Q.1 What are the light source and wavelength employed in NPL interferometer?

And how
various wavelengths are obtained?

Ans. Light Sources for Interferometry (Metrology)

A wide variety of light sources is available for interferometry work but the selection of
proper source for any application depends on the requirements or results to be obtained by
interferometer, cost and convenience. For simple applications like testing of
surface.geom.etry,
where the difference between interfering paths is of the order of a few wavelengths only, a
tungsten lamp with a filter, transmitting only a narrow band of wavelength would be
adequate.
However, sophisticated applications require the use of light sources such as mercury
198, cadmium, krypton, krypton 86, thallium, sodium, helium, neon and gas lasers. In these
sources, the discharge lamp is charged with one particular element and contains means to
vaporise them. The atoms of these elements are excited electrically so that they emit radiation
at certain discrete wavelengths.
Characteristics of various light source are summarised below :
(i) Mercury. It is less expensive source having high intensity, and green line can be
easily isolated with filters. Since natural mercury contains several isotopes, each isotopes
emits light whose wavelength is very slightly different from each other. As a result, natural

Fig. 6.4. Interference of two rays.

mercury light source radiates a mixture of wavelengths which can be treated as
monochromatic
only for short path difference.
(ii) Mercury 198. It is a pure isotope produced by neutron bombardment of gold. It is
considered to be one of the best sources of very sharply defined wavelengths, and fringes are
visible with path difference upto 500 mm. Light is emitted when mercury 198 is excited by
microwave produced electric field. It is the international secondary standard of wavelength.
(Hi) Cadmium. This is the only natural material producing a spectral line (red) almost
completely symmetrical, having useful path difference of about 200 mm. Cadmium 114 is the
official secondary international standard of length.
(iv) Krypton. It has the advantage of being easily excited, so used in some instruments.
It is not as monochromatic as krypton 86 because natural krypton is a mixture of isotopes. It
can be used upto path difference of 375 mm.
(v) Krypton 86. Krypton 86 lamp produces spectral lines of different wavelengths and,
therefore, a fairly elaborate monochromator is required to separate them. Further its
excitation
takes place at very-very low temperatures, therefore, this lamp is used only in standardising
laboratories. Next to laser, this enables the fringes to be observed with maximum path
difference (about 800 mm.)
The orange-red line of krypton 86 isotope, produced under specified conditions, and at
a temperature of 63.3°K (temperature of nitrogen triple point), is the new basic international
standard of length-metre being defined as exactly 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of this source,
measured in vacuum.
(vi) Thallium. As 95% of its light is emitted at one green wavelength, it can be used over
a reasonable path difference without the use of any filter.
(vii) Sodium. It is used only in applications where interference path difference does not
exceed a few hundred wavelengths. Usually yellow sodium light is used which contains two
separate but closely spaced lines of equal intensity: and because of this the interference
fringes
wash out for higher path difference.
(viii) Helium. Orange line of helium is used where path difference is not great.
(ix) Neon. As conventional neon lamp has too many closely spaced lines (in red part of
the spectrum) and not sharply defined, it does not find many applications. Neon in gas laser,
however, has assumed a uniquely important role.
(x) Gas lasers. In metrology work gas lasers which produce highly monochromatic and
intense light (1000 times more intense than others) are used to great advantage, enabling
interference fringes to be observed with enormous path differences, upto 100 million
wavelengths. (It may be noted that high-power, intermittently operating ruby laser is not of
interest in metrology). Gas lasers are produced by exciting (by an electric discharge or a
high-frequency field) a mixture of neon and helium stotred in a special discharge tube, and
located inside a high efficiency Fabry-Perot etalon or a modified version of it. The
wavelength
at any given instant covers an extremely short portion of the spectrum, i.e., highly
monochromatic.
It has some limitations like high cost; bigger size; wavelength affected by temperature
and vibration; special optics required to spread the very small diameter ray having high
degree
of collimation over a larger area suitable for most instruments. Since the laser contains only
a single wavelength, it can’t be used for the Pitter-NPL gauge interferometer whose working
for measuring length of gauge is based on 3 or 4 different wavelengths. However, it is best
suited for length interferometry where fringes are counted, i.e. for fringe counting inter-
ferometers. (Refer A.C. laser interferometer described later in this chapter.)
Details, of various wavelengths of cadmium and mercury in standard air i.e. air at 20°C,
760 mm mercury barometric pressure, 10 mm vapour pressure and containing 0.03% of CO
by
volume, are as given below:

Source of Wavelength No. of half wave

Radiation (\un) = 0.001 mm lengths per mm
Cadmium
Red 0.64485037 3106.31180
Green 0.50858483 3932.48064
Blue 0.47999360 4166.72222
Violet 0.46781743 4275.17205
Mercury-198 (for a cold cathode lamp)
Yellow I 0.57006642 3455.81733
Yellow II 0.57696298 3466.42691
Green 0.54607826 3662.47871
Violet 0.43583611 4588.88090
Q.2 What is the fundamental difference in length and flatness interferometer?

Ans. In Flatness interferometer we use optical flats.

Q.3 Explain the difference between straightness and flatness.

Ans.

Straightness: It is the characteristic of a line where all the elements of a line are colinear. In
general, there could be two lines, within which, all the points on a line lie.

Flatness: It is defined as minimum distance between two planes within which all the points
on a surface lie. A surface along which all the points lie along single plane is called as
perfectly flat surface.

Q.4 Explain the difference between line standard and end standard.

Ans. Line Standard:

1. When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two lines, this is
known as line standard.

2. A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range of dimension.

3. Line standards are not as accurate as end standards and cannot be used for close tolerance
measurement.

4. A steel scale can be read to about ± 0.2 mm of true value.

5. The scale graduations are not subject to wear although significance wear on leading end
leads to undersizing.

6. Scales are subjected to parallax error of reading. They may be positive or negative reading.

7. Errors due to inaccuracy of graduations engraved on the scale are possible.

8. A scale does not provide a “built in” measuring datum.

End Standards:

1. When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two surfaces or
ends, this is known as end standard.

2. They are time consuming to use and prove only one dimension at a time.
3. End standards are highly accurate and well- suitable to close tolerance measurement.

4. Close dimensional tolerance as small as 0.0005 mm can be obtained.

5. They are subjected to wear on their measuring faces. Also wringing of slip gauges leads to
damage.

6. The parallax error is not associated with such type of measurement because the distance is
measured between two flat surfaces.

7. Such errors are not possible with end standards.

Q. 5 Explain the working of electrical comparators.

Ans. Electrical Comparators:

An Electrical comparator employs electrical means to get the magnification. In this

comparator the movement of the measuring contact plunger is converted into an electrical
signal.

The electrical signal is recorded by an instrument which can be calibrated in terms of plunger
movement.

Construction:

An electrical comparator consists of four basic units.

(i) Measuring Probe (Plunger):

This is in direct contact of the component being checked.

(ii) Amplifier and Indicating Unit:

Amplifier boost up the electrical signals obtained and gives to indicating unit. Indicating unit
indicates the variation of dimensions if any by movement of pointer on a calibrated scale.
(iii) Power Unit:

Power unit gives the power to the wheat-stone bridge to balance it while setting the pointer to
zero with respected to standard component.

(iv) Base and Standard Unit:

These provide hold and support to all the other units. Other than four basic units, a spring is
provided to control the contact pressure. A thin flexible steel strip also provided as shown in
Figure. 1.13 (a).

Working Principle:

The principle of operation of an electrical comparator is shown in Fig. 1.13 (a) an armature
supported on thin flexible steel strip is suspended between two coils C and C. When the
distance of the armature from two coils is equal, the Wheatstone bridge is balanced and no
current flows through the galvanometer.

Little movement of the measuring plunger unbalances the bridge resulting in the flow of
current through the galvanometer. Galvanometer scale is calibrated to give the movements of
the plunger.

Magnification:

Electrical comparators are available to read up to 0.0001mm with magnification ranging

between 1100-18,000. Some most sensitive electrical comparators available with
magnification of 40,000 or higher.