Report of the World Commission on Environment and

Development: Our Common Future

Part1: Common Concerns

Chapter 1: A Threatened Future

A. Symptoms and Causes

B. New Approaches to Environment and Development

A.Symptoms and Causes

a. Poverty
The number of people living in slums and shanty towns is rising, not falling. A growing
number lack access to clean water and sanitation and hence are prey to the diseases that arise
from this lack. There is some progress, impressive in places. But, on balance, poverty persists
and its victims multiply.

The failures that we need to correct arise both from poverty and from the short-sighted way
in which we have often pursued prosperity. In many parts of the world Poor people are
forced to overuse environmental resources to survive from day to day, and their
impoverishment of their environment further impoverishes them, making their survival even
more difficult and uncertain. The prosperity attained in some parts of the world is often
precarious, as it has been secured through farming, forestry, and industrial practices that
bring profit and progress only over the short term. The links between environmental stress
and developmental disaster are most evident in sub-Saharan Africa. This environmental
degradation, which leads in turn to even greater poverty is of great concern for the entire
world.

b. Growth
In recent years, industrial countries have been able to achieve economic growth using less
energy and raw materials per unit of output. This, along with the efforts to reduce the
emission of pollutants, will help to contain the pressure on the biosphere. But with the
increase in population and the rise in incomes, per capita consumption of energy and
materials will go up in the developing countries, as it has to if essential needs are to be met.
Greater attention to resource efficiency can moderate the increase, but, on balance,
environmental problems linked to resource use will intensify in global terms.
 c. Survival
The scale and complexity of our requirements for natural resources have increased greatly
with the rising levels of population and production. The greenhouse effect, CFCs and
depletion of ozone layer, problem of the disposal of toxic materials, desertification, lost of
forests and the possibility of the nuclear war are some threats to the earth’s environment and
sustainable human progress.

d. The Economic crisis

Many international economic problems are unresolved: Developing countries have serious
indebtedness, commodity and energy markets are highly unstable, financial flows to
developing countries are seriously deficient, protectionism and trade wars are a serious
threat. Yet at a time when multilateral institutions, and rules, are more than ever necessary,
they have been devalued. And the notion of an international responsibility for development
has virtually disappeared. The trend is towards a decline in multilateralism and an assertion
of national dominance.

B.New Approaches to Environment and Development

Environmental stresses and patterns of economic development are linked one to another. Thus
agricultural policies may lie at the root of land, water, and forest degradation. Energy policies are
associated with the global greenhouse effect, with acidification, and with deforestation for fuel
wood in many developing nations. These stresses all threaten economic development. Thus
economics and ecology must be completely integrated in decision making and lawmaking
processes not just to protect the environment, but also to protect and promote development.
Economy is not just about the production of wealth, and ecology is not just about the protection
of nature; they are both equally relevant for improving the lot of humankind.

The concept of sustainable development provides a framework for the integration of environment
policies and development strategies - the term 'development' being used here in its broadest
sense. The word is often taken to refer to the processes of economic and social change in the
Third World. But the integration of environment and development is required in all countries,
rich and poor. The pursuit of sustainable development requires changes in the domestic and
international policies of every nation.
Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development

A. The Concept of Sustainable Development

B. Equity and the Common Interest
C. Strategic Imperatives
D. Conclusion

A.The Concept of Sustainable Development

The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is the major objective of development. The
essential needs of vast numbers of people in developing countries for food, clothing, shelter,
jobs- are not being met, and beyond their basic needs these people have legitimate aspirations for
an improved quality of life. A world in which poverty and inequity are endemic will always be
prone to ecological and other crises. Sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs
of all and extending to all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life.

In essence, sustainable development is a process of change in which the exploitation of

resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development; and
institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet
human needs and aspirations.

