 Solution: Applying source transformation method and converting current source into volt- age source. Now there is a single Mesh. h Wy 12 22 1Q Dah Fig. 2.39 Applying mesh analysis —441,+21,+1,-51,=0 4=-], l=-4A Negative sign shows the direction of current is opposite as we assume. Problem 2.5. For the network of figure below write a set of loop equations using Kirchhoff’s Law with loop currents. (AMIE, Summer 1983) Fig. 2.40 Solution: Since there are three loops in the given network, there will be three loop equa- tions. If the operating frequency is © ~V(t) + JoLgiy + (i - ig) 1 . ro +-i9 (soe sJat,)=0 ToC; ~ «eligi ~ 7) Jolais + a-is) Sage +t) Tag, = Jot, ‘These equations can be written in an appropriate form as ToLgig + igR + (sot + 5g) nH +a-) Fog, =e 1 1 -—2__i,{_1 +501, )=0 Voi (Joly + Zot gas Hola) aes a aL, ) ¥ 4. x - 1 i, - ——+— |-—> =0 ww (2) 4 JoG, +i(s0t.+535-+ 335.) ToC; 2)48 Network Analysis and Synthesis (3) ~is(s0t, + 2 |-32 sas + [Jos +R Jol + ste) Problem 2.6, Determine the voltage V in the circuit of figure 2.41. Using the source transforma- tion technique or any other method. IAMIE, Summer 1981] 30 20 S50 D Sea “TI Fig. 2.41 Solution: The given network can be transformed to the circuit shown in figure using source transformation method. 32 82 10V 20 WCW | Ssa 160 CG) 100) | Fig. 2.42 By using Mesn analysis, — 160 + 81- 10+ 21+ 101 =0 70 op 785 Amp. V=Ix10=85V Problem 2.7. Determine the voltage V in the circuit of figure 2.43 below using nodal analysis. IAMIE, Summer 1981] 62 , 22 5 Fig. 2.43 Solution: Let V, and Vg be the voltage at Node A and B respectively and [Vp = Applying KCL at A -KirchhofPs Laws and their Applications 49 iy =ip +ig () and y= 8 Ma i= Ma ig = Ma Me Putting the values i, iz and ig in equation (1) 96-Vy _ Va, Va-Vo 6 2 2 or 2(96-V,) = 6 (2V,-Vp) 96 -V, = 6V,-3Vp TV,-3Vp = 96 (2) Applying KCL at B- ig + 6 = iy 5IV,-Vp+12]=2V, = 5V,-7Vp=-60 (8) By equation (2) and (3) Vp= 26.47V=V Problem 2.8. Write the mesh equations for the network show in figure 2.44 and find the power absorbed by the 3 Qresistor. [AMIE, Winter 1987] _ yy 22 Sra a S Fig. 2.44 Solution: By using source transformation formula —w+—50 Network Analysis and Synthesis By applying mesh analysis for mesh 1 -13+51,+1(,-1,)+2=0 61,-1,=11 for mesh 2 -2+1(-1))+3h=0 -Iy+4I,=2 or —611 + 241, = 12 By equations (1) and (3) 23 1,= 23 L=1A 1,=24 current in 3Q resistor = 1,=2A Power = (2)?x3=129 oo) (2) -(3) Problem 2.9. Convert the network shown in figure into a single voltage source with a suitable resistance. @ 20 A 4 @ 12 @y) 20 S10 Fig. 2.46 Solution: First convert all the voltage sources to current sources. 20 w+ 20 19 4a cat -o4}~ Ta 5 Fig.2.47Kirchhofp's Laws and their Applications 51 Combining the two current sources into a single, and two resistors are connected in paral- lel. (a) (e) 43.Graph Theory 3.1. INTRODUCTION ‘A combination of active and passive elements are known as electric network. Any electrical network can be converted into a graph this is known as topology. In topology only the geometrical pattern of a network is considered and no distinction is made between the different types of physical elements, The basic elements, according to topology, are branches, nodes and loops. When all the elements (Voltage Source, Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor) is a network are replaced by line segment and the junction points by Nodes. 3.2 RULES FOR DRAWING A GRAPH 1, Ideal current sources are open circuit and ideal voltage sources are short circuit. 2. Ifresistance is in series with active (voltage source) and passive (L and C) elements. It is assumed to be internal resistance of the elements. If the given resistor is external resis- tor then this is a separate branch. 3. (a) A passive element is in series with a current source is not a branch. —E Fig.3.4 ( A passive element in parallel with a voltage source is not a branch. Fig.3.2{@) curcuit (b) undirected graph (6) directed graph Fig.3.3 3.3 SOME USEFUL DEFINITIONS 3.3.1 Connected graph. A graph is said to be connected if'a path can be found between any two nodes of it. Fig. 3.3 (b) is a connected graph. A graph whose branches are oriented is called a directed graph (Fig. 3.3 c) otherwise graph is undirected as shown in figure 3.3(6). 