SS Mathematics in the Modem W¢ fon 1.1 Mathematics in our World Have you ever wondered how well jeepney 4+ you your change when you hand them your set oa about when you buy street food? Most food vendors How make a mistake in giving you your change after tao ®° grilled hotdog on a stick for example, without rata a calculators. Routine transactions like these, knowing? or unknowingly, are mathematics at work because oo, involve computing numbers most of the time. How mutt time do you allot for travelling to avoid getting late for clases Before that, do you track every second you spend taldn, the shower, eating breakfast, changing into school clothes. or preparing your things for school? Most importantly, do you check if you still have enough money for fare, food, and other expenses for school? Just like budgeting allowance time is also mathematics at work. Are you watching you, weight and your food caloric intake? Do you read the nutrition information from the packages of chocolates, cookies, candies, and drinks you buy? Consciously or unconsciously, all of these activities engage some form of mathematics. The heart of mathematics is more than just numbers, numbers which many suppose to be meaningless and uninteresting. Have you gone for beach trips or did mountain climbing perhaps and noticed in awe the beautiful world around you? The different shapes you see around you, the changing hues of the sky from sunrise to sunset, the clouds transforming from stratus to cumulus, the contour of the rainbow in the horizon are all beautiful because of harmony. The degree of changing hues of color has to be of exact measurement to appear pleasing and harmonious to the human eye. “And it is mathematics that reveals the simplicities of nature, and permits us to generalize from simple examples to the complexities of the real world. It took many people from many different areas of human activity to turn a mathematical insight into useful product” (Stewart, 1995, pp. 71-72).a ~~ TAS Nature of Mathematics ou count the n nae “that they are either of one fica 1 two n° a petals, five, or eight. Thig Sequence of numbers fo set {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 18, -} whose pattern iscoveregn® ibonacci, a great Euro, i a His full name in Italian is Deraees Pisans os means Leonardo of Pisa, becawae 4 Was born in Pigg pice around 1175. Fibonacci ig the Shorteneq Word for the Lati term “filius Bonacci,” which Stands for “son of Bonaccio.” His father’s name was Guglieime Bonaccio : ‘umber “of The German math Kepler (known for hi: that dividing a ematician ang esttonomer Johannes Ss laws of plane is c tary motion) observed Fibonacej number by the number immediately before it in the ordered sequence yields a quotient approximately “qual to 1.618. This amazing ratio is denoted by the symbol @ calleq the Golden Ratio. Kepler once claimed that “[gleometry has two great treasures; one is the Theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the division ofa line into extreme and mean ratio, The first we may compare to a measure of Bold, the second we may name a precious Jewel” (Stakhov and Olsen, 2009), The Golden Rat ting that. proportions of the human body such as the face follows the so called Divine Proportion. The closer the proportion of the body Parts to the Golden Ratio, the more aesthetically pleasing and beautiful is. Many painters, including i were so fascinated with tio is so fascinat The world an, mathematics. “Thy; the universe was the whole number; could be used to (Aufmann, 2014). as winning in a col xplained? What describe and represent all natural events” Can the course of natural events such ntest or in a game of chance be | is your chance of winning the lottery’a Modem World 1a ever heard of probabilities? Johann Carl Fri ee (1777-1855) was & remarkable mathemece who made many contributions to the mathematics of probabilities. ‘An important aspect of studying probabilities is the so called combinatorics, a mathematical field pioneered by Blaise Pascal, the mathematician whose famous Pascal’s triangle finds useful applications in algebra and statistics. Nature has its laws. These laws, such as the law of freely falling bodies, were laid down by Isaac Newton. Newton and Gottfried Leibniz developed modern calculus in the 17th century. This development would not have been possible without the Cartesian coordinate system—the fusion of geometry and algebra by Rene Descartes (1596-1650). ‘Albert Einstein (1879-1955), who made a name for his mass and energy equation, E=me?, would not have gone farther in his theory of relativity without mathematics. Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934) a Polish chemist and mathematician received the 1911 Nobel Prize in chemistry for developing techniques of isolating radioactive isotopes and. discovering two radioactive elements. Biological cently used mathematics extensively scientists have also re to theoretically investigate treatment procedures by modeling and simulating biological processes. Without mathematics, all these inventions and discoveries are not possible. ‘The 20th century saw many breakthroughs in the fields of sciences and engineering which creatively and critically employed mathematics. From the first personal computer named Programma 101 that was released in 1965, to the first landing of man on the moon on July 20, 1969, and to the first Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite launched in 1989 for military use, all of these show that Mathematics plays a vital role in the affairs of humanity. Today, there are 24 GPS satellites in orbit helping people locate their travel destinations via applications such as Google Maps or Waze on personal computers, tablets, 0” cell phones.ee Nature of Mathematics Despite all these scientific achievements, many «millennials” are hesitant in taking science courses partly pecause they feel amcous of anything intimately connected ‘ith mathematics. The interests of millenials in gadgets, ‘es, and technologies that appeal to their senses have Biso interfered with the study of mathematics and the etiences. Unknowingly however, these technologies employ mathematics: from the transactions of purchasing new gadgets, to the instructions one places on the newly bought Sevice which operate based on mathematical logic. Finally, Ian Stewart (1995) explains in his book Nature’s Numbers that mathematics is a systematic way of digging out the rules and structures that lie behind some observed pattern or regularity, and using these rules and structures fp explain what is going on. Now, think of one of the most loved animation characters Dora the Explorer. When Dora gets lost in the jungle, what does she need? A map. Thanks fo Rene Descartes, who made the Cartesian map for without it, Dora will never find her way. is everywhere because it finds many s in daily life. God, the Mathematician niverse to follow rules rns, Mathematics practical application Architect, designs everything in this w or formulas. Whether following regular or irregular patte: His creation benefits humankind, His greatest masterpiece. ‘As Johannes Kepler wrote, “Those laws fof nature] are within the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us to recognize them by creating us so that we could share in his own thoughts” an after his own image (Stewart, 2010). 1.2 Fibonacci Numbers Fibonacci observed numbers popular contribution perhaps js the number that is seen in the petals of flowers. ‘A calla lily flower has only 1 petal, trillium has 3, hibiscus has 5, cosmos fl has 8, corn marigold has.13, some asters have 21, and a daisy can have 34, 55 or 89 petals. Surprisingly, these petal counts represent the first eleven numbers of the in nature. His mostcalla Lily ‘Cosmos ‘Com Marigold Not all petal numbers of flowers, ot on discovered by Fibonacci. Some jeaceae family having four f the flowers abide by the sequence. follow this pat Jude the Brass: gly, many oO! Fibonacci. hind the Fibonacci numbers is as Fibonacci however, examples inc petals. Astoundin pattern observed by ‘The principle bel follows: «Let «, be the nth integer in the Fibonacci sequence, the next (n+1)th term %qa 18 determined by adding nth and the (n -1)th integers. =1 be the first few terms below: Let % «1 be the second term, the third 4x, =1t1=2- 123, the sum of the + Consider the first term, and x, term x, is found by x, =% «The fourth term x, is 2+ third and the second term. + To find the new nth Fibonacci number, simply add receding this the two numbers immediately’ P’ number. n=3:x,=1+1=2 peTin 2548718 n=4:x,=1+2=3 n=8:% =g+13=21 nim 194 ode 1X, =24+3=5| << _ in ii i der can be bers arranged in increasing ort These Tne sequence {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, written 89, --+ The Nature of Mathematics —————_ Fibonacci Spirals in Sunflowers Bparallelrowsof 13 parallel rows 21 parallel rows scales spiraling of scales spiraling _of scales spiraling gradually ‘ata medium slope slooply 1-2-3-5-8-13-21-34-55-89... Similarly, when you count the clockwise and counterclockwise spirals in the sunflower seed head, it is interesting to note that the numbers 34 and 55 occur— which are consecutive Fibonacci numbers. Pineapples also have spirals formed by their hexagonal nubs. The nubs on many pineapples form eight spirals that rotate diagonally upward to the left and 13 that rotate diagonally ae to the right, again these are consecutive Fibonacci aes (Aufmann, 2015). The same is also observed in the Se and counterclockwise spirals of a pine cone.= OO ————— ___—— Mathematics in the Modern Wer ace ‘Another interesting pattern in nature is the honeycomb According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, “a honeycomb is a mass of hexagonal wax cells built by honeybees in their nest to contain their brood and stores of honey.” But why build hexagonal cells? Why not squares? Jin Akiyama, a Japanese mathematician, explains it well in an experiment snade on his regular TV show Jinjin Math. In the experiment, pvstudent is asked to step on one mass made up of hexagonal cells and another mass made up of square cells and the result is unbelievable! The mass with hexagonal cells resisted the weight of the student while the mass with square cells was completely destroyed. It is amazing to know that the mass made up of hexagonal cells is stronger than the one made up of square cells. Moreover, these patterns exist naturally in the world.The Nature of Mathematics _ ‘another interesting observation is the rabbit population peginning from @ baby pair of the first generation. Since it takes the first generation to mature before giving birth to an offspring, there is an adult pair for the second generation, which is ready for reproduction. So, there are two rabbit pairs, the parents and baby pairs, of the third generation. Next, the adult pair begets a baby pair but the previous baby pair simply matures, so a family of three rabbit pairs for the fourth generation exists, and so on. The number of total rabbit pairs at each generation constitutes a Fibonacci sequence. Denoting by F, the Fibonacci sequence of n generations is the set of Fibonacci numbers {F,}, that is: {F}= (1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,...