B.Equity and the Common Interest

Sustainable development has been described here in general. How are individuals in the real
world to be persuaded or made to act in the common interest? The answer lies partly in
education, institutional development, and law enforcement. But many problems of resource
depletion and environmental stress arise from disparities in economic and political power. A
forest may be destroyed by excessive felling because the people living there have no alternatives
or because timber contractors generally have more influence then forest dwellers. So our
inability to promote the common interest in sustainable development is often a product of the
relative neglect of economic and social justice within and amongst nations.

C.Strategic Imperatives

Critical objectives for environment and development policies that originate from the concept of
sustainable development are as follows.
a. Reviving Growth
b. Changing the quality of Growth
c. Meeting Essential Human Needs
d. Ensuring a Sustainable Level of Population
e. Conserving and Enhancing the Resource Base
f. Reorienting Technology and Managing Risk
g. Merging Environment and Economics in Decision Making

D.Conclusion

In its broadest sense, the strategy for sustainable development aims to promote harmony among
human beings and between humanity and nature. In the specific context of the development and
environment crises of the 1980s, sustainable development means the working of political,
economic, social and environmental departments in harmony for the welfare of masses.

Chapter 3: The Role of the International Economy

A. The International Economy, the Environment, and

Development
B. Decline in the 1980s
C. Enabling Sustainable Development
D. A Sustainable World Economy

A.The International Economy, the Environment, and Development

Two conditions must be satisfied before international economic exchanges can become
beneficial for all involved. The sustainability of ecosystems on which the global economy
depends must be guaranteed. And the economic partners must be satisfied that the basis of
exchange is equitable; relationships that are unequal and based on dominance of one kind or
another are not a sound and durable basis for interdependence. And for many developing
countries, neither condition is met.

B.Decline in the 1980s

The pressures of poverty and rising populations make it enormously difficult for developing
countries to pursue environmentally sound policies even in the best of circumstances. But when
international economic conditions are bad, the problems can become unmanageable. During the
1980s, economic growth rates declined sharply or even turned negative in much of the Third
World, particularly in Africa and Latin America. Over the five years from 1981 to 1985,
population growth outstripped economic growth in most developing countries. Debt was an acute
problem for many countries of Africa. But, because of the magnitudes of debt involved, it has
had its most visible impact in some middle-income countries – particularly in Latin America.
Growth was cut back and many social objectives fell by the wayside, including those having to
do with employment, health, education, environment, and human settlements.

C.Enabling Sustainable Development

Following are some key grounds upon which developing countries could make the objective of
sustainable development possible:
a. Enhancing the flow of resources to developing countries
i. Increasing the flow of finance
ii. Lending for sustainable development
b. Linking trade, environment, and development
i. International commodity trade
ii. Protectionism and international trade
c. 'Pollution-intensive' Goods
i. The mandates of multilateral trade forums
d. Ensuring responsibility in transnational investment
e. Broadening the technological base
i. The diffusion of environmentally sound technologies
ii. Building up technological capabilities in developing countries

D.A Sustainable World Economy

If large parts of the developing world are to avert economic, social, and environmental
catastrophes, it is essential that global economic growth be revitalized. In practical terms, this
means more rapid economic growth in both developed and developing countries, freer market
access for the products of developing countries, lower interest rates, greater technology transfer,
and significantly larger capital flows, both concessional and commercial.

Part2: Common Challenges

Chapter 4: Population and Human Resources

A. The Links with Environment and Development

B. The Population Perspective
C. A Policy Framework
A.The Links with Environment and Development
Population growth and development are linked in complex ways. Economic development
generates resources that can be used to improve education and health. These improvements,
along with associated social changes, reduce both fertility and mortality rates. On the other hand,
high rates of population growth that eats into surpluses available for economic and social
development can hinder improvements in education and health. The very possibility of
development can be compromised by high population growth rates. Moreover, most developing
countries do not have the resources to wait for a few generations before population stabilizes.

B.The Population Perspective

Population growth accelerated in the middle of the 18th century with the advent of the industrial
revolution and associated improvements in agriculture, not just in the regions that are more
developed but elsewhere as well. The recent phase of deceleration started around 1950 with the
sharp reduction in mortality rates in the developing countries. This population growth is now
concentrated in the developing regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The increase in urban
population has been larger than the increase in rural population both in percentage and in
absolute terms and this shift is most striking in developing countries.

