Study Guide and Solutions Manual for Organic Chemistry SIXTH EDITION Neil E. Schore Gnivenity of Gitferaa Davin iz = W. H. Freeman and Company New YorkISBN 8 ISBN ‘ Al Prin A k, NY XS.Contents Preface General Introduction Chapter 1 Structure and Bonding in Organic Molecules Solutions to Problems Chapter 2 Structure and Reactivity: Acids and Bases, Polar and Nonpola Solutions to Problems Chapter 3 Reactions of Alkanes: Bond-Dissociation Energies, Radical Halogenation and Relative Reactivity Solutions to Problems Chapter 4 Cycloalkones Solutions to Problems Chapter 5 Stereoisomers Solutions fo Problems Chapter 6 Properties and Reactions of Haloalkanes: Bimolecular Nucleophilic Substitution Solutions to Problems Chapter 7 Further Reactions of Haloalkanes: Unimolecular Substitution and Pathways of Elimination Solutions to Problems Chapter 8 Hydroxy Functional Group: Alcohols: Properties, Preparation, and Strategy of Synthesis Solutions to Problems 109 112 12 128 146iv © Contents Chapter 9 Further Reactions of Alcohols and the Chemistry of Ethers Solutions to Problems Chapter 10 Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy to Deduce Structure Solutions to Problems Chapter 11 Alkenes; Infrared Spectroscopy and Mass Spectrometry Solutions to Problems Chapter 12 Reactions of Alkenes Solutions to Problems Chapter 13 Alkynes: The Carbon-Carbon Triple Bond Solutions to Problems Chapter 14 Delocalized Pi Systems: Investigation by Ultraviolet ind Visible Spectroscopy Solutions to Problems Chapter 15 Benzene and Aromaticity: Electrophilic Aromatic Sub stitution Solutions to Problems Chapter 16 Electrophilic Attack on Derivatives of Benzene: Substitver ts Control Regioselectivity Solutions to Problems Chapter 17 Aldehydes and Ketones: The Carbonyl Group Solutions to Problems Chapter 18 Enols, Enolates, and the Aldol Condensation: « B-Unsaturated Aldehydes and Ketones Solutions to Problems Chapter 19 Carboxylic Acids Solutions to Problems 164 71 350 353 371 374Chapter 20 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives 386 Solutions to Problems 388 Chapter 21 Amines and Their Derivatives: Functional Groups Containing Nitrogen Solutions to Problems Chapter 22 Chemisiry of Be Substituents: Alkylber and Ben Solutions to Problems Chapter 23 Ester En the Claisen Cond Compounds; Acyl Anion Equivalents ation: Synthesis of B-Dicarbony Solutions to Problems 44 Chapter 24 Carbohydrates: Polyfunctional Compounds in Nature So to Problems Chapter 25 Heterocycles: Heteroatoms in Cyclic Organic C 47 Solutions to Problems 472 Chapter 26 Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids: Ni Polymers in Nature to Problems GlossaryPreface From One Organic Chemistry Teacher to Another I study all the time, I understand what you're saying in the lecture, and I do all the problems. So how come I got a ‘12’ on the exam?” Ouch! We've all heard this from our students, haven't we? (At least I assume I'm n only one.) Why is it that perfectly reasonable students of perfectly reasonable intelligence sometimes wind up g hopelessly buried by this course? More to the point, what, if anything, can we do about it? Clearly, i fect world, where-students have ample time to do everything they're supposed to do and know everything mn freshman chemistry, things would be better. Typically, however, that is not et their time and divide it among their courses. Because they often car studying for each course durin so far behind in their studying they fall into the “Big Tr went wrong. Well, we're the teachers, and we ought to know what's gone wror he term, they som they try to memorize everything, And then they get those “L and ow to help the students do better. My experience has taught me that two critical factors almost always contribute to these predicaments: flawed under standing of basic concepts and lack of ability to apply the concepts to new, unfamiliar situations. The first i an unsure grasp of mostly descriptive, informational material. Students must lea as th The basics can usually be mastered by serious ry learn the grammar and vocabulary of a foreign lai study. Continuing emphasis on concepts and mechanisms, including the self-consistent, functional u ri and “Keys” sections the textbook, and reemphasis in ter of relationships among topics in the “Introducti ach chapter of this study guide are intended to make this process as manageable as possible fo The second factor is the killer for teachers: how to teach struggling students to (1) sort out the concepts and pat tems relevant to a given problem and then (2) apply them in a logical way to the development of an answer. We all recognize that what we are trying to teach is not simply a body of information, but a thought process. How does on: 9 about teaching a thought process? The most successful way for me has been to lead students through a problem step-by-step, so they can experience the process, even if initially only from the outside looking in. They must be and can be dismissed immediately, and how to eval- shown the choices that need to be n uate the others. My ion of the solutions to the end-of-chapter problems in the text was precisely oal in the prepar: this: to illustrate the thot d the t process involved in getting from the problem to a reasonable answer. I've provid liberately omitted details in answers t eatest amount of detail in the earlier chapters, and I've di ome probl toward the end of the book. The