}. In particular, denote F,=1 for the 1* generation, F,=1 for the 2 generation, F,=2 for the 3 generation, F,=3 for the 4 generation, and so on. It is interesting to point out that the Fibonacci numbers F, obey the following relationship: F-F=l F,=Fy4+Fyan23 That is, F, is given by the sum of the two previous Fibonacci numbers, F,, and F,.2, n23. For example: F, =F, +, F,=141 F,=2 It is also seen that F,=F,+%=2+1=3 and Ro = Fy + Fy =34421=55.Let us investigate the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers as n becomes large. ‘The following table gives values of the ratio ~ as n approaches «. Ra 89 4 81.61 11 58 1618181818 144 5 <= =1.617977528 12 39 79° 6 13 | 233 -1.61805556 144 7 14 | 377 -1.618025751 233 21 a | 2. i3 1.615384615 15 34 987 9 | Se 987 _ 1618032787 3171619047619 | 16 | Fi5 10————— The Nature of Mathematics TT It is interesting to note that the ratio o} Fibonacci numbers approaches the golden F, f two adjacent Tatio; that is, =1.6180339887... as n becomes large. This is indeed a Fa mystery. What does the golden ratio have to do with a rabbit population model? 1.3 The Golden Ratio The ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers as n becomes large, approaches the golden ratio; that . F, is, lim eee . This can be verified by ae PF measuring some parts of the human. body: the length of the arm, height, the distance of the fingertips to the elbow. According to Markowsky (1992), “the ratio of a person’s height to the height of his or her navel is roughly the golden ratio. We are not told why this is significant; the navel is a scar of no great importance in an adult human being.” You may verify this for yourself. Did you get a value close to 1.6180339887...? The ratio between the forearm and the hand also yields a value close to the golden ratio! Another name for golden ratio is divine proportion. This must be so because human beauty is based on the divine Proportion. The photo on the next page illustrates the following golden ratio proportions in the human face: : bottom of teeth : bottom of chin * center of pupil * outer and inner edge of eye : center of nose * outer edges of lips : upper ridges of lipsTe __——— Mathematiesin the Modem Worig « width of center tooth : width of second tooth « width of eye : width of iris The golden ratio denoted here by 9 is sometimes called the golden mean or golden section: 1+V5 2 Q= =1.6180339887... ‘This can come about in two ways. One is by an algebraic relation. Suppose that a line segment is cut into two pieces of length: a and b. Below it is shown that a is longer than b. Clearly, the length of the original line segment is a+ b- pd a+b i Now, two ratios are formed: : and “—. The Sat i the ratio of the longer piece a to the shorter piece and the second ratio is the whole length to the longer Pies! &. now ideal to ask, when are the two ratios equal? THe wo algebraic question that can be solved by equals ratios: ql)___—— The Nature of Mathematics ——__ simplifying the right side of equation (1), we get b alt—. pot a Denoting the ratio . by 9, we end up with ok ) ° On the other hand, dividing in both the numerator and denominator of the right side of equation (1) by b, we get (3) which by writing $-0 becomes g=2*1 or p=1+1 as ? in (2). Now, by multiplying both sides of equation (2) by @ we get a quadratic equation @-9-1=0 (4) Using the quadratic root formula, we find two roots of equation (4); the first root is g =1.6180339887..., and the second root is g =-0.6180339887.... The first root is the ratio p=1.618 that we are looking for, and we ignore the second root because it is a negative number. Hence, the value we are looking for is 1.6180339887... The golden ratio g=1.6180339887... is a strange number. It is the only number that if you ‘subtract one from it, g-1=0.6180339887..., you end up with its own reciprocal e = 0.6180339887... >__——— Mathematics in the Modern World ——___ Golden Rectangle What is a golden rectangle? A rectangle can be drawn of such a shape that if it is cut into a square and a ae the smaller rectangle will be similar in shape to the larger rectangle. il be 1+x . a — ae EE fad : ‘This is the golden rectangle whose sides are in the “golden ratio” of 1+x:1, where x is a non-ending decimal whose value can be calculated in a number of ways, including the construction of a simple continued fraction. Since the two rectangles are similar, their sides are in the same ratio as follows: xt1l jy 1. 1 x x+1 Or simply x can be replaced on the right-hand side by 1 eorex a) or 1 ite (2) 1+x If we continue replacing x by (1), we will get, Z @)___ The Nature of Mathematics ee Continuing the process, we will arrive at equation after eight iterations: the following Fl f(e)=14+————_1 Hence, by repeated iterations the multi-layer fraction is build up as shown above. Iteration means repeating a process over and over again. In mathematics, it means the repeated application of an operation on a given function over and over again. The golden ratio is also given by the ratio of the two sides of the golden rectangle. The principle of the golden rectangle is simple. After the largest square is cut off, the leftover piece is again a golden rectangle. The largest square is cut off again from the leftover rectangle, and sc on. In this way, the original golden rectangle is cut up into ever-decreasing squares. Since the squares get smaller by scaling factor, they are self-similar golden squares. | — eh — +L — arMathematics in the Modem World TT TS go EXERCISES SET 1 1. What is mathematics for you? 2. Where do you apply the principles of mathematics? 3. Do you need mathematics every day? Why? 4 . What have you learned from school on mathematics so far? Do you appreciate mathematics? Why or why not? ae Did you ever perform well in mathematics? Why or why not? Who is Fibonacci and what did he do? Oe Why did Fibonacci become famous? 9. Around what year was the Fibonacci sequence invented? 10. The following rules give a simple model for the population growth of rabbits. (a) The rabbits are always in pairs for reproduction. (0) A rabbit pair must grow one generation to maturity and then begets one baby pair at every generation thereafter. (c) No rabbit pairs die off. Under these rules, Let F,_ be the baby pair of the 1" generation. F, Since it takes one generation to maturity, there is an adult pair for the 2™ generation, which is ready for reproduction. So, there are two rabbit pairs, the parent and baby pairs, of the 3 generation. « Next, the adult pair begets a baby pair but the baby pair simply. matures, so a family of three rabbit pairs for the 4 generation, and s0 on. rintnancingin sieteThe Nature of Mathematics ————_______ icular, In particul f=1 for the 1" generation, 21 for the 2° generation, F, =2 for the 3" generation, F, =3 for the 4 generation, and so on. Find a formula for the number of rabbits (including offspring) in the (m +n)" generation. Use the figure on page 10. 11. For any positive integers m and n, use the results in no. 10 to find a formula for Fy,.,1- 12. Find the greatest common divisor, gcd(F,, F,.1) 13. Find the golden ratio g up to eight decimal places by iterating the function f(x)=1+2. x (1) First, we replace x in the function f(x)=1+~ x with f(x) to obtain the two-layer fraction of the first iteration. That is, f(f(e)=1+—,. In each it x iteration, let x =1. For example, in the first iteration f= 14ta2. For the second iteration, we get fy@y=1+—+=3 1st 2 (2) Continue the process until you reach the ninth iteration. Complete the table on the next page’ and check if the ninth entry is indeed the golden ratio.a __ Mathematics in the Modem wort S$ 5 3 a 3 = 1.66666... 9 89 _ 1.61818... 55 14. Dr. Kendra Schmidt, an assistant professor of biostatistics, uses the golden ratio to study the facial sex appeal. She conjectures that beauty or sex appeal is related to the proportions of facial features which happen to follow the golden ratio. Based 9° this conjecture, check how close your facial Proportion aot to the golden ratio. Measure the length and T°" your face. Then divide the length by the a you are result roughly the golden ratio? If yes Lies beautiful by Dr. Schmidt’s conjecture: “——— The Nature of Mathematics ———______ 15. The golden ratio (shoulder to waist) is the most important ratio for achieving the body proportions like that of a Greek god. Now, measure your shoulder circumference s and then your waist size w. Then divide s by w. Is the result roughly the golden ratio? If not, then what must be your ideal waist size to get the golden ratio? 16. Cut out the golden rectangle of different dimensions and show that a considerable number of cutouts give out the golden ratio. An example is the figure below: A 162m E B & 5 e D F c H J H J E 6.2cm B ‘a 5 = K L - ¢ K24cmL § 2 6 E F24cm1 2 H J 6 : é £ & 2 3 F 1 62cm ¢ F ccCHAPTER Mathematical Language and Symbols 2.1 The Language of Mathematics 2.2 Expressions vs. Sentences 2.3. Unary and Binary Operations 2.4 Some Fundamentals of Logic LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of the chapter, the student is expected to: 1. discuss the language, symbols, and conventions used in mathematics; 2. explain the nature of mathematics as a language; 3. evaluate mathematical expressions correctly; and . recognize that mathematics is a useful language. @ KEYworDs Expressions vs. Sentences Logical Connectives Sets Quantifiers Functions Negation Relations Free and Bound Variables Unary and Binary Converse Operations ee i Propositions ContrapositiveMathematical Language and Symbols —— IGLISH versus MATHEMATICS _ lees] = CC r NOUN {aame given to object of interest) ae SENTENCE {must state a complete thought) PERSON PLACE THING TRUE (1) FALSE (F) SOMETIMES TRUE/ SOMETIMES FALSE (St/SF) | Carol Manila dog The capital of The capital of The dog the Philippines. the Philippines is black. is Manila, is Makati. MATHEMATICS: EXPRESSION SENTENCE (name given to (must state a mathematical object of interest) complete thought) rt [ | | [| NUMBER SET FUNCTION MATRIX ORDERED TRUE FALSE ST/SF 1 |. ; om [| | | 8 eo 14 (wy) L4le2 Leiean xed LA [43] fix) 2.1 The Language of Mathematics Can you imagine how you would be able to communicate with a seatmate in the bus who speaks an entirely different language from yours? You may be able to tell him or her to watch over your bag as you get off the bus for a while to buy something through certain nonverbal gestures. That can be done with sign language. Language facilitates communication and meaning-making. It allows people to express themselves and maintain their identity. Likewise, language bridges the gap among people from variousMathematics in the Modem Worig JS cultural origins without prejudice to their bac! upbringing. If you plan to marry someone eae ound and Janguage and culture, you need to know his or hee 1 uerent and culture to be able to live with him or her ae" cease Have you seen the characters of the Mandarin la, The Mandarin language has different charactere nese? moon, stars, things like house, chair, table farnitene trees, plants, flowers, and relationships like traman or grandmother, father, mother, sister, brother ete. The, unfamiliar characters in the written Mandarin tan, may make learning Mandarin more difficult thee st: Greek language even if Greek letters are different from the English alphabet. Mathematics is also a language. It has its own symbol system, the same way the English or Greck languages have their own alphabet. Characteristics of Mathematical Language Mathematical language is precise which means it is able to make very fine distinctions or definitions among a set of mathematical symbols. It is concise because a mathematician can express otherwise long expositions or sentences briefly using the language of mathematics. The mathematical language is powerful, that is, one can express complex thoughts with relative ease. For example, consider the sentence “The sum of any two real numbers is also a real number.” In mathematical notation, this declarative sentence can be written as : Va,beR,a+beR Mathematics is a symbolic language. Some of the symbols you may encounter as you read this book are the following. 