3.3.2. Linear graph. A linear graph or simply a graph is a collection of nodes and branches. It shows the geometrical interconnection of the elements of a network. 3.3.3 Planar circuit. A circuit which may be drawn on a plane surface in such a way that no branch passes over or under any other branch, as shown in figure 3.3 (a). 3.3.4 Nomplanar circuit. Any circuit which is not planar as shown in figure 3.4. Fig.3.4 3.3.5 Node. A node is defined to be an end point of a line segment or an isolated point. A node is sometimes also called a vertex or a junction. It is represented by black dots as shown in figure 3.3(a). 3.3.6 Branch. A branch is a line segment which represents a network element or a combina- tion of elements connected between two points. Each branch joins two distinct nodes as shown in figure 3.3(a). 3.3.7 Loop. A closed path is known as loop but inner closed path is known as Mesh, as shown in figure 3.5. 3.3.8 Mesh. The mesh is a property of a planar circuit and is not defined for a non planar circuit. We define a mesh as a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.54 Nenwork Analysis and Synthesis Fig.3.5 3.3.9. Tree. Itis the subgraph of connected graph containing all the nodes of the graph, and is itself a connected graph and contains no loops. Many trees can be found for a graph. The branches of the tree are called twigs. N = Number of Nodes 0. @ ® Number of twigs = N-1 Properties of a tree : 1. Ina tree, there exists one and only one path between any two nodes. . It should have all nodes. |. There should be no closed path. . Each tree has (n — 1) branches. The rank of a tree is (n— 1), where n is number of nodes or © vertex. Fig.3.6 GraphG It should be noted that even a simple graph has many different trees. Consider the graph shown in figure 3.6. It contains 8 trees as shown in figure 3.7. 3.3.10 Cotree. Cotree means complement of tree. The branches of a graph not included in the tree are called chords or links. The set of links of a tree constitutes the cotree. eae @ Fig.3.7 Trees of graph G Number of links = B - (N- 1) = B-N + 1, where Bis the total number of branches of the graph. Properties of cotree : 1. Path may be open or closed. 2. Total number of link should be (J =b —n + 1) whereb, number of branches and n, number of nodes.image not availableimage not availableimage not available58 Network Analysis and Synthesis 3.7 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL) Consider the graph of figure 3.12. It has four nodes assume node 4 as a reference node or datum node. Let the branch currents be denoted by iy, iz ..., ig. Applying the KCL at node (1), (2), (8) and (4), we get 3 wi, tig+ig=0 ..(D) 400 ~ ® ® mig +ig+is=0 ...(2) ~is-iy+ig=0 ... (8) ~isig+iy=0 ...(4) 1 In matrix form, these equations can be written as i, h -1 0 1 0 0 O}fig} fo © 0-1 0 1 1 Offis|_fo Fig. 3:12 0 0-1-1 0 1]y]>Jo 1 0 0 0-1 ~1Jffis} lo. t6, or Acl,=0 + (8.1) Equation 3.1 gives the matrix representation of KCL. In this equation I, represents the vector of branch currents. The matrix Ac is called the complete incidence matrix. 3.8 FUNDAMENTAL LOOPS OF A GRAPH ‘The addition of a link or chord between any two nodes of a tree forms a loop called the funda- mental loop. Consider a connected graph G of figure 3.13. Let T be a tree of G as shown in figure 3.13 (b). The twigs of this tree are branches 2, 4 and 5. The links of this tree are branches 1, 3 and 6. Out of these three links let us replace link 1 in its proper place as shown in figure 3.13 (c). Itis seen that a loop (1, 2, 5} J; is formed this loop has one link 1 and a unique set of branches 2 and 5. This loop is called the fundamental loop or f-loop of G with respect to a tree. It is also known as tie-set. The direction of link 1 is assume to be positive as shown in figure 3.13 (c). @) ) ©image not availableimage not availableimage not available62 Network Analysis and Synthesis For cut set 6 : The subgraph will be as shown in figure 3.14 (e) o—-3, oy ® Fig. 3.14(@) Cg = (1, 3, 4, 5) remove the cutting branches 1, 3, 4 and 5 from the graph. Acut set separates a graph into two parts, the orientation of the cut-set can be selected arbitrarily. For nodes (1), (2), (3) and (4), incoming current assume to be positive for cut set 5 and 6 the reference direction is shown in figure 3.14 (a). 