learning process almost always requires siood! Students must have opportunities to carr rect experience on the students’ part. It isn’t enough for students to read an answer even if itis fully wi ‘out the mental process for themselves. Therefore in many cases I've begun an answer with a hint, asking stud: {0 go back and attempt the problem again if they had difficulty the first time, Getting started is often the hard part and this ploy at least gives serious students a second chance to make the connections required to proceed to a solu- tion. It's a technique T use in helping students during office hours, and it seems to work Pve also tried to be as rigorous and as complete as possible in the presentation of mechanisms, even to tent of showing two-electron arrows in simple proton transfer processes. This might seem excessive to some, but re: member, here we are dealing with students who may be in a position to derive clarifying insight from even the most If of points, In the en istry.” Our goal really has to be to teach students how to learn what oF insignifi we must face the fact that our job is not really {0 “teach students organic chem: nic chemistry is all about and how it works. Teaching students “how to learn” can be a difficult task. I hope the approach taken in this book is helpful in achiev. ing that end.Preface Note on the Sixth Edition The sixth edition of Organic Chemisiry includes many new problems, Additional worked-out exercises (“Worki with the Concepts”) have be ‘out “Chapter Inte, n included in each chapter. At the end of each chapter is at least one completely worked ation” problem. Finally, the end-of-chapter problem sets have been further expanded throughou the book. The emphasis in all cases is to encourage the student to develop problem-solving skills. Those of you miliar with previous editions of this Study Guide will recognize the format used for the solutions to these n lems. They are designed to lead the student to think about each problem in stages—considering possibl pache seeing where they lead, evaluating how produ al solutions in the Stud they are, and finally go the o these new solutions ar \ded to ser thoughi strate the way successful strategies may be developed. If students use this but indeed as a gi I believe that they will have more success in navigating this challenging cour Acknowledgments As always, I am indebied to many individuals who have found and helped me correct mistakes in r edi tions of the Study Guide. Professor K. Peter C. Vollhardt and his students at the University of California, Berkel and colleagues and students of mine here at the University of California, Davis, have all provided tance. Dr. Melekeht Nasiri deserves special ere: great debt of thanks a vided for this edition, lit for always being on the lookout for errors and inconsi 30 goes {0 the friendly and helpful team at W, H. Freeman and all the reviewers they've pr As usual, my personal thank: 0 out to my wife, Carrie, and my not-so-small- Puter wizard, and Stef the violin virtuoso, for let y-longer children, Mike usual mess of things with drafts and models and journals all over the place. You can all have the house back now least for a couple of years Neil E. Schore Davis, CaliforniaGeneral Introduction or Whose “Brilliant” Idea Was It for Me to Take Organic Chemistry, Anyway? Good question. What is the problem with organic chemistry that causes so many students to view the clas much anxiety? I think there are at least two good reasons: 1. Very ba stretche experiences in freshman chemistry. Even students interested in chemistry find significant of “Chem 1” to be intolerably dull 2. Comments from students who've just finished taking on, anic chemistry. For example: “You have to memorize eight hundred million reactions, and then they don’t even ask you the ones you've had in on the tests Let’s take these reasons one at a time. General chemistry is a litte like a tossed salad with many different ingre dients: a little bit of theoretical chemistry (electronic structure, bonding), physical chemistry ws, equilibri kinetics), inorganic chemistry (periodic table, descriptive chemistry of the elements, coordination compounds), or ganic chemistry (hydrocarbons, other types of compounds, nomenclature), and who knows what else. No wonder si iy students finish the first year of chemistry without the slightest trace of an overview of what they've sat through, or the faintest hint of an idea of what’s supposed to come next, The problem is that “chemistry” is a very big fiel that covers a lot of territory. It starts with atoms, but can go in many directions, and each of these can get pretty complicated. For now, all you need to know is that only a portion of what you sav in neral chemistry is necessary as background for organic chemistry. This will be the subject of the first chapter of your textbook As for the second reason people are afraid of organic chemistry, all that famous “memorizing” you have to do like most stories heard over and over again, there is truth to it. You will have to memorize a lot of organic chem istry. However, you won't have to 1 emorize eight hundred million reactions. If you try to do that, you will be lucky to pass the course even if you succeed. What you really have to memorize are some basic properties of atoms and molecules, a number of principles that describe why and how reactions tak that later can be place, and a