414 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 7,1 INTRODUCTION In the previous chapters mass, stiffness and damping of vibrating systems were assumed to be acting only at certain discrete points. (It was assumed that shafts, rotors and springs had no mags and stiffness, though practically they had. It was an ideal approach to analyse the vibra systems). There are systems such as beams, cables, rods, etc., which have their mass and elasticity distributed continuously throughout the length. Such systems are known as continuous systems, Since such systems are supposed to be made of infinite number oi particles, so they have infinite number of degrees of freedom and hence infinite natural frequencies of the system. The vibrat motions of such systems are described by Space and time and partial differential equations are formulated for analysis of the systems. Partial differential equations consist of many constants which can be determined from boundary conditions and initial conditions as well. Thus the problems are boundary value based. In this ch having homogeneous and isotropic material apter, we study only bodies of uniform cross-section Boundary Conditions The value of unknown constants in the partial diffe applying either geometric or natural or both bound are caused because of geometric compatibility. F displacement and slope will be zero, tential equations can be determined by lary conditions. Geometric boundary conditions or example, if the bar is fixed at both ends, the Natural boundary conditions are caused due to force and moments. For example, if the bar is hinged at one end, the bending moment at the hinged end will be zero and eo on so forth, Initial conditions are related toytime 7.2. LATERAL ae OF A STRING sa Consider a vibrating string of mass P per unit length having transverse vibrations under tension T as shown in Fig. 7.1. It is assumed that for a very small amplitude of string vibration the tension T remains constant throughout. For very small displacements, tan 0, = oy tan 0, ‘String in lateral vibration and Fig. 7.1 stad)—— the tension along y-axis solving : (2 aoe as) -Tsind, a ii r(o, + ax) - 1, =pax ot (substituting ‘2 2) (7.22) Assuming a” (72.3) This is one-dimensional wave equation for lateral vibrations of string. _Stiton of Wave Equation The lateral deflection y along, the string is a function of the variables x and #. So it can be as 4 y=y(%t) aoe eae) Equation (7.2.3) has four arbitrary constants, it can be solved by boundary and initial conditions. ec, Letus assume the harmonic mode of vibration as the system is undamped. Thus solution of 723) can be writ, len as . u(x, t)= X(T) wn(7.2.5) Stbstituting the above solution in Eqn. (7.2.3) (72.6)416 | MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS In this equation L.H‘S. is a function of x alone and RH.S. a function of t alone. So we Pe equal to some constant - p?. @x (py et ,( = |x=0 dx? a ios aT , Ty? 20 and at The solutions of the above two equations are xen Acm{ PJs ada{ Ps (227) T(t) = C cos pt + Dsin pt The general solution can be written as ye=> [4 oos( B \x+ B, sn z ).] [Cy 608 pt + D, sin pt] rag) n=l a In this equation p is the fre A,B,C, and D,, in the above equa conditions, e.g, quency of vibration. The values of arbitrary parameter tion can be determined by assuming boundary and init @ Boundary conditions. Let us assume the string is fixed at both ends, ie,, ¥(0,t)=0 and y(I,t)=0 23) © Initial conditions. Assuming the initial