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 International Journal of Mental Health Promotion

ISSN: 1462-3730 (Print) 2049-8543 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rijm20

Teachers’ psychological well-being: a comparison

among teachers in U.S.A., Turkey and Pakistan

Öykü Özü, Sally Zepeda, Abdurrahman Ilgan, Albert M. Jimenez, Atakan Ata
& Muhammed Akram

To cite this article: Öykü Özü, Sally Zepeda, Abdurrahman Ilgan, Albert M. Jimenez, Atakan Ata
& Muhammed Akram (2017) Teachers’ psychological well-being: a comparison among teachers in
U.S.A., Turkey and Pakistan, International Journal of Mental Health Promotion, 19:3, 144-158, DOI:
10.1080/14623730.2017.1326397

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International Journal of Mental Health Promotion, 2017
VOL. 19, NO. 3, 144–158
https://doi.org/10.1080/14623730.2017.1326397

Teachers’ psychological well-being: a comparison among

teachers in U.S.A., Turkey and Pakistan
Öykü Özüa  , Sally Zepedab, Abdurrahman Ilganc, Albert M. Jimenezd, Atakan Atae
and Muhammed Akramf
a
Independent Researcher and Counselor, İzmir, Turkey; bDepartment of Lifelong Education, Administration,
and Policy, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; cDepartment of Educational Sciences, University of Düzce,
Düzce, Turkey; dDepartment of Educational Leadership, Kennasaw State University, Kennasaw, GA, USA;
e
Graduate School of Educational Sciences, Bahçeşehir University, İstanbul, Turkey; fDivision of Education,
University of Education, Lahore, Pakistan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Assessing teachers’ psychological well-being (PWB) is the first Received 21 September 2016
step in protecting teacher’s mental health and providing them an Accepted 30 April 2017
environment that helps flourish their professional and personal
KEYWORDS
development. It is also crucial for good teacher–student interactions, Teachers’ psychological
which in turn, may affect student self-efficacy, social abilities, and well-being; teachers’ mental
even mental health. However, research about the subject is limited health; teachers in Turkey;
in the literature, and it lacks comparison of the levels of PWB among teachers in U.S.A.; teachers in
teachers from different countries. This study has primarily focused Pakistan; teachers’ well-being
on the variations in teachers’ PWB from three different countries:
U.S.A., Turkey, and Pakistan. In total, 403 teachers from U.S.A., 990
teachers from Turkey, and 715 from Pakistan completed the survey
that contained demographic questions and the PWB scale. Results
indicated that the U.S. sample had the highest PWB means followed by
teachers in Turkey and in Pakistan, respectively. Results are discussed
in light of the literature and implications are presented.

Teachers employed in various countries experience high levels of work-related stress

(Akpochafo, 2012) and it is reported that about 30% of teachers leave teaching profession
due to stress (Chan, 2006; Johnson et al., 2005). Numerous studies on mental health among
teachers, to date, have focused on non-functionality, stress levels and exhaustion, and fatigue
(Fleming, Mackrain, & LeBuffe, 2013; Maslach & Leiter, 2008). High stress levels and exhaustion
threaten not only the physical health of the teachers but also their sense of self-sufficiency
and self-respect (Eatough, Way, & Chang, 2012). Moreover, high stress levels and exhaustion
among teachers lead to a sense of dissatisfaction with their work resulting in decreased
professional performance (Burke, Greenglass, & Schwarzer, 1996). In addition, as teacher–
student relations suffer, the academic achievement of students (Fleming et al., 2013; Spilt,
Koomen, & Thijs, 2011), and the general well-being of both students and teachers suffer
(McGrath & Huntington, 2007). Furthermore, the stress level among teachers and the inability

CONTACT  Öykü Özü  oykuozu@gmail.com

© 2017 The Clifford Beers Foundation
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION   145