number of reaction types generalized to include the various reactions of organic comy ounds that you will see throughout the course. From this framework you will be shown how the various details of organic chemistry are derived from some basic principles or “ground rules.” You'll be expected to learn about and really understand these ground rules, so that you can apply them in a logical way to completely new kinds of situations and come up with sensible answers Its little like learn 18454 to 79 1845? to 793! arithmetic. You all learned how to add when you were little. So if someone asked you to add * You would be able to figure out how to do it, even though it’s pretty unlikely that you've added ver befoge i youn life. This is because you are familiar with some basi —signs mean, how to dq factigns, thie general methodolog ence is that you do aridimetie in ¢ for addi g (carrying numbers and all that). The differ ementary school and organic chemistry in college, The principles, the ground2X. * Generel hrodvetion rules, and the methods of organic chemistry a 10 make use of them... quickl That is where this Study Guide enters the picture, A textbook has linear makeup page 1, and goes on in a straight line until it gets to the end. Now that might be a decent way to pr his tory, where the book could follow « calendar of events as they occur over a period of time. However, it doesn’t work quite as cleanly with chemistry. where the same basic principles operating in Chapter 2 are also c Chap. ter 12 as well as Chapter 20, In a sense, organic chemistry is three-dimensional: there is a network of inter ships between the various subtopics, derived from these basic principles, but hard to bring out clearly within the framework of a linear textbook, But it's 4 knowledge of these interrelationships that can make learning organic chem istry a much more 1 student to undertake. So, what you will find in each chapter of this S| Guide will be lationship between th sasonable job for @ ew material, what has gone before, and what will be coming up. Each chapter in will have at least the following four components: WA 2. An outline of the chapter, with brief comments on the nature and significance of each chapter sectc general introduction to the z extbook chapter as a whole in the context of previously covered materia 3. More detailed comments about those features of the chapters that are of greater the course as a whole 4. Solutions to problems at the end of the chapter, with explanations. As this book is a solutions m anual, & comment on that aspect of it is also appropriate. The book range from “drill” problems, which require ou to apply only a single new idea in a repetitive way to (0 “think” problems, w ere several ideas, new and old, have to be glance may look very dif ent from the examples presented in the textbook chapter. This cross-section of problems is intended to illustrate the thought processes involved in analy7i his kind of subject matter, and to resemble kinds of problems you might encounter in exams Try to do the problems!!! Try a couple with the textbook and your notes, to ensure that you are using accurate fundamental principles and information. Then close the book, put away your notes, and try to work the rest o ‘own. If you can't see how to do a problem at fist glance, try to analyze i features: what is involved conceptually nnd what is its con , before looking here for the answer. Then, if you're still stuck, note that in some cases yo will often find a short introductory comment in this manual be i to show you where the problem fits into the ch fore the actual answer to the problem. This is intende material and, perhaps, give you enough of a hint so that you be able to go back and work it yourself. Then the lem wrong, try to do two thing nswer wil llow, pls an explanation. Iryou pet a oe (1) understand the process for arriving at the ans\ : : was askin th ist place-—what points dvs as illustrated in this guide well enough so that you could a te and what kinds of analogies, interpolations, or extrapc ter docs it involve, If an entire class of problems gives you that follows Chapter 11 in the textbook. Ca Follow the solution stages described until you can make sense a much better position to face the kinds of problems you are refer to the Interlude on problem solvin orize the type of pr the problem. This kind of ex likely to encounter in exam will put you in Good luck!Structure and Bonding in Organic Molecules The first chapter of the text covers the basic features associated with the bonding together of atoms to mak molecules. Much of the material (at least through Section 1-8) is really a review of topics with which you may have some familiarity from freshman chemistry. In other words, it describes just those topics from freshman chemistry that are the most important to know in order to get off to a jemistry: bonds, od start in organic itals. Read the chapter, try the prob lems, read the comments below, and, if necessary, look to other supplementary sources for additional problems Lewis structures, resonance, atomic and molecular orbitals, and hybrid 0 and examples. Outline of the Chapter 1-1 Overview 1-2 Coulomb Forces The simple physical basis of bonding be atoms, Conceptually important 1-3. lonic and Covalent Bonds eview of principles involved 1-4 Lewis Structures Perhaps the most critical section of the chapter. You must learn how to draw correct Lewis structures of molecules. 