A HAASE) CK PASE) RE EBA Ap eR LIBRARY OF CHINESE CLASSICSPRGIERA: (RARE GHA) 7 (Ei8 fee AGE ale x SRT HEA we SRM ME Bah WM ROR RT REX al & li & : TRIE BH wR MZ Ti ae RAR LtBRS: = fe: HZ al = fF MAM MER KDR HOCH Riz FC RB R: GARE GA ) £28 8 H Was BR TMM 4 HEE R bl mH BERS Bm SB athe Bl A Hy A: HERS GE) KK FR i RMS HAM Academic Consulting Committee: Ding Wangdao, Ye Shuifu, Ren Jiyu, Liu Zhongde, Tang Bowen, Li Xueqin, Li Funing, Yang Xianyi, Sidney Shapiro, Ji Xianlin, Lin Wusun, Jin Kaicheng, Hu Wenzhong, Xu Gongchi, Yuan Xingpei, Liang Liangxing, Han Suyin, Dai Wenbao Compilation Supervising Committee: Compilation Supervisor:Liu Binjie Compilation Co-Supervisors:Yu Youxian, Wu Shulin,Liu Gao, Yang Muzhi, Chen Manzhi, Jin Liqun, Cai Mingzhao Working Committee: Chairman: Yang Muzhi Vice-Chairmen: Huang Youyi, Yan Xiaohong, Zhang Shaochun, Zhang Guanghua, Wu Shangzhi, Yin Feizhou Members: Wang Xianchen, Feng Zhe, Liu Guoyu, Li Yan, Li Jianguo, Li Pengyi, Li Quan, Li Feng, Chen Wanxiong, Yang Deyan, Zhang Zengshun, Zhang Hai’ou, Hu Baomin, Zhou Kuijie, Yi Yanzhe, Luo Yunxi, Hu Guochen, Gu Aibin, Qin Ying, Luan Shilu,Guo Yanjun, Xiao Qiming, Huang Song, Xiong Zhigi, Cai Jianfeng, Guan Shiguan Editorial Committee: Chief-Editor: Yang Muzhi Deputy Chief-Editors: Ma Xinlai, Yin Feizhou, Wang Jiaxin, Xu Minggiang, Huang Youyi Designer: Liao Tie Production Controllers: Li Lin, Han ShaoyiARERR REAR LIBRARY OF CHINESE CLASSICS Chinese-English ‘Ef Zhuangzi ULE SRF RIM MEK iF Translated into English by Wang Rongpei Translated into Modern Chinese by Qin Xuging and Sun Yongchang WAR AER th AR # Hunan People’s Publishing HouseFirst Edition 1999 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, now known or to be invented, without permission in writing from the publishers, except for brief quotations by reviewers, ISBN 978-7-5438-2087-6 ©1999 Hunan People’s Publishing House Published by Hunan People’s Publishing House 3 East Yingpan Road, Changsha 410005, Hunan, China http://www.hnppp.com Printed by Shenzhen Jiaxinda Printing Co., Ltd, Shenzhen, China Printed in the People’s Republic of ChinaB ag RZ (APES) APT. 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FaiTiat g Hee Ren TE ME SHOE, HAAR BURAK RSIRUEL, Tol, MORRIE 2A SCHAEY KBR Kk, aA CRP AESCHE), (SETH REZ PARAU SMB, IE PERTH ETH 1999# 8 A abPREFACE TO THE LIBRARY OF CHINESE CLASSICS Yang Muzhi The publication of the Library of Chinese Classics is a matter of great satisfaction to all of us who have been involved in the production of this monumental work. At the same time, we feel a weighty sense of responsibility, and take this opportunity to explain to our readers the mo- tivation for undertaking this cross-century task. The Chinese nation has a long history and a glorious culture, and it has been the aspiration of several generations of Chinese scholars to translate, edit and publish the whole corpus of the Chinese literary classics so that the nation’s greatest cultural achievements can be introduced to people all over the world. There have been many translations of the Chinese classics done by foreign scholars. A few dozen years ago, a Western scholar translated the title of A Dream of Red Mansions into “A Dream of Red Chambers” and Lin Daiyu, the heroine in the novel, into “Black Jade.” But while their endeavours have been laudable, the results of their labours have been less than satisfactory. Lack of knowledge of Chinese culture and an inadequate grasp of the Chinese written language have led the translators into many errors. As a consequence, not only are Chinese classical writings widely misunderstood in the rest of the world, in some cases their content has actually been distorted. At one time, there was a “Jin Ping Mei craze” among Western scholars, who thought that they had uncovered a miraculous phenomenon, and published theories claim- ing that China was the “fountainhead of eroticism,” and that a Chinese “tradition of permissiveness” was about to be laid bare. This distorted view came about due to the translators of the Jin Ping Mei (Plum in the Golden Vase) putting one-sided stress on the raw elements in that novel, solssv10 ASSNIHO 40 AYVYaIT soisseig esoulyg jo Aesa17 © @ AU} OF B9RjOIgto the neglect of its overall literary value. Meanwhile, there have been many distinguished and well-intentioned Sinologists who have attempted to make the culture of the Chinese nation more widely known by translat- ing works of ancient Chinese philosophy. However, the quality of such work, in many cases, is unsatisfactory, often missing the point entirely. The great philosopher Hegel considered that ancient China had no phi- losophy in the real sense of the word, being stuck in philosophical “prehis- tory.” For such an eminent authority to make such a colossal error of judgment is truly regrettable. But, of course, Hegel was just as subject to the constraints of time, space and other objective conditions as anyone else, and since he had to rely for his knowledge of Chinese philosophy on inadequate translations it is not difficult to imagine why he went so far off the mark. China cannot be separated from the rest of the world; and the rest of the world cannot ignore China. Throughout its history, Chinese civiliza- tion has enriched itself by absorbing new elements from the outside world, and in turn has contributed to the progress of world civilization as a whole by transmitting to other peoples its own cultural achievements. From the 5th to the 15th centuries, China marched in the front ranks of world civi- lization. If mankind wishes to advance, how can it afford to ignore China? How can it afford not to make a thoroughgoing study of its history? 2 Despite the ups and downs in their fortunes, the Chinese people have always been idealistic, and have never ceased to forge ahead and learn from others, eager to strengthen ties of peace and friendship. ‘The great ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius once said, “Wher- ever three persons come together, one of them will surely be able to teach me something, I will pick out his good points and emulate them; his bad points I will reform.” Confucius meant by this that we should always be ready to leam from others. This maxim encapsulates the principle the Chi- nese people have always followed in their dealings with other peoples, not only on an individual basis but also at the level of state-to-state relations, After generations of internecine strife, China was unified by EmperorQin Shi Huang (the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty) in 221 B.C. The Han Dynasty, which succeeded that of the short-lived Qin, waxed pow- erful, and for the first time brought China into contact with the outside world. In 138 B.C., Emperor Wu dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions, i.e. Central Asia. Zhang, who traveled as far as what is now Iran, took with him as presents for the rulers he visited on the way 10,000 head of sheep and cattle, as well as gold and silks worth a fabulous amount. In 73 D.C., Ban Chao headed a 36-man Jegation to the western regions. These were missions of friendship to visit neighbours the Chinese people had never met before and to Jearn from them, Ban Chao sent Gan Ying to explore further toward the west. According to the “Western Regions Section” in the Book of Later Han, Gan Ying traveled across the territo- ries of present-day Iraq and Syria, and reached the Mediterranean Sea, an expedition which brought him within the confines of the Roman Empire. Later, during the Tang Dynasty, the monk Xuan Zang made a journey fraught with danger to reach India and seek the knowledge of that land. Upon his return, he organized a team of scholars to translate the Buddhist scriptures, which he had brought back with him. As a result, many of these scriptural classics which were later lost in India have been pre~ served in China. In fact, it would have been difficult for the people of India to reconstruct their own ancient history if it had not been for Xuan Zang’s A Record of a Journey to the West in the Time of the Great Tang Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He transmitted Chinese culture to Southeast Asia during his seven voyages. Following the Opium Wars in the mid-19th century, progressive Chinese, generation after gen- eration, went to study the advanced scientific thought and cultural achieve- ments of the Western countries. Their aim was to revive the fortunes of their own country. Among them were peopie who were later to become leaders of China, inciuding Zhu De, Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping. In addition, there were people who were to become leading scientists, liter- ary figures and artists, such as Guo Moruo, Li Siguang, Qian Xuesen, Xian Xinghai and Xu Beihong. Their spirit of ambition, their struggles and their breadth of vision were an inspiration not only to the Chinese people but to people all over the world. Indeed, it is true that if the Chinese people had not Jearned many SOlss¥10 SSANIKO 40 AuVuat) Cs BU} 0} BOBJ2Ag So1sse{g asauiyg 40 Ares/7K ~p ae x EE ig 12 things from the surrounding countries they would never have been able to produce the splendid achievements of former days. When we look back upon history, how can we not feel profoundly grateful for the legacies of the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Greece and India? How can we not feel fondness and respect for the cultures of Europe, Africa, America and Oceania? The Chinese nation, in turn, has made unique contributions to the com- munity of mankind. Prior to the [Sth century, China led the world in sci- ence and technology. The British scientist Joseph Needham once said, “Brom the third century A.D. to the 13th century A.D. China was far ahead of the West in the level of its scientific knowledge.” Paul Kennedy, of Yale University in the U.S., author of The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, said, “Of all the civilizations of the pre-modern period, none was as well-developed or as progressive as that of China.” Foreigners who came to China were often astonished at what they saw and heard. The Greek geographer Pausanias in the second century A.D. gave the first account in the West of the technique of silk produc- tion in China: “The Chinese feed a spider-like insect with millet and reeds. After five years the insect’s stomach splits open, and silk is extracted therefrom.” From this extract, we can see that the Europeans at that time did not know the art of silk manufacture. In the middle of the 9th century A.D., an Arabian writer includes the following anecdote in his Account of China and India: “One day, an Arabian merchant called upon the military governor of Guangzhou. Throughout the meeting, the visitor could not keep his eyes off the governor’s chest. Noticing this, the latter asked the Arab mer- chant what he was stating at. The merchant replied, “Through the silk robe you are wearing, I can faintly see a black mole on your chest. Your robe must be made out of very fine silk indeed!’ The governor burst out laughing, and holding out his sleeve invited the merchant to count how many garments he was wearing. The merchant did so, and discovered that the governor was actually wearing five silk robes, one on top of the other, and they were made of such fine material that a tiny mole could be seen through them all! Moreover, the governor explained that the robes he was wearing were not made of the finest silk at all; silk of the highestgrade was reserved for the garments worn by the provincial governor.” The references to tea in this book (the author calls it “dried grass”) reveal that the custom of drinking tea was unknown in the Arab countries at thar time: “The king of China’s revenue comes mainly from taxes on salt and the dry leaves of a kind of grass which is drunk after boiled water is poured on it. This dried grass is sold at a high price in every city in the covatry. The Chinese call it ‘cha.’ The bush is like alfalfa, except that it bears more leaves, which are also more fragrant than alfalfa. It has a slightly bitter taste, and when it is infused in boiling water it is said to have«nedicinal properties.” Forvign visitors showed especial admiration for Chinese medicine. One wrote, “China has very good medical conditions. Poor people are given money to buy medicines by the government.” In this period, when Chinese culture was in full bloom, scholars flocked from all over the world to China for sightseeing and for study. Chang’ an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty was host to visitors from as far away as the Byzantine Empire, not to mention the neighboring countries of Asia Chang’ an, at that time the world’s greatest metropolis, was packed with thousands of foreign dignitaries, students, diplomats, merchants, artisans and entertainers. Japan especially sent contingent after contingent of envoys to the Tang court. Worthy of note are the accounts of life in Chang’an written by Abeno Nakamaro, a Japanese scholar who studied in China and had close friendships with ministers of the Tang court and many Chinese scholars in a period of over 50 years. The description throws light on the exchanges between Chinese and foreigners in this period. When Abeno was supposedly lost at sea on his way back home, the leading poet of the time, Li Bai, wrote a eulogy for him. The following centuries saw a steady increase in the accounts of China written by Western visitors. The Italian Marco Polo described conditions in China during the Yuan Dynasty in his Travels. However, until advances in the science of navigation led to the opening of east-west shipping routes at the beginning of the 16th century Sino-Western cultural exchanges were coloured by fantasy and conjecture. Concrete progress was made when a contingent of religious missionaries, men well versed in Western science and technology, made their way to China, ushering in an era of soalssv10 3S3NIHO JO AWWYa!T © BU} 0} BORJald S0ISseIQ eSoUIYD jo A207 314 direct contacts between China and the West. The experience of this era was embodied in the career of the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci, Arriving in China in 1582, Ricci died in Beijing in 1619. Apart from his missionary work, Ricci accomplished two historically symbolic tasks — one was the translation into Latin of the “Four Books,” together with annotations, in 1594; the other was the translation into Chinese of Euclid’s Elements. The rough translations of the “Four Books” and other Chinese classical works by Western missionaries, and the publication of Pére du Halde’s Description Geographique, Historique, Chronologique, Politique, et Physique de |’ Empire de la Chine revealed an exotic culture to West- em readers, and sparked a “China fever,” during which the eyes of many Western intellectuals were fixed on a. Some of these intellectuals, including Leibniz, held China in high esteem; others, such as Hegel, nursed a critical attitude toward Chinese culture. Leibniz considered that some aspects of Chinese thought were close to his own views, such as the philosophy of the Book of Changes and his own binary system. Hegel, on the other hand, as mentioned above, considered that China had devel- oped no proper philosophy of its own. Nevertheless, no matter whether the reaction was one of admiration, criticism, acceptance or rejection, Sino-Western exchanges were of great significance. The transmission of advanced Chinese science and technology to the West, especially the Chinese inventions of paper-making, gunpowder, printing and the compass, greatly changed the face of the whole world. Karl Marx said, “Chinese gunpowder blew the feudal class of knights to smithereens; the compass opened up world markets and built colonies; and printing became an imple- ment of Protestantism and the most powerful lever and necessary pre- condition for intellectual development and creation.” The English philoso- pher Roger Bacon said that China’s four great inventions had “changed the face of the whole world and the state of affairs of everything.” 3 Ancient China gave birth to a large number of eminent scientists, such as Zu Chongzhi, Li Shizhen, Sun Simiao, Zhang Heng, Shen Kuo and Bi Sheng. They produced numerous treatises on scientific subjects, includ-ing The Manual of Important Arts for the People's Welfare, Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, A Treatise on Febrile Diseases and Compendium of Materia Medica. Their accomplishments included ones whose influence has been felt right down to modern times, such as the armillary sphere, seismograph, Dujiangyan water conservancy project, Dunhuang Grottoes, Grand Canal and Great Wall. But from the latter part of the 15th century, and for the next 400 years, Europe gradually became the cultural centre upon which the world’s eyes were fixed, The world’s most outstanding scientists then were England’s Isaac Newton, Poland’s Copernicus, France’s Marie Curie, Germany’s Rontgen and Einstein, Italy’s Galileo, Russia’s Mendelev and America’s Edison. The Chinese people then began to think: What is the cause of the rise and fall of nations? Moreover, how did it happen that gunpowder, in- vented in China and transmitted to the West, in no time at all made Eu- rope powerful enough to batter down the gates of China herself? It took the Opium War to wake China from its reverie. The first gen- eration to make the bold step of “turning our eyes once again to the rest of the world” was represented by Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan. Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang started the Westernization Movement, and later intel- lectuals raised the slogan of “Democracy and Science.” Noble-minded patriots, realizing that China had fallen behind in the race for moderniza- tion, set out on a painful quest. But in backwardness lay the motivation for change, and the quest produced the embryo of a towering hope, and the Chinese people finally gathered under a banner proclaiming a “March Toward Science.” On the threshold of the 21st century, the world is moving in the direc- tion of becoming an integrated entity. This trend is becoming clearer by the day. In fact, the history of the various peoples of the world is also becoming the history of mankind as a whole. Today, it is impossible for any nation’s culture to develop without absorbing the excellent aspects of the cultures of other peoples. When Western culture absorbs aspects of Chinese culture, this is not just because it has come into contact with Chinese culture, but also because of the active creativity and develop- ment of Western culture itself; and vice versa. The various cultures of the world’s peoples are a precious heritage which we all share. Mankind SOlssv10 SSINIHO 40 AUWHaIT ayy 0) B0RJSq sojsse|g esoulyg Jo Kesar | a@ FROM Re &e a no longer lives on different continents, but on one big continent, or in a “global village.” And so, in this era characterized by an all-encompassing network of knowledge and information we should learn from each other and march in step along the highway of development to construct a brand- new “global village.” Western learning is still being transmitted to the East, and vice versa. China is accelerating its pace of absorption of the best parts of the cul- tures of other countries, and there is no doubt that both the West and the East need the nourishment of Chinese culture. Based on this recognition, we have edited and published the Library of Chinese Classics in a Chi- nese-English format as an introduction to the corpus of traditional Chi- nese culture in a comprehensive and systematic translation. Through this collection, our aim is to reveal to the world the aspirations and dreams of the Chinese people over the past 5,000 years and the splendour of the new historical era in China. Like a phoenix rising from the ashes, the Chinese people in unison are welcoming the cultural sunrise of the new century. August 1999 Beijingwonanponup izBuenyz AT Il CRE MRA REISE, SHIRE BAS, AFAR AA Bit BEST AS TC TE BI) FE A SC RE Se ag Rt BY" ARPT APR 9 Sc BA Dh 0) TRU TR a HER, SPA LABIA MUR a ae ABBY WY BE ce TPA CER, BB PRAT IRAE PY VA ee BK AK GRD Sy HB ae TS BY Rh BU HE AT + YEP TE ee, AT AB eR ARTY fi EY OF PET A AAA HB ES AN R, Wepre CF) Vis, Mes ALOR ek FRE VABR AE (0) — fit ch i Ae HY RE FEY SCRE A AE AB EEE al — ERS, AEP BK Ee PRAY, FUER AES ELI. 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UOHONDONU gy izOuenyz. cca F Bi a HMA ARAVA, HET EBA CET) TRE ST VE AS eh DESL MR A 1994 EH, Gil 3 RJ OG REA FT) GAC A BS Ae EY LAY SP EP Hh Es EAE IK ATER, Jon te tt EF BE HE AP ed AB A Se Eh cE PP ve Sil, ARAMA TE EE SICA UR” ET AY REA ANE Zh, FORA CES) BSB Bo MEL HS HO AA 5) Ze BB FB DCT We OR TE, Gl, CEP - FUEE) TH SE WAIE, MMI, DALE OFC, TAR” FEM: “Our lives are limited, But knowledge is limitless, To pursue the limitless With the limited Is dangerous. ” PAR MAB BAT RE, Pl, 4 CER + FRE HE), “A CHF" PEAR “His Honor Decorated Chariot”, i “ZN” (BF) FABER T “Old Longears” i 4 Mis BRGABARC, AKER —TSRAR ZH, Dib, AE AE TEL (i: 10 08) > ASE RT BOT BA 9 ASB Lh i KEEN, IRATE DAA WA Baa op, fh XY SBN AR ABET TEA CT LA PES) HE DAVBMAN — MEE, SSR Ea AAW (=) HEA HEIST 1981 Fe B=! MARZO AY CEE) aE AFSL MN BEAD PEA AIRS OR, ON CHEFARR CRE). 