3.9.1 Cut-set matrix. The cut-set matrix is a matrix, between cut-set versus total number of branches, by the above example. Cy = (1, 2, 8), Cp = (2, 4, 5), Cy = (8, 4, 6) ©,= (A, 5, 6), C; = (2, 3, 5, 6), Ce =(1, 3, 4, 5) 3.9.2. Separable and non-separable graph. A graph is said to be separable, if it can divided or separated more than two parts. Otherwise graph is known as non-separable graph, a non- separable graph can be separated only in two parts. Example 3.1. Check whether the given graph is separable or not. Ans. At node 1, if we make a cut set, graph is divided into three parts, node (1) will be a part node (2), (3) and (4) and branch 2 and 3 second part. Fig. 3.15 (a)image not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not available70 Nerwork Analysis and Synthesis Cut-set-1 (C): GQ: C3: Cy: Now f-cut set matrix Branches 12 3 4 5 67 C a rs 0 0 a) C -1 0 o 41 0 0-1 Cy o +1 0 0 41 o 41 cy o +1 0 0 o +1 0 tie set : tie set-1 T, [1, 3, 4] 1, [ 4,5, 71 7; (2, 5, 6 Now tie set matrix Branches 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ty +10. +1.o4t 0 0 0 T 0 0 oO 410 -1 0 +1 Ty 0 +1 0 o -1 -1 0 Problem 3.5. Draw the directed graph for the circuit shown in figure 3.22 (a). Hence select loop variables and write network equilibrium equation in matrix form. (AMIE, Summer, 1974, 75) Fig. 3.22(a) Solution : The directed graph of the given network will then be as shown in figure 3.22 (b) and its tree shown in figure 3.22 (c) where the dotted line shows the branches. These are known as link or chords. (b)image not availableimage not availableimage not available74 Network Analysis and Synthesis The rows of the tie set schedule will give the following equations in branch voltages V,+Vs-Ve=0 =) V,-V5-Ve=0 . = (2) V3+V5=0 8) 3 The columns of the tie set schedule will give branch currents in terms of loop currents : I, =-in+is Ig=iy-ip Now Vg = 2X ig =2ig Vy=-5 V5 = 2g = 2 (in + is) Ve= 1x1 =-ip Putting these values in equation (1), (2) and (3) 2iy-5 + (in) = 0 Qiy-ig = +55 iy +ig—2 Cig tig) + ig =O iy + 4ip~ 2ig = 0 6) ig +2 (—ig tis) =0 =2ip+4i,=0 «= (6) By equation (4), (5) and (6) i, = 8A, ip = 1A, i, = 0.5 Amp. Problem 3.8. Formulate the cut set matrix of the network shown in figure 3.25 and hence obtain the node equations. (AMIE, Summer, 1984] OEE tf Sr, Re ve Ve Fig. 3.25,image not availableimage not availableimage not available78 Network Analysis and Synthesis Solution : Reduced incidence matrix 0 +1 #O -1 -1 +1 =| 0 -1 +1 0 +1 0 +1 0-1 0 0 0 the complete incidence matrix A, may be constructed by adding a new row to the matrix A. (adding datum node) 123 4 5 6 1] 0 +1 0-1 -1 +1 2} 0 -1 +1 O +1 0 Am3le1 0-1 0 0 0 4]-1 0 041 0 -1 Now there are four nodes and six branches, first draw all four nodes. Now see branch (1) is connected between node 3 and 4. Branch 2 is connected between node 1 and 2. Similarly, branch 6 is connected between node 1 and 4. 