to cope with this stress negatively affects their levels of well-being (Roffey, 2012; Vesely,
Saklofske, & Nordstokke, 2014).
Positive psychology (PP) is an approach emphasizes growth, optimism, hope, flow capac-
ity and insight, interpersonal skills, future mindedness, well-being, courage, work ethic, and
many other factors (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). It focuses on the positive aspects
of human experience (Critchley & Gibbs, 2012). The concept of psychological well-being
(PWB) is a related aspect of this approach. PWB is concerned with an individual’s judgment
regarding his/her continual happiness, satisfaction with his/her physical and mental health,
and it relates to various psychosocial factors including life or work satisfaction (Huppert,
2009). Ryff’s PWB model focuses on humanistic values (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002) by
integrating Maslow’s (1968) self-actualization, Roger’s (1961) fully functioning person, Jung’s
(1933) individuation, Allport’s (1961) maturity, Erikson’s (1959) psychosocial stage model,
Buhlker’s (1935) basic life tendencies working toward fulfillment of life, Neugarten’s (1968)
description of personal change, and Jahoda’s (1958) criteria of mental health (as cited in Ryff,
1989). The model includes six dimensions: autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance,
purpose in life, environmental mastery, and positive relations with others (Ryff & Singer,
1996). The concept is related to self-actualization and meaning rather than happiness and
hedonism (Ryan & Deci, 2001) and involves life goals, actualization of one’s potential, and
quality of relationships, responsibility, and autonomy (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). The model focuses
on flourishing and understanding the possible paths to the well-being of the individual, of
organizations, and of society in general (Huppert, 2009; Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014).
Despite the fact that there have been few studies on the practice of PP concepts in schools
until now (Critchley & Gibbs, 2012), some focus on the strengths of students, schools and
teachers, and the efforts to create a positive school environment (Noble & McGrath, 2008;
Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014). Hence, studies on schools have sought to approach schools
as holistic institutions and focus on educationally based mental health practices (Leschied,
Flett, & Saklofske, 2012; Roffey, 2012). For this reason, importance is also now given to the
psychological health and well-being of teachers (Gozzoli, Frascaroli, & D’Angelo, 2015;
Renshaw, Long, & Cook, 2014; Roffey, 2012).

Teachers’ PWB
Poor teacher well-being is positively related with dissatisfaction and stress at work (Kidger
et al., 2016). There are studies that focus on teacher functionality and mental health that
highlight positive affect, and they emphasize prosocial relationships for student–teacher,
teacher–teacher, and teacher–administrator relationships (Gozzoli et al., 2015; Pas, Bradshaw,
& Hershfeldt, 2012; Van Horn, Taris, Schaufeli, & Schreurs, 2004). A qualitative study aiming
to clarify the causes of exhaustion among high school teachers in Italy found that the most
impactful variables on the well-being of teachers included being highly motivated, having
social needs met in the school environment, having sufficient didactic and technical skills,
and having positive relationships with students, colleagues, and administrators (Bentea,
2015; Gozzoli et al., 2015; Roffey, 2012).
According to a study with science teachers in a primary school in Australia, a teacher’s
perception of sufficiency, level of satisfaction with his/her job, and whether or not students
like science classes have a direct impact on a teacher’s well-being (Morgan, 2012). In another
study conducted in Hong Kong, the most prominent factors for the PWB of a teacher were
146   Ö. ÖZÜ ET AL.

the level of support among colleagues and teachers’ self-confidence (Wong & Zhang, 2014).
The results of a study on teachers in Belgium found that teachers’ well-being increased with
experience (Van Petegem, Creemers, Rossel, & Aelterman, 2005).
Turner, Barling, and Zacharatos (2002) concluded that there is a positive correlation
between supportive relations in schools and the well-being of teachers. The well-being of
a teacher will be positively affected if he/she has positive interactions with students and is
able to fulfill the students’ basic needs for care and attention (Spilt et al., 2011). Furthermore,
teachers who have a positive cultural impression of their work environments and of their
own profession have fewer mental health concerns (Bentea, 2015; Wong & Zhang, 2014). A
study carried out with 784 teachers working at 120 schools in Turkey found that teachers
who had a medium level of satisfaction in terms of school work life resulted in PWB levels
that were relatively higher than those with lower levels. The conclusions also showed that
the school work life quality of the participants influenced their PWB (Ilgan, Özü-Cengiz, Ata,
& Akram, 2015). Research suggests there is an important relationship between the PWB of
teachers and the structure, operation, and climate of a given school (Tang, Leka, & MacLennan,
2013). Self-concordant motivation for special work is another important factor in reducing
the effects of high work demands on happiness at work for secondary school teachers (Tadić,
Bakker, & Oerlemans, 2013).
Numerous studies have concluded that a teachers’ emotional, professional, and social
well-being positively affects his or her effectiveness in teaching, classroom climate, and the
well-being of students (Bentea, 2015; Spilt et al., 2011; Van Horn et al., 2004). According to
the study on teachers in primary and secondary schools in Britain conducted by Briner and
Dewberry (2007), teachers’ well-being affects students’ academic performance. High level
of teacher emotional support is positively correlated with fifth graders’ emotional and social
engagement regardless of students’ self-efficacy in math classes (Martin & Rimm-Kaufman,
2015). In fact, the study found a negative correlation between the level of a teacher’s well-be-
ing and the behavioral problems of the students. The well-being of the teachers was shown
to directly affect the well-being of students in Australia (Roffey, 2012). Also, it is reported
that there is a positive connection between a teacher’s helpfulness and collaborative acts
and his/her level of well-being (Van Petegem et al., 2005).
Knowing teachers’ PWB levels is important for the protection of the teacher’s mental
health and professional and personal development. Studies related to the determination of
the level of well-being of teachers and factors that affect their well-being, are thought to be
vital for the school environment and interventions aiming to improve the quality of educa-
tion (Bentea, 2015; Renshaw et al., 2014; Roffey, 2012). For example, a training program for
teachers called ‘Managing Occupational Stress through the Development of Emotional
Intelligence’ was led by Vesely et al. (2014) in Canada for pre-service teachers, and it was
found that the training was effective in increasing their PWB. In an interventional study by
Shoshani and Steinmetz (2014) on a sample of educational staff and students in a middle
school located in the center of Israel, the positive psychological school-based intervention
was found to be effective in increasing self-efficacy, optimism, and life satisfaction of teach-
ers. In another experimental study conducted in northwest England, the PP intervention
named ‘Three Good Things’ was found to be effective in enhancing efficacy beliefs of the
staff. To develop similar PP/PWB interventional studies, one would first need to assess the
well-being levels of the teachers.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION   147