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HEIR GER GHA) A CE F) RAS) Sep i RA IAT Mt A CEE), CAF) ARBRE ERETT TOME, (AER — EE PROTEAIE AR “> AHTR AUIS MUADR REEF 1963 ETE SATA HAL AY COPS SRI) WH, BR REA CEMA RAMA, HAS. Be, AT EEA BO USE 5 BT Tea AE RAR; BH, FSA RB BM, WRG. BAR, AAD PES FES DLN BY RT ERA EAMIRERUSD, RARE SRT CEA) WAAR, Gla, BAIT 1939 se MMA CAAT PAY SAB) HET CET) Wee, Me at ee 46 1948 FMA CEPA) REET CEE) HA — He MR, SAUL] CHES) WAR. KAMAE, #6 AAGHEM, HARRAH ARAM, BLT Wee AY CHR VTA RB. NE, EF RIED. BARC AREA BETA, CANA RRR, SF 1965 SE PERE AT AO A MRL AH WR a CREE AGEL) th tle, REHOME, RP ORHE-ERE LIA TET AY AB(5) ABBE A]-RERM( RHE HRA RIER WS, CHE HEE AY ay a Pik, “RIGA TR”, NR) AUTRES AK I fe. AR, AAAI. BRT “eR aE AY RI CEA), REA SMAI, AA TEA, RMNZMHUERE CES), HAs. B—, OE $) PAMNEARA-AEOAL, LMT RP RSE A, MEME AMEO, EMDR AEE RTA OG, BARONS, CELERON RBA RE” FC, ENBRS MARR AW EF, WY ee Pb “hE tR” MNF, 2M OR REHME RK, BE ERG HH, PIRES To FUN A ph OR eh eee A BIE An Rae DOK Be LPR SAE AY BEE IE AB, i GEER) DASH BOSE TAG S88 AA Ry a Fn BEY, S—, RMSE”, ALES CET) BEE HOAE— FUER, FLAC TEE TLE FR A TEE SC, EDRE-THEMAA, RETARD RMHEE, RNBH TB We 8B“ SL he 9 BEL EP HE TT I HAS FR, FIM MR RAE CPA, CET) BB HST BE Ob HE =, AFR RC Ae OE, AE RPS, BAIR CEL). CAS) mM GE A) WEEA, RAR ATR b TLC AR, Mb Reet, BRA UY BRE IU A A AD SRR HB es DR PETIA, PRBUR TEATS ARR, CSR HE Be a TT BE TEE 8 AL wh uonanponup izBuenyz3 Re ot ee 42 A, fe “AVE” WAR PE, AE AR Ce ale BR Hop J 2 HO RD THY HE He ELH AS whe a) HE | a ee OF) YAR, BRR A DRS EA Ab By BN AE I] — 4 BR oH BLY ALAS AACE CE AS Ud 9 4 ts BE AD AS ind BY Pe 38 DK (od ‘Ul “20” EAR non-action, donot take any action, do nothing SATB). ZED AAR , BAAS AIF RPE AS BE 28 8 SUB A mE Bt He, IR AT RE TEI, DORE RE be LK BE TE AP BE BE, BEN A BB ET OT EL eB se TER. FUT CE A AU hy RIE EFA CAA ZS” OR F2R", REMEEORYRBER EAE, CRPH PERE, EEG AIR ABE LET Bi; Wa REARS SLE A DR RAR HS ER. RR HE tt TAL LE, CELL FRB. ee 1996 #3 AINTRODUCTION The Spring and Autumn period and the period of Warring States saw a flourishing of various schools of thoughts and intelligent scholars in China. These years (around 400 and 500 BC) were called the “axle period” in the development of world civilization, which made epoch-mak- ing progress both in the east and in the west. There appeared a number of philosophers and men of wisdom in the civilized ancient countries. As the Hellenic period laid down the foundation for western culture, so the Spring and Autumn period and the period of Warring States laid down the foundation for Chinese culture. Living in the same historical period, both Aristotle in Greece and Zhuangzi in China have exerted invaluable influ- ence to the future generations with their scholastic works. If anyone in the west should imagine that China is destitute of philosophy, he would, when he finishes reading the works of Zhuangzi, find that the philosophi- cal system established by Zhuangzi is as profound as that established by any ancient Greek philosopher, Far above the ancient Greek philosophers, Zhuangzi displayed a literary talent unique both in Chinese culture and in world culture. As a chief representative of the Taoist scholars before the Qin Dynasty, Zhuangzi has been held in high esteem in the west since his works were translated into English and brought to the west at the end of the 19th century. However, there has been some misunderstanding and censure on the part of the western reading public because of the differ- ence in culture and in the way of reasoning and because of the vague- ness of the English rendering. If we admit that Zhuangzi belongs to the world as well as to China, we are obliged to present Zhuangzi and his works as they are to the west so that they will cross the border and shine zbuenyz = $ 3 3 8ae 2 I all over the world I Zhuangzi the Man (1) Zhuangzi as a Virtuous Scholar Little is known as to the life of Zhuangzi from the historical records. We only get to know from the Historical Records that Zhwangzi was Zhuang by family name and Zhou by personal name, with the courtesy name Zixiu. He was a scholar in the region of Meng in the state of Song (now somewhere near Shangqiu, Henan Province) during the period of Warring States. Situated in the converging area of the Central-Plain cul- ture and the Southern-Chu culture, the state of Song was under the rule of the tyrant Prince Yan. This historical background had a deep impact upon Zhuangzi’s career and ideology. Born of a poor family, Zhuangzi served as a superintendent (a watchman as a matter of fact) in a lac- quer-yard when he was young. After that, he never took up any official duties, rejecting several offers to go into office. He refused even when Lord Wei of Chu offered a thousand pieces of gold for him to be the prime minister. He lived the life of a recluse in the desolate streets, eking out his life by weaving straw-sandals. In poverty all his life, he sometimes had to live on loans. For the most part of his life, he mixed himself with farmers, fishermen, woodmen, hermits and even the disabled. In ragged clothes, he looked languid as a result of undernourishment. However, he took pride in his honest poverty and made tours to various states, seeking spiritual freedom from his wretched life. Later, he taught in his village and wrote his works, now known as The Complete Works of Zhuangzi or Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi spent his whole life in destitution. A story in Zhuangzi runslike this: Zhuangzi’s family was poor and so he went to borrow grain from the superintendent of river-courses. The superintendent said, “All right. When I get the revenue of my fief, I will lend you three hundred yuan. Will that do?” Zhuangzi flushed with anger and said, “When I was on the way here yesterday, | heard someone calling me. I looked back and saw a carp in the cart rut. I asked it, ‘Come over, carp. What are you doing here?’ It replied, ‘I am a messenger from the East Sea. Will you save me with a bucket of water?” I said, ‘All right. When I meet the princes in the state of Wu and the state of Yue, I will try to persuade them to divert the water from the West River to welcome you. Will that do?” The carp flushed with anger and said, ‘I have lost my normal environ- ment and have no place to stay. I can survive with a mere bucket of water, but if you talk to me like this, you’d better look for me in the dried- fish market.’” (“External Things”) From this story we can see that Zhuangzi was so indifferent to worldly troubles that he was worthy of a perfect man although he lived an impoverished life and sometimes had to live on loans. The Complete Works of Zhuangzi provides episodes from Zhuangzi’s life. Zhuangzi’s best friend was Hui Shi (Huizi), who understood Zhuangzi best and was best understood by Zhuangzi. They often exchanged views while they wandered over hills and rills. For instance, travelling with Huizi over a bridge in the Hao River, Zhuangzi said, “The fish is swimming at ease. This is how the fish enjoy themselves.” Huizi said, “You are nota fish. How do you know the fish are enjoying themselves?” Zhuangzi said, “You are not me. How do you know I don’t know about the fish?” Huizi said, “I am not you and I certainly don’t know about you; you are certainly not a fish and you will not know the fish. That’s for sure.” Zhuangzi said, “Let’s trace back to your original question. You said, ‘How VOHONPOHU wy | rz6uenuzNH f a do you know the fish are enjoying themselves?’ This question shows that you know about the fish. Since you know about me, why can’t | know about the fish? I got to know it over a bridge on the Hao River.” (“Au- tumn Floods”) In this way, they formed a firm friendship in their discus- sion over scholastic issues. It was only natural for Zhuangzi to say in front of Huizi’s grave, “Since Huizi died, | have no one to talk with! [ have no one to argue with!” (“Xu Wugui”) The Complete Works of Zhuangzi also records episodes about Zhuangzi’s refusal to take office: Zhuangzi was angling in the Pu River when Lord Wei from the state of Chu sent two ministers to invite him, saying, “We'd like to entrust you with the state affairs.” Holding the fishing rod in his hand, Zhuangzi did not look back, saying, “I’ve heard that there is a sacred turtle in the state of Chu, which was dead for three thousand years. The lord keeps it in a bamboo case covered with a ker- chief. Would this turtle prefer to be dead and kept in such a grand style or to be alive and able to drag its trail in the mud?” The ministers said, “It would prefer to be alive and drag its tail in the mud.” Zhuangzi said, “Please go away, then, I'd rather drag my tail in the mud.” (“Autumn Floods”) A similar episode appears in the Historical Records, which shows that Zhuangzi had opportunities to go into office but he was reluc- tant to be involved in official duties. Zhuangzi was carefree as he paid no attention to life and death, sorrow and happiness. When Zhuangzi’s wife died, Zhuangzi squatted on the ground, singing and beating time on a basin. (“Perfect Happiness”) While Zhuangzi was dying, his disciples intended to prepare many things to be buried with him. When he learned of this, Zhuangzi said, “The heaven and the earth will be my coffin. The sun and the moon will be my rings. The stars will be my gems. Everything in the universe will be buried withme. Don’t I have a complete list already? Anything else will be redun- dant.” The disciples said, “We are worried that your body will be eaten up by crows and eagles.” Zhuangzi said, “An unburied body will be con- sumed by crows and eagles but a buried body will be eaten up by ants. So you’re snatching food from the mouths of crows and eagles and feed it into the mouths of ants. Why are you showing favours to ants?” (“Liezi”) Thus, Zhuangzi spent his long life in oblivion and poverty. However, he lived in the mundane world and enjoyed a free spiritual life, He taught his disciples with his upright character and profound knowledge. His pro- lific writings constitute a precious heritage to the posterity. His life career and his world outlook provide an important cue to the understanding of this great personage for the western readers. (IL) Zhuangzi as a Profound Philosopher Zhuangzi’s profound philosophy can be summarized