5 oa 2? @ Fig 3.28 (a) Now, show the direction of each branch according to + and — sign. Suppose direction of branch 1 is from node 3 to 4, because 3 is at higher potential or positive with respect to node 4 (—Negative). Fundamental Cut-Set : For fundamental cut-set assume a tree. Fig 3.28 (b) In fundamental cut-set twig direction is assume to be reference.image not availableimage not availableimage not available82_ Network Analysis and Synthesis Problem 3.16. A network graph has three basic cut-sets and six basic loops. Draw : @ The oriented network graph having all the nodes in one line. (ii) All the six basic loops. (UPTU-2002] Solution : Number of f-cut-sets = total number of twigs Number of nodes = 3 +1=4 the graph is shown in figure 3.34. AO SN THINS, Nh 7 SR Sb @® @ @ Fig. 3.34 Problem 3.17. For the network shown in figure 3.35 (a), draw network graph, selecting elements 1, 2 and 3.as the tree elements, obtain basic cut-sets and write basic cut-set matrix. [UPTU-2002} @ W Ry R Fig. 3.35 (a) Solution : A resistor in parallel with a voltage source may be ignored or omitted entirely from the network representation :image not availableimage not availableimage not available86 Network Analysis and Synthesis 5. Draw incidence matrix, and select a suitable tree, obtain tie-set matrix and f-cut set matrix. ® @ @ LIN ® ® ® Fig.3.39 6. Determine f-cut set matrix of given graph as shown in figure 3.40 assume a tree (1, 2, 3 and 6] @ @ 3 he 4 @ 1 @ 8 ® Fig.3.40 7. Determine tie set matrix of given graph as shown in figure 3.41. Qo. ® 7 43 é @ 1 \@ 7 @ Fig.3.41 8. Determine the matrix loop equation for the network as shown in figure 3.42 using the loop analysis. 7 C Vs 3m Fig. 3.42image not availableimage not availableimage not available90 Network Analysis and Synthesis Similarly if. is negative £[e* cos wf} = —**" — and (s+ 0)" +0? le sin ot] = —S__ (sta) +0! (6) Puta = 1 in equation (1) 1 slel= lel=a5 Table 4.1 Laplace transform pairs S.No. Ft) =L" F(s) F()=Lif(o) 1 s(t) unit impulse at ¢ = 0 1 2. u(t) unit step att = 0 z 3, u(t~—T) shifted unit step L-st 3 4 t unit ramp - ¢ 5 r(t~1) = (¢-1)u (¢-1) shifted ramp yet s 6. # unit parabolic ¢ an 7. e yet 8. a Z sta 9. e 4 sna ~t 1 10. te — (s+a) iL tet Z . (e-aF 12 ret A (s-ay an 13. ad = (s+a)"*? in ot @ 4. sin xia s 15. cos cat aaat A © 16. e™ sinatimage not availableimage not availableimage not available94 Network Analysis and Synthesis For periodic function, F(t) =f (t+) fort>0 where T is time period. Fig. 4.1 let f; (t) fy (t)... be the functions describing the first cycle, second cycle ... let F (s), F2(s)... be their Laplace transforms respectively, then (O=AO+HO+hO+.. fO=f, Ou +f ¢-Dul-T +f, t-2T)ult-2T) +... ... (4.16) ‘Taking laplace transform f(s) =F, (s) + F (8) e™ + Fy (8) F(s)=F,(s) (1+e™ +e 4. F(s)= — Fy(s) + (4.217) equation shows that the laplace transform of a periodic function with time period T is equal to ae times the laplace transform of the first cycle. =e Example 4.7. Find the laplace transform of a train of pulses of width a, amplitude A and periodic time T as shown in figure 4.2. {” = LI . T 2 3T Fig42 Ans. . Fy O=Klu®-ult-a)) taking laplace transform Rio=K[}- | ss tes Forperotemae, o)= FEL = EET}. ane 4.5 INITIAL VALUE THEOREM FO)= lim f (¢) = jim sF(s) where £ [F (6)] = F (s)image not availableimage not availableLaplace Transform 97 ZS le" rel 2 [Sea] - 2 (s+1)? (s+1)° F(s)= taking laplace inverse et F(t) = 2tet- 3 Note : Students can solve this problem and calculate A, B and C by using comparison of order method. 4.7.2 Convolution integral. If f, (t) and f, (t) are two functions of time which are zero for t Azl => B=D=0 Now A=1,C s F@= a Fea taking laplace inverse F(t) = cos t ~ cos 2t. Ans.Laplace Transform 99 ® Fie G4) . (+) A, Be S425 s(s+2) 9 s+2 As bP 0 .0=[ 225] + oH dt + 26i (t) = 0 with the initial conditions i (0+) = 2 ; [AMIE, Summer 1979) Solution : Taking Laplace transform of the given differential equation, we get #0) +) di(o+) _ ~a 7% [s*I (s) -s1 0+) - I(s) [s® + 10s + 25] = 2s + 20 2(s+10) _ 2(s+5) | 10 (s+ ae (s+ FG (s+ 5 +10 [sI (s) + 1 (0+)] + 25 1(s)=0 I@)= taking laplace inverse I(t)=2e* + 10te™. Ans, Problem 4.8. (a) Find the initial and final values of the following functions : . ) 2 . 