The current study

While studies on PWB have been conducted in various settings, there is still a rather limited
corpus of information on teachers’ PWB (Gozzoli et al., 2015; Renshaw et al., 2014; Van
Petegem et al., 2005; Vesely et al., 2014). Moreover, the literature lacks comparison of the
levels of well-being among teachers from different countries and cultural backgrounds and
who belong to a different income/developing index. Hence, this study aims to fill a gap in
the literature by comparing the PWB of teachers from three different countries. U.S., as
representing North America/high income; Turkey, as representing Europe and Central Asia
with upper middle income; and Pakistan, as representing South Asia with lower middle
income gross domestic product countries (World Bank, 2016).
U.S.A. has a westernized culture and a background from Europe with a protestant
Christianity population. Turkey has long history of being a part of western culture with
eastern background and a majority Muslim population. Pakistan has long history with eastern
culture with a majority Muslim population (Pew Forum, 2010). The U.S. educational system
is large and complex, and one of the largest universal education systems in the world. From
a broad perspective, however, the American educational system has the characteristics of
decentralization and diversity. Perhaps the most remarkable characteristic of American edu-
cation is its decentralization. Though the U.S. Federal Government contributes almost 10%
to the national education budget, schools in the United States have been, and remain, over-
whelmingly a state and local responsibility (Corsi-Bunker, n.d.; US Department of State, 2008).
Most U.S. states require at least a bachelor’s degree and teaching certificate for teaching
professions. There is an influx of individuals from non-traditional backgrounds entering
teaching through non-traditional preparation programs, and Feistritzer (2011) believes that
the teaching force may be changing given that about one-third of first-time public school
teachers hired since 2005 entered the profession through an alternative program other than
a college campus-based teacher education program.
The educational system in Pakistan is characterized by low per pupil expenditure with
less focus on comprehensive teacher accountability in terms of high stakes testing. The
profession of teaching requires both a college degree as well as the successful completion
of a Bachelor of Education Degree. The budget for better quality of instruction and environ-
ment is low and deprives teachers of teacher training, well-maintained facilities, and happy
lives (Aly, 2007). A vast majority of teachers seldom receive professional development train-
ings or workshops that leaves little prospect for them to grow in their careers. The educational
system in Turkey is characterized by lower than OECD countries average per pupil expend-
iture (NCES, 2016) with centralized, inefficient organizational structure, and lack of openness
and accountability (Özdemir, Bülbül, & Acar, 2010). The profession of teaching requires col-
lege degree for primary school teachers and successful completion of a certification for
secondary school teachers along with a college degree (Turkish Council of Higher Education,
2015). Along with ongoing professional development delivered to teachers across the school
year, the last two weeks of June and the first two weeks of September are compulsorily
designated time for professional development activities (Preschool & Elementary Schools
Regulation, 2014).
In light of the foregoing, the following questions guided this research:

• Do PWB scores and the scores from the sub-dimensions of PWB differ between teachers
working in the U.S., Turkey, and Pakistan?
148   Ö. ÖZÜ ET AL.

Table 1. Sample demographic characteristics.