2X the sum of a there exists V for every (for any) € element of (or member ofMathematical Language and Symbols — _——— not an element of (or not a member of) subset of if..., then if and only if set of real numbers set of natural number set of integers set of rational numbers infinity BONZSBUns Mathematical language can describe a subset of the real world using only the symbols above. Problems in physics like freely falling bodies, speed, and acceleration; quantities like the chemical content of vegetables; the use of mathematical modeling in biological disease modelling; and the formulas employed in the social sciences can all be expressed using mathematical sentences or formulas. Mathematics describes abstract structures as well. There are areas of pure mathematics which deal with abstract structures, which have no known physical counterparts at all. These are studied in areas of mathematics like abstract algebra, linear algebra, topology, real analysis, and complex analysis. Mathematics, therefore, is the language of the sciences, business, economics, music, architecture, arts, and even Politics. There is an intimate connection between the language of mathematics and the English language. The left brain hemis, phere which is responsible for controlling language is also the same part of the brain in charge of tasks involving mathematics. It is the left brain hemisphere that coordinates logical or analytical thinking while the right brain hemisphere is Tesponsible for creative thinking. _ When you think about something, this thing Teally is. Then you relate it wi low or €ven cla: Tules that gove; Of the tim you first ask what ith what you already ssify it in your mind. Next, you think about "mn such things. You do this mental task most © using the language that you use as part of your___— Mathematics in the Modem Word nen thought process. When you think about . ao class in elementary, junior, or senior high eeat®® im usually look for a definition of the mathematical a you concept you heard. You then apply this concept bees or the meanings attributed to it, most likely by identifying valid applications or operations of the concept. With Tepeated practice, you then grasp the rules that govern its defined application. Chinese, Greek, and English languages are the same because they communicate ideas through symbols that feed the mind with information. More often however, a Chinese word or symbol may mean differently in the Greek or English language resulting in confusion. Mathematics tries to avoid this difficulty by adopting a universally understood symbolic system for its language. Thus, the language of mathematics can be considered a common language of the world. Any student learning mathematics in all parts of the globe should be able to understand mathematics even if he or she does not understand English or Filipino. 2.2 Expressions vs. Sentences A sentence must contain a complete thought. In the English language an ordinary sentence must contain a subject and a predicate. The subject contains @ noun oF a whole clause. “Manila” for example is a proper noun but is not in itself a sentence because it does not state a complete thought. Similarly, a mathematical sentenc® must state a complete thought. An expression is 4 name given to a mathematical object of interest. The term 1+2” is a mathematical expression but not a mathematical sentence: Below are examples of mathematical expressions: a. An ordered triple (a,b,c) b. A matrix [ , 5] —2 3 c. A function f(x) d. The set {13,5}— — MAMNeManed' Language and Symbols —__ truth of Sentences Mathematical sentences may either be true not both. oF false but Example 1: Write as English sentences and they are true or false. Say whether a, Vxe%, x20 b. VxyeR, (x+y) =x? +2xy + y? c. ImneZ,m-na=0vb=0 Solution: a. For any real number x, its square is greater than or equal to 0. TRUE b. For any real numbers x and y, the square of their sum is equal to the sum of their squares plus twice their product. TRUE c. There exist integers m and n such that m minus nis less than or equal to m plus n. TRUE d. For any rational numbers a and b, if their product is zero then either a or b equals 0. TRUE Example 2: Write as mathematical sentences. Discuss how the word “is” is used. a: Ten is the square root of 100. b. Ten is greater than 9. c. Ten is an even number. d. Ten is a multiple of 5.Mathematics in the Modem World ns Solution: a. ¥100 =10 b. 10>9 c. 10¢{2n, ne N} d. 10¢{5n,neN} If you notice, the word “is” could mean e: ity, i i or membership in a set. In the first ay a pa i equality, in the second for inequality, and in the nial a fourth, it is used to say that the number 10 belongs w the set of multiples of 2 and the set of multiples of 5. Numbers can be cardinal, ordinal and nominal. Cardinal numbers are used for counting and answer the question “how many?” Ordinal numbers tell the position of a thing in terms of first, second, third, etc. Nominal numbers are used only as a name, or to identify something (not as an actual value or position). Examples of nominal numbers are: 1. The number at the back of Michael Jordan is “23.” 2. The postal zip code of Marilao is 3019. 3. The name of the shop is “680.” Moreover mathematical objects may be represented in many ways such as sets and functions. 2.3 Unary and Binary Operations Not all operations in mathematics involve two operands ion 2+3=5. The plus or numbers such as in the expressic P sign between 2 and 3 signifies the operation of addition. The plus symbol here involves a binary operation. As you may guess, a unary operation accepts only one value or operand. yt mean addition or The plus and minus signs may no 1 oie subtraction when they are attached before @ single number and negative signs. Instead, they are read as positiveMathematical Language and Symbols —__ ss When written this way they are called un, ‘ary operations, ‘They accept only one value when they do arithmetic. The positive sign is very much like the addition operation but has a different meaning when attached to only one number. For example, consider this expression: +4 (read as ‘positive four). It does not reall ly mean ‘add four’. The value of four represented by the number 4 is considered as a single operand by the unary operator, ‘¥, and that operation produces a value of positive four, Obviously, +4’ and ‘4’ each represent the same value. So, one can say that an ‘invisible’ positive sign exists before any nu imber. The negative, (or opposite), sign is a unary operator. Consider this expression: —4. Technically here, the negative. sign operator accepts’ a value of four as its operand and produces a value of negative four. Obviously, ‘-4' represent different values. There are no signs in math expressions. and ‘4’ invisible negative In summary, unary operations involve only one value. There are many unary operations on the set of real numbers. For example, negation is a unary operation. The others are the trigonometric functions, the single-variable function f(x), the factorial denoted ni, the transpose of a matrix AT, the square root of 100 among others. Additional examples of unary operations are given below: 1-5 2. sin x 3. cos 45° x 4. tanZ 3 On the other hand, when “+” and “” can act on two Cperands, then it is called a binary operation. Among the binary operators, the ‘# and ~ require more attention than all other binary operations. To understand this better, Tecall the concept of ‘double negative’ you learned in high School. The double negative is taught to be equivalent to the statement ‘two negatives make a positive.’ Consider this expression: 3-(-2). In this expression, two operations 27are present using the symbol ~’. However, the two ~ sh not be interpreted to represent two identical operatio . a first symbol (left most), is the binary subtraction ae e ‘The other (right before the integer 2) is the unary ser sign operator. So what do you do to this expression? The negative sign operator has precedence over the subtraction operator, so it accepts operands first. In the number line you go three units to the right of zero to locate 3. To subtract two from three means you go two units to the left of three but to subtract a negative two means you count the opposite of negative two from three which is counting two units to the right of three. The result of this is five, represented by the number line 5 units from zero. 19-93-76 5 4-9 2-10 1 23°45 6.7 8 9 10 We write: 5=3-(-2). This expression also equals: 5=3+2. Since both expressions are equal to five, then the right-hand sides must equal one another. Hence, 3+2=3-(-2). ‘The binary operation is differentiated with the unary operator in the following figure. Unary negative sign operator v 3-2 Binary subtraction operator Binary operations take two values, and include the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation. There are many binary operations on pect isnere ante serationt ia tommy frit ales One een numbers as arguments to produce another real ae If we let multiplication, denoted by the sym Bee binary operation, then 4x6 yields the real number 24 oF 4x6=24, ona oye — Additional examples are given below: 1. Addition (e.g, 445 =9), 2. Subtraction (e.g., 10O-g= 2). The properties of two bin ‘ary operations, multiplication, over the set of addition and real numbers are as follows: i. Closure of Binary Operations The product and the sum of any two real numbers is also a real number. In symbol Is, we write Vx,YER, x+yeR and X-YER ii, Commutativity of Binary Operations Addition and multipli is commutative as seen these are written in: cation of any two real numbers in the mathematical symbols VoYER, x+y=ysx (addition) VoyeR, x-yayex (multiplication). For example: 14+2=2+1 (addition) and 2-3=3-2 (multiplication). Associativity of Binary Operations Given any three real num two and perform addition or multiplication as the cas. maybe and you will end with the same answer. For addition in symbols we write, bers you may take any VOYZER, (x+y)+z=x+(y+2), As an example, consider (1+2)+3=14(2+3), On the other hand, for multiplication we write, VX,YZER, (x: y)-z=x-(y-z), This is illustrated by the example (2-3)-4=2-(3-4) in which both sides of the equation are equal to 24. 