in four phrases: “Tao as the source of the world”, “uniformity of things”, “non-action in face of nature” and “absolute freedom”. There are similarities and dis- similarities between Zhuangzi’s philosophy and the western philosophy. Awareness of these similarities and dissimilarities is the key to the under- standing of Zhuangzi by the western readers. Tao as the Origin of the World Zhuangzi took Tao as the origin of the world, inheriting Laozi’s views of “from Tao comes oneness; from oneness comes the duality of yin and yang; from duality comes the equi- librium of yin and yang; from equilibrium comes all things under heaven.” (Tao Te Ching, Chapter 42) The origin of the world was a problem of common concern for all the philosophers in ancient times. For scholars 2Buenyz = 3 a s 8 3 $he from Miletos in ancient Greece, Thales took “water” as the origin of the 2 5 world, Anaximandros took “element” as the origin of the world and Anaximenes took “air” as the origin of the world. Later, Pythagoras took “number” as the origin of the world while Herakleitos took “logos” as the origin of the world. Among the Chinese philosophers, Laozi was the first one to take “Tao” as the origin of the world, which created heaven and earth and everything in the world. He said, “A formless entity ex- < isted prior to heaven and earth. Silent and void, it stands alone and un- ea changing, the mother of all things under heaven, Not knowing its name, I Ei call it ‘Tao’.” (Tao Te Ching, Chapter 25) Zhuangzi expounded Laozi’s u views, saying, “Tao is a reality which has its substance, inert and form- < less, It can be transmitted by the heart, but not taught by word of mouth; co it can be acquired by the heart, but not seen by the eyes. It has its own source and its own root, existing since time immemorial before the heaven and the earth came into existence. It gives birth to demons and gods; it begets the heaven and the earth. It is above the zenith but does not seem high; it is beneath the nadir but does not seem low; it came into existence before the heaven and the earth but does not seem long ago; it was there before time immemorial but does not seem old.” (“The Most Venerable Teacher”) “A reality which has its substance” means that Tao indeed exists; “it has its own source and root” means that Tao exists in itself, “it begets the heaven and the earth” means that Tao gives birth to heaven and earth and everything in the world; “existing since time immemorial” means that Tao exists forever. The ontology held by Zhuangzi grew out of Laozi and outgrew that held by Laozi. The concept of “Tao” was brought to perfection, which marked a milestone in the development of world philosophy. According to Zhuangzi’s philosophy, “Tao” also indicates the rulesand laws for the development of the universe, the ultimate human cogni- zance: “When clear distinction between right and wrong appeared, Tao was injured. When Tao was injured, prejudice was formed.” “Why is Tao so obscure that it can be considered both true and false? Why is speech so obscure that it can be considered both right and wrong? Why does Tao prevail and seem to be non-existent? Why does speech exist and seem to be unacceptable? Tao is obscured when it is concealed by minor achievements; speech is obscured when it is concealed by flowery words.” (“On the Uniformity of All Things”) These rules and laws for the development of the universe—the ultimate human cognizance—are absolute truths which transcend right and wrong, or true and false. In a word, Zhuangzi evolved the unique concept of “Tao” in Chinese phi- losophy and enriched its connotation far beyond Herakleitos’ “logos”, Parmenides’ “hedos”, Plato’s “ideas of the good” and other concepts. Uniformity of Things Zhuangzi also evolved Laozi’s concept of “mystical union with virtue.” (Tao Te Ching, Chapter 56) He held the view that things in the world seemed to be different but were in fact all the same. “From the viewpoint of Tao, nothing can be called noble or mean because the noble and the mean succeed each other endlessly. Don't stick to one point of view, or you will be away from Tao. Nothing can be called too little or too much because the little and the much trans- form into each other. Don’t adhere to one way of behaviour, or you will run counter to Tao.” “From the viewpoint of Tao, there is nothing noble or mean; from the viewpoint of things, an individual often thinks highly of himself and thinks lowly of others; from the viewpoint of worldly learn- ing, the distinction lies outside things themselves. From the viewpoint of distinctions, if we say that something is large because it is relatively large, wzBuenyz 3 g = g 8+ ON Bit then everything can be said to be large. If we say that something is small because it is relatively small, then everything can be said to be small. Once you know why the heaven and the earth are like grains of millet and why a tiny down is like a hill, you will understand the distinctions between large and small. From the viewpoint of functions, if we say that something is useful because it is useful in one respect, then everything can be said to be useful. If we say that something is useless in another respect, then everything can be said to be useless. Once you know that east and west are opposite and mutually indispensable, you will under- stand the functions and usages of things. From the viewpoint of prefer- ence, if we say that something is right because it is right in one sense, then everything can be said to be right. If we say that something is wrong, because it is wrong in another sense, then everything can be said to be wrong. Once you know that both King Yao and King Jie justified himself and condemned the other, you will understand the preferences of things.” (“Autumn Floods”) Therefore, he drew the conclusion: “When some- thing falls into disintegration, some new entities are formed; when some new entities are formed, something must have fallen apart. But for things in general, there is neither disintegration nor formation—there is always the interchangeability and uniformity of things.” (“On the Uniformity of All Things”) Meanwhile, Zhuangzi held the view that men seem to make different comments and to hold different viewpoints, but since things have no real difference in essence—‘Right is infinite and wrong is infinite, too” (“On the Uniformity of All Things”), all disputes and arguments about right and wrong are meaningless, with ulterior motives behind them. “Now I am going to say something, but I do not know whether my remarks are similar or dissimilar to other remarks. However, whether these remarksare similar or dissimilar, all of them fal] into the same category. In this sense, I am no different from others.” (ibid) When two people are having a debate, each defending his own stand, any third person is unable to make a judgement as to who is right: “Suppose that you and I argue over something. If you win and I lose, are you indeed right and am I indeed wrong? If I win and you lose, am | indeed right and are you indeed wrong? Is one of us right and the other wrong? Are both of us right or are both of us wrong? If neither you nor I can know, other people will be even more in the dark. Whom shall I ask to decide for us? Shall I ask someone who agrees with you to decide? If he already agrees with you, how can he decide it? Shall I ask someone who agrees with me to decide? If he already agrees with me, how can he decide it? Shall I ask someone who. disagrees with both of us to decide? If he already disagrees with both of us, how car he decide it? Shall | ask someone who agrees with both of us to decide? If he already agrees with both of us, how can he decide it? If neither you nor I nor others can know, who else shall we wait for?” (ibid) Zhuangzi thinks that uniformity of things is the only natural law to follow by the perfect man who makes no arguments and conforms himself to nature. Zhuangzi’s view on the uniformity of things contains an element of simple spontaneous dialectics. His view that “there is in the world noth- ing greater than the tips of the downs of a bird in autumn while Mount Tai is tiny” (ibid) shows that the size of things is relative. There are greater things than something which is great; there are smaller things than some- thing which is small. Zhuangzi’s ideas are compatible with Herakleitos’ ideas in this respect. Like Herakleitos, however, Zhuangzi had his limita- tions because he laid so much stress on infinite greatness and infinite smallness that he was tinged with relativism and sophism. CoNonGONUT wy rbuenuiZhh 7 Non-action in Face of Nature Zhuangzi developed Laozi’s views on “helping everything to stay its natural way and constantly refraining from any interference” (Tao Te Ching, Chapter 64) and took “non-ac- tion in face of nature” as the supreme doctrine. He held the view that “the heaven is clear because it does nothing; the earth is quiet because it does nothing” (“Perfect Happiness”) as the natural state of things is perfect. He also held the view that “the long is not to be considered too much and the short is not to be considered too little. Thus, short as the legs are, the duck will come into grief if we stretch them out. Long as the neck is, the crane will come into grief if we cut it short.” (“Webbed Toes”) Any polishing on nature is a disruption on it. Zhuangzi expounded this with a fable: “The ruler of the South Sea was called Helter, the ruler of the North Sea was called Skelter and the ruler of the Central Region was called Chaos. Helter and Skelter often met each other in the land of Chaos, who treated them very well. They wanted to repay his kindness, saying, ‘Every man has seven apertures with which to hear, to see, to eat and to breathe, but Chaos alone has none of them. Let’s try and bore some for him.’ They bored one aperture each day, and on the seventh day Chaos died.” (“Competent Emperors and Kings”) Human actions will only strangle nature and plunge people into disasters and troubles. For Zhuangzi, the “heaven” means the natural state of things before mankind came into existence or before human civilization did harm on nature. Zhuangzi held that everything is pre-destined and that human ef- forts will come to no avail: “How could the heaven and the earth have bias against me and make me poor? It must have been fate that has brought me this extreme poverty.” (“The Most Venerable Teacher”) “Life and death, gain and loss, failure and success, wealth and poverty,worthiness and worthlessness, praise and blame, hunger and thirst, cold and heat—these are all transformation of things following the natural or- der.” (“Signs of Complete Integrity”) Therefore, “if J am content with whatever happens at the right time and follow the natural course, sorrow and joy will not affect me. This is what the ancients called ‘freedom from bondage’. Those who cannot free themselves are mentally bound by material things.” (“The Most Venerable Teacher”) “To be content with whatever happens at the right time and to follow the natural course” means “to be content with fate and to do nothing”. He was content with fate because he could do nothing about it. Only by being content with fate could he be free and easy and take no action at all because he sought after nothing and wanted to do nothing. By taking no action, it does not mean that Zhuangzi did nothing at all, but that he had shaken off the bondage of the mundane world and was enjoying the beauty of nature in his spiritual world. In this way, Zhuangzi did not take any official positions all his life and was content with his wretched life, He lived a life that conforms to the natural course of events. This attitude of non-action in face of nature helps Zhuangzi into the spiritual world of absolute freedom. Wandering in Absolute Freedom = Zhuangzi was the first Chinese philosopher who raised the question of personal freedom. What he meant by freedom was chiefly that of the individuals and also that of the human- ity and all living things. Zhuangzi aspired for a free life and hoped that he would reach absolute freedom. “Suppose someone rides on the true course of heaven and earth and harnesses the changes of the six vital elements of yin, yang, wind, rain, darkness and brightness to travel in the infinite. What is there for him to be dependent on?” (“Wandering in AbsoluteAne f Freedom”) By “absolute freedom”, Zhuangzi meant not only an “unre- strained, rampant life”, but also “spiritual freedom without any bond- age”: “Now you have a big tree, but are worried about its uselessness. Why don’t you plant it in the land of nothingness, a wilderness where nothing grows and no one comes? There you may roam idly around it and sleep carefreely beneath it.” (“Wandering in Absolute Freedom”) “Now that I live a carefree life between the heaven and the earth, | am content with the immense pleasure it gives me.” (“Declining the Throne”) By so doing, he reached the supreme spiritual realm , that is “Heaven and Earth and I came into existence at the same time; all things in the world and I are one uniformity” (“On the Uniformity of All Things”) — he had been combined into nature. Zhuangzi’s idea of “absolute freedom” is closely linked with “wan- dering”, which is a symbol of shaking off bondage and achieving emanci- pation, By saying that “Set your mind at flight by going along with things as they are. Cultivate your mind by resigning yourself to the inevitable. This is the best way out for you” (“Ways of the Human World”), Zhuangzi took “setting the mind at flight” as the wandering of his mind, a form of spiritual freedom: “I’m about to keep company with the creator of things. When I get tired, I will ride on the bird of ease and emptiness, flying out of the universe, to wander in the land of nothingness and stay in the boundless wild field.” (“Competent Emperors and Kings”) “Ride the clouds and mists, mount the sun and the moon, and travel beyond the four seas,” (“On the Uniformity of All Things”) In his experience of “setting his mind at flight”, Zhuangzi could not only enter the visionary “land of nothingness” but also enjoy the supreme pleasure of “mingling with na- ture”, His thoughts are inevitably tinged with mysticism, which made Herbert A. Giles dub Zhuangzi as a “mystic”.By saying “Ride on the true course of heaven and earth and harness the changes of the six vital elements of yin, yang, wind, rain, darkness and brightness to travel in the infinite”, Zhuangzi divided freedom into two stages: relative freedom and absolute freedom. While he was “riding on the true course of heaven and earth and harness the changes of the six vital elements of yin, yang, wind, darkness and brightness”, he was in the stage of relative freedom, in which he was following (“riding on” and “harnessing”) the laws (“the true course”) of heaven and earth. This view is similar to that of the Stoics in ancient Greece. While he was “travelling in the infinite”, he was in the stage of absolute freedom, in which he had shaken off the bondage of external things (including time and space) and could “experience the bounteous Tao and wander in the realm of infinity.” (“Competent Emperors and Kings”) According to Zhuangzi, material things (including the peng, the cicada, Song Rongzi and Liezi) would not be able to enjoy real freedom while the mind, and the mind alone, would be able to enjoy absolute freedom. In his views on unconditional absolute freedom, Zhuangzi had common ground with Jean- Paul Sartre, the French existentialist, It is indeed something rare and praiseworthy that Zhuangzi was thinking about two thousand years ago and trying to solve the same problem that puzzled Sartre: the contradic- tion between the individual and the community. According to Zhuangzi, the process to become well versed in Tao is a process to purge the mind. The first stage is “the fasting of the mind”: “The mighty Tao can only gather in an emptiness and that emptiness is the fasting of the mind.” (“Ways of the Human World”) In other words, the mind must quiet and empty. The second stage is “sitting and forget- ting”: “I cast off my limb and trunk, give up my hearing and sight, leave my physical form and deprive myself of my mind. In this way, I can izbuenuz = g & 8 g 8LA an as . & z identify myself with Tao. This is the so-called ‘sitting and forgetting’.” (“The Most Venerable Teacher”) In other words, the man will forget the existence of everything in the world, including himself. When he mingles himself with the heavenly Tao, he will be able to reach the third stage of “having a clean mind,” the fourth stage of “discerning the independent Tao” and the final stage of “attaining Tao”: “After he had had such a clean mind, he was able to discern the independent Tao. After he had had discerned the independent Tao, he was able to obscure the distinction of the past and the present. After he had obscured the distinction of the past and the present, he was able to ignore life and death.” (“The Most Ven- erable Teacher”) In this case, “having a clean mind” means an experi- ence of enlightenment, a journey from the darkness to the brightness; “discerning the independent Tao” means the observance of Tao, i. e. to envisage an mergence with Tao, with everything in the world and to gain an eternal life. As the core of Zhuangzi’s philosophy, this psychological journey to become well versed in Tao is similar to the Buddhist practice of sitting in meditation, Both of them lay emphasis on the spiritual world— to attain an empty mind by getting rid of all distracting thoughts. The Chinese conception of “Zen” is as a matter of fact the combination of the conceptions from Zhuangzi and Buddhism. The above-mentioned four conceptions make it clear that Zhuangzi’s philosophy is both complex and contradictory. For the most part, it be- longs to the ideal and metaphysical school of thought, but there are frag- ments of materialism and dialectics. It contains both passive and active elements, just like the works by Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece. In any case, most of the major themes and significant concepts originated from Zhuangzi, who had a noteworthy impact on the Chinese classicalphilosophy. (IL) Zhuangzi as an Intelligent Writer As aman of letters, Zhuangzi has won universal praise. Sima Qian said that his language was “unique” and later critics said that his lan- guage was “extraordinary”, “variable” and “peculiar”, In his An Our- line History of Chinese Literature, Lu Xun said that Zhuangzi’s works “surpassed all other scholars before the Qin dynasty”. Zhuangzi’s prose has been learned and imitated by scholars down from the Han dynasty. Jia Yi and Mei Cheng in the Han dynasty, Ji Kang, Ruan Ji and Tao Yuanming in the Wei and Jin dynasties, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan in the Tang dynasty, Su Shi in the Song dynasty, Li Zhi in the Ming dynasty, Gong Zizhen in the Qing dynasty and Lu Xun in the present century were all influenced by Zhuangzi’s writings. Zhuangzi’s literary achievements are mainly embodied in four respects: romantic artistic expressions, real- istic descriptions, numerous fables and original language. Romantic Artistic Expressions With Romantic expressions, Zhuangzi displayed his unusual imagination. In the first chapter of “Wan- dering in Absolute Freedom”, there are a series of artistic images. There is a huge bird by the name of peng “whose back is like a lofty mountain and whose wings are like clouds that hang from the sky. Soaring like a whirlwind to a height of 90,000 Ji, the peng flies above the heavy clouds and against the blue sky on its southward journey toward the South Sea.” ‘There is a cicada and a turtle-dove which “fly upward until they alight on an elm or a sandal tree. Sometimes when they cannot make it, they just fall back to the ground.” There is a quail in the marsh which “hops and skips and flies up, but it never flies up more than a dozen metres before it uononpoujuy iz6uenuz # | |i NR alt comes down and hovers above the reeds. That’s the highest it ever flies.” And there is a holy man “living on the faraway Mount Guye. With his skin as white as ice and snow, he is as amiable as a virgin. He does not eat the grains, but sucks the wind, drinks the dew, rides on the cloud, harnesses the flying dragon and roams beyond the four seas.” JIlustrated by all these artistic images, the subject of “wandering in absolute free- dom” progresses to its climax, shining with romanticism from beginning to end. Such passages as “Zhuangzi’s dream as a butterfly” bring the readers to the mysterious visionary land: “I, by the name of Zhuang Zhou, once dreamed that I was a butterfly fluttering here and there. | was so pleased that I forgot that I was Zhuang Zhou. When I suddenly woke up, I was astonished to find that I was as a matter of fact Zhuang Zhou. Did Zhuang Zhou dream of the butterfly or did the butterfly dream of Zhuang Zhou? Between Zhuang Zhou and the butterfly there must be some dis- tinctions. This is called the transformation of things.” (“On the Unifor- mity of All