1-5 Resonance Forms Applies to species for which no single Lewis picture adequately describes the true structure. 16 Atomic Orbitals Review material, 17 Molecular Orbitals Review material 1-8 Hybrid Orbitals Simplest way to understand the g in bonding cometry of molecules in the context of the atomic orbitals involved 1-9 Structures and Formulas of Organic Molecules General information section. Conventions for drawing formulas,2+ Chapter 1 STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES Keys to the Chapter 1-2 and 1-3. Coulomb Forces; Bonds “Uni attract” and “like charges repel.” These consequences of elementar and Coulomb's law are central to a basic understanding of chemistry. Not onty do they determin ‘whether, and how strc ‘an even more compli again we will retum to simple electrostatics, in the context of the properties of the individual elements, t plain the reactions of organic chemistry. Most organic molecules contain polarized covalent hands. 18 bon Of this type, one or more pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms, but because of an electronegat ference between the atoms, the bonding electrons tend to be closer to the more electronegative atom, tt 1 partial charge separation, In general, for A less electronegative than B, we have A®" : B?. See t specific examples in Section 1-3. The computer-generated electrosta sual representations of relative ch: tential maps in Secti¢ i distribution and, therefore, bond polarity: In any such map, the me in the vicinity of an om, the more partial negative charge it contains, and the more blue in its ‘more partial positive charge it bears. (Be jl not to compare colors from different maps, however. Th ‘ors have been sealed for each map individually to bring out even small polarity diff sible.) As you will see later on, most of the reactions in organic chemistry follow a nonbonded atoms with opposite charges or polarities are attracted to e: electron-rich” to the ich other. Then, elec ectron- poor” atom to form a new covalent bond between them. Because bonds are mad ary to keep track of how many electrons are involved, and where th Lewis structures are of paramount importance in this bookkeeping process. up of electrons, it’s neces 1-4. Lewis Structures Whether you'y -y closely. Become familiar with the number of electrons around common atoms and the common arrangements of er done Lewis structures before or not, follow the rules in Section 1-4 ve these electron in the bonds of molecules, This fam lots of examples, is the best way to ensul that you will quickly and confidently be will encounter later on. As you ble to picture a Lewis structure for any of the types of species you in confidence through practice, you will be able to use shorthand notations, such as lines instead of dots for bonding electron pairs. anic chemistry involves reactions between organic compounds and other organic or inorganic species. The Feactions can involve both bond-breaking and bond-forming processes, and the key to both is the movement electrons. Lewis structures provide the bookkeeping system to help us keep track of electrons in reactions 1-5. Resonance Forms TWo important conventions involving arrows are introduced in Section 1-5. The first is the use of double-heade arrows between resonance forms. This is a speciall kind of notation be play in org: nic chemistry. As shown in this section, m Iny species havi by a single Lewis structure. They can only be described as interm tributing forms, each of which by itself is an incomplete picture of ‘a molecule by drawing the resonance forms separa structures that cannot be represente he molecule’s structure. We n d by double-headed arrows and enclosed in brackets, The true structure is called the resonance hybrid. The only difference betwe i location for the electrons from one to the next. The sam in all the resonance forms. C n the resonance forms is a different ment of the atoms is maintained ince hybrids are still often repre ition: molecules that actually exist as resona sented by only one Lewis structure. In cases like this you need to be e aware of the fi used for convenience purposes only and that the t that this is a shortcut real structure is still the resonance hybrid—the other nance forms are implied even if they aren't written down The second convention in Section 1-5 is the use of curved In this section the only app ture of a reson ation is in showing how the electron pairs shift in : going from one Lewis struc electron movement using these arrows will bi very useful tools to help you learn and understand organic chemistry ce “a ed process: whether two molecules are likely to react with each other. Time and timeLooking closely at electron shifts that convert one resonance form into another, you will notice several Patterns that repeat themselves over and over. The two most common types of electron movement are shown in the resonance forms of carbonate on page 18 of your text + “Bond to at the atoms involved in the original a bond, The 7 bond is thus broken, + “Atom to bond” atom. A 7 bond is thus formed. m": A pair of electrons moves from being a 7 bond to becoming a lone A lone pair of electrons on an atom moves to become a 7 bond with a neighborin, Again referring to carbonate on page 18, notice that violation of the octet rule m: be avoided at all costs (not the least of which will be to your grade on an