29SESS IN HE Modem wy, ford iv, Distributivity of Binary Operat, a . 1 pene, oan! pe ed On -BFOUD..of two mun iPlication ig subtracted together. Given three real wee" added “or z, this property is stated in symbolic ee % y, and ion as, VOUZ ER, 2x4 y)= 2x4 2y, The term z is distributed over th Note, however, that addition is not fees im (x+y). multiplication, native over v. Identity Elements of Binary Operations An element of the set of real numbers element for addition if, Smad WxeR, xt+e-e+x=x. This means that the identity is the number that you add to any real number and the result will be the same real number. The only number that satisfies this property is the number zero for addition. This is evident in the example below, 5+0=04+5=5. Therefore, the identity element e in the above definition is zero or e=0. What then is the identity element under multiplication? Obviously, the identity for multiplication is 1 since x-1=1-x=x for any real number x For example, 4.1=4 and 1-4=4. vi. Inverses of Binary Operations al number x to get the Now what do you add to any re ight! The identity element e = 0 as a result? Yes you sree ai answer is the negative of that number, —*+ we state it as, vce R, x+(-x)=-x+x=9| Mathematical Language ang Symbot is — for multiplication we have the fami liar, GQ) in which case the inverse of x under multi i Meanwhile, 1 plication ig =,x#0. x es people that “they do not see eye to eye” This en tsPute say ” This expressi that the people involved in ean secs an argui on the issues at hand. In ment never get to agree many cases, the disagreement lies on not being able to present so ° und arguments based on facts, or the failure to convince the contending party using illustrates the importance of prec communicating mathematics. z g g § s 5 8 a é é 5 z g ¢ Propositions Many times, propositions are made in people's Statements. A proposition is a statement which is either true (T) or false (F). The senior citizens may claim that the best movie they ever saw is Sound of Music, a movie that was produced in 1965. This statement is a proposition that is either T or F and cannot be both. Example 1: Each of the following statements is a proposition. Some are true and some are false. Can you tell which are true, and which are false? If it is false, state why. a. 9 is a prime number. b. 54+3=8 31a. False. Prime numbers itself. 9 can be express, b. True. have no other fac ed as 3.3 ors than 1 and c. True. d. False. A negative number i eels S always less than a positive The Truth Table A truth table is a table that shows @ compound statement for all possible simple statements. the truth value of truth values of its Negation A statement is a negation of another if the word is not introduced in the negative statement. Let P be a proposition. The negation of Pis “not P” or =P. The following is its truth table Example 2: Ee What is the negation of the following statements: a. P: V2 is a rational number. b. R: 6 is an odd number. Solution: een a. J2 is not a rational number or v2 is # symbols, +P. number. In b. 6 is not an odd number or 6 is an even symbols, 4R. 32__— Mathematical Language and symbox is ——— Logical Connectives Let P and Q be propositions. A logical co mathematical equivalent of a conjunction i most common conjunctions in mathematics are = i e “and” “or”, which are denoted by » and v, respectively ‘and” and If two statements are joined like P and PAQ, then PAQ is a statement that is a fend 6 id jf both P and Q are true. Another logical connective is the word “or”. The statement Pv Q is true if and only if P is true or Q is true, which is taken to include the case when they are both true. nective is the in english. The The following is the truth table. i : Q PrQ PvO F F F F [ F T F T T | F F T T T T T Implications Suppose P and Q are propositions. The proposition P=Q (read as: “if P, then Q”) is called an implication. P is called the premise and Q is called the conclusion. In ordinary language statements like “If it rains, then I bring my umbrella” is an implication. “If it rains” is P or the premise while “I bring my umbrella” is the conclusion. Other ways of reading P => Q are: Pimplies Q QitP Qis implied by P Qonly if P 2°y ————— Mathematics in the Modem w, lord A more complicated form of implicati bi implication or the biconditional ee symbol <>. The statement P + Q is true if and onh a Ped P and Q are either both true or both false. Tae cenmone P e>Q is equivalent to the statement cae is the P22 Q=(P=Q)a(Q=>P). Construct the truth table for the logical operator = and check that indeed it is equivalent to (P= Q)(Q=P). A biconditional is often stated as, Pif and only if Q q or Pis necessary and sufficient for Q. Example 3: Write the following in symbolic form using P,Q and R for statements and the symbols — vs, where P: Pres. Duterte is a good president. Q: Government officials are corrupt. R: People are happy. a. If Pres. Duterte is a good president officials are not corrupt. b. If government officials are not corrupt, are happy. c. If Pres. Duterte is a good preside! happy, then government officials are t, then government then the people ai aie Assn nen nt and people are not corrupt. ameeceathematical Language ane »yTs _ erte is not a good president if and only if pres. Dut . t officials are corrupt and the people are not governmen! = happy: Answers: a P=>-7Q b. -Q=R c. PAR>-Q2 d. AP @(Q4-R) Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive Suppose P and Q are propositions. Given the implication P=> Q. Its converse is Q=>P, its inverse is nP => 4Q, and its contrapositive is AQ =>-P. That is, Given: If Pthen Q. Inverse: If not P then not Q. Converse: If Q then P. Contrapositive: If not Q.then not P. To determine whether the conditional statement is true or false, we come up with the following truth table. Referring to the truth table of the implication statement P > Q below, we then create the truth table for the inverse, converse, and contrapositive statements.| rs ____ Mathematics in the Modem Word —_ ‘Truth table of the inverse, converse, of P>Q. and contrapositive Example 4: Give the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following implications: a. If this movie is interesting, then I am watching it. b. If pis a prime number, then it is odd. Answers: a. Inverse: If this movie is not interesting, then I am not watching it. Converse: If I am watching this movie, then it is interesting. Contrapositive: If I am not watching this movie, then it is not interesting. os . Inverse: If p is not a prime number, then it is not odd. Converse: If p is an odd number, then it is prime. Contrapositive: If p is not odd, then it is not a prime number. Example 5: Identify three simple propositions in the Statement below and label them P, Q, and R. Then express symbolically the statement using the logical operators NM, or a, Statement: A function fhas an inverse if and only if Fis one-to-one and onto.CS ____—— Mathematical Language and symbols s ——___ solution: Let P: A function fhas an inverse. Q: fis one-to-one. R: f is onto. ‘Then using the mathematical symbols, the statement j nt is equivalent to P = (QR). The statement can also be written as [P> (QAR) 4[(Q0R)= P]. Quantifiers Quantifiers are used to describe the variable(s) in a statement. Types 1. The universal quantifier is usually written in the English language as “for all” or “for every.” It is denoted by the symbol v , 2. The existential quantifier is expressed in words as “there exists” or “for some.” This quantifier is denoted by 3. Compound Quantifiers When one quantity is involved in a statement, it is common to encounter more than one quantifier for that statement. Special care must be taken in the order in which these quantifiers appear. Order does not matter if the same quantifier is used. For example, the statement Vx,Vy,P(x,y) is the same as Vy,Vx,P(xu)- Similarly, for the quantified sentence 4x,3y,P(x,y) is equivalent to 3y,3x,P(x,y). For mixed quantifiers, order is definitely important. The statement vx,ay,P(x,y) is never always equivalent to the sentence 3y,V%,P(X,¥)- o7Mathematics in the Modem World, ee Example 6: Write as an English se Beample 6: tence and determine if it a, Vee Rady eR x+y=10 b. VxeZ",3ye Ry? =x Answers: a. For every real number «x, there exists a rei such that the sum of x and y is equal to TRUE ¥ b. For every positive integer x, there exists a real number y such that the square of y is equal to x. TRUE go EXERCISES SET 2 For Exercises 1 to 5, identify what is wrong in each of the following sentences/expressions: 1, 2cN 2. (2,3) €f, fis a function 3. x<4 or x<3 is equivalent to 4 4,4)? - Let P: The sun is shining. Q: It is raining. R: The ground is wet.Le ; Mathematics in the Modem World 30. 31. 32: 33. 34. 35. For Exercises 36 contrapositive of the fol 36. a7. 38. 39. 40. If it is raining, then the sun is not shining It is raining and the ground is wet. ‘The ground is wet if and only ifs raining and the sun is shining. ‘The sun is shining or it is raining. ‘The ground is not wet. The ground is not wet if and only if the sun is shining. to 40, give the converse, inverse, and lowing implications. If mis an irrational number then itis ¢ number that goes on forever. If x is the height of a box then it number. If the year 2020 is a 366 days in that year. If i is a complex number number. is a positive leap year then there has to De then it is not a real If xis less than O then it is negative. sommesProblem Solving and Reasoning 3.1 Inductive Reasoning 3.2 Deductive Reasoning 3.3 Problem Solving with Patterns @ KeEYworDS Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning Fibonacci Sequence Pascal’s Triangle 3.4 Polya’s Problem- Solving Strategy Binet’s Formula Polya’s Strat OBJECTIVES oem ‘At the end of the chapter, CAN YOU ANSWER the student is expected to: THIS FAST? 1. apply inductive and deductive reasoning to solve problems; . solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s strategy; and . organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems. aR_———— Mathematics in the Modem World —_—__ 3.1 Inductive Reasoning Have you seen the movie Die Hard: wit (1995) starring Bruce Willis‘and ern Sackwot ne the action scenes, McClane and Carver (portrayed y ot i and Jackson, respectively) were caught in a earn scenario where they needed to keep a bomb from explodi : and the only way to prevent the explosion is to put enact’ four gallons of water on a scale. How would they do it they only have a five-gallon and a three-gallon jug? Please see Exercise 35 of this section. jos In the movie, the bomb did not explode, eee McClane’s quick reasoning ability and mathe strategy. ution AA good problem solver is one who can find @ Wor of which the path to the answer is not immet by using @ solver gh school drills- McClane epitomizes a good problem § strategy which cannot be learned throut In the real world, decision-making and Ls it in. order are two key areas that one should be 89% to survive. In this chapter, you will learn to 0____ Problem Solving and Reasoning —__ own methods and approaches to solve m; 5 problems. athematical inductive Reasoning The type of reasoning that uses specific examples to reach a general conclusion of something is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is called a conjecture. A conjecture is an idea that may or may not be correct. Example 1: Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists. a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ? b. 1, 4,9, 16, 25, ? Solution: a. Each successive number is 5 units larger than the preceding number. Thus, it can be predicted that the next number in the list is 5 units larger than 25, which is 30. b. Observe that all the numbers are perfect squares. 