displacement and velocity as : at t=0, y(x,0)=5(x) att=0, 9(x,0)=V(x) (72.10) Making use of Eqns, (7.2.9) and (7.2.10) in Eqn. (7.2.8) (Using boundary conditions) ¥(0,t)= A,(C, cos pt + D,, sin pt) gives A,=0 y(L,t)=B, sin Phe, cos pt + D, sin pt) @ If B, #0 which gives ’ snl e ie sin nx=0 (7.2.11) a This equation is called Frequency Equation, Pe tenn a : 1) _ nna ae nat (#9— 5 2 ae 1 CONTINUOUS sysTeMs | 417 a a Dae l so eneno) Poop Ap ea 72.12) Normal mode shape can be written as X(x)= sin ae 021,2,3.00 (72.13) gachneprosentsamode of vibration eg, form =1first mode, n =2 second mode and so on. uation (72.8) can be written as yx t= > sin Cn cos pt + D,, sin pt) 7-214) the values of constants C, and D, can ‘be determined from initial conditions i.e, ent is (x) at t =0 and velocity is V(x) at t=0. diglacer Applying intial conditions for above equation sx)=D Cy sin 7.2.15) fa ad Vix)= Y Pn Dy sin su(7-2.16) mad Equations (7.2.15) and (7.2.16) each are multiplied by sin a m=1, 2,3... and integrated from x =0 to I. 1 ; Thus {sco sin EE a= fc, (sin sin BFE de 0 0 sin e and sin a are orthogonal functions and the value of above integral will be zero cept when m=n Putting m=n for non-zero value of C,, we get 1 S(x)sin ™™* dx= Cy sin? TF de ° 1 six) ein avec, (ie wet) de senpsin dec, [3(2 cos ST ' - y=? fsaysin (2212) ‘ ree Imilarly, considering Eqn. (7.2.16) 1 1 JV eysin a dv= Py , sin sin 2 dx ° 0 a418] MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS For non-zero value of D,, putting m=n 1 JVG)sin ™ ax =p, D, J sin? up de if 0 1 D, =2 Fux) sin ™ ae eae ay L 7.3 LONGITUDINAL VIBRATIONS OF BARS Let us consider thin and uniform bar for longitudinal vibrations as shown in Fj subjected to axial forces. An element dx of the bar is considered here for analy: If wis displacement at a distance x from left and it becomes 4+ 54 a dx at a distance “ae ax a x+dx. It is clear that the element dr has changed its position by an amount 2 4g. 72. The barig sis, (u+ Haru) =O ty ax ax So strain of the element is given by aad eee. du dx éx | Fig. 7.2 (7.3.1) Let A= cross-sectional area of the bar P= density of the material E= modulus of elasticity of the material F = force acting axially on the bar Net force acting on the element 2 (F +E ar) ~ F =(mass) x (acceleration of the element) = dmx 2° a 2 oF eu (732) 5 dx =(p dx A)| 24 pe ape ($2) We know that £ =0, where o is the stress, so 039); CONTINUOUS SysTeMs | 419 sation 732) on be writen withthe help of above equation as 60 a eu ( és) dx A=(p dx a(S) (734) According to Hooke's law oo de 82) dx A=[ SE (2) x (s)e AE A735) With the help of Eqns. (7.3.4) and (7.3.5), 2, We have (22) dx AE=p dx (4) ox ot Bes. eu p ox af @ (eu)_ au ou =|2(S |= 2 from 73. 5 ie Nes 4? ox 1) ze -2u al at? ou 1 ew (73.6) Ox’ pera or? . zy where a? = E/p i . This is the wave equation which is identical to Eqn. (7.2.3). ‘The general solution will be same ‘in the previous case of lateral vibrations. A solution of the form as in Eqn. (7.2.5) u(x, t)=X(x)T(H) So X(x)=Asin + Boos, T(t)=Csin pt + Doos rt a a Will result into the general solution as bate Easinbas Boosts x}(€smpt+ Doos (737)420 | MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 7.4 TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF A UNIFORM SHAFT ‘An element of length dx of uniform shaft is put to torsional vibrations and it is assumed thatthe distortion of the shaft is very small. Refer Fig. 7.3 Let = twist at a distance x from left side due to a moment, T