1 woh. ) ~—— [AMIE, Summer 1981] © wera! © Feats (b) Find inverse laplace transform of the functions stated above solution : \ Solution : (a) (i) Initial valuef (0) = lim sF (s)1-1 _—eylmes “(aes +=]/1+= Cts el “Ixi Final value F («) = lim sF (s)= 0 w Tnitial value = lim sF (5) = lim = lim —+ sonst east mig 5 3 F(0)=0 final value F (») =lim oF (s) = lim >—*— #70 (5? +45+5) . F@ei_. A, B ene © = Gerd) * +i) e+) s-1 +2) |, s-1 "wal 23 FOe- si ed ‘Taking inverse transform, F()=-2e% +30" ne w P= sae Ga taking inverse laplace F@=e*sint Problem 4.9. Solve the following differential equation using Laplace transform i, U5: — 54 given that i(0)=1, Z@n2 [AMIE, Winter 1986] at” at Solution : Taking laplace transform, we get [1 (o-s1(0)-£(0)] +4 [sI (s)-1(0)] + 51 (6) puting the initial values, 1(s) [s? +48 +5) =106 Network Analysis and Synthesis S+6or5? _ (+6545) A Bee One +48+5) o{(s+2)* +1 &” (+4548) +48+5) A(s? +45+5)+ Bs? +05 _ s*(A+B)+8(4A+C)+5A 3(s? +48+5) 3(s?+4s+5) Comparing co-efficients of s*, s and constant At C=2 201 2 (4548) [lerayrea I(t)=1+2esint. Ans. Problem 4.10. State and prove initial and final value theorems using these theorems, find the initial value and final value of the following function : I(s)= 1 ° taking laplace inverse s+2 5 a , Winter 1986) FO)= ew IAMIE, Winter 1986] Solution : According to initial value theorem, +2 £(0)= lim F(s) = lim LGD According to final value theorem, st+2 2 1 F (0) = iim SF (s) = lim 2m (6+ 3)(e+4) ~ axa 76 1is' +s? +5+6 Problem 4.11. For the given laplace transform F (s) = Fest anel sat eas find the initial of final value of the function. ‘Solution : Initial value = f (0) im sF(s) = iim 17s‘ +7s° +5? +68 3° +38 +5s° +45? +28 [dividing by s* in numerator and denominator] (6) = tim (<7 +788 +5? +68 i, SP = TM | a ast + Bs? + ds? +28Laplace Transform 107 Problem 4.12. Given F (s) = =p the initial and final values of f(t) will be respectively — @ 12 © 21 141 @ 2,2 (iEs-94) Solution: Initial value (0) = lim sF (6) = lim £*2 = 1 ion s+1 Final value fle) = lim sF (6) = lim te Problem 4.43. The laplace transform of the function i (t) is: 10s+4 , 1 (5) = ——108+4 __ ts inal value will be © 8(s-+1)(s? +45+5) Ana @ 4 ws 4 @ 6. (IEs.96) - 10s+4 4 Solution: Final valuef (-) lim sF (6) = lim ——208+4 __4 ro #50 (e+ i)(s +4045) 5 Problem 4.14. Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions : 1 5 42543 F(s) = -——_ F (s) = —_———._ @ F(s) = =————_ Oras ae OPO 3(s? +4945) ©) P= SF + i2s 08 1 1 2 Solution : (a) F(s)= =—-— = —}_, -1 __? _ a O° Feds+8 (et2 + 2 (642) +02) taking laplace inverse F (t) = —e sin 2t A, Bs+C ® FOS Feasts)” 3 +4545 5=A(s? + 4s +5) +s (Bs +C) 5=s*(A+B)+s(4A+C)+5A after comparing, s+24+2 s+ 2)? +(1) _——! + 8 (542) +(1) (s+2) +(1)° taking laplace inverse. F () =(1-e* cos t-2e™ sin t) u(t). Ans.108 Network Analysis and Synthesis +2843 A B c © F() = —— = + + (s+2)° — (8+2) " (e+2)? (942) after solving A = 1,B=-2,C=3 Fis) =i __ 2 + 3 (s+2) (6+2)? (s+2)° taking inverse laplace transform FQ=e%-2te% 4 Se. Ans, Problem 4.15. Find the solution of the differential equation given below by using laplace trans- form dx 2 + 8x = 10 given x (0+) =2 Solution : Taking laplace transform 2 [sX (s)-X (0)] + 8X(s) = x 2 [sX (s) -2] + 8X (s)= x X()= 2845 A, BE (e+4) 8 o+4 after solving A = 1.25, B = 0.75 X(e) = 225, 975 3s etd taking laplace inverse X(t) = (1.25 + 0.75e™) u() Ans. Problem 4.16. The laplace transformed equation for the charging current of a capacitor ar- ranged in series with a resistance is given by, Cs I(s)= RCsa1 Es) if E = 100 V, R=2MQ, C= 1F, calculate the initial and final value of charging current. Solution : B= 100, £() = 22 Now by the given equation Cs I(s)= Resi -E(s) Substituting the given values 16) = ——_ 1085, 200 0-* “2x108x1x10®s+1 s 2st 4 Now = lim 22) =0.5x10+ “24= s 1(0) = 50pA sx10-* (ce) = Ii = li =0 Amp. 1() = lim sI(s) = lim “7 ~~ = 0 Amp.Laplace Transform 109 Problem 4.17. Find the initial and final values of the following function, using initial value and final value theorem respectively. (s-1) F@= yer) (IES-96) Solution :Initial value /(0) . ca 8le-1) 2 = Ihe Geieedl ;, =i tt s(s-1) Final valuef ( )= lim sF(s) = lim werd =0 Problem 4.18. Show that L [tf (t)] =~ 2 F(s) using this result, find the laplace transform oft sin at, t° e and t sin hpt where a, Bare