exam): If a pair of electrons mo ard an atom a ready containing an octet, another pair of electrons must at the same time mos from that aton The guidelines in the textbook for determining the relative degree to which each resonance form contribute to the actual structure are the ones you will use the most when dealing with the most common atoms in organic chemistry. It is somewhat abbreviated. Some additional considerations regarding resonance forms (and some reminders of the basic rules) follow ALWAYS TRUE (these are your reminders): Individual contributing resonance forms do not exist. Only the resor or blend of the contributing forms, is real 2. All resonance forms of a single chemic: species must have the same total number of valence electron and the same total charge 3. Second:-row atoms (ie., up thro neon) can never exceed an octet in their valence shell Tesonance form. In other words, the rules for drawin, Lewis structures ap 4. Atom positions and geometries do not change from one resonance form to another—there is only on geometry and set of atomic positions for the actual chemical substance b idelines in the textbook—we're jus USUALLY TRUE (these are mostly implied by th Resonance forms differ only in the positions of ar and/or nonbonding electrons. The bc normally stay put 2. We convert one resonance form into another by moving electron pairs from places where there is an excess of electron density to places where there is an 3. Resonance forms with the most covalent bonds are usually more important contributors th forms with fewer covalent Bonds (but don't Forget that octets take priority) 4. Resonance forms with fewer charged atoms are usually more important contributors. 5. Atoms in the third row (P, S, Cl) and below (Br, | shells. In fact, Lewis structures with 10 or 12 valence electrons frequently written for these elem: 1-6, 1-7, and 1-8. Orbitals Atomic orbitals are a convenient way to represent the distribution of electrons in atoms, Note t Signs associated with parts of these orbitals do not refer to elecirical charges, They refer to thathematical signs of functions (wave functions) associated with the distribution of the electrons, Molecular gtbitals are sin but are spread out over more than one atom. They provide an alternative to the Lewis clectran-dot method fe Picturing bonds, The number of molecular orbitals involved in describing a bond is always exactly &qual to the number of atomic orbitals contributed by the individual atoms. Overlap of atomic bitals results in bonding, antibonding, and sometimes also nonbonding molecular orbitals. Bondin, (more stable) than the original constituen s are always higher in energy Thus bonding electrons will be more stable than electrons in nonbonding atomic orbitals and will give rise strong bonds. Electrons in antibonding orbitals will reduce bonding. Hybrid orbitals are derived by mixing atomic wave functions. They are used to explain the geometrical shapes of molecules. Hybridization provides several advanta With the larger lobe of the hybrid omic levels, and antibonding ges for bondi4 + Chopter 1. STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES orbital located in between the bonded atoms, more electron density is located where it can “do some good” by contributing to bonding. The participation of different numbers of » and p orbitals in the hybridization all 1a wide range of bond angles, thereby permitting electron pairs to get as far away from each other as possit and minimizing unfavorable electrostatic repulsion. Keep in mind some points for bookkeeping with hybridization. If an atom starts with one s orbital and thr p orbitals, it will always end up with a total of four orbitals, no matter how they have hybridized for bondin purposes, Dependin ‘on the ratio of atomic orbitals used in the hybridization, we can describe the resulting brid orbitals as consisting of certain perventag s of “s character” and “p character.” For example, an sp orbital contains 50% s and 50% p character, whereas an sp* hybrid is + s and; p in nature, The total teraround an atom after hybridization always equals that which was present in the orbitals before hybridizatio 1. sp hybridized atom (linear geometry): contains two sp orbitals (each one is $s and + p in 1) at two ordinary p orbitals two sp + two p = wos s+ 4p) + wo p = one s + three p sp* hybridized atom (trigonal planar geometry): contains three sp? orbitals (each one is $s and character) and one ordinary p orbital three sp? + one p = three(+ s + = p) + one p = one s + three j sp* hybridized atom (tetrahedral geometry): contains four sp* orbitals (each one is + s and + p in character four sp* = four(+ s +4 p) = one s + three p So in all cases exactly four orbitals are present and add up to the equivalent of one s and three p, even thot cach type of hybridization leads to a form of bonding and molecular shape very different from any of the others. As these examples show, the mathematical nature of hybridization is very flexible attractions and minimize unfavorable electron-e to maximize favorable bonding tron repulsions. Prepare yourself to use the material in these sections: These are the basics, and everythi from them, se will build Solutions to Problems 25. (and 23 and 29—see below)Solutions to Problems © 5 Double bond between nitrogen. A molecule with 1wo double bonds Major (O more twonegative than N} 26. The symbols 5 and 8” are