1=12, 4=2?, 9=3%, 16=4%, 25=5%. Thus, it can be predicted that the next number to be 36=67. Example 2: Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture out of the following process Consider the following procedure: 1. Picka number. 2. Multiply the number by 10. 3. Add 8 to the product. 4. Divide the sum by 2. 5. And subtract 4. Repeat the procedure for s Make a conjecture between the rel resulting number and the size of the ori inductive reasoning. everal different numbers. lationship of the size‘of the ginal number using—_——— Mathematics in the Modem Wong a Solution: Suppose we pick 3 as our original number, Original number: 3 Multiply 3 by 10: 30 Add 8 to the product: 8+30=38 Divide the sum by 2: = =19 Subtract the quotient by 4: 19-4=15 We started with 3 and the procedure produces 15. Starting with 4 as our original number and the procedure produces 20. Starting with 10 as our original number and the procedure produces 50. Starting with 50 as our original number and the procedure produces 250. In each of these cases the procedure produces a number that is five times the original number. It is conjectured that the given procedure produces a number that is five times the original number. Example 3: Use the data in the table and by inductive reasoning, answer the following questions below. a. If the earthquake magnitude is 8.5, how high (in. meters) can the tsunami be? b. Can a tsunami occur when the earthquake is less than 7? Explain your answer. magnitudeProblem Solving and Reasoning —_— solution: a.In the table, for every 0.1 ; : ery 0.1 increase in eart : magnitude, the maximum tsunami height ii aes by 4 meters. Thus it is conjectured a ters that the maxi tsunami height for the earthquake. Parag 45 meters. quake magnitude of 8.5 is b. No, because when the earthquake magnitude is 7.4 the maximum tsunami height is only 1 meter. Hence. a tsunami does not occur when the earth ne magnitude is less than 7. a Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not always be true. In other words, a conjecture formed b using inductive reasoning may be incorrect, To illustrate this, consider the results below, 11x(1)(101)=1111 11x(2)(101) = 2222 11x(3)(101) =3333 11x(4)(101) = 4444 11x(5)(101) = 5555 11x(6)(101) =? Simple arithmetic shows that the answer is 6666; hence it is conjectured that the product of 11 and a multiple of 101 is a number where all digits are equal. But is 11x(n)(101)=nnnn true for all n(n, a natural number)? Suppose n=10. Then 11xn(101)=11,110 which obviously does not satisfy the previous conclusion. This method of disproving a statement is to give & counterexample. Example 4: Verify that each of the following statement is incorrect by giving a counterexample. eee x b. Vxt44ax42__——- Matthemaats in the Modem Worlg 1 —~__ } solution: a. Let x=0. Then 241. This implies that true for all. x. : is not b. For x=1, Vi? +4 = VS. But x+2=3 when x=1, Then, JS #3, implies Vx? +4 =x+2 isa false statement, 3.2 Deductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning H Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning that uses general procedures and principles to reach a conclusion, ‘ Deductive Reasoning | Deductive reasoning is the process of reachinga | | general conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles. Example 5: Use deductive reasoning to make a conjecture. Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the’ number by 10, add 8 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 4. q Solution: Let n represent the original number. Multiply n by 10: 10n Add 8 to the product: 8+10n Divide the sum by 2: Seton. 445n Subtract the quotient by 4: 44+5n-4=5n the Wo Started with n and ended with 5n after following « Sven procedure. This means that the given procedure reine @ number that is five times the original number.EN ”o ———— Problem Solving and Reasoning —— Example 6: Solve a Logic Puzzle Each of the four friends Donna, Sarah, Nikki Xhanelle, has a different pet (fish, o ae ¢ at, dog, and snake), From the following clues, determine the pet of a individual: 1. Sarah is older than her friend : who owns the cat and younger than her friend who owns the dog, 2. Nikkie and her friend who owns the snake are both 3. Donna is older than her friend who owns the fish. Solution: From Clue 1, Sarah does not own the following chart, write X1 (which ‘Stands for clue 1’) in the cat and dog column for Sarah. a cat nor a dog. In “ruled out by From Clue 2, Nikkie does not own a snake and a dog being the youngest. And since Sarah is not the youngest from Clue 1, then Sarah does not own a snake as well. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in snake column for Nikkie and X1 in snake column for Sarah. There are now Xs in the 3 pets in Sarah’s row, therefore Sarah owns the fish. Put a ¥ which means Sarah's pet is a fish. So, Donna, Nikkie, and Xhanelle do not own the fish. From Clue 3, Donna is older than Sarah, hence ae owns the dog. Write X3 (ruled out by clue 3) in Coes Snake columns for Donna. There are now Xs in__ Mathematics in the Mociem Word —____ Donna, Sarah, and Nikkie; therefore xh; owns the snake. Put a check in that box. Write x3 anelle cat column for Xhanelle; hence Nikkie owns the cat io the check in that ‘box. column for Sarah owns the fish, Donna owns the dog, Thus, Xhanelle owns the snake and Nikkie owns the cat. 3.3 Problem Solving with Patterns Fibonacci Sequence ESD) Fibonacci’s rabbit problem in chapter 1 is not a realistic model of population growth of rabbits but is a very good example of a mathematical problem solved using patterns. It is interesting to note also that this famous rabbit problem paved the way to the discovery of a phenomenal sequence of numbers known as the Fibonacci sequence. A sequence is an ordered list of numbers. The numbers, separated by commas, are called the terms of the sequence. From our discussion in section 1.2, we knew that ee six terms of the Fibonacci sequence are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 we use the mathematician notation F, to denote the erm of the Fibonacci sequence, then, F or the first month, n =1, F, =1. For the second month, n=2,F=1,_————— Probiem Solving and Reasoning —_—_ For the third month, n=3, F,=2. For month, n= 4, F, =3. ___ For the fifth month, n=5, F, the fourth =5. For the sixth month, n=6,F, =8. The Fibonacci sequence then is the ord i lered list of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ..., F,, ... where the three dots indicate that the sequence continues beyond 8 and F How do we determine F,, the nth term? Observe that. From these patterns, we conjecture that F,=F,,+F,., for n> 3. Fibonacci discovered that a Fibonacci number can be found by adding its previous two Fibonacci numbers. The Fibonacci Numbers F=1, Fy=1, and F,=F,,+F, a, for n23. Example 7: Finding a Fibonacci Number. Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the eighth and tenth Fibonacci numbers. Solution: The eight Fibonacci number is the sum of the two previous Fibonacci numbers. Thus, F=f, +Fe =(FotK)+F =(8+5)+8 =13+8 =21, 4918 Mee Wot mber is the in an ordered segues, % '0 ~ Thus, — The tenth Fibonacci nu; previous Fibonacci numbera Fo =, + F, =(R+F,)+F, =(214+13)+21 =34421 =55. It is easy to find the nth Fibonacci two previous numbers, F,, and F,, ee B if the we want to find F,,. Using the definition, it is tedious a time consuming to compute F,, and F,, to determine F Fortunately, Jacques Binet in 1543 was able to fad” formula for the nth Fibonacci number: Binet’s Formula eae) Example 8: Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 20% and 50% Fibonacci number. Solution: oe alesT FT| =6765 maT LT] =12,586,269,020 Jacques Binet ssninainhiinaineiniiibaiacasaintAnother famous mathematician who loves Patterns ig Blaise Pascal (1623-1662). For hundreds of years, Many mathematicians were intrigued with the Pascal’s triangle. The figure below illustrates the fire : t seven TOWS of the Pascal’s triangle. As you can see, each Tow starts and ends with the number 1. Any other number x is the sum of the two numbers in the previous row Closest to that number x, For instance, the number 15 in row 6 is the sum of numbers 5 and 10 closest to it in the Previous row. row0 row | Tow 2 tow3. Tow 4 row 5 1 6 1S 20 15 6 1 tow 6 Blaise Pascal In algebra, expanding (x + UP = 28 43x7y 4 3xy? + y? is just a simple special Product process. But expanding (x+y)’ can be tedious, Amazingly, note that the numerical coefficients of the expansion of (e+ uP = 29 +3x2y 4 3xy? 4y are the entries in row 3 of the Pascal’s triangle, ie., 1,3,3,1, Moreover, take note that the exponents of x in that expansion starts with 3 and decreasing in the succeeding terms while the exponents of We expand (x+ y)° using the entries in row 6 (1, 6, 15, 20 15, 6, 1) of the Pascal’s triangle. The result is given below. x+y)? = x9 + 6x5y 415 x4 P+ 20x°y? +15x7y* + 6xy? + y® y v y Can you try expanding (x- y)’p Suppose you add the horizontal entries in the rows of the Pascal’s triangle except row. 0. What pattern do you Observe in these sums? Can you predict the sum of the entries in row 10?TT Modern Wort am | sy Another. amazing discovery in Pascal’s triangle is that when you get the sum of the numbers using the lines as The first eight Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21 show up. 4 1 > wa eee 5 8 13 = : = 10 5 1 15 20 15 6 7 21 35 35 21 Website Application ' involving patterns is ther equally famous problem invol ; j the “Tbsiee of Hanoi, invented by Edouard Lucas in 1883. The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle consisting of three pegs and a number of disks of distinct diameters piled as shown in the figure below. re 52————_ Problem Solving and Reasoning ———___ The puzzle requires that all the disks be moved from the first peg to the third peg such that the largest disk is on the bottom, the next largest disk is placed on top of the largest |——qisk-and’so on and that only one disk be moved at a time. All pegs may be used. Determine the minimum number of moves required to transfer the disks from the first peg to the third peg for each of the following situations. Visit the website https:// www.mathsisfun.com/games/towerofhanoi.html for a nice simulation of the puzzle. Well Done! tld Minimum Moves: 7 a. You start with only one disk. b. You start with two disks. c. You start with three disks. d. You start with four disks. e. You start with five disks. f. How about if there are n number of disks? 