American sample Turkish sample Pakistani sample
Variable Level [n (%)] [n %)] [n (%)]
Gender Female 344 (85.4) 548 (55.4) 232 (32.4)
Male 59 (14.6) 442 (44.6) 483 (67.6)
Total 403 (100.0) 990 (100.0) 715 (100.0)
Marital Status Married 273 (67.6) 710 (72.0) 621 (86.9)
Single 131 (32.4) 276 (28) 94 (13.1)
Total 404 (100.0) 986 (100.0) 715 (100)
Subject of teaching Primary school 256 (66.3) 298 (30.8) 235 (32.9)
(classroom)
Foreign language 0 84 (8.7) 108 (15.1)
Mathematics 40 (10.4) 86 (8.9) 104 (14.5)
Science and 0 105 (10.9) 76 (10.6)
computer
Native language 63 (16.3) 108 (11.2) 110 (15.4)
Social studies 0 112 (11.6) 82 (11.5)
Preschool 0 66 (6.8) 0
Other Majors 27 (7.0) 107 (11.1) 0
Total 386 (100.0) 966 (100.0) 715 (100.0)
Age 22–32 103 (29.9) 557 (56.9) 147 (20.7)
33–43 120 (34.8) 309 (31.6) 248 (34.9)
44–54 92 (26.7) 102 (10.4) 291 (40.9)
55–66 30 (8.7) 11 (1.1) 25 (3.5)
Total 345 (100.0) 979 (100.0) 711 (100.0)

• Do PWB scores of teachers differ based on their gender, marital status, and the subjects
they teach?
• Is there a relationship between teachers’ age and their PWB scores in the three different
countries?

Methods
Design
A descriptive survey design was used to compare teachers’ PWB levels from three different
countries. Fraenkel, Wallen, and Hyun (2011) remind us that a descriptive survey involves
asking the same set of questions (often prepared in the form of a written questionnaire) of
a large number of individuals either by mail, by telephone, or in person,” and the advantage
of survey research is that it has the potential to provide a great deal of information obtained
from a large sample of individuals (p. 13).

Participants and procedures

The target population of the study was 1000 teachers from each representing country: U.S.,
Turkey, and Pakistan, including primary and secondary public schools. At the beginning of the
survey, participants were informed about the aim of the research and reminded that partici-
pation was voluntary. Starting in the 2013–2014 spring semester and continuing through the
2014–2015 academic year, data from 990 respondents from Turkey were gathered from 7 dif-
ferent cities, each representing a different region of the country. For the Turkish population,
typical case sampling was used (Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz, & ve Demirel, 2014).
However, convenience sampling was used for the American and Pakistani population as schools
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION   149

were chosen in accordance with their easy accessibility by the researchers. The American sample
came from 22 schools all located in a south-eastern school district serving more than 15,000
students. During the 2014–2015 spring semester, data from 403 respondents in the U.S. were
gathered through an online survey platform. Finally, the sample from Pakistan consisted of 715
respondents working in 5 different cities of Province Punjab including city of Lahore during
2014–2015 spring semester. Demographic characteristics of the samples are given in Table 1.

Measures
The 30 item version of PWB scale, which had been developed and validated by Akın, Demirci,
Yıldız, Gediksiz, and Eroğlu (2012) was used in this study. The scale included 30 statements
with a 7-point Likert-scale response option as follows: Strongly disagree (1–1.85); Disagree
(1.86–2.71); Partly disagree (2.72–3.57); Undecided (3.58–4.43); Partly agree (4.44–5.3); Agree
(5.31–6.15); and Strongly agree (6.16–7). The scale has six dimensions with each dimension
containing five items. The dimensions are as follows: (1) Self-acceptance, (2) Positive Relations
with Others, (3) Autonomy, (4) Environmental Mastery, (5) Purpose in Life, and (6) Personal
Growth. The results of confirmatory factor analysis for the PWB had indicated that the six-di-
mensional model was a good fit: x² = 2689.13, df = 791, p = 0.00000, RMSEA = .048, NFI = .92,
NNFI = 94, CFI = .95, IFI = .95, RFI = .92, GFI = .90, and SRMR = .048. The internal consistency
coefficient of the scale was .87. All the differences between the item mean scores and the
factor scores of the upper 27% and lower 27% groups were found to be significant. Possible
scores range between 30 and 210 with higher scores indicating higher levels of PWB. The
internal consistency and Cronbach alpha coefficients for composite PWB scale, for our
research, was .81 and .88, respectively. For assessment of demographic variables, a Personal
Information Form which had been prepared by researchers was used.