e+ 2 dx = twist at a distance x + dx from " left side due to a moment T+ 2 dx Ox st dx bh G=modulus of rigidity of material, = density (mass/volume) of the material ] = polar second moment of inertia Fig. 7.3 I= mass moment of inertia. According to Newton’s second law of rotation, T=I.a (inertia x angular acceleration) Net torque can be written as (t+ ax)-r= or 20; at? or ao oT gy = 48 (A) eae ge From Strength of Materials, we know that ao a9 Tic® ow rag ie ie So FT ay = Gy & (742) ax ox From Eqns. (7.4.1) and (7.4.2), we get a (a0 52) x \dx = 74) For a shaft of constant cross section GJ is constant, and za J 32 1=2d‘ pdx a"where a? = G/P This is wave equation identical to Eqns. (7.2.3) and (7.3.6) ‘The general solution of Eqn. (7.45) can be written as a a A 7.5 TRANSVERSE VIBRATION OF BEAMS as Fuler-Bernoulli beam. Only the thin beams are treated under it. The differential equation for transverse vibration of thin uniform beam is obtained with the help of strength of materials. The beam has | qross-sectional area A, flexural rigidity EI and density of material p. Element dx of beam is subjected to shear force Qand bending moment M. [| — * ay While deriving mathematical expression for 0 axial forces acting on the beam and effects of © Shear deflection are neglected. The deformation of _ beamis assumed due to moment and shear force. Fe Net forces acting on the element 0-(0+20 dx) = dn, aceeration : Ox Considering the moments about A, we get M-(m+ Mar) (0+ 2 ax)ae=0 -M 494 2ar=0 ox ax a ee putting the values of I and J from the above equation in Eqn. (7.4.3), we get oD {Asin 2% 4 Boos ? *)icain pat + Dos p,t) M dx y transverse vibrations it is assumed that there are x (745) (7.4.8) Ifthe cross-sectional dimensionals of beam are small compared to its length, the system is known (dss e+ Bas (7.5.1)422| MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS Coe So Q=M higher order derivatives are neglected (3 7 x =0 Ox or 2Q_ aM (752) ex ax? From the above two Eqns. (7.5.1) and (7.5.2), we get aM_ oy ine ae Ae Cas We know from beam theory that 2 Ma-e1 24 ax 2M oty eS ey 754) Comparing Eqns. (7.53) and (7.5.4), we get only Broa tPACL <0 . ay ,(pA) ay ax “era =? ol. xt lsat (755) This is the general equation for transverse v ‘bration which is different from wave. ‘equation. Let us assume the solution of the form ¥=y(x) sin (ot + 6) (758) where (x) is the shape of the beam for the Principal mode of vibrations. Equation (7.55) can be written with the help of the above equation as (OPK r-ey=0 A157) where cf PA EI This is fourth-order differential “quation. To find its solution, let us assume e he ye dty So aa we Equation (7.5.7) can be written as Med _ edx 9 Meo 758) A+ 9Q-Q 0? +2) <9M2 ete gg =tic where i=J-1 1 e* = cosh cx + sinh cx ; & * =cosh ex - sinh cx | e = cos cx + isin cr; ile Le mab 0 the solution of the differential equation can be written as y=4 (cosh cx + sinh cx) + cp (cosh cx ~ sinh ex) + ¢,(cos ex + i sin cx) + ¢4(cos ox ~i sin cx) =(c, +) cosh cx + (¢, ~¢,) sinh cx + (c3 + cy) cos cx +(c, ~c,) isin cx yest) =Acosh ex + Bsinh cx + C cos ox + Dsin ex (75.9) ph d=g #62 B=6 ~&2/ C=C + 64 and D=i(cy ~c,) where A, B, Cand D are constants and their ys can be determined from boundary conditions. 