C.A Policy Framework

Proper management of population growth including its distribution and mobility is the need of
hour. When a population exceeds the carrying capacity of the available resources, it can become
a liability in efforts to improve people's welfare. People are also a creative resource, and this
creativity is an asset societies must tap by providing education and proper health facilities.

Chapter 5: Food Security: Sustaining the Potential

A. Achievements
B. Signs of Crisis
C. The Challenge
D. Strategies for Sustainable Food Security

A.Achievements

Between 1950 and 1985, cereal production outstripped population growth, increasing from
around 700 million tons to over 1,800 million tons, an annual growth rate of around 2.7 percent.
This increase helped to meet escalating demands for cereals caused by population growth and
rising incomes in developing countries and by growing needs for animal feed in developed
countries.

B.Signs of Crisis

Agricultural policies in practically all countries have focused on output growth. Despite this, it
has proved far more difficult to raise world agricultural output by a consistent 3 per cent a year in
the mid-1980s than it was in the mid-1950s. Moreover, production records have been offset by
the appearance as deserts are advancing and pressure on the forests is increasing.

C.The Challenge

Food demand will increase as populations increase and their consumption patterns change. In the
remaining years of this century, about 1.3 billion people will be added to the human family.
Rising incomes, however, may account for 30 to 40 per cent of the increased demand for food in
developing countries and about 10 per cent in industrial nations. Thus over the next few decades,
the global food system must be managed to increase food production by 3 to 4 per cent yearly.

D.Strategies for Sustainable Food Security

a. Government Intervention
b. The Resource Base
i. Proper land use
ii. Water management systems
iii. Alternatives to Chemicals
iv. Forestry and Agriculture
v. Aquaculture
c. Productivity and yields
i. Improved technological base
ii. Human resources management
iii. Increased productivity of inputs
c. Equity
i. Land Reforms
ii. Subsistence farming techniques
iii. Integrated rural development
iv. Control on food availability fluctuations
Chapter 6: Species and Ecosystems: Resources for Development

A. The Problem: Character and Extent

B. Extinction Patterns and Causes of Extinction
C. New Approach: Anticipate and prevent

A.The Problem: Character and Extent

Conservation of living natural resources - plants, animals, and micro-organisms, and the non-
living elements of the environment on which they depend - is crucial for development. If nations
can ensure the survival of species, the world can look forward to new and improved foods, new
drugs and medicines, and new raw materials for industry. And there is a growing scientific
consensus that species are disappearing at rates never before witnessed on the planet.

B.Extinction Patterns and Causes of Extinction

Extinction has been a fact of life since life first emerged. The present few million species are the
modern-day survivors of the estimated half-billion species that have ever existed. Almost all past
extinctions have occurred by natural processes, but today human activities are overwhelmingly
the main cause of extinctions. Extensive farming in the tropical areas, use of fertilizers and
pesticides, increased population growth and timber imports in industrial countries are some
major causes of extinction of species and ecosystems.

C.New Approach: Anticipate and prevent

'Anticipate and prevent' involves adding a new dimension to the now-traditional and yet viable
and necessary step of protected areas. Development patterns must be altered to make them more
compatible with the preservation of the extremely valuable biological diversity of the planet.
Altering economic and land use patterns seems to be the best long-term approach to ensuring the
survival of wild species and their ecosystems. In this regard UNESCO has sought to establish a
global system of Biosphere Reserves representing the Earth's 200 'biotic provinces' and
harboring sample communities of species.