written above or below the appropriate atoms in the 25 above. In each polar bond, the more electropositive atom is designated 8°, and the ma ativities in the periodic table. atom 5~, based on the electron 27. (a) Hi~ Hydride ion. Contrast H* (a proton) and H (H atom H (b) HiG:> A carbanion, C hasan octet and a —1 charge ii H (©) HC* A carbocation. C has only a sextet and a +1 charge ii @ HE A carbon “radical.” Cis neutral, bonded to ony thee other atoms, and surounded by i HH (©) H2C:NIH The methylammonium cation, The product of CH,NH: + H*. Compare NH, +H” —> NH, HH uct of ionization of methanol, CH,OH = CH,O™ + H*. Co H @t A “carbene” A neutral carbon, bonded to wo other atoms, with only a sextet of el Another carbanion (b) H Carbanions [(b) and (h)) energy. They can, however, function as reaction “intermediates.” ocations (¢), free radicals (d), and carbenes (g) are reactive species of high @ 4:5 28. How to begin? Look at cach atom and compare the bondin more familiar to you. Count bonds. Count electrons. This exercise will make it easier for you to rec do the formal charge determination as described in the text H Hydroee pattern with simpler structures that are similar situations later (as in exams). Thet (a) The oxygen has three bonds and a lone pair. What simpler species do you know that is similar? e determination ly seen the forma Hydronium ion is one, probably the simplest. We've alre: +1 for the oxygen in hydronium ion, based upon the calculation [3 (half of shared e° in bonds) + 2 (unshared e~)} = 6 (group # for 0)6 6 HOO: HOO HOO: (iii) All three Lewis structures have octets on every large atom, but the middle structure has th charged atoms and two instances of plus-minus charge separations, making it relatively | favorable as-a contributor to the hybrid. The first and third forms have only one charged atom and are the major contributors. ou iN c (b) Construct one reasonable Lewis structure first: H/H_—_. Alll the atoms are neut ‘can move electron pairs in a couple of ways to see what we get. Let’s begin by moving of electrons from the double bond. Which way? Doesn’t matter hem and see what get! If it’s something reasonable, fine. If it isn’t, it isn’t. So, move the pair toward ni H O-H N ¢ c iH HOH tive atom (N). But we've separat Well, at least the n son the more electron char What if we shift electrons the other way? Now we 1c. Howev tive char so this new resonance form is unlikely to be ss and Jost the octet on carbon, et something really hideous, having lost nitro e can use a lone pair on oxygen to for a double bond with the nitrogen atom, en's octet and given it a positive cha We forms that don’t violate the rules of bonding (like exceeding octets) doesn’t mean any of the to be any good. The original Lewis structure, with all neutral atoms, represents this ince forms are at most only marginal contributors e not getting anything to write home about here, folks. Just because yc compound best. The rest of the res (©) Now we have a negatively charged atom. Move electrons away from it 6 Notice that it’s necessary to move an electron pair from the C=N double bond onto the C in order to avoid exceeding an octet on nitrogen. In both forms, all atoms (besides H) have octets. The only difference is the location of the negative charge: it’s better on © (more electronegative than C). So the first Lewis structure is better8 + Chapter 1. STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES: 30. Resonance structures for Problem 25 (c), (h), (i) have additional resonance forms, as shown below, In each case the one below is not ne in the answer to Problem 25, for the reasons given. (b) () ©) 31. (a) @) @ sBr:Ci:Nz <—> :Bri:C::N: (g) HiC (Carbon sextet) (Separation of (Catbon s Resonance forms may be drawn for (b) and Bf) of Problem 2 bonds. (It is always possible to draw a resonance form for a structure with a multiple althoug H H H H (Minor conteibutor carbon lacks an octet) Minor contributor: boron lacks an octet) ‘comparison pry Major (negative one tos charge prefers t Major (negative harge prefers the more electrone :0: H NCH Major (no separ the resonance form you get is not necessarily a ma Move electron the negatively charged ji 82826: Not as good (ox Move electrons toward the ‘away from already been shown good Two other specie rly ha thatSolutions to Problems # 9 (Carbon Major H Bye, H (by |HEC:CIN:6: — w:G:@: Hi ii (Carbon sextet) Major (oxygen more electronegative than carbon) 32. Before starting, notice that the problem tells you how the atoms are attached: both compounds h two N—O bonds. So the N is in the middle of nitromethane. We begin with o bonds: H 9 H—-C—N Hv feo? So far, the valence shells of the carbon and the hydrogens are filled, but the nitrogen and th short. But we have 24 electrons to work with (3 from hydrogens + 4 from C + 5 from N + 12 from oxygens) and we've only shown 12 in these 6 bonds. We could use the remaining 12 to add th to cach O. Let’s do that, and then figure out the formal charges on the atoms: H H—C H I's a “legal” Lewis structure, we've violated no rules, and we've satisfied the octets for O, but the N is in trouble with only a sextet and a 2+ charge. Can we make this better? Let's move an electron pair away from tive atom and toward a positive one and see what we Now we're doing better: N has an octet, too. We could, of course, have moved an electron other oxygen instead. The result is identical to