16 EFFECTS OF SHEAR DEFORMATION AND ROTARY INERTIA Thebeams having large cross-sections are treated under thick beam theory and the effects of shear elomation and rotary inertia are taken into account. It is sometimes known as Timoshenko beam. We know that the frequency of a system depends upon its mass and stiffness as o-[E 5 m By the inclusion of shear deformation and rotary inertia, the mass of the system increases and so the natural frequency of the system decreases. Rectangular ‘Normal to. Ae the face CB ar Parallelogram —} : Tangent 0 the oe dy centre line a Foe NN od SAW eat eer {hy 25 Anelement dx of the beam shown in Fig. 75 is discussed for analysis, The slope of the centre ¥ rotation of the beam. ix eat the beam is AY which means the rotary inertia effect is duo this ix Under the action of shear force Q and bending moment M the beam element dx is deformed. If force is neglected, OU will coincide with OV, where OV is normal to the face CB and OU 10 the deformed centre line of the beam element dr, If the effects of shear force Q are424 | wecuanicat VIBRATIONS —— ind the tangent to is known as shea i i i ill become a parallelogram ai included in the analysis the rectangular element wil : j the deformed centre line of the beam OU will make angle B with OV. This angle p ; it angle. Due to shear force deformation takes place without the pation of the face. If 0 ig the slope . s 2 ‘ due to bending, so net slope due to shear force is (6 a 4) because “is the slope due to bending and shear. rr So 0-5 (hear ange According to elastic equations : (764) 4B _M dx EI (762) From the above equations #) = kac{ 0-% Q ( ae (763) 2 and M= E148. ¢)/40_@°y dx dx dx? where G is the shear modulus and K shape factor of the cross-section. Considering the forces in y-direction, we get 2-(0+ 2a) a2 Y a 20 oy Rapa dy ax Pa Using Eqn. (7.63) in the above e. - rac (® =] aly equation, we get Seay) (764) is at? Taking moments about point E, we have Ox Gx? eM 2Q eo M eax) M-( 2 ) pte ( + Mas Q+ Dar) ade ot ax 2 2 is) M tx Qde=pt dx 2 0 ( NewlstingCONTINUOUS SYSTEMS | 425 eo aM ~Qdx=pl dx — oa seis moment of inertia and ps density. Making use of Eqn. (7:63) in the above equation, we st A is Bree kaclo S| (7.65) ox? ox We can eliminate 6 from Eqns. (7.6.4) and (7.6.5) to obtain Bar ( & ) ov ploy Mi} 1+ ’ =0 (7.6.6) UT KG) ater? * KG ae! It is the general beam equation taking into account the effects of shear deformation and rotary inertia. Boundary conditions : (Fre ont: kag (% \- (ii) Fixed end : 0 =y =0 ex (iii) Simply supported y = EI = =0 x Solved Examples Example 7.1 Deffoe the frequency equation of longitudinal vibrations for a free-free beam with zero initial displacement. (P.T.U., 2010) Solution. The general solution for longitudinal vibration can be written as wos)={ Asin Pn x + Beos x}(csin Pat + Dcos p,t) a a where a=JE/p and p, = natural frequencies Boundary conditions are : (2) =0 (Strains zero at both ends) Ox) y=0 Bot! Applying the above two conditions, we get ou (as cos Pt x BPH sin (C sin p,t-+ D cos p,t) ox a a a a) p, =A*(C t+D f (% Bae Ac. (Can nyitt Deve rat) —— —s426 | MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS > A=0 (2) =~ BP» sin Pu (C sin p,t + Dcos p,t) Ox) x21 a a The values of constants C and D can be determined from initial conditions (Eqns. 7.2.17 and 7.2.18) So sin? }-0=sinng a Py = ari n=1,2,3.... We know that Py=2nf, => nf, cara E Natural frequen. =2 quency —f, 2 Ne where n represents the order of the mode. ERE eT as. F Example 72) Derive suitable expression for longitudinal vibrations for a rectangular uniform cross-section bar of length | fixed at one end and free at the other end. Solution. The general solution can be written as u(x,t) (asin Po + Boos Pn sJ(csin Pyt + Dos p,t) a a Boundary conditions are : “(yg =0 (displacement is zero at fixed end) (strain is zero at free end) Applying these conditions to the general solution, we get : B=> 0 Pace ee SPs iD, : APH cos Pu x BPh gin Pu ( 760s Pa x Pe sin Ps x)(Csin pt Dos p, t) o= AP cos Pa 1(Csinp,t Deos p,t) or cos Px 1 =0=cos ™ where n=1, 3, 5, a 2 = "na Bin ioe nf, =Pa) eat =2 [E SaaleCONTINUOUS SYSTEMS | 427 The general solution of the equation can be written as | < 3 ATX nna nna | aye sin ™(C sin ™™4 +4 D ma) | Ee) te 21 ( 2i eal 6 where t= GA re of length | fixed at one end and connected at the other end by a spring of stiffness k as shown in Fig. 7.6. Derive suitable expression of motion for longitudinal vibrations. (K.U,, 2007) ast Solution. The general expression for the bar fixed at sneend and free at the other can be written directly (as in = ample 2) Fig. 7.6 wd sin x{ Csin "Bt + Deos tt) ( where», =" J Boundary conditions are : | (p25 =0 AE E(t =k) Tensile force = spring force) | Applying the second boundary condition, we get 1 AEP cos Pe. 1(c sin Ht t+ Dos %t}=k sin Pe (csin 28 t+ D cos #1) ee. 21 21 @ 2 2 Pal _ AE Pa Br k'¢: This is the required equation. | Raza Find the natural frequencies of a bar shown in Fig. 7.7. (PT.U, 2010) Solution. The general expression for longitudinal be ‘rations is shown as ‘ Mene( Gain Bex H1cosx}(Csin pt + Deo a a Boundary conditions are : : cn (U) 9 =0 (As the bar is fixed at one end, so displacement is zero) Hye meta, 1) (Tensile force is equal to inertia force in the bar due to mass M) A= Ku(l, t) (Tensile force = spring force)A i ry condition, we get ‘lying the first boundary pplying, ie Applying the second boundary condition, we get Pn Cat x 2 sin —"1(Csin p,t+ Dos AEG" cos 2” 1(C sin p,t + D cos p,t) = MGp, a P, t) 8 AE AE tan aMp, Pn a Applying third boundary condition : AEG cos Pt 1(C sin p,t + Dcos p,t) = KG sin “* 1(Csin pyt + Dos p,t) aa AE Pu tan 1 Ka a Comparing the results of second and third boundary conditions, we get AEP, “aK Example 7.5 A bar of uniform cross-section having length | is fixed at both ends as shou in Fig. 7.8. The bar is subjected to longitudinal vibrations having a constant velocity V, at all points. Derive suitable mathe- 1 matical expression of longitudinal vibration in the bar. (P.T.U,, 2010) Solution. The general expression for governing Fig. 7.8 longitudinal vibrations can be written as Pn u(x,)=5 (sin Pe xt Hoos Bs) (c sin p,t + Dcos p,t) Boundary conditions are : Initial conditions are t u(x,0)=0 4u(x,0)=Vp Since the bar is fixed at both ends, so with the help of two boundary conditions, we get u(x, t= x. sin ™ (Cin Pat + Dcos p,t) (As H=0 from/first BC, and from second B.C. sin= CONTINUOUS ms 429 applying fist initial condition, we get Osn apy sin =. D => D=0 eer! | i} then expression is | ua,= Yo sin™.Csin p, t n=1,2,3, I applying second initial condition ix, }= YD sin ™.C p, cos pyt m=1,2,% ! i(x,0)= DY Cr, sin 2 ni, I | 1 c=-2_ [Vy sin ™ dx (Gee Eqn. 7.2.18) nna, 1 Vo c Bal (1-cos nr) | wna | So AV when 1=1,3, bi c=0 when Finally, required expression can be written as ‘4Vilaaees u(x, n=l 1 gin BE . Wa HH1,3,5,- 7 Bnmale 76 Derioe the frequency equation of torsional vibrations fora freefree shaft of length) (P.T.U,, 2010) Selution. The general solution for equation of torsional vibration can be written as (746) 0, -[Asin Pa x4 Bcos Pe x}(csin pat + Dcos py!) Boundary conditions are 2 ,1)=0 (strains zero at both ends) oo 0 (1, t)= ox Bot ~~