Chapter 7: Energy: Choices for Environment and Development

A. Energy, Economy and Environment

B. Fossil Fuels: The Continuing Dilemma
C. Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservation Measures
A.Energy, Economy and Environment
Energy is necessary for daily survival. Future development crucially depends on its long-term
availability in increasing quantities from sources that are dependable, safe, and environmentally
sound. At present, no single source or mix of sources is at hand to meet this future need. Today's
primary sources of energy are mainly non-renewable: natural gas, oil, coal, peat, and
conventional nuclear power. The serious probability of climate change generated by the
'greenhouse effect' of gases emitted to the atmosphere, urban-industrial air pollution caused by
atmospheric pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels, acidification of the environment and
the risks of nuclear reactor accidents are some major environmental hazards which have resulted
from the use of these non-renewable energy resources for energy production.

B.Fossil Fuels: The Continuing Dilemma

Many forecasts of recoverable oil reserves and resources suggest that oil production will level off
by the early decades of the next century and then gradually fall during a period of reduced
supplies and higher prices. Gas supplies should last over 200 years and coal about 3000 years at
present rates of use. These estimates persuade many analysts that the world should immediately
embark on a vigorous oil conservation policy.

C.Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservation Measures

Energy efficiency should be the cutting edge of national energy policies for sustainable
development. low energy path is the best way towards a sustainable future. But given efficient
and productive uses of primary energy, this need not mean a shortage of essential energy
services. Within the next 50 years, nations have the opportunity to produce the same levels of
energy services with as little as half the primary supply currently consumed. This requires
profound structural changes in socio-economic and institutional arrangements and is an
important challenge to global society.

Chapter 8: Industry: Producing More With Less

A. Industrial Growth and its Impact

B. Sustainable Industrial Development in a Global Context
C. Strategies for Sustainable Industrial Development
A.Industrial Growth and its Impact

Although amount of international trade is increasing but the relative importance of industry as an
employer has been declining for some time in developed countries. The shift in jobs towards the
service sector has accelerated sharply over the past 15 years with the increasing adoption of new
processes and technologies. Economists continue to argue over whether the advent of an
information-based economy will further depress employment in industry or will expand job
opportunities overall.

Industry and its products have an impact on the natural resource base of civilization through the
entire cycle of raw materials exploration and extraction, transformation into products, energy
consumption, waste generation, and the use and disposal of products by consumers. These
impacts may be positive, enhancing the quality of a resource or extending its uses. Or they may
be negative, as a result of process and product pollution and of depletion or degradation of
resources.

B.Sustainable Industrial Development in a Global Context

If industrial development is to be sustainable over the long term, it will have to change radically
in terms of the quality of that development, particularly in industrialized countries. But this is not
to suggest that industrialization has reached a quantitative limit, particularly in developing
countries. Given expected population growth, a five- to tenfold increase in world industrial
output can be anticipated by the time world population stabilizes sometime in the next century.
Such growth has serious implications for the future of the world's ecosystems and its natural
resource base.

C.Strategies for Sustainable Industrial Development

Resource and environmental considerations must be integrated into the industrial planning and
decision-making processes of government and industry.

a. Establish Environmental Goals, Regulations, Incentives, and Standards

b. Make More Effective Use of Economic Instruments
c. Broaden Environmental Assessments
d. Encourage Action by Industry
e. Increase Capacity to Deal with Industrial Hazards
f. Strengthen International Efforts to Help Developing Countries
Chapter 9: The Urban Challenge
A. The Growth of Cities
B. The Urban Challenge in Developing Countries
C. International Cooperation

A.The Growth of Cities

This is the century of the 'urban revolution'. In the 35 years since 1950, the number of people
living in cities almost tripled, increasing by 1.25 billion. In the more developed regions, the
urban population nearly doubled, from 447 million to 838 million. In the less developed world, it
quadrupled, growing from 286 million to 1.14 billion. In most Third World cities, the enormous
pressure for shelter and services has frayed the urban fabric. Much of the housing used by the
poor is decrepit. A large proportion of the city's population often has no piped water, storm
drainage, or roads. Similarly, the world economic crisis of the 1980s has not only reduced
incomes but also has increased unemployment and has eliminated many social programs.