constants. Solution : Fort sin at f(t)= sin at = F(s)= wor for fe" 1 aFOr RG @fia 2 gat) (yp 2 Lite} = 1) {lel -_2 (s+a)° for t sin h Be Fi) = sinh f= — 8 F . d Litsinap=—0-2{ 38) is 2. the value ofkis @i 1 2 @~ (ES.93) 6. IfLf(¢) = F(s), then what is the value of Le? f(t) @?F(s) dF a) (1) @F(s) @ a ®) CPE oon @ az as wi [S] @ Fxeuc-2) @ 2 2) LeF u(t-2) © futt-2) @ (t-2Pu(t-2) 8. Laplace transform of e-* ih 2tis 2 2 2 2 ® © @ @ Sera) Poa Gna -4 @-2F+4 9. L[i()) is where 8(t) is impulse function @1 ®) oe @? e et. 10, Laplace transform a is 1 1 1 1 @ (IES-92) © Grae © Baer © G-ae-5 @aerH Answers L@ 20 3. @ 4 5. ©) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8 (@) 9. (a) 10. (d)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.124 Network Analysis and Synthesis ‘This pulse has a width T and a magnitude z such that the area of the pulse is unity txd at The pulse has an amplitude that is inversely proportional to its duration. In another case time duration is halved and double the amplitude therefore area is unity. It is seen that the areas under all the three waveforms remains constant at unity. When the duration (width) of the pulse approaches to zero the amplitude of the pulse ap- proaches infinity but the area of the pulse still remains unity. The pulse for which the dura- tion tends to zero and the amplitude tends to infinity is called the impulse function or the delta function. Since it is impossible to show an infinite amplitude (magnitude) and zero duration as shown in figure 5.16 (6) the unit impulse occuring at t = 0 is represented graphically by a vertical arrow as shown in figure 5.16 (b). Mathematical expression for unit impulse func- S(t) tion 0 at t#0 so={° at 290 7 O12) ” Since the area under the impulse is unity -- 6 fl s@ae=a Fig. 5.17 (a) 5.5.1 Shifted impulse function. A unit impulse func- ran) tion occurs at t = ty is 5 (t ~ to). It is defined by the relations k 0 at t#ty ~t)= (6.13) Bit—ty {. at in 719) Shifted or delayed impulse function is shown in ; t figure 5.17 (a). Fig. 5.17(b) If the area of impulse function is k times of unity. It is known as general impulse function. Ibis shown in figure 5.17 (8). In this case, f. 8(t-to)dt =k Example 5.10. Find laplace transform of impulse function. Ans. 1 5.6 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION A very commonly used exponential function is given by f=Ae™ Positive (+) sign shows for exponential rise function and negative (-) sign shows for expo- nential decay both exponential function (rise and decay) shown in figure 5.18. ‘Mathematical expression for exponential functionBasic Signals and Waveform Synthesis 125 y= Ae" (o) Fig. 5.18 { 0 at t<0 Fo + (5.14) Ae*™ at £20 if A= 1, this function is known as unit exponential function. Example 5.11. Find the laplace transform of general exponential function (decaying). sta 5.7 SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL Sinusoidal signal f (¢) shown in figure 5.19 and defined as 0 at t<0 100={y Sau at t20 where V,, is maximum amplitude and w is angular frequency in rad / sec. ( = =) Fig. 5.19 5.8 RELATION BETWEEN PARABOLIC, RAMP, UNIT STEP AND IMPULSE FUNCTION We know for unit function and t > 0 u@=1 r(t)st 2 PW®=>126 Network Analysis and Synthesis derivative of ramp signal = step signal derivative of parabolic signal = ramp signal or we can say, d Pater «- (5.18) da Gr) atau wu (5.19) and 2 uy =5e (6.20) dt derivative of unit step signal = impulse signal Table 5.1 Signal J Impulse signal 6 (¢) Differentiate Unit step signal u (¢) Ramp signal r (t) Parabolic signal P (¢) Integrate 5.9 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL WAVEFORMS The basic waveforms (step, ramp and parabolic) can be combined to obtain a desired wave- form. Waveform synthesis is a method to determine the component waveforms of a desired waveform. 