5.4 Electrothermal 7 5.1.1 Resistojet In a resistojet, propellant flows through a heat exchanger connected to an electric resistive heater element (see Fig. 5.2). The heated fuel is then expelled through nozzle. This very simple and low complex propulsion system can be operated with a variety of propellants such as gases (hydrogen, CO,, nitrogen,...) or liquids (hydrazine, ammonia,...) and even waste water available on space stations for manned spacecraft. The maximum temperature is limited by the melting temperature of the heat exchanger material such as Tungsten. Typical operating temperatures are in the order of up to 3000K. This gives a specific impulse of 300s for hydrazine. Although this is below optimal performing chemical propulsion systems (H)-Op with /y of 450s), itis well above secondary propulsion systems like monopropellant or cold gas thrusters (J. of around 80's as we will see in a later chapter, With up to a Newton of thrust, the power consumption of a resistojet is only around a Kilowatt at efficiencies of 80%. This can be even improved by using regenerative cooling instead of radiation cooling to pre-heat the propellant. Resistojets are well developed thrusters (as an example see commercial Resistojets from General Power Supply Fig. 5.2. Resistojet concept Fig. 5.3. Me-5018 electrothermal nydrazine thruster (EHT) Resistojet (Courtesy of General Dynamics-OTS, Space Propulsion Systems)78 5 Electric Propulsion systems Arcjet concept cs in Fig. 53) and have been used extensively e.g. on the Iridium satellites, -based mobile phone constellation in the late 1990's). 5.1.2 Arciet In order to achieve higher specific impulses, an arc discharge is used to heat the propellant. The propellant is swirled into a rod-shaped cathode and laminar column anode configuration (see Fig. 5.4). The discharge is either generated by applying a Jow DC voltage (100 Volt) and high current (hundreds of Ampére) or by a high- frequency high voltage field. Also microwave and AC discharges (with the problem ‘of optimizing the electrodes since the discharge oscillates between anode and cathode) have been applied to arcjet thrusters. Temperatures in the order of 30,000-50,000 K are achieved in the center line which fully ionizes the propellant, ‘The heat is transmitted through conductivity and radiation down to the nozzle walls, causing a strong temperature gradient to avoid the melting of the nozzle material Swirling of the propellant and the column shape of the anode increases the time of ‘expose to the arc and therefore improves performance. The very high local heat causes thermal losses towards the electrodes so that the overall efficiency is much lower than resistojets at 35%. Electrode erosion limits lifetime to a typical 1,500 hours of operation ‘A variety of propellants can be used depending on specific heat, thermal conductivity and corrosiveness of the thruster materials. Hydrazine (see Fig. 5.5), Hydrogen (highest specific impulse due to lowest molecular weight) or Ammonia are typical choices, Arcjets are well developed and already in operation on a variety of satellites (.g., on Lookheed Martin Series 7000 Comsat). High power arcjets (up to 100KW) are presently under investigation in the United States for high Av missions such as a manned Mars spacecraft. 5.1.3 Solar/laser/Microwave Thermal Propulsion ‘A subject that ranges between electric propulsion and beamed energy propulsion is solar/laser/microwave thermal propulsion, which shall be mentioned here. Of course, the propellant can also be heated with an external source of energy such