3.4 Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy One of the recent mathematicians who outlined a strategy for solving problems from virtually any discipline is George Polya (1887-1985). In his book, How To Solve It, he writes, “A great discovery solves a great problem but2 MOSM Worg, eer there is a grain of discovery in Your problem may be modest curiosity and brings into Play if-you ‘Solve-it-by your-own-me; tension and enjoy the triumph ideas, he is considered the father of problem-so} oe -Solvi mathematicians. The followi amot after him: Showing four-step strategy ig named the solutio, n of ts but if it chat, Problem. obit inventive faculties, and Ss, YOu-may oe of discovery * €xPerience the Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy 1. Understand the problem, 2. Devise a plan. 3. Carry out the plan. 4. Review the solution. Understand the Problem This part of problem-solving is sometimes, if not always, neglected. In order to solve a problem, one must first know what is being asked, and what information or data can be extracted from what is given: Furthermore, one must see to it that he or she can state the problem in his or her own words. Devise a Plan For this step, one must think of strategies to solve the problem. Some of these strategies include organizing the 3 given information using a list, table or chart; drawing a diagram; working out the problem backwards; looking for | a pattern; trying to solve a similar but simpler prol een, writing an equation; or simply guessing at tos solution and then later checking if the result is vale. cAa — Carry Out the Plan Carrying out a plan to solve th, ——~implementing the strategy chosen the problem is solved or until a suggested. One may get ideas € problem is basically in the second step until new course of action is from others in deciding that the best Solution is Review the Solution Questions like “Is your answer in checking the veracity of the For example, i Teasonable?” is important Example 9: problem. The GSW basketball te six games. In how many attained three wins and Apply Polya’s strategy in solving the following am won three out of their last different orders could they have three losses in six games? Solution: Understand the Problem. There are many different ways. GSW may have won three straight wins and three losses (WWWLLL), or maybe they lost in the first three games and won in the last three games (LLLWWW). Likewise, there are other several orders. Devise a Plan. One can organize a list of all the possibilities making sure that no entry will be duplicated. Carry Out the Plan. Three Ws must be present in every entry without duplication. The strategy is to start the list with three consecutive wins. Next in the list are all the entries starting with two consecutive wins, then next in the eeSe Mathematics in fhe Modern World entries starting with a single win. Following list are all the i ttern, conside! i i and so on. Here eee i 1, WWWLLL nT oe 2. WWLWLL 10. LLWLWW 3, WWLLWL 11. LLWWLW 4, WWLLLW 12. LLWWWL 5. WLLLWW 13. LWWWLL 6. WLLWWL 14, LWWLLW 7. WLWWLL 15. LWLLWW 8. WLWLWL 16. LWLWLW Review the Solution. The list is organized and has no ~ duplicates, so there are sixteen di pasketball team can win exactly three out of six games. ting the height of a person. da Vinei was a famous artist during the” renaissance period. He wrote in his notebook that “from. the top to the bottom of the chin is the sixth part of the q face, and it is the fifty-fourth part of the man.” Suppose the © e chin of the person | distance from the top to the bottom of th is 1.2 inches. Using Leonardo da Vinci’s measurements, find the height of the person. saad Example 10: Comput ieuboas i Solution: d the Understand the Prob! height of the person in this problem. lem. Obviously, one needs to fin Devise a Plan. Let x represent the unknown height. of the person. Write an equation satisfying da Vinci's side iia) ce measurements. aieProblem Solving and Reasoning - —_—. carry Out the Plan. Let x= height of the person -—"Bquation 1 —x=1.2 54 x= 64.8 in or 5.4ft Thus, the person is 5.4 ft tall. Review the solution. The solution is quite simple Now check your progress—follow Leonardo da Vinci's measurements to find your best friend’s height. Example 11: Solving a tour problem. ‘An agency charged P15,000 for a 3-day and 2-night tour jn Macau and P20,000 for the same tour with a side trip to Hong Kong (HK). Ten persons joined the trip, which enable them to collect P170,000. How many tourists made a side - trip to Hong Kong? = Solution: Understand the Problem. There are two types of tourists in the situation given. Some purely stayed in Macau while others made a side trip to HK. From the total collection, how much was the amount collected from those who purely stayed in Macau and how much was collected from those who made side trips to HK, It is needed to know how many were bound for Macau who made a side trip to HK. _ Devise a Plan. Use x and y to represent the two types of tourists. Define these variables. Let x be the number of tourists bound for Macau alone and y be the number of tourists bound for Macau but who made a side trip to Hong Kong. Hence, we have the following algebraic equations: P15,000x= amount collected from the tourists bound for Macau alone7 Mathematics in the Modem Werlg 4 — P20,000y=amount collected f irom the i: bound for Macau but who made om ~~ trip to Hong Kong. & side Carry Out the Plan. Write the equations the elimination method to the system of equ: Equations: x+y=10 15,000x + 20,000y = 170,000 and solve using ations, 1 () 4 Q) 3 To find the number of tourists bound for Macau but who made a side trip to HK, we solve for y. To do this, we use elimination by substitution. a. Solve for y in (1) x+y=10 y=10-x 3) b. Substitute y=10-.x in equation (2) 15, 000x +20, 000(10- x) =170,000 15,000x + 200,000 - 20,000x = 170,000 -8,000x = 170,000 -200,000 -8,000x = -30,000 30,000 “=,000 x=6 x Substituting x =6 in equation (3), ¥=4 Therefore, four tourists made a side trip to Hong Kong. Review the Solution. Since there are a total of 10 teoTibt six of them only stayed in Macau while four made 000. This to Hong Kong. Now, 15,000(6)+20,000(4)=170,000. satisfies the condition that the total amount collected for She whole trip is 170,000. Some problems cannot be solve equations. For example, June 3, 2017 was What day of the week is June 3, 2020? A we 4 using ordinary a Saturday ek is a cycle 45s OO i d problems of this type can be solved using arithmetic an modulo n. | Modulo n ‘Two integers a and b are said to be congruent . arb ith n being a natural number, if 2—9 ; modulo n, wi s 7 is an integer. In this case, we write a=bmodn. The number nis called the modulus. The statement a=bmodn is called a congruence, (Aufmann, 2015, p. 475). Example 12: Finding a Day of the Week In 2017, Venus’ birthday fell on a Saturday, June 3. On what day of the week does Venus’ birthday fall in 2020? Note that the year 2020 is a leap year. Solution: The number of days in a year is 365 except when it is a leap year where there’s one day added. How many days are there after June 3, 2017 to June 3, 2020? Number of days: After June 3, 2017 to June 3, 2018 : 365 After June 3, 2018 to June 3, 2019 : 365 After June 3, 2019 to June 3, 2020 : 366 (leap year) Total : 1096 . Because 1096+7=156 has a remainder 4, then we write 1096=4mod7. Since a’ week is a cycle, then any multiple of 7 days past a given day will be the same day of the week. It means that on the 1092™ day, 1092 being F multiple of 7, after June 3, 2017 is also a Saturday. ermore, on the 1096t% day, four days after, is a Wednesday. Thus, June 3, 2020 will be a Wednesday. a Problem Solving can be an enjoyable experience. There to sone” other mathematical problems you can practice © and enjoy from. Some may be difficult but just likeSS Wor the scenario in the movie Die Harg —— roblem solving ski ae br BeaG ving skills are needed to a ° Vengeance “honk Popul: Saying Goes, “Life ig ack these Probie oe to Polya’s Problem soiving strate uthl struggle : guide in figuring out solutions to diffe’, ne is now a practical problems. Stent academic and o EXERCISES SET 3 In Exercises 1 to 10, use inductive reasoni : easoniny i the next number in each list. Ser . 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,? 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ? 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35, ? 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, ? 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ? -2, 3, -4, 5,6, 7, ? -1, 4,-9, 16, -25, ? PANU HYDE e 10. yen nth term formule : se the given For Exercises 11 to 15, u f the sequence: to compute the first six terms 0 11. a, =2" 12. a, =C1"in? n?-1 13. a, =) n 14. b, ntl y(n? -n +7) 15. b, = AN =_————_ Problem Solving and Reasoning ————____ 16. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next letter in the following list, _ - O,T, T, F, F,S, S, E, ? 17. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always produces a number that is equal to the original number: a. Pick a number. Multiply the number by 5 and add 10. Divide the sum by 5, and subtract 2. b. Pick a number. Add 3 to the number and multiply the sum by 2. Subtract 6 from the product then divide the result by 2. 18. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a perfect cube. Pick 3 consecutive integers. Multiply these three consecutive integers and then add the middle integer to the product. 19. Each of four siblings (Edmund, Genalyn, Madelyn, and Sonia) bought four different cars. One chooses a Honda, a Mitsubishi, a Toyota, and a Suzuki car. From the following clues, determine which sibling bought which car. (1) Edmund, living alone, stays next door to his sister who bought the Honda car and very far from his sister who bought the Suzuki car. (2) Genalyn, also living alone, is younger than the one who bought the Mitsubishi car and older than her sibling who bought the Toyota car. (3) Madelyn did not like Toyota and Suzuki cars. But she and her sibling, who bought the Toyota car, live in the same house. 20. Write a report on the life of Jacques Binet. In your report, include his most important contribution to mathematics.21. 22: 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. -An.