5.9.1. Useful formula for waveform synthesis. The basic formula used in this book is very easy and convenient. First break any waveform in small interval of time (specially where the magni- tude or slope of waveform is changing). F(t) = My Go, (0) + My Gy, 9 () + My Gp, 9 (0) +... o (5.21) where, M, is magnitude between 0 to 1 (Gp, (¢) see Go, ; (t) is a gate pulse starting at ¢ = 0 and lasting att = 1) no Fig. 5.20Basic Signals and Waveform Synthesis 127 Similarly for M, and Gy, » (t) and so on, Let us consider an example shown in figure 5.20. My=1 and Gy; ()=u(t)-u(t-1) M,=2 and Gy 9(t)=u(t-1)-u(t-2) Hence f@=1lu)-ut- D1 +2lue-DY-ule-2)) Now for triangular pulse where the magntiude (M) is changing with respect to time for a ramp function or straight we use straight line formula. y-yy= 224 (x-x4) (6.22) tery In this case y = M and x =t. x; andy, are the initial value of the slope andx, andy, are the final value of slope. In this case, for figure 5.21 x, =0, ¥=0 x=, y2=2 Put this value in equation 5.22 2-0 M,-0= 7 (¢-0) M, = 2t and Gp, ()=u(t)-u(t-D Gate pulse will remains same only magnitude (M,) is changing with respect to time Fig. 5.21 My = 2 and Gy 3 (#) =u (t~ 1)-u (¢-3) Now put these values in basic formula (eqn. 5.21) f(t)= 2t lu @)—u (- D) +2 [lu @-1)-u(t-3)] Example 5.12. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.22 in terms of unit and ramp function. Solution. f(t) = M, Go, ; () + M; G20 where M,, M,-0= 286-9) by equation 5.22 M, = 2t and Gp, ()=u(t)-u¢-1) M,-2= $=2¢-1) Fig. 5.22 M, = 2- 2t+2= 4-2 and G, 2(t) =u (t-1)-u(¢-2) Now f(t) = 2¢ (u(t)—u (t-1)] + 4-28) lu (¢- 1)-u (¢- 2) We can further solve F(t) = 2t uw (t)— 2t u(t 1) + (4-28) + (t- 1)-(4 - 28) (ut - 2) Fit) = 2r(t)— ut 1) [2-4 + 2] - (4-24) u(t 2) fr (= tu () f(t)= 2 ()-4 (t= Dult- 1-4-2) ue-2)128 Network Analysis and Synthesis = 2r (t)—4r (t- 1) - (4-2) u(t-2) fo ir@-1)=(t-Dule-1) Example 5.13. Synthesize the waveform as shown in 7 figure 5.23. Ans. f(t) = 2{u (t)-u (¢- 1] + (4 - 2t) [u(t-1) -u(t-2)) t 1 2 Fig. 5.23, remmemntmenemnr=Tzm SOlVEM PrODIEMS Besse oe ee Problem 5.1. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.24 using standard signal. (IPU-2001 and UPTU-2003) 0 an] =n] Cr >t oo +-M,—>| LM, --| Fig. 5.24 Solution : F(O) = My Gog (t) + Mg Ga, 2g (t) + My Gap, u(t) + My Gig, sa Fit) = 1 [u(t)—u (t-a)] ~ 1 u (¢-a) —u (¢ 2a) + 1 fu (¢- 20) (t-8a)] - 1 [u (t- 3a) -u (t- 4a)] +... F(t) =u (t) - 2u (¢-a) + 2U (¢ - 2a) — 2U (t - 3a) +... Problem 5.2. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.25 using step functions. fo +2 “4 >t 0 1 2 3 4 5 a Fig. 5.25 Solution : M,=+1 M,=-1 My=+2 F(t) =M, Gy,» (t) + My Gp, (t) +My Ga, 5 () =1[u(t)-u (t-2)) +(- 1)-u¢-2)-u(t-3)) +2[u(t-3)-u(t-5)] =u (t)— Qu (t - 2) + 3u (t - 3) - 2u (t— 5). Ans.Basic Signals and Waveform Synthesis 129 Problem 5.3. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.26. ‘Solution : AO Fig. 5.26 F(t) = My Go,» (t) + My Gp, g(t) + Mg Gy, 4 (0) F(@) = Bfu(t) - ule — 2)) + 2lu (¢- 2)—u (¢-3)] +1 lu (t-3)-u(t-4)] = 3u (f) -u (¢-2)—u(t-3)—4 (t-4). Ans. Problem 5.4. The accompany figure 5.27 shows a waveform made up of straight line segments. For this waveform, write an equation for the v (t) in terms of steps, ramps and other related function as needed. (IPU-2000) Fig. 5.27 Solution : Use straight line formula, M—y, = za = 2 (tx) a F(t) = My Go, : (t) + Mp Gy,» (t) + Mg Gp, (t) + My Gs, «® for M,: for Ms: M,=2+8-4t=(-4¢+ 10) 0-(-2) for My: My-e2)= { 3) 4-3130 Network Analysis and Synthests M,=-2+ 2¢-6=2t-8 f(t) = 2t{ult) — u (t - 1) + 2 [u (¢- 1) —u (t — 2)] + (— 4t + 10) [u @- 2) —u (t—3)] + (2¢ — 8) [u (t- 3) -u (¢- 4)]. Ans. Problem 5.5. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.28. | 0 x Solution : 3 2 F(t) = My Go, : @) + Mz Gy 2 (2) +My Go, 5 ®) = Mu (t)-u(t- D) + 2lu (¢- 1)-ult-2)] + 3[u (t- 2)-ult-3)] 1 f()=u(t)+u(t-1) +u (t-2)-3u(t-3). Ans. Problem 5.6. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.29. _| Solution :/(¢) = M Go, (t) where M using straight line equation = on M-y,= t- ae ee (t-2) m-0=K=-¢_9) 1-0 M=Kt and Go, 1 () = lu @)-u(t-D) Therefore, f(t)=Kelu(@®-u- DI. Problem 5.7. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.30. f®)=MG, 2) K-0 M-0= rr (t-1) 0 t M=K(t-1) (1,0) z f()=K(t- 1) lu(t-1)-ut-2). Eg t) Problem 5.8. Synthesize the following waveforms as shown in figure 5.31. fn) ' 0 1 2 Fig. 5.31Basic Signals and Waveform Synthesis 131 Solution : @ F(t) = My Go, 1 (t) + My Gy, 9 (t) + Mg Go, 9 (t) + My Gg, (®) : aed. a for My : M,-0= 75 (t-0) M,= M,=1. for My : M,-1= 271 (¢-2 s 3-2 ‘My = (t-1) M,=2 FO) =t lu()—u(t- 1) +1 lu t- 1)-u ¢-2)] +(€- D lu t-2)-u (t-3)] +2 [u(¢-3)-u(t-4)]. Ans. (b): f(t) =M, Go, (t) + Mz Gy, 2 (t) for My : M,-0= ‘M,=Kt 0-K for My : M,-K=—(t-1) M, = 2K - Kt =~ K(t-2) f®=K@ [u(®-u-1)) -K(@-2) [ue-1)-u ¢- 2)]. Ans. Problem 5.9. Synthesize the following waveform as shown in figure 5.32. Solution : Fig. 5.32 F(t) = M, Gp, 1 () + Mz Gy,5(t) +My Gy, 4) waft) Using straight line formula132 Nenwork Analysis and Synthesis M.-y1= = (t-x) [This is from 0 to 1 slope] 2-0 M,-0= ——(t-0) y-0= 2286-0) M,=2t Similarly M,=4-2t On this case x; = 1 andy, = 2,x,= 3 andy=-2] and M,= 2t-8 Go.) =u)-ult-1) Gp y(t) =u (t—1)-u(t-3) Gy, (0 =u(t-3)-u(t-4) Now put all values in equation (1) f(t) = 2t [u ()-u (t- 1) + (4 - 2) [u (@- 1) —u (t- 3) + (24-8) UE —3)-u(t-4)]. Ans, Problem 5.10. Synthesize the given waveform : Solution: F(t) = My Go,g (0) + Ma Gy, g(t) + Mg Go, 4 (8) "0 Similarly by last example 1-0 t M,-0= = (¢-0) > My= = M,=1 0-1 -1l= (¢ - 3a) Ms ange *~ 54) [u()-u(t-a)]+1[u (¢-)-u (¢-30)] + (4) xfu(e-0)-u(e-4e]Basic Signals and Waveform Synthesis 133 Problem 5.11. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.34. (UPTU-2003 C.O) Solution : F(t) = My Go, 1 (0) + My Gy,» (t) + My Ge, 5 () +... M=+ “oT 1 1 Mz= p(¢-T) and My = 7 (t-2T) Now, Fig. 5.34 [u(e)-w(t-T)] +E (¢-7) fu ¢-1)-u 20] f= +£(-2M)[u(e-21)-u(¢-37)] ten Problem 5.12. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.35. ‘Solution : FO =My Go, K,_K M=K->t = 32-4 K FO=F@-Hful-ule-4)] Fig.5.35 Note : Students can also solve in two steps (0 to 2 then 2 to 4) F(t) =M, Gp, 2 (0) + My Gp, 4 (0). Problem 5.13. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.36. Solution : F(t) =M, Go, ; (t) + Mz Gy, 5 (t) + Mg Ga, 4) Now, M,=2-2(t-3)=2-2¢+6=8-2t f@=2tlu (@)—u(t-D) +3 fu ¢- 1) -u (¢ - 3)] + (B- 2¢) [u(e- 3) u(t-4))134 Network Analysis and Synthesis f(t) = 2t u (t)— 2t u (t — 1) + Bu (t — 1) — 8u (t — 3) + (8 — 2t) u (t-3)— (8 -2t) u (t-4). f(t) = 2t u(t) + u (t—1) [- 2t + 3] + u (¢—3) [-3 + 8 — 2t] -(8— 2t)u (¢-4). f(t) = 2t u (t) + (3 — 2t) u(t - 1) + (5 — 2t) u(t - 3) - (8 — 2t) u (t- Problem 5.14. Synthesize the given waveform as shown in Ano figure 5.37. ™ Solution : 1 F(t) = My Go, (€) + My Gy, 9 (t) +My Go, 3 0. > Now M,=1,M,=0,M,=-1 7 + -t f= 1(u@)-u¢-D)-1lut-2)-ue-3)} f)=u@-ut-1)-u(t-2)+ue-9). -1 ; Ans. Fig. 5.37 Problem 5.15. Synthesize the waveform as shown in figure 5.38. (PU-2003] Solution : By figure 5.38 10 0 1 2 t Fig. 5.38 (a) Now the shifted sinusoidal waveform Fig. 5.38 (b)Basic Signals and Waveform Synthesis 135 fot) = 10 sin x(t - 1) Adding figure 5.38 (a) and 5.38 (b) we get 130) where Alt)= fb) +f,{t) fat) = 10 sin nt + 10 sin x(t— 1) t or fat) = 10 [sin nt + sin n(¢-1)] ' Similarly for Fig. 5.38 (c) Fig. 5.38 (4) ft) = 10 [sin x(t - 1) + sin x(t - 2)) Now, At) = fylt) +f + «.. At)= 10[sin nt + 2 sin x(t - 1) + 2 sin x(t — 2) + ...]. Ans. Problem 5.16. Synthesize the following waveform as shown in figure 5.39. Solution : F(t) = My Go, : (t) + Mz Gy, 2 (t) + My Geo, g(t) + My Ga, 4 ©) 2-0 M,-0= 7 (t-0) > Mi = 2 M,-2= 2-* (¢-1)5M,=4-2 on 0-2 Fig. 5.39 o- ig. 2 2 My—0= £9 ((-2) = My =(2t-4) M,-2= 955 (t- 3) My=8-2 wl f(t) = 2 [uu t- 1) + (4-24) [u (t- Du (¢-2)] + (2t- 4) [ult —2)—u (t-3)] + (8-2) [u (t-3)-u (t-4)] Note : You can solve further. It is necessary and convenient if we find the laplace transform of any waveform. Problem 5.17. Find the laplace transform of the time function in figure 5.40. (UPTU-2001] ‘Solution : fO=MG, 4) ao, M-0 -2) = 36-2) ae ry) f= Fle e-2)-ue-4)] (= 2)ue-2)- 3 ¢-2)ult-4) nicoa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.