what we just got above, but the N—O single and N=O double bonds are switched, along with the 110 * Chapter 1) STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES Could we move two electron pairs in toward the N, one from each ©? Nope: That would violate the octet ‘on N and give us an illegal Lewis structure Hea H H-C-N. OG H—-C-N H Ho ILLEGAL! Octet rue violate: 10 electrons on N So the best two structures are the two we derived above, with octets on all nonhydrogen atoms and a p: ‘charges. The arrows below show how electron pairs shift to go from one to the other: Hae — H-C-N ° ! io Since these two forms are identical, they contribute equally to the resonance hybrid. The NO bonds are polar, with a full positive charge on N and a negative charge You may ask, what would have happened back at the b split, half on each O. of this exercise if we started by putting s? Good questi ‘one of our extra pairs of electrons on the N, instead of putting all of them on the ox Our starting Lewis structure (below, left) would then have an octet on the N and one oxygen, but a si the other O. The remedy, shifting the lone pair from the N toward the electron-deficient O, gets us to one ¢ | the same final structures that we obtained above H H-C-N As a rule, as long as all your « electrons are in place, and you do not violate the octet rule with the res! any starting structure will eventuall ‘Now we tum to methyl nitrite, Following the same pro\ arbitrarily add in the remaining electrons as lone pairs, taking care only to avoid violati structure below left is one result, and it contains a seriously electron out with nitromethane, And, we “fix” it the same way, moving an el charged O at the end: t you to the best answer(s} dure, we b in with only single bonds, and then the octet rule. The deficient N, just as we found tron pair “in” from the neg: This is pretty good: All nonhydrogen atoms have octets, and none are charg reasonable resonance forms? There is a common pattern described in the -d. Can we find any other ae sn ext for systems containing an ‘atom with at least one lone pair attached to one of two atoms connected by a multiple bond. You move the Tone pair “in” and move-a 7 bond “out ! i osSolutions to Problems # 11 Applying this pattern to methyl nitrite, we H H H—C—O*N=0 H—0-0=N-6' H H The result is the second-best resonance form—okay for octets, but charges are separated, which makes less of a contributor than the Lewis . with two nonequivalent NO bonds. The contribution of the right-hand structure, while small, will structu tend to make the NO bond at the end the most polar one in the molecule, with the O at the negative end. 33. (a) Chlorine atom is ?Cl- (seven valence electro ral Chloride ion is :Cl: (eight electrons, negatively char (©) Borane is planar (6e around B), while phosphine is pyramidal (Se around P, like the N in H ammonia B vs. HOH H (©) CF, is tetrahedral, while BrFy , with six electron pairs around Br, is planar wit wer is VSEPR. It is nor ne above and below... Notice that all that we need to derive this ai to first try to figure out the hybridization (d) The procedure we follow is the same: Construct the Lewis structures, and then use VSE fediet geometries. Do nor concern yourself with hybridization at first Nitrogen dioxide contains 17 valence electrons (6 from each O and rom the N), and nitrite ion contains 18 (the additional electron gives it the ~1 charge). N is in the middle, so we hai O—N-—0 to start (4e ino bonds). For both species we can add 12 of the remaining electrons t sctron (for NO.) and the last two (for NO”) can go on N. oxygens as lone pairs. The last el N—G: for NO3 and seriously short of an octet on nitrog: N—G: for NO.~. Each of these Lewis structures is be improved electron pair from oxygen toward nitrogen: ForNO:, OY NG: — 3b ForNO;-, ?0~N—O? <> :0 So nitrogen ends up with 7 valence electrons in NO, and 8 in NO; red, and VSEPR ly. The middle N is surrounded by two begin with NO. because all of its electrons are p How about geometry? Let (valence shell electron pair repulsion) can be applied dire 1 bonding pairs and a lone pair (ar electrons are not considered for VSEPR), and three pairs leads toa bent geometry (which may be rationalized by sp” hybridization, if you like). In fact, the O—N—O bond angle in nitrite is 115° It is a bit smaller than the nominal 120° angle for a12 + Chapter 1. STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES trigonal planar structure because the lone pai, being attached to only one atom repulsion than do the bonded pais, closing the bond angle down a little bit Now let us examine nitrogen dioxide. The N now bears a single nonbonding electron rather th: a lone pair. One electron exerts less repulsion than do two, so we can predict that the O—N—O bond angle should be more open in nitrogen dioxide than it is in nitrite. You do not have enough information to pre ict how much more open the angle will be, In actual fact it is 134°, The fact 120° means that the two bonding pairs exert mor jon th single nonbonded electron, be thrilled to find out that nitrogen dioxide is a signif y air derives much of its distinctive character from this toxic, smelly, brownish ga: (©) Now we compare two new dioxides, SO, and CIO;, with the one we've already done, NO». L structures and resonance forms first O+S—6: « 0+8=0: — :0=s=c OCG — 704cl=9: —> :o=¢ The structures on the extreme right both have