--airline-flies—from Manila. to Davao with a ee a Sel WNC] — Use Binet’s formula and a calcu 100% and 1000 Fibonacci numbe sor to find the Tr. stopover in Cebu. It charges a fare of P1,800 Mani to Cebu and a fare of P3,500 from Manila to sae In one flight, a total of 180 passengers boarded | the plane in Manila and the collected fare totalled P494,000. How many passengers got off the plane in Cebu? For fine arts students, write a report on the life of Leonardo da Vinci. In your report, include his most } important contribution to mathematics and the , arts. In‘ 2016, December 25 fell on a Sunday. On what | day of the week does Christmas fall in 2025? Note | that the years 2020 and 2024 are both leap years. = If it is now 10:00 A.M., what time is it 1,000 hours ' from now? . If today is Thursday, what day is it 500 days from | now? Find a counterexample to show that the (xt yf =x’ +y’ is false. 4 Find a counterexample to show that the following 4 conjecture is false. { Conjecture: For all real numbers, conjecture © (a+b\a->)_ a+b a-ba tthe Checkerboard Problem 29. Consider the 8x8 checkerboard below, How many squares of all sizes appear on this checkerboard? 30. Prisoners with Red/Black Hats. The following problem is a famous online puzzle: One hundred prisoners in jail are standing in a queue facing one direction. Each prisoner is wearing a hat of color either black or red. A prisoner can see hats of all prisoners in front of him in the queue, but cannot see his hat and hats of prisoners standing behind him. The jailer is going to ask the color of each prisoner’s hat starting from the last prisoner in queue. If a prisoner tells the correct color, then is saved, otherwise executed. How many prisoners can be saved at most if they are allowed to discuss a strategy before the jailer starts asking colors of their hats.yO 2 y 31. A Cryptarithm. The following puzzle is a famous cryptarithm. SEND * MORE MONEY Each letter in the cryptarithm represents one of the digits 0 through 9. The leading digits, represented by S and M are not zero. Determine which digit is represented by each of the letters so that the addition is correct. Note: A letter that is used more than once, such as M, represents the same digit in each position in which it appears (Aufmann ef al., 2015). 32. Snacks Problem CAN YOU ANSWER THIS FAST? eee Can you think of at least two methods to solve this Problem?problem solving and Reasoning es jses 33 tO 35 3. ThE Handshake Problem ing the first day of classes in a Math class tudents, the teacher asked everyone to ‘js and introduce each other. How many pandshakes were exchanged? Discuss methods that hggnt be used to find the answer. 34. can you find a formula for n students in problem 33? 35. Die Hard Problem In the movie Die Hard: With a Vengeance, in one of the action scenes, the characters McClane and Carver were caught in a breathtaking scenario where they need to keep a bomb from exploding, and the only way to prevent explosion is to put exactly four gallons of water on a scale. How would they do it if they only have a five-gallon and a three-gallon jug? are group activities of 30 8 shake han’CHAPTER _The Statistica) Tools 4.1 Correlation 4.2. Testing of Hypotheses 4.3. Regression LEARNING ® keyworps OBJECTIVES Popuilditen At the end of the chapter, Variables the student is expected to: Hypothesis 1. apply a variety of Normal Curve statistical tools to Process and manage numerical data; Regression . use the methods of i linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a variable given certain conditions; and + Tecognize the importance of statistical analyses in making decisions, CorrelationTT CEE fo The Statistical Tools —— 4l Correlation + gny do most students who excel in English do not do Why yrathematics? Have you ever wondered why some wel ur friends who are good in Mathematics do not have of yo ades in English? Did it occur to you to find out if high eee a relationship’ between academic performance a pnlish and achievement in Mathematics? In the field i mathematics called Statistics, the relationship between these two variables is known as correlation. Correlation Correlation measures the association or the strength of the relationship between two variables say, x and y. Below is a set of hypothetical data. Before the relationship between these two sets of data is found out through computation, it is essential to first discuss the three types of correlation. When a variable increases while the other decreases, these variables are indirectly correlated or negatively correlated. But when one variable increases and the other increases as well or one variable decreases, as well as the other variable, then the two variables are directly correlated or positively correlated. Example 1: Suppose a ten-item test in English and a ten- item test in Mathematics were administered to ten students. The scores of the students are tabulated below. It must be determined if the scores in the Mathematics quiz (here labelled variable x) and the English test (labelled variable y) are correlated or not.The graph below indicates a direct correlation between | variables x and y which appears to be increasing. Score in English Score in Mathematics 42Sie ple 2: Suppose the scores of the students in those two apjects happen to be as follows: si alrjalofo ° N v ° & 9 2 & aa 5 3 Score in Mathematics var tis time the trend of the data is decreasing, hence, the ‘ariables are negatively correlated.VOR ees Example 3: Suppose the same Students have . scores. fhe following The scatter graph of the data above is ne ther increasing nor decreasing. Score in English Score in Mathematics This graph Tepresents a zero correlation.Definitions 4.1.1 4.1.2 Two variables are positively correlated if the values of the two variables both increase or both decrease. wo variables are negatively correlated if the values of one variable increase while the values of the other decrease. ‘Two variables are not correlated or they have zero correlation if one variable neither increases nor decreases while the other increases. While a scatter plot may be a convenient way of inspecting correlation between two variables, it does not offer a measure of the strength of a correlation. Fortunately, Karl Pearson invented a formula that can give a numerical value to the measure of a correlation. This formula does not only show how greatly two data sets are correlated but also reveals if the correlation is direct or inverse, or if the data sets are not correlated. The formula named after him is called the Pearson product-moment correlation. The degree of correlation between two data sets x and y is represented by the Pearson product- moment correlation coefficient Ty which can have values from -1 to 1, 1 representing a strong positive relationship whereas -1 indicating a strong negative relationship. If the coefficient r,,=0, then there 7© 8 Modem Worte — - 2 is no relationship between the tye ee . Vari; product-moment correlation formula jg 12s. Th, 9 18 given by, Pearson 7 Ee=RG=y ta Ex SEG, -3 where X is the sample mean for data set x. {x} ¥ is the sample mean for data set {y,}. Below are some scatter diagrams along with the type of linear correlation that exists between the X and y variables. The closer the absolute value of Ty 4s to 1, the stronger the linear relationship between the variables. keke Perfect positive b. Strong positive ¢. Positive correlation, a. . p correlation, r=1 correlation, r = 0.8 20.6 i - Little or no linear, d. Strong negative e. Negative correlation, aviation, r= 0 correlation, r = -0.9 ra-0.5= _ The Statistical Tools jder the data in Example 1 of this section. Organize Consi Shown in the table below. You can also tabulate the dal your results i Excel. by | es 4 8 = 5 4 1 9 8 4.2 3 17.64 9 12.6 ra 3 ae 2 7.84 4 5.6 a 9 | 32 | 4 | 10.24 16 12.8 1 2 3.8 -3 14.44 9 11.4 2 1 -2.8 4 784 16 11.2 7 6 2.2 1 4.84 1 2.2 5 7 |i2}2 | 144 4 2.4 a 5 |-os| 0 | 0.64 0 0 S40 $4, =50 Sou-aF | Seat | Beeman =65.6 =60.0 =58 ” 62.73755 =0.92 ; This result is in conformity with the scatter graph in Example 1 of this section. The computed correlation coefficient is almost 1, hence, it has a strong positive correlation.yO INDE Modem World p Us ing the data in Example 2 of ; this Section following computations. » We have the 9 3 6.25, =10.25 3 6 19/05 | 3.61 | O25 ~0.95 ae eam 0.9} 1.5] 081 | 295 -1.35 7 4 214-15] 441 | 295 3.15 6 2 11-35] 1.21 | 12.25 | ges 1 9 =3.9| 3.5 | 15.21 | 1225 | 4365 2 8 -2.9/ 2.5] 841 | 6.25 ~7.25 5 4 0.1 }-1.5} 0.01 | 2.25 ~0.15 10 2 5.1 |-3.5| 26.01 | 12.25 | -17.85 2 10 |-2.9] 4.5 | 8.41 | 20.25] -13.05 a ele dx-99 “Yy-ss ae ear Rema a The absolute value of the correlation coefficient is almost 1; hence, it has a strong negative correlation. This is the reason why the scatter graph in Example 2 of this section is decreasing from left to right.Fo The Statistical tools ——____ We now compute the correlation coefficient, ry of the gata on two non-correlated variables in Example 3 of this section, (4 -2y-a 7 2 12 5 ) 3 oO 6 3 8 6 2 49 9 8 3 -2 6 1 4 -1 Fees | $y-50 Sea Lu- Yoe-au,.-m = - =54 =46 =0.0 This conforms with the scatter graph on page 70. The graph is neither increasing nor decreasing and therefore the _ two sets of data are not correlated. To find the correlation coefficient of data above in Excel, simply follow the steps below. Step 1: Enter all data in Excel in two columns or rows. Step 2: Click “Formulas” then “Statistics” and choose “Pearson”, . Step 3: After function argument table appears, place the cursor in array 1, then highlight the first column of your data.- ae ESET World, —_ Step 4: Place the cursor in array 2 of argument table, then highlicny °. Snction _...golumn of your dai Ht the “second Step 5: The correlation coefficient j . ad is -0. shown below. 008090869 as Since the value is almost zero, then it has little or zero linear correlation. As mentioned earlier, the Pearson product-moment correlation is only applicable when the two variables under study are interval type of data. However, when the type of data is not measured on an interval scale, then the Pearson product-moment correlation will not be appropriate. Consider the case when your data are ranked variables or ordinal variables. What formula will you use? The Spearman’s rank-order correlation formula is designed to help in handling ordinal data. Definition 4.1.4 The Spearman’s rank-order correl Nonparametric version of the Pearson ation is the product- relation moment correlation. Spearman's © sures the coefficient, meas (p, also denoted r,) Tetween Strength and direction of association two ranked variables.Tre Statistica Tools ———££___ mpute for the Spearman’s rank correlation oi Be following formula is used: coefficient, the is era -1-_S_ po atn? =) where d = differences of paired ranks n=no. of paired data. _ Example 4: Given the scores in Mathematics and English below, rank the scores, and use the Spearman’s rho to compute for the correlation coefficient. 