Things”) Zhuangzi’s romantic artistic expressions filled his reasoning part with poetic flavour as well. Many passages are simply poetry in prose. One example is the following famous passage: “Man’s life is limited but knowl- edge is unlimited. To pursue the unlimited with the limited is fatiguing; to know this but still pursue unlimited knowledge with limited life is fatal. When you do good, don’t do it for the sake of fame; when you do bad, don’t do it as to incur punishment. {f you always keep to the proper way, you will be able to keep a good health, preserve your nature, support your parents and live out you full life-span.” (“Essential for Keeping a Good Health”) The following quotation can well be regarded as an excellent philosophical poem: “Men of great wits are open and broad-minded;Men of small wits are mean and meticulous. WOHINPOAUT wy reBuenyz Men of great eloquence speak with arrogance; Men of small eloquence speak without a point.” (On the Uniformity of All Things”) Realistic Descriptions In his works, Zhuangzi gave a panoramic picture of the various people and customs of his day. He altogether de- picted over 360 characters of different types, every one with his idiosyn- crasy. For example, he depicted several skillful artisans: the butcher who carved a bullock in “Essentials for Keeping a Good Health,” Qing the Carpenter who carved a piece of wood and Chui the Artisan who could draw a circle better than those who used the compass in “A Thorough Understanding of Life,” Bian the Wheelwright who cut a wheel in “The Natural Course of Events”, and Shi the Carpenter who waved his axe in “Xu Wugui.” The titular hero in “Zhi the Robber” rebuked Confucius with “his eyes burning and his hair rising upward”: “Now you study King Wen and King Wu's ruling strategies so as to orient the public opinion and to establish guidelines for the future generations. In a baggy robe and a wide belt typical of a scholar, you speak and act with much attraction in an attempt to charm the dukes and to win more gains. As no villain is more vicious than you, why aren't you called Confucius the Robber? Why am | alone called Zhi the Robber?” How gratifying his remarks are! The four men in “The Most Venerable Teacher” — Zisi, Ziyu, Zili and Zilai —~ became friends because they “believed that life and death, survival and perishment were one and the same.” “When Ziyu fell ill, Zisi went to call on him.” “Before long, Zilai fell ill. When he lay gasping on the verge of death, his wife and children wept before the bed. Zili went to call on him.” Like fish “moistening each other with their breathand dampening each other with their slime,” these poor friends helped each other with a sincere heart in times of need. Zhuangzi slashed the evil side of society to the full. He ranked the kings among the robbers, compared the classics of the sages to rubbish, and regarded humaneness and righteousness as tigers and wolves. In “External Things,” he described some Confucians, students of Book of Poetry and Book of Rituals, breaking open a grave. They talked in the fashion of Book of Poetry: “Day is breaking in the east. How are things going on?” The answer is: “We haven’t got the burial clothes off him yet, But there is a pearl on his mouth.” They tried to justify their acts by quoting poetry: “Alive, he never gave alms; Now dead, why hold a pearl in his mouth?” The hypocrisy of Confucian instructions and rituals is thus torn to shreds. In “Liezi,” Zhuangzi said when he rebuked Cao Shang: “I hear that the duke of Qin was suffering from discomforts and looking for phy- sicians, Whoever could heal furuncle would get one carriage; whoever could heal his hemorrhoids by licking would get five carriages. The lower the discomforts in the body, the more carriages the healer would get.” In this way, Zhuangzi employed sharp sarcasm to flog the villains who cur- ried favour with those in power. Numerous Fables With over 100 fables of all kinds in it, The Com- plete Works of Zhuangzi can be said to be a collection of wonderful fables. Popular indeed are such fables as “Liezi Rides the Wind” (in“Wandering in Absolute Freedom”), “The Penumbra Asking the Shadow” and “Zhuangzi’s Dream as a Butterfly” (in “On the Uniformity of All Things”), “The Butcher Carving a Bullock” (in “Essentials for Keeping a Good Health”), “The Mantis Raising Its Forelegs to Stop an On-going Chariot” (in “Ways of the Human World”), “ The Fish in the Dried Springs” (in “The Most Venerable Teacher”), “Boring Seven Apertures for Chaos” (in “Competent Emperors and Kings”), “Bo Le Taming the Horses” (in “The Hooves of Horses”), “Bian the Wheelwright Cutting a Wheel” (in “The Natural Course of Events”), “Sighing to the Sea”, “A Frog at the Bottom of a Well” and “A Young Man Learning How to Walk in Handan” (in “Autumn Floods”), “Shi the Carpenter Waving His Axe” (in “Xu Wugui”), “Zhuangzi Borrowing Grain” and “Ren the Young. Gentleman Catching a Huge Fish” (in “External Things”), “Confucius Meeting Zhi the Robber” (in “Zhi the Robber”), “Zhuangzi on Sword- play” (in “Persuasion with Swordplay”) and “Zhuangzi Was Dying” (in “Liezi”).By vivid and simple stories, these fables reveal profound mor- als. “A Thorough Understanding of Life” is composed of 13 fables and “Autumn Floods” is composed of 7 fables. With one fable after another, these chapters leave much room for thought by the readers. They are of high artistic and aesthetic values. The fables are narrated in a variety of ways. They are in the form of Zhuangzi’s anecdotes (e.g. “Zhuangzi’s Dream as a Butterfly”), in the form of invented stories of the historical figures (e.g. “Confucius Meeting Zhi the Robber”), in the form of ficti- tious characters (e.g. “Bian the Wheelwright Cutting a Wheel”), in the form of allegories (e.g. “Boring Seven Apertures for Chaos”), or in the form of animal fables (e.g. “A Frog at the Bottom of a Well”). Original Language Zhuangzi was a master of language among the = § 2 g g izbuenuzthe = nk eR y ee scholars in pre-Qin China. According to statistics, he used a lot of words and idioms with specific meanings of his own: 118 monosyllabic words, 169 bisyllabic words and 197 idioms. Many of them are stil] in use in contemporary Chinese. There are quotable quotes all over Zhuangzi’s works: e.g. “The per- fect man cares for no self; the holy man cares for no merit; the sage cares for no name.” (“Wandering in Absolute Freedom”) “There is in the worid nothing greater than the tips of the downs of a bird in autumn while Mount Tai is tiny. There is no one who lives longer than a dead baby while Peng Zu, who lived over 700 years, died young.” (“On the Uniformity of All Things”) “The Tao that is manifest is not Tao; the words that are used in arguments do not suffice; humaneness that is constantly exercised does not work; integrity that is openly professed cannot be believed; courage that is violent wil! not succeed.” (ibid) “The mountain trees are felled by themselves—the axe-handle is made of wood; the grease is consumed by itself—it burns on the fire.” (“Ways of the Human World”) “Those who steal the knives are executed while those who usurp the state become princes.” (“Break Open the Boxes”) “In ruling over the world, the ancient kings enriched the world by having no desires, invigorate everything by doing nothing, and pacify the people by keeping quiet.” (“The Heaven and the Earth”) These aphorisms are succinct and easy to memorize, and so they are widely circulated. In his writing, Zhuangzi was moving from “dialogues” to “essays”, thus improving his prose writing to a higher stage. With many kinds of figures of speech in his writing—metaphor, hyperbole, parallelism, antith- esis, repetition, and so on, Zhuangzi’s essays are highly persuasive with artistic appeal. According to Zhuangzi, there are some things that can be put into words and other things that cannot be put into words: “What canbe verbalized is something large; what can be mentally visualized is some- thing small.” (“Autumn Floods”) “Bian the Wheelwright Cutting the Wheel” (“The Natural Course of Events”) is a fable to give the moral that there are meanings beyond words. There are three kinds of talk that can be expressed with words: fables, quotations and random talk. Fables express meanings by making characters and anecdotes to give his own thoughts; quotations express meanings by borrowing words from the an- cient philosophers to expound truth; random talk expresses meanings by using words that conform to nature to elaborate his ideas. Zhuangzi em- ployed these three ways to express his own thoughts by using vivid im- ages and speech. Hence, his prose is beautiful indeed. Il Zhuangzi the Book (1) Editions of Zhuangzi The book Zhuangzi began to be circulated before the Qin dynasty. The famous scholar Xunzi once read the book and made some comments on it. Lt Buwei in the early years of the Qin dynasty quoted from Zhuangzi in his Li's History of China. In Sima Qian’s Historical Records, the earliest book to mention Zhuangzi the man and his book, it is said that the book “contains over 100,000 words” without mentioning the division of “inner chapters”, “outer chapters” and “miscellaneous chap- ters”. The book Zhuangzi that was circulated in the Han dynasty was composed of 52 chapters, but it was not popular until the dynasties of Wei and Jin when such annotated editions as by He Yan, Wang Bi, Xiang Xiu, Guo Xiang, and Li Yi. Guo Xiang’s edition which is composed of 33 chapters was the most popular one, which has been handed down up to the present day. All through the centuries, there have been annotated zbuenuz = s g 8 s 8ci Aaa am ae +he re editions by many scholars, such as Lu Deming and Cheng Xuanying in the Tang dynasty, Chen Jingyuan in the Song dynasty, Jiao Hong in the Ming dynasty, Wang Fuzhi and Guo Qinfan in the Qing dynasty. In the 20th century alone, there have been about a hundred different editions of this book, The book Zhuangzi originally had nothing to do with religion at all. The Taoist religion came into being at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty (2nd century A. D.), Some Taoists from noble families in the dynasties of Wei and Jin held Zhuangzi in high esteem, took him as an idol and thus linked him with Taoism. It was in the Tang dynasty that Zhuangzi was assigned as a Taoist classic, entitled The Holy Canon of Nanhua. Em- peror Xuanzong in the Tang dynasty conferred the title “True Man of Nanhua” to him and the title The Holy Canon of Nanhua to his book. There are different interpretations