expanded valence shells (more than octets), which OK for third-row atoms, Based on VSEPR both SO, and C10, will be bent structures, because of the lone pair on S the lone pa extra single unshared electron on Cl. The actual angle in SO; is 129 ClO, is 116°, the difference being due to the extra repulsion of the third nonbonding C10;, despite the fact that it is smelly, to chemical used to bleach wood it is used, eliminatin, c, and tends to blow up, is actually a major indu ulp in the manufacture of pa € need to store the stuff er Prudently, it is prepared just 34, (a) The molecular orbitals are obtained as follows: bonding) (Bonding) — Therefore, the resulting electronic configura ions are Ho, ()°, with two bondi lectron. So Hz possesses the stronger bond. electrons vs. H (0), with one bondi (b) Same as Exercise 1-14, hybridization has no purpose, and we can just use simple atomic orbitals That's good—it makes ie simpler We not to that he Is and 2 orbs in O and N ae conslocy fee ye are partly filled. Referring again to Figure 1-21, we can visualize end. to-end overlap (¢ bonding) ~onding) between the remaining p orbitals (two on each am will therefore include each of which is shown separately atthe left on page SBtns eis 5, Our complete molecular orbital di if three sets of orbital interactions, 3, and then the three combined at the right, TheSolutions 4o Problems # 13, end-to-end (7) overlap of the p, orbitals is shown first, giving cand (bonding and antibonding) molecular orbitals, followed by the two arand r* molecular orbitals, respectively. Because o overlap is generally better than overlap, the di and 1* orbitals—recall from Figure 1-12 that the difference in energy between atomic and moleculat overlaps of the pairs of p, and p, orbitals, giving two sets of grams are shown here with a larger energy gap between the o and o orbitals than between th: orbitals is related to the strength of the bonding—the change in energy going from the atoms to th molecule, (More sophisticated forms of theoretical analysis reveal that the actual ordering of energies is not quite the same as that shown here, but you don’t need to worry about that.) For (€), O>, (o)*(a)*(a)(e")!(n*)', 4 net bonding electrons vs. 02", (o)"(n)*(m)*(x)!, 5 net bonding jectrons. So 0," has the stronger bond For (d), No, (@)*(n)*€a)*, 6 net bonding electrons vs. No‘, (@)*¢a)% nding electrons, S Nos better 35. Use valesice shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) to predict geometry about any carbon or nitrog atom. Count the number of other atoms attached to it and add to that the number of lone pair(s) it contain. Two = linear and sp hybridized; 3 = trigonal planar and sp? hybridized: 4 = tetrahedral a Not complicated (@) The four atoms connected to this carbon will be atached by four single bonds and will be ghly a tetrahedra tetrahedral beca ometry, which is explained by sp* hybridization. It won't be exac the four atoms aren't identical (two hydrogens, a carbon, a (b) Don’t worry about multiple bonds. The carbon in question is attached to three other atoms; therefor it is approximately trigonal planar with sp* hybridization (©) This carbon is attached to three other atoms. So, as in (b), tr ed 10 th (@) The nitrogen atom is a other atoms and has one Io pair, so it is sp* hybridized We don’t call it tetrahedral, however. When we choose a word to describe the geometry around an atom we usually consider only the atoms to which it’s attach in CH3NH; is best d -d, not the lone pairs. So, the nitrogen in ammonia, NH escribed as having a pyramidal geometry, like the nitro (©) This carbon atom sits between two other atoms, gain, VSEPR disregards multiple bonds. The geometry here will be linear, and the carbon sp hybridized, (Nitrogen, bonded to three other atoms, is trigonal planar and sp? hybridized. 36. (a) This carbon atom uses sp° hybrid orbitals for its four sigma (x) bonds. So does the other carbon atom in the molecule, so the bond between them is formed by overlap between two sp" hybrid orbitals. The C—H bonds use overlap between the sp* hybrid orbital on carbon and a hydroge atomic s orbital. The C—Br bond forms from overlap of the carbon orbital of bromine. 0) Two of the three sp? orbitals on the indicated carbon atom go to ordinary tetrahedral carbons, Thos bonds therefore involve sp*-sp* overlap. The oxygen atom is bonded to one other atom (our carbon| and has two lone pairs. 1 + 2 = 3. It may be considered to be sp” hybridized, in which case the C—0 @ bond will be sp*—sp”. However, as discussed in Exercise 1-17, oxygen is energetically reluctant to undergo orbital hybridization, It is therefore more accurate to consider this C—O bond to involve C(sp”)—O(p) overlap. One of the remaining p orbitals on oxygen and the carbon p orbital in a parallel (side-by-side) manner, giving the second pi (7) bond between them,: 14 * Chapter 1. STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES (©) Each of the three sp* orbitals used in sigma (c) bonds to the indicated carbon atom goes to a different ‘atom, One goes to the other carbon, which is also trigonal planar, so sp”—sp". Each of these carbon: has a p orbital left over, They overlap side-by-side to give a p—p 7 bond. The oxygen is bonded to two atoms and has two lone pairs; we might consider it to be sp’ hybridized. But as we've just seen, this is not likely for oxygen, The C—O o bond is C(sp)—Otp). The C—H bond is C(sp