35 38 3 4 1 64 78 9 10: 1 45 49 6 6 0 30 26 2 1 1 28 59 1 8 49 60 54 8 7 L 44 33 5 2 9 Ey 70 7 9 4 39 35 4 3 1 67 45 10 5 25 Ve =92 at Solution: Using the Spearman’s rank formula: one Tn 3), Where )\d? =92 and n=10 we have: i=l s bya : i=l n(n? -1) _6(92) 10(10? -1) =1-0.557576 p=0.44 =1- The correlation coefficient is 0.44 which is a low positive correlation. : For a pair of nominal dichotomous set of data, the | phi coefficient is more appropriate to describe the data set than the Pearson product-moment correlation or : Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. Its formula is given © by: ad — be ao OE, : la + b)(c + d)(a+c)(b+ d) Example 5: Find phi for the following contingency table.he a ie Pe ee jon: Substitute the values of a, b,c, and d in the soluti formula. es ogres Mead = bo = Tar bye+ dat cyb+d) go ee = +14)0 +13)(6 +10)04 +13) pee “198,720 =-0.000312 ‘The result shows that the opinion on capital punishment nether for or against is almost zero in the negative side. ‘The point-biserial correlation coefficient is a correlation that measures the strength’ of association between a ontinuous-level variable (ratio or interval data) and a tinary variable. Binary variables are variables of nominal nly two possible values. They are also called dichotomous variables. Given two variable sets, in which x js the continuous variable and y the dichotomous variable, the formula of point-biserial correlation coefficient is: X—% | MMs Pay Vat 1) scale having © where % is the mean x when y=1 or those labelled with 1 %, is the mean x when y=2 or those labelled with 2 n, the number of samples labeled 1 in y n, the number of samples labeled 2 in y n is total number of samples s, standard deviation of all the x values uallyRemark The point biserial correlati io measures the relationship between dichotomous and an interval s efficient a ets of data. Example 6: Four girls (1) and five boys (2) : of G 20-item Mathematics achievement test. ae coe ‘ given below. Compute the correlation Coefficient of they el scores and the boys’ scores in the set of data, * ire Solution: In this example, the point-biserial correlation will be used because the data involves a continuous interval data (the test results) and a nominal dichotomous data (which identifies if the test-taker is female, labelled 1, or otherwise, labelled 2). Let x represent the interval data and y stand for the dichotomous data. The formula to be used is the equation for determining the correlation coefficient. You may do your calculations in Excel or use a calculator to arrive at the following results.———— The Statistical Tools %,=11.25 %=13.6 : ny n,=5 nen, +n, =44+5=9 4.245913 _11.25-13.6 [@)) =-0.1957 ay A correlation coefficient of -0.1957 indicates low negative correlation. For this specific example, the negative correlation suggests that the higher the boys score in the “~~ exam, the lower are the girls scores. As previously shown, different formulas can be used to compute the correlation between two data sets. If data xand y are both interval data, the Pearson product-moment correlation will suffice. For two data sets that are both ordinal, the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient will be appropriate. The phi correlation coefficient is suited for checking the correlated behavior of data that are both real nominal dichotomous. However, if one real nominal dichotomous and one interval data are involved, the point- biserial formula should be employed. 4.2 Testing of Hypotheses Many decisions in business, in education, and even in Personal circumstances are based on information that is collected from the real world. For instance, you are deciding to put up a business selling cars. Your first course befor® " Spending money on this business is to know which caf the most these days. Before you open a business of Se ne Toyota, Mitsubishi, Hyundai, Honda, Nissan, or Suzukt YO eed to gather information which among these get the ™number of sales. How many existing distributors of these cars are out there? Do you want to compete? To answer these questions, you need-to gather data. What type of - data? And where will you get them? You simply need to do a survey. This does not need to cover the whole population of the Philippines but only a portion of that population. That part of the population is called the sample n. Definitions 4.2.1 Population is the total number of people, animals, other living or non-living things under consideration. A population has to be well-defined so you know exactly what belongs and what does not belong to the population. 4.2.2 Sample is the portion or part of the population. There are several types of data, the artificial nominal, the real nominal, the ordinal, the interval, and the ratio data. There are also several ways of gathering data. You could use survey, either through interview or questionnaires which may be done and gathered through mail, internet, telephone, or other means. You can also gather data using observations such as in a classroom setup. Now going back to the car business you want to put up. You want to find out which car is saleable in Metro Manila by conducting __| a survey of a portion of Metro Manila where you plan to | | put up your car sale shop. You will have to use random sampling to gather data. You may visit shops that sell different brands of cars in Metro Manila to find out their — sales in the past three years or so. Some of you might have experienced the blended — learning medium in one of your senior high school subjects. In blended learning, about half of a group of students are taking classes that combine online media and the | traditional classroom style of learning while the other half | are only attending lectures in the classroom. Consequently, the online group will receive quizzes online and those in =. e quizzes in the clas, the CO aaa out i blended learning is more a professor wan! the traditional Classroom Setting. The effective than conducts a research using an €xPerimenta} ~~ professor then she will experiment on tWo sections of design. He or a basic statistics course, He or she will students ee st and a posttest, and then will compare administer ae two tests by using the t-test. How will this earch neon work? ‘STOom. Suppose first step in investigating @ problem using an Eee design is formulating a hypothesis, There are a ways of stating a hypothesis, Definitions learning is more effective than Y given in the das follows: Null Hypothesis, Ay Tnaybe state, There is no Significant difference in the mean Scores of the achievement tests in basic statistics of Were taught usi those wh,Feet ee — The alternative hypothesis is written as fo, Alternative ee difference: betw ee Sen i eee een_the.scores of those taught sie eieah! learning and the scores of those who were a blendec ot. To .test the hypothesis Hy, use the 14 for example the hypothetical data ee oe achievement ‘test in statistics administered te (ene groups of students. a 6 fhe tet between the two is a significant difference for independent To test if there t-test formula sets of scores, we will use the samples: z-¥ (n, +r, ~2) n where is the mean of the x; values 7 is the mean of the y, valuesThe Statistical Tools ———_____ is the number of x, values or numb ao er of samples n, is the number of y, values or number of samples in group y is the standard deviation of x, values s, is the standard deviation of y, values. In the given problem the values are as follows: = 3.37046 =4.31277 13.4-12.8 (0)(3.37046) + (9)(4.31277F° (3 +) (18) 10 10 =0.11555 What does t = 0.11555 mean? ‘The following are the steps of doing inferential 1. Write the null hypothesis. 2. Choose the level of significance. Usually it is a@=0.05 or a=0.01. tatistics. In this case, the ttest is statistics: 3. Choose your test s' chosen. 4. Compute the t-statistic using the formula using Microsoft Excel. 5. Compare with the critical value of t using the ttable. above orr 6. If computed t is , greater than the criti (that is the corresponding value of tabu sated t aa at chosen a) then reject the n then re all hy computed fis less than the critical ae Whe do not reject the null hypothesis. thee Using the table of critical values beloy two-tailed @ =0.05 with degree of freedom cual 18, the critical value is t= 2.101. This critical value is higher than the computed value t=0.11555. From step 6 above, the null hypothesis should be accepted. Hence, it is concluded that there is no significant difference between the scores of students taught using the blended learning program and the scores of those who were not. 1 63.657 | 31.821 | 12.706 | 6314 | 3.078 | 1.000 2 02s | 6965 | 4303"| 2920 | 1886 | 816 3 sai | 4.941 31s2 | 2.953 | 1.638 765 4 460+ | 3747 | 2776 | 2132 | 1593 741 5 4032 | 3365 | 2571 aos | 1476 | 727 6 3.7o7 | 3143 | 2447 r943 | 1440 | 718 7 ago | 2908 | 2.365 aos | iais | 711 8 aass | 2896 | 2306 160 | 1.397 “706 9 3.250 | 2.821 2.262 1e33 | 1.383 “703 10 3169 | 2.764 | 2.228 vei2 | 1372 “700 uW 3.106 | 2718 | 2201 1.796 | 1.363 697 12 3oss | 2.681 | 2.179 i7ea | 1.356 695 13 3.012 | 2650 | 2.160 i771 | 1380 694 4 2077 | 2624 | 2145 | 1761 | 1345 “692 15 2.947 | 2.602 2.131 i7sa | 1341 ‘691 16 2.921 2.583 | 2.120 ase | 1337 690 a7 2e9s | 2567 | 2110 i740 | 1333 1689 18 2878 | 2.552 2.101 i734 | 1330 688 19 2.861 2.539 2.093, i729 | 1328 +688 20 2.845 2.528 2.086 1.725 1.325 687 a 2.831 2.518 2.080 1721 1.323 sag 22 2.819 2.508 2.074 77 | 1321 ro 23 2.807, | 2.500 | 2.069 174 1319 ra 24 27e7 | 2492 | 2.064 v7 1318 oH 25 2.787 2.485 2.060 1.708 1.316 26 2.779 2.479 2.056 1.706 1.315 oH 27 2771 2.473 | 2.052 1703 | 1314 683 28 2763 2.467 | 2.048 1.701 1313 es 29 2756 | 2.462 2.045 1.699 1311 = Large (2) | 2.575 2.397 1.96 1.645 1,282, RAa © 4.3 Regression The height of a person and the ten, . hand are observed to be positively CorRisiaay eee this observation, you can collect actual measurements "of the heights of your classmates and the corresponding -Jengths of their hands. Then graph each paired datum, the xcvordinate being the height and the y-cootdinate being wre length of the hand. If you fit a straight line on the Points of - the graph, you will see an upward or increasing trend from left to right. From the discussion in the previcue section, this trend indicates a positive correlation, thus, implying that the taller the person is, the longer his or her haart are. You can go further by asking “Given the height of a classmate, can I estimate the length of his or her hand?” _ To come up with an estimate, you need to determine the -.-equation of the line that best fits the collected data. This line is known as the line of best fit. Recall from algebra that a straight line can be represented by a linear equation usually in. the slope-intercept form. The linear equation can be of the familiar form: y=mx+b (y) where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. Given a data set, the constants m and b are determined from the formulas below. (2) (3) We now call y=mx+b as simple linear regression €quation.