Data analysis
The data gathered were analyzed using SPSS (Version 20). Percentages and frequencies were
used to analyze demographic variables. To describe teachers’ PWB, descriptive statistics were
used. ANOVA was used to compare teachers’ PWB scores across countries, gender, marital
status, and subject of teaching. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to describe the rela-
tionship between teachers’ age and PWB. The skewness index (−0.63) and the kurtosis index
(0.60) fell between −1 and 1, the range that is considered excellent (George & Mallery, 2001).
These results indicated that parametric statistic procedures could be used to analyze the data.

Results
Descriptive statistics revealed that PWB levels varied across the three groups. The U.S. sample
had the highest PWB mean followed by Turkish and Pakistani samples, respectively. Mean
PWB comparisons using ANOVA analyses were conducted to investigate differences in teach-
ers’ PWB from the three countries. There was a significant difference between the samples
for the three countries [F (2, 2122) = 328.11, p < .01] (see Table 2). Post hoc comparisons
indicated that American teachers’ PWB levels were significantly higher than those of Turkish
and Pakistani teachers, and Turkish teachers’ PWB levels were significantly higher than those
of Pakistani teachers.
150   Ö. ÖZÜ ET AL.

Table 2. Comparisons of total PWB and subscale scores by countries.

S Country n M SD SS df MS F C
A 1. U.S.A. 412 24.0 4.3 3237.3 2 1618.7 100.74** 1–3
2. TUR 995 23.5 4.1 2120 2–3
3. PAK 716 21.0 3.7 2122
TOTAL 2123 22.8 4.2
EM 1. U.S.A. 412 28.3 3.5 9947.4 2 4973.7 286.54** 1–2
2. TUR 995 26.7 4.5 2120 1–3
3. PAK 716 22.8 4.0 2122 2–3
TOTAL 2123 25.7 4.7
PD 1. U.S.A. 412 31.0 2.1 8301.8 2 4150.9 204.18** 1–2
2. TUR 995 28.0 4.7 2120 1–3
3. PAK 716 25.5 4.9 2122 2–3
TOTAL 2123 27.8 4.9
PR 1. U.S.A. 412 29.8 3.9 8055.3 2 4027.6 201.48** 1–2
2. TUR 995 27.6 4.5 2120 1–3
3. PAK 716 24.5 4.7 2122 2–3
TOTAL 2123 27.0 4.9
PL 1. U.S.A. 412 30.1 3.2 4557.0 2 2278.5 106.52** 1–2
2. TUR 995 28.4 4.6 2120 1–3
3. PAK 716 26.1 5.3 2122 2–3
TOTAL 2123 27.1 4.8
SA 1. U.S.A. 412 28.6 4.3 7988.5 2 3994.3 189.75** 1–2
2. TUR 995 25.7 4.7 2120 1–3
3. PAK 716 23.2 4.6 2122 2–3
TOTAL 2123 25.5 4.1
Total 1. U.S.A. 412 172.0 16.0 238624.6 2 119312.3 328.11** 1–2
PWB 2. TUR 995 160.1 20.8 2120 1–3
3. PAK 716 143.2 18.1 2122 2–3
TOTAL 2123 156.7 21.8
Note: S = subdimensions, SS = sum of squares, MS = mean square, C = Countries whose means differ from each other, A =
autonomy, EM = environmental mastery, PD = personal development, PR = personal relationships, PL = purpose in life,
SA = self-acceptance.
**p < .01.

Table 3. Comparisons of composite PWB Scores by Gender and Marital Status.

Variable Levels Country N M SD SS df MS F C
Gender Female 1. U.SA. 344 172.4 16.5 120456.8 2 60228.4 167.7** 1–2
2. TUR 548 163.0 20.4 1121 1–3
3. PAK 232 143.1 18.8 1123 2–3
TOTAL 1124 161.7 21.6
Male 1. U.S.A. 59 169.2 14.0 60993.8 2 30496.9 84.5** 1–2
2. TUR 442 156.4 20.7 981 1–3
3. PAK 483 143.3 17.8 983 2–3
TOTAL 984 150.7 20.5
Marital Married 1. U.S.A. 273 172.1 16.3 197527.6 2 98763.8 275.2** 1–2
Status 2. TUR 710 160.1 20.4 1601 1–3
3. PAK 621 142.7 18.3 1603 2–3
TOTAL 1604 155.8 21.1
Single 1. U.S.A. 131 171.9 16.1 36414.7 2 18207.3 47.6** 1–2
2. TUR 276 157.8 21.7 498 1–3
3. PAK 94 146.6 17.0 500 2–3
TOTAL 501 159.4 21.3
Note: SS = sum of squares, MS = mean square, C = Countries whose means differ from each other.
**
p < .01.