to the title “Nanhua”: the name of a place, the name of 2 mountain, and the title of a heavenly office. As a basic Taoist classic, second to the book Tao Te Ching, The Holy Canon of Nanhua is one of the four “holy canons” for Taoism. The other three are The Holy Canon of Tongxuan ( Wenzi ), The Holy Canon of Chongxu ( Liezi ) and The Holy Canon of Donglin ( Kengcangzi ). Many Taoists have made annotations on The Holy Canon of Nanhua, and expounded on it from the standpoint of the Taoist religion. The views in this book on Tao, on the ways of keeping a good health and on spiritual freedom are the three foundations of Taoist theology. Rather than Tao- ism has theologized Zhuangzi, it is more proper to say that Zhuangzi has philosophized Taoism. The book Zhuangzi extant of 33 chapters can be divided into three parts: “Inner Chapters” (7), “Outer Chapters” (15) and “Miscellaneous Chapters” (11). For the inner chapters, the chapter titles give the themeof these chapters; for the outer chapters and the miscellaneous chapters, the chapter titles are simply the first two or three words taken from the first sentence of each chapter. It is generally acknowledged that the in- ner chapters were written by Zhuangzi himself, the outer chapters were written by his disciples and the miscellaneous chapters were written ei. ther by his disciples or by other Taoist scholars. The book Zhuangzi does reveal variations and even contradictions in respect of viewpoints, style and diction. In spite of all the variations and even contradictions, some people insist that the book was written by Zhuangzi himself. For instance, Sima Qian thonght that “The Fisherman” and “Zhi the Robber” in the miscellaneous chapters were written by Zhuangzi himself. There is no definite conclusion yet as to the authorship of Zhuangzi. However, most of the works in pre-Qin China were written through collective efforts. Since the book reflects the basic thoughts of Zhuangzi and the funda- mental ideology of the Taoist school, there is not much sense arguing over its authorship. The book can well be used as a direct source to study Zhuangzi and his ideology. (11) Chapter Themes for Zhuangzi Inner Chapters Chapter One Wandering in Absolute Freedom (3 sections) The people should get rid of the bondage of the mundane world and strive after absolute spiritual freedom. Chapter Two On the Uniformity of All Things (7 sections, the most important chapter that embodies Zhuangzi’s philosophy) Tao is the master of all the things in the world. From the viewpoint of Tao, all the things in the world are equal while right and wrong are relative. | wonanponuy i26uenyz. FE F Chapter Three Essentials for Keeping a Good Health (3 sec- tions) The essentials for keeping a good health are to follow the natural course of events and not to be disturbed by material desires and personal emotions. Chapter Four Ways of the Human World (7 sections) As public relations are complicated, the best philosophy of dealing with the world is to have a free and empty mind and to follow the natural course of events. Chapter Five Signs of Complete Integrity (6 sections, an essay on morality) If only they have a high morality and persevere in Tao, men will become models for other people even if they are deformed. Chapter Six The Most Venerable Teacher (10 sections) With Tao as their master, people can attain Tao if they mingle themselves with nature, ignore life and death, deal with the world in a quietude, and forget about the world. Chapter Seven Competent Emperors and Kings (7 sections, an essay on politics) To rule over the world, emperors and kings must follow the natural course of events and do not take any actions so that the coun- try will return to the primitive state of things. Outer Chapters Chapter Eight Webbed Toes (5 sections, an essay on human nature) The human behaviours should confirm to nature, instead of de- stroying human nature by humaneness and righteousness. Chapter Nine The Hooves of Horses (4 sections, also an essay on human nature) The humaneness, righteousness, rituals and music pro- moted by the sages have spoiled human nature. The best way to pre- serve human nature is to let it alone and take no actions. Chapter Ten Break Open the Boxes (4 sections) The idealpolitics is to let people alone and take no actions because the rituals and laws laid down by the sages will do harm to the world once they are exploited by the usurpers. Chapter Eleven Let Be and Let Alone (5 sections) The ideal politics of letting people alone and taking no actions is further expounded. There should be no interference with the people’s life. Chapter Twelve The Heaven and the Earth (14 sections) The rulers should be equipped with a high morality. They should display the essence of Tao: following the natural course of events and taking no actions. Chapter Thirteen The Natural Course of Events (9 sections) As to the relationship between the natural way and the human way, the rulers should stick to the natural way of taking no actions while the sub- jects should stick to the human way of taking actions. Chapter Fourteen The Moyements of the Heaven (7 sections) Everything in the world is growing according to the natural law. Obedi- ence to the natural laws will bring success and violation of these laws will bring ruin. Chapter Fifteen A Strained Mind (3 sections) The best way to cultivate the mind is to keep a quiet and pure mind and to follow nature in taking any action. Chapter Sixteen Cultivation of the Inborn Nature (3 sections) Ata time when the morality of the people is deteriorating, the best way to cultivate the body and the mind is to learn from the ancients, who pre- served their spirit by keeping quiet. Chapter Seventeen Autumn Floods (7 sections) The cognizance of the people is relative. Only by following nature can people attain abso- lute freedom. wowonponuy izbuenyzthe w = Chapter Eighteen Perfect Happiness (6 sections) People will attain supreme joy when they are no longer troubled by joy and sorrow, life and death. Chapter Nineteen A Thorough Understanding of Life (13 sec- tions) The key to preserve life is to cultivate the mind: to disregard life and death, to get rid of distracting thoughts, to be carefree and to follow the natural law. Chapter Twenty A Mountain Tree (9 sections)The best way to escape from disaster in a disorderly society is to be devoid of any desires and to follow the natural course of events. Chapter Twenty-one Tian Zifang (1| sections) The hypocrisy of the Confucian school is exposed while the pure and simple nature of the Taoist school is lauded. Chapter Twenty-two Knowledge Travels North (1! sections, an essay on ontology) Tao is the creator and master of all things in the world. As Tao is empty, the best way to embody Tao is to rermain silent and passive, Miscellaneous Chapters Chapter Twenty-three Gengsang Chu (12 sections) The key to become well versed in Tao is to preserve the natural state of things be- cause the core of Tao is its “nothingness”. Chapter Twenty-four Xu Wugui (14 sections) Only by resolving, all the dilemmas and puzzles can people keep a quiet mind and do nothing, following the natural course of events. Chapter Twenty-five Peng Zeyang (11 sections) Ali things in the world are generated from Tao. All the disputes are meaningless. Only by returning to the natural state can any one hope to enlighten on other people.Chapter Twenty-six External Things (13 sections) External things should not be gained by force. Obedience to nature alone will bring success. Chapter Twenty-seven Fables (7 sections) The ways of writing are explained, The ways and means of learning Tao are also explained. Chapter Twenty-eight Declining the Throne (14 sections ) Profits are to be neglected as life is the only important thing. People should follow Tao and lead a decent life even when they are poor. Chapter Twenty-nine Zhi the Robber (3 sections) The moral codes and utilitarianism of the Confucians are criticized. The best way to attain longevity is to conform to nature. Chapter Thirty Persuasion with Swordplay (1 section) Zhuangzi persuaded the Duke of Zhao into stopping the swordplay. The rulers should put the world in the first place and govern it by taking no action. Chapter Thirty-one The Fisherman (1 section) People should preserve their lives by returning to the natural state. The Confucian prac- tice of rituals, music and ordering is criticized. Chapter Thirty-two Liezi (12 sections) The best way to become well versed in Tao is to keep a quiet and empty mind and to follow the natural course of events. Chapter Thirty-three Under the Heaven (7 sections, an essay on the development of various schools of thought)Zhuangzi’s school of thought is the best one, compared with other schools of thoughts. Til English Editions of Zhuangzi (1) Complete Translations The book Zhuangzi began to be circulated in the Chinese-language izbuenyz . x 8 8 8we tf | ' countries many centuries ago. For example, it was brought to Japan as early as the Sth century, according to the Japanese historical records English editions, however, appeared as late as the end of the 19th cen- tury. Balfour’s Translation The first complete English edition of Zhuangzi by Frederic Henry Balfour was published in Shanghai and London in 1881, under the title The Divine Classic of Nan-hua, Being the Works of Chuang Tsze, Taoist Philosopher. As it has been out of print for many years and we have not read it, we can hardly make any concrete comments on it. However, according to Herbert A. Giles, “the knowledge of the Chinese language possessed by the translator was alto- gether too elementary to justify such an attempt”. One example is that in “Gengsang Chu” there occurs a short sentence which means “A crimi- nal whose feet have been amputated disregards the rules and regulations because he no Jonger cares about blame or praise.” Mr Balfour trans- lated this as follows:“Servants will tear up a portrait, not liking to be confronted with its beauties and its defects.” For all its misinterpreta- tions, this translation is the first complete English edition of Zhuangzi, heralding all the later translations (including James Legge’s translation). Giles’ Translation Herbert A. Giles (1845—-1935) came to China in 1867 and served as interpreter, vice-consul and consul in several consu- lates. In 1896, he succeeded Thomas A. Wade as the professor of Sinology in Cambridge University in Great Britain. He was well versed in Chinese literature. His A History of Chinese Literature (1901) and Gems of Chinese