B.The Urban Challenge in Developing Countries

Following are some challenges which the urban areas of most developing countries are facing.
a. National Urban Strategies
b. Strengthening Local Authorities
c. Self-Reliance and Citizen Involvement
d. Housing and Services for the Poor
e. Tapping More Resources

C.International Cooperation

The future will be predominantly urban, and the most immediate environmental concerns of most
people will be urban ones. The effectiveness of efforts to improve urban life depends largely on
the health of national economies. In many developing countries, this is linked closely to the state
of the world economy. An improvement in international economic relations would perhaps do
more than anything else to enhance the capacity of developing countries to address their linked
urban and environmental problems. But beyond that is the need to strengthen cooperation among
developing countries and to increase various types of direct support from the international
community.
 Part3: Common Endeavors
Chapter 10: Managing the Commons

A. Oceans: The Balance of Life

B. Space: A Key to Planetary Management
C. Antarctica: Towards Global Cooperation

A.Oceans: The Balance of Life

In the Earth's wheel of life, the oceans provide the balance./1 Covering over 70 per cent of the
planet's surface, they play a critical role in maintaining its life-support systems, in moderating its
climate, and in sustaining animals and plants, including minute, oxygen-producing
phytoplankton. They provide protein, transportation, energy, employment, recreation, and other
economic, social, and cultural activities. Today, the living resources of the sea are under threat
from overexploitation, pollution, and land-based development. Most major familiar fish stocks
throughout the waters over the continental shelves, which provide 95 per cent of the world's fish
catch, are now threatened by overfishing. The Law of the Sea Convention requires states to
establish national laws and regulations to 'prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine
environment from dumping'.

B.Space: A Key to Planetary Management

Outer space can play a vital role in ensuring the continued habitability of the Earth, largely
through space technology to monitor the vital signs of the planet and aid humans in protecting its
health. Orbital space cannot be effectively managed by any one country acting alone. The
inherently international character of orbital space has been recognized by a majority of nations in
the Outer Space Treaty. The international community should seek to design and implement a
space regime to ensure that space remains a peaceful environment for the benefit of all.

C.Antarctica: Towards Global Cooperation

During the forthcoming period of change, the challenge is to ensure that Antarctica is managed
in the interests of all humankind, in a manner that conserves its unique environment, preserves
its value for scientific research, and retains its character as a demilitarized, non-nuclear zone of
peace.
Chapter 10: Peace, Security, Development, and the Environment
A. Environmental Stress as a Source of Conflict
B. Conflict as a Cause of Unsustainable Development
C. Towards Security and Sustainable Development

A.Environmental Stress as a Source of Conflict

Among the dangers facing the environment, the possibility of nuclear war, or military conflict of
a lesser scale involving weapons of mass destruction, is undoubtedly the gravest. Certain aspects
of the issues of peace and security bear directly upon the concept of sustainable development.
Indeed, they are central to it. Environmental stress is both a cause and an effect of political
tension and military conflict. Nations have often fought to assert or resist control over raw
materials, energy supplies, land, river basins, sea passages, and other key environmental
resources. Such conflicts are likely to increase as these resources become scarcer and
competition for them increases.

B.Conflict as a Cause of Unsustainable Development

Arms competition and armed conflict create major obstacles to sustainable development. They
make huge claims on scarce material resources. They pre-empt human resources and wealth that
could be used to combat the collapse of environmental support systems, the poverty, and the
underdevelopment that in combination contribute so much to contemporary political insecurity.
They may stimulate an ethos that is antagonistic towards cooperation among nations whose
ecological and economic interdependence requires them to overcome national or ideological
antipathies. Following are some expected conflicts having threat to sustainable development.

a. Nuclear War - Threat to Civilization

b. Other Weapons of Mass Destruction

c. The Costs of the 'Arms Culture'

d. World Armaments and the Growth of the 'Arms Culture

C.Towards Security and Sustainable Development

There are, of course, no military solutions to 'environmental insecurity'. And modern warfare can
itself create major internationally shared environmental hazards. So following steps must be
taken to reduce the threat of expected conflict among nations:

a. Cooperative Management

b. The Importance of Early Warning

c. Disarmament and Security