1.

Photosynthesis
2. Chromatography
 In most plants, photosynthesis occurs primarily in the leaves,
in the chloroplasts.

 A chloroplast contains:
◦ stroma, a fluid
◦ grana, stacks of thylakoids

 The thylakoids contain chlorophyll

◦ Chlorophyll is the green pigment that captures light for photosynthesis
 Chloroplasts contain several pigments:
– Chlorophyll a
– Chlorophyll b
– Carotenoids

 Different pigments
absorb light differently
Chlorophyll a: absorb
wavelengths violet blue

Chlorophyl b: absorb
green

Carotenoids: absorb
wavelengths other than
yellow and orange.
•Chlorophyll a and b - two common types of
chlorophyll found on the thylakoid membrane.
 to trap light to ultimately convert it into
energy.

•This is the base step of photosynthesis.

•Cholorphyll b is an accessory pigment,

meaning it always passes its excited electrons
to chlorophyll a.

•Chlorophyll a is the main absorber, meaning

only it can pass the excited electrons to other
molecules.
•Chlorophyll is a very poor
absorber of green wavelengths,
therefore it reflects green light the
best.

•Leaves are very rich in

chloroplasts - they reflect a lot of
green light wavelengths
•As the fall comes, less light during to undergo
photosynthesis.

•Plant’s leaves begin to change colour.

•Accessory pigments (carotene, xanthophyll) take

over the light capturing process - they are able to trap
different wavelengths of light.

•The combined trapping ability of the accessory

pigments and the regular pigments (chlorophyll a and
b) - allows greater combined absorption of light - more
pigments trapping greater range of light from the
visible light spectrum.
 Plant able to perform more photosynthesis because more
photons of light are being absorbed.

 Result in more glucose being formed which will ultimately be

stored as potential energy (in the form of sugars) during the
winter months when photosynthesis doesn't occur.
Chromatography
 Method of separating mixtures by using a moving solvent on
filter paper.

 Paper chromatography - useful technique in the separation

and identification of different plant pigments.

 The molecules migrate, or move up the paper, at different

rates because of differences in solubility, molecular mass, and
hydrogen bonding with the paper.
 The distance traveled by a particular compound can be used
to identify the compound.

 The ratio of the distance traveled by a compound to that of

the solvent front is known as the Rf value.

 Unknown compounds may be identified by comparing their

Rf's to the Rf's of known standards.

 Rf = distance traveled by compound

distance traveled by solvent
 1. Blood Pressure as a vital sign
 2. Human respiratory volume
 The cell of the body and brain can influence the circulatory pattern of
blood.
 Changes in total blood flow are reflected in heart rate and arterial
pressure.
 Blood pressure can easily be measured.
 Systole refers to the contraction of the heart
 Systolic pressure: the highest pressure developed in arteries during
the ventricular contraction of the cardiac cycle.
 Diastole refers to a relaxed heart muscle
 Diastolic pressure : the lowest arterial pressure during a heart cycle.
 The pulse pressure: the amount of blood being pumped per beat.
 The Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) : mean arterial pressure
from measured systolic and diastolic blood pressure values.
(Filling) (Pumping)
 In this experiment, you will examine your blood pressure
using the blood pressure sensor. You will compare blood
pressure when you are rest or stress, including:
 1. Sitting on chair
 2. Supine (lying on back)
 3. Climb up and down stairs
 4. After exposure to cold (ice).
The reason that the diastolic
value is multiplied by 2
diastole counts twice as much
as systole because 2/3 of the
cardiac cycle is spent in
diastole.
 Objective: to examine the respiratory volumes using
spirometer.

Dry spirometer Wet spirometer

(Don’t have here)
 The total capacity of lungs is divided into various volumes and
capacities according to the function of these in the intake or
exhalation of air.
 The total amount of air one's lung can possible hold can be
subdivided into EIGHT (8) volumes, as shown in Figure 1.
 Keep spiropet horizontal during measurement (if
it is not keep still, the vanes cannot revolve evenly
and measurements result will not be correct).

 When using, do not cover up the small holes

which are at the side of the upper body with your
hand.

 When used frequently, water drops and salive will

condense inside. Accuracy will lost. Once every
ten measurements, remove the lower body and
clean inside with a cloth (it is easily removed by
turning it clockwise)

 Spiropet is a precision instrument like a watch.

Handle it carefully.
◦ Set the spirometer dial at 10,000 (V0). Take a normal inspiration, place
your mouth over the mouth-piece, and exhale a normal expiration into
the spirometer. You will have to make a conscious effort not to exceed
your normal value.
◦ Read the amount exhale on the dial. The volume is VF.
◦ Determine your TV (TV= VF- Vo)
◦ Repeat the measurement 3 times and record the most consistent
volume.
◦ Have your lab partner count your respiratory rate per minute by
counting your respiratory cycles for 1 minute while you are seated at
rest.
◦ Multiply your tidal volume by your respiratory rate per minute to give
your resting respiratory minute volume.
◦ Set the spirometer dial at 10,000 (V0).
◦ After a normal expiration, place your mouth over the mouth-piece and
forcefully exhale as much air as possible into the spirometer.
◦ Read the amount exhale on the dial. The volume is VF.
◦ Determine your ERV (TV= VF- Vo)
◦ Repeat the measurement 3 times and record the most consistent
volume.
◦ Set the spirometer dial at xero (0).
◦ Inhale as deeply as possible; place your mouth over the mouth-piece,
hold your nose, and exhale into spirometer with a maximal effort.
◦ Repeat the measurement 3 times and record the largest volume.
◦ Calculate the IRV and IC from 3 previous volume measurements using
the formula as below.
◦ By using the standard value of Residual Volume (RV) of male as 1.2L
and female as 1.1 L, calculate the FRC and IC using the TV, ERV, VC
and the formula as below.
 Table 4. Respiratory volumes

Respiratory volumes Value (Litre)

Tidal volume (TV) From spirometer
Inspiratory Reserve Volume From graph
(IRV)
Expiratory Reserve Volume From spirometer
(ERV)
Residual Volume (RV) 1.2 L (male), 1.1 L (female)
(standard value)
Total Lung Capacity (TLC) From graph
Vital Capacity (VC) From spirometer
Functional Residual From graph
Capacity (RFC)
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) From graph
 Plot the lung volume graft for each student using their own
value.