Literature ( Verse ) (1926) was highly acclaimed by the reading public. His translation Chuang Tzu: Mystic, Moralist, and Social Re-former was originally published by B. Quaritch Publishing Company and its second edition appeared in 1926 under the title Chuang Tzu: Taoist Philosopher and Chinese Mystic. His translation of Zhuangzi is done with Victorian English, somewhat different from contemporary English. Moreover, this translation is not universally acclaimed as it is not so accurately done, not up to par with his translation of the Chinese poems. The public opinion is that there is too much subjective element in the translation that it in some cases deviates from the original idea. This trans/ation is thus not as popular as the trans- lation done by James Legge. In accordance with the Chinese classics, there are numerous annota- tions and comments in his English rendering, instead of putting them at the end of the page or at the end of the chapter. This is one of the char- acteristics of his translation. For example, at the end of the passage after Zhuangzi’s dream as a butterfly in “On the Uniformity of All Things,” Giles made the comment that “showing how one may appear to be either of the two”. Besides, in front of the main text there is a thesis written by Aubrey Moore on the philosophy of Chapters |—7. In this thesis, Aubrey Moore’s comment on Zhuangzi’s philosophy and his comparison with Heracleitus and other Greek philosophers can still be used as useful refer- ence. Legge’s Translation James Legge (1814—1897), another famous Sinologist in Great Britain, was a missionary from the London Commis- sion. From 1876, he held the chair in Chinese language and literature at Oxford for 20 years until his death. He was an expert in ancient Chinese classics, from which he translated the four Confucian books, the five classics, Tao Te Ching, Zhuangzi, Zuozhuan, and The Songs of Chu WOHONPOAU wy izbuenyzthe it Sis et natal 72 into English. His The Writings of Kwang-tsze, part of The Tests of Tao- ism in Volume XXXIX and Volume XV of The Sacred Books of the East, is an authentic English rendering of the book. Later translators of this book have all constantly referred to it. As a scholastic translator, he did not start to do the translation until he had made profound studies of the Taoist ideology. He began to translate the Taoist classics in 1879, finished the first manuscript in | 887 and sent it into press in 1891. The Tests of Taoism contains a preface, a lengthy introduction, brief notices of the different books, detailed annotations, eight appendixes and an index of proper terms, over 140 pages in all. These materials serve as valuable reference for the western students of Taoism and for later translators. James Legge’s translation is a faithful rendering of the original, with many annotations where necessary. This is nearly a literal translation without much literary flavour. Ware’s Translation The first complete English translation of Zhuangzi in the 20th century is done by James R. Ware, under the title The Sayings of Chuang Chou, published by New American Library [Mentor] in 1963. The Confucian Publishing Co. in Taiwan published a bilingual edition with the Chinese and English texts and a modern Chinese rendering. Up to the end of 1994, this is the only complete translation available in the bookshops in Taiwan. Burton Watson’s comments on this translation are by no means favourable: “Professor Ware’s translation is marked by the peculiar ter- minology and unconventional interpretations characteristic of his other translations from early Chinese philosophy—e.g., he describes Chuang Tzu as a member of the ‘progressive, dynamic wing of Confucianism’— and for this reason, and because it lacks notes or adequate introductorymaterial, is of questionable value.” There is something in what Watson writes about him, but the translation in the whole is satisfactory. Watson’s Translation Another complete English translation which was published in the 1960 was done by Burton Watson, who was teach- ing in Columbia University in the United States. His translations include Basic Writings of Chuang Tzu, Han Fei Tzu, Mo Tzu and Hsur Tzu, and The Columbia Book of Chinese Poetry. On the basis of Chuang Tzu: Basic Writings (1964), he published The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu in the Columbia University Press in 1968. This has been regarded as one of the best translations of Zhuangzi in the English language. For the modern readers, the Victorian English used by Herbert A. Giles and James Legge sounds out-dated. Burton Watson, however, used fluent contem- porary English, occasionally with colloquialisms and even slangs. In cer- tain cases, he used words in pairs to match with the Chinese original. His translation is easy to read and easy to understand. This translation has been accepted in the Chinese Series of the Translations Collection of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Mair’s Translation The latest complete English translation was done by Victor H. Mair and published by Bantam Books in 1994 under the title Wandering on the Way. Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu, The publisher's notes at the back cover says: “Complete with an authoritative introduction on Chuang Tzu and his place in Chinese thought and history as well as a glossary of key terms and concepts, this translation by Victor Mair is destined to become the definitive edition of Zhuang Tzu’s work in our time.” reBuenyz a z 3 5 8ARE 7 This latest translation by Victor Mair does have its peculiar features. In his endeavors to reflect the overall poetic quality of the book in his translation, he renders the poetic portions of the text as verse in English. The following is an excerpt from “Essentials for Keeping a Good Health”: “Our lives are limited, But knowledge is limitless. To pursue the limitess With the limited Is dangerous.” Personal names and titles in the book have often been translated ac- cording to their meanings as in the English allegories: e.g., in “Essentials for Keeping a Good Health,” the name Gongwen Xuan is rendered as “His Honor Decorated Chariot”; even the name Lao Dan (Laozi) is rendered as “Old Longears” (Old Master). Agree or not, this is indeed one of the peculiarities of this translation. Furthermore, the glossary at the end of his book, divided into three parts: names, places and terms, is of special interest. All the entries con- tain concise (sometimes detailed) explanations. This special feature is very useful to the readers. (I) Selected Translations Graham’s Translation Chuang-tzu: The Seven Inner Chapters and Other Writings from the Book Chuang-tzu by A. C. Graham, pub- lished in 198] by George Allen & Unwin, is the most comprehensive of the selected translations of Zhuangzi. He does not do a complete sen- tence-by-sentence translation because Zhuangzi was not written by one person and there are cases in which Zhuangzi is inconsistent in ideologyand style. Therefore, “the more of the book we are translating the less of it will be conveyed”. Therefore, except for the inner chapters and a couple more chapters which are translated entirely, extracts are selected from each chapter and grouped by topic. His rearrangement of the material creates in a sense Graham's version of the complete works of Zhuangzi. Feng and English’s Translation Chuang Zoo: Inner Chapters, published in 1974 by Vantage Books, a division of Random House Inc., was jointly translated by Gia-fu Feng and Jane English, who had trans- lated Tao Te Ching into English in 1972. Both of these translations have been quite popular. They have exactly the same design: with the English text plus a picture on one page and with the Chinese test plus a picture on the other. This edition has no lengthy introductory material, no annota- tions or indexes. Its simple English and beautiful design have attracted the common readers. This book, available even in non-academic bookshops, has been most helpful in bringing Zhwangzi to the western readers. Fung’s Translation The English translation of the Zhuang-tzu by Professor Fung Yu-lan was first published in 1931 by the Commercial Press. It was reprinted in 1989 by Foreign Languages Press. This is the only English rendering which is available in the PRC. One feature of this translation is that it contains commentaries by Guo Xiang in the Jin Dy- nasty and an exposition of the philosophy of Guo Xiang. From the view- point of a philosopher, Mr Fung Yu-lan translated Zauangzi and expounded Zhuangzi’s philosophy, with many personal view in the introduction and appendices. In this respect, this simple and clear translation also embod- ies the fruits of the labours of the Qing scholars. weyonposuy | | izbuenyzthe = ah Cleary ’s Translation In The Essential Tao published in 1991 by Harper San Francisco, a division of Harper Collins Publishers, Thomas Cleary translated the entire Tao Te Ching and the inner chapters of Zhuangzi. His rendering is fluent but not very faithful to the original, His thesis On the Historical Background of Taoism, Tao Te Ching, and Chuang-tzu gives an introduction to the growth of the Taoist school and the background of these two books. His notes to these two books are useful reference to the readers. Chan’s Translation In A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy published in 1963 by Princeton University Press, Wing-tsit Chan trans- lated fragments from Zhuangzi. He has chosen to translate the material himself instead of using existing material for three reasons: first, to achieve consistency in translation; second, to absorb the latest results in researches; third, to achieve consistency in philosophical terms. On the whole, his translation is readable. Aside from the above-mentioned complete translations and selected translations, there are other fragmentary translations of Zhuangzi. For example, there are excerpts translated by Arthur Waley in Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China (1939) and excerpts translated by Lin Yutang in The Wisdom of Laotse (1948) to illustrate Laozi’s views. These translations with their special features are worthy references, too. Wis- dom of the Taoist Masters: The Works of Lao Zi, Lie Zi, Zhuang Zi, on the other hand, is translated from French by Derek Bryce. There are also “imitations” of passages in Zhuangzi prepared on the basis of exist- ing translations in Western languages. One example is The Way of Zhuang Zi by a poet Thomas Merton, published in 1965 by New Directions Pub-