As can also be seen in Table 2, there were statistically significant differences between the
samples across the Environmental Mastery, [F (2, 2122) = 286.54, p < .01]; Personal
Development, [F (2, 2122) = 204.18, p < .01]; Positive Relationships, [F (2, 2122) = 201.48,
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION   151

Table 4. Comparisons of Composite PWB Scores by Subject of Teaching.

Subject Country N M SD SS df MS F C
Primary school (classroom) 1. U.S.A. 256 171.4 16.3 117435.2 2 58717.5 187.1** 1–2
2. TUR 298 161.5 18.4 786 1–3
3. PAK 235 140.1 18.3 788 2–3
TOTAL 789 158.6 21.5
Foreign Language 1. U.S.A. – – – .003 1 17622.71 48.94** 2–3
2. TUR 84 161.3 19.7 190
3. PAK 108 141.1 18.4 191
TOTAL 192 150.5 21.2
Mathematics 1. U.S.A. 40 175.3 14.2 24535.6 2 12267.8 30.5** 1–2
2. TUR 86 155.1 25.1 227 1–3
3. PAK 104 146.3 17.0 229 2–3
TOTAL 230 154.1 22.5
Science and Computer 1. U.S.A. – – – 7247.6 1 7247.6 19.6** 2–3
2. TUR 105 156.7 20.5 179
3. PAK 76 143.8 17.3 180
TOTAL 181 151.2 20.2
Native Language 1. U.S.A. 63 171.6 18.9 31574.5 2 15787.2 41.6** 1–2
2. TUR 108 160.0 21.2 278 1–3
3. PAK 110 144.5 18.0 280 2–3
TOTAL 281 156.6 22.1
Social Studies 1. U.S.A. – – – 7002.9 1 7002.9 17.4** 2–3
2. TUR 112 157.6 20.7 192
3. PAK 82 145.4 19.2 193
TOTAL 194 152.5 20.9
Other Majors 1. U.S.A. 27 176.1 11.5 3591.4 1 3591.4 8.9** 1–2
2. TUR 107 163.2 21.6 132
3. PAK – – – 133
TOTAL 134 165.8 20.6
Note: SS = sum of squares, MS = mean square, C = Countries whose means differ from each other.
**
p < .01.

Table 5. Correlations Between PWB Levels and Age.

Country PWB Age
Turkey PWB Pearson correlation 1 –.089**
Sig. (2-tailed) .005
N 995 979
Pakistan PWB Pearson Correlation 1 –.036
Sig. (2-tailed) .334
N 716 711
U.S.A. PWB Pearson Correlation 1 .075
Sig. (2-tailed) .165
N 412 345
**
p <. 01.

p < .01]; Purpose in Life, [F (2, 2122) = 106.52, p < .01]; and Self-acceptance sub-dimensions,
[F (2, 2122) = 189.75, p < .01]. In all these sub-dimensions, American teachers’ PWB levels
were found to be higher than both Turkish and Pakistani teachers, and Turkish teachers’ PWB
levels to be higher than Pakistani teachers. Moreover, the results for the Autonomy sub-di-
mension indicated that teachers from U.S.A. and Turkey were more autonomous than teach-
ers from Pakistan.
For an extended analysis, the data for comparable groups were examined for teachers’
composite PWB levels according to selected variables. The comparisons indicated that
among female and male; married and unmarried; classroom (primary school) teachers, and
mathematics and native language teachers, American teachers had higher PWB levels than
152   Ö. ÖZÜ ET AL.

both Turkish and Pakistani teachers. Results also showed that Turkish teachers had higher
PWB levels than Pakistani teachers (see Table 3). As there were no teachers teaching foreign
language, science or social studies within the U.S. sample, teachers could not be compared
to Turkish and Pakistani teachers; however, Turkish teachers were still found to have higher
PWB scores than their Pakistani counterparts. For teachers teaching other subjects, U.S.
teachers had higher PWB levels than Turkish teachers.
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were computed to assess the relation-
ship between teachers’ age and their composite PWB scores for each country (see Table 4).
There was a significant negative correlation between the two variables in Turkey (r = .089,
p < .01). Thus, in Turkey, as teacher’s age, their PWB level decreases. The correlation between
the variables for teachers in the U.S.A. and in Pakistan was not significant (Table 5).

Discussion
Findings of the study indicated that American teachers’ PWB levels were significantly higher
than those of Turkish and Pakistani teachers; and that Turkish teachers’ PWB levels were
higher than those of Pakistani teachers for almost all of the sub-dimensions and for most of
the analyzed subgroups regardless of teachers’ age or marital status. Moreover, in Turkey, as
teachers’ age, their PWB level decreases.
Pakistan, as a South Asian developing country is at the lowest position (57%) in world
ranking of literacy, and there are problems related to sociocultural conditions, education,
and job conditions (Malik et al., 2011). The majority of teachers are dissatisfied with provident
funds and other fringe benefits as well as job security and misrecognition of their social
status (Aisha, Niaz, & Naheed, 2002). Teacher training in Pakistan is relatively ineffective as
teacher education curriculum suffers from a lack of contextual relevance (UNESCO PROAP,
2000, p. 20, as cited in Rarieya, 2005) and a majority of teachers are not teacher-trained
(Rarieya, 2005). It has been alleged that there is general consensus that the quality of teachers
is abysmally low in Pakistan according to the results of some studies (Rehmani, 2006). Saleha
(2008) reports that primary and secondary schools have problems related to irrelevant cur-
ricula, short duration of teacher education, the dilemma of instruction mediums, and a lack
of research (as cited in Malik et al., 2011). The finding of our study that teachers in Pakistan
have lower PWB than their counterparts in Turkey and the U.S.A. is not unexpected in this
context.
In the U.S.A. and Turkey, as more developed countries than Pakistan, education generally,
and teaching as a profession, are viewed more positively (Dick & Wagner, 2001). Although
Turkish teachers face difficulties with high teacher–student ratio, inconvenient or inefficient
physical school conditions, low salaries (Maraşlı, 2005), and the lowest reported level of
quality of their work life in the dimension of ‘Decent and Fair Wages and Benefits’ (Ilgan et
al., 2015), the teaching profession is highly valued in the society. According to research
funded by Varkey Germs Foundation in 21 countries with more or less 1000 people for each
country (Dolton & Marcenaro-Gutierrez, 2011), teachers in Turkey have the highest social
status after China and Greece. Teachers also have positive perceptions of teaching as an
occupation. This social status results in their high organizational commitment and less turn-
over (Çiftçioğlu, 2013), and is likely an important factor in Turkish teachers having higher
well-being scores than Pakistani teachers.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION   153

In U.S.A., action research, reflective practice, personal and professional training is honored;
as is lifelong education of teachers which in turn may increase teachers’ self-confidence
(Wong & Zhang, 2014), self-efficacy (Critchley & Gibbs, 2012), professional skill and ability
to be successful in different situations (Van Petegem et al., 2005). One of the indicators of
teacher well-being concerns teacher efficacy (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014) which includes
the feeling of being successful in the profession and of being appreciated (Van Petegem et
al., 2005). Efficient behavior of an employee depends on the professional skills and compe-
tences specific to a particular job (Bentea, 2015). As burnout is strongly predicted by self-ef-
ficacy, it is not surprising that psychological well-being is positively correlated with personal
development and having sufficient amount of personal resources for autonomous life goals
(Telef, Uzman, & Ergün, 2013). In a healthy school culture there is collegial support and
collaborative leadership, as well as high team spirit and participation, which can both buffer
stress and increase job satisfaction in teachers (Wong & Zhang, 2014). Forming a positive
work context and supporting interventions, which satisfy teachers’ personal and professional
needs are important factors in increasing teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and resiliency. It is
also known that civil team climate is positively related with employee well-being (Paulin &
Griffin, 2016). All these factors are thought to contribute to American teachers’ increased
level of PWB (Tang et al., 2013). The current study adds to this body of research highlighting
the U.S. population under study with the highest reported levels of PWB. Likely, these factors
(increased spending, emphasis on lifelong learning for teachers, societal importance placed
on education) are contributing factors impacting the results of this study.
As quality of marriage is more predictive of well-being than marital status (Gove, Hughes,
& Style, 1983), effects of marital status or transitions of it on mental health cannot be ade-
quately assessed without considering the quality of the marital relationship (Williams, 2003).
Yet, demographic factors only tend to distinguish between those who are moderately happy
and those who are very happy (Diener & Diener, 1996). But, there is evidence in the literature
that supports a positive, linear relationship between age and job satisfaction (Yücel & Bektaş,
2012). Accordingly, results of study done by Korkmaz and Sadık (2011) in Turkey indicate
that teachers who have been working between 15 and 19 years and teachers who are
40 years of age and older have more positive attitudes toward school. Other research (Ilgan
et al., 2015) conducted in Turkey found that teachers with 21 or more years of teaching had
a higher job satisfaction levels when compared to teachers with 6–10 years of experience.
Results of another study by Engels, Aelterman, Petegem, and Schepens (2004) on a sample
of 260 secondary school teachers in Belgium indicate that years of experience have a positive
impact on teacher well-being. A study found a U-shaped relationship between age and
well-being in general, meaning middle-aged people tend to have lower well-being scores
than younger and the older people (Huppert, 2009; Ilgan et al., 2015). Also, Cohen (1993)
reported that there was a U-shaped relationship between age and organizational
commitment.
In the Turkish study conducted by Yücel and Bektaş (2012), it was reported that age dif-
ferences among teachers had moderating effects on relationships between job satisfaction
and organizational commitment and that these relationships were nonlinear. They concluded
that teachers’ age moderated the curvilinear relation between teacher job satisfaction and
organizational commitment. Contrary to these studies, our study found a significant weak
negative correlation between teachers’ age and PWB in Turkey and the scatter graph does
not give us any linear, U-shape, or curvilinear relationship. However, as a result of another
154   Ö. ÖZÜ ET AL.

ANOVA, it was found that Turkish teachers between the ages of 20 and 29 had significantly
higher PWB levels than teachers between the ages of 40 and 49 when the ages were grouped
(29 and lower, 30–39, 40–49, 50 and older). This may be a factor that leads to the negative
correlation between teachers’ ages and their PWB levels in the country. Moreover, teachers
in the beginning of their careers may be more enthusiastic because they have higher expec-
tations about their future, potentially positively influencing life satisfaction, as opposed to
the senior teachers who struggle with more life stressors such as earning a living and respon-
sibilities involving the family. However, the difference between annual earnings of beginning
teachers and the senior ones is only 4.000 USD dollars in Turkey which exceeds 20.000 USD
dollars in OECD countries (TEDMEM, 2015). This may be an important reason demonstrating
senior teachers’ lower PWB as compared with the teachers in the beginning of their careers.
There are limitations in the current study deserving attention. First, the data were limited
in terms of numbers across the various subgroups (i.e. science teachers). Second, though
the study allows for a comparison of the PWB of teachers in three countries, the causes of
the differences between the three are not identifiable, rather, conclusions as to the causes
are based on the educational systems and existing literature. The research is limited in that
only three countries, and not all educational systems (i.e. those in socialist countries) are
represented. Convenience sampling, which is one of the four strategies of non-probability
sampling, was used for U.S.A. and Pakistani population in the study. In this strategy, partic-
ipants are selected based on their accessibility and/or proximity to the research, which is a
major limitation for this study as the strategy lacks generalizability to any identifiable target
population or subpopulations (except for the sample studied) (Bornstein, Jager, & Putnick,
2013).
This research has broad implications for the three countries under examination. First, in
Pakistan, the low levels of PWB for the participating teachers could signal a need for more
governmental investment in education for students and the continued education of the
system’s teachers. Without an emphasis on improving the working conditions in Pakistan,
high rates of teacher turnover, decreasing student achievement, and a lack of value for
education generally are likely to continue.
While U.S.A. is not often looked to as the model for educational success in the literature,
what is clear is that the investment and value placed on education nationally have an impact
in how teachers experience their workplaces. The high levels of PWB for the participants
suggest that in this area, the U.S.A. is making strides. Turkey, too, had moderately high levels
of PWB for their teachers, and the value that the nation places on education is likely a con-
tributor to this finding.
The factors in the U.S.A. and Turkey that contribute to higher levels of PWB for their
teachers are important to examine in the educational world. These factors could impact how
other educational systems outline plans to combat teacher shortages, high rates of teacher
turnover, and low levels of PWB among their teachers.
The educational systems in the U.S. and Turkey, with teachers reporting higher levels of
PWB, provide opportunities for further research, examining the educational structures and
other factors leading to the increased levels of PWB. It is the traits in these systems, when
better understood, that can be of most use to other educational systems around the world,
specifically in Pakistan. Future studies would benefit from adding additional countries into
this analysis to further enhance the understanding of the PWB of teachers and the factors
influencing those levels. Also, longitudinal studies concerning the continuity of teacher
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION   155

well-being is needed; because it is known that employee well-being is not fixed in time and
it is fundamental to protect it through different career phases (Mäkikangas, Kinnunen, Feldt,
& Schaufeli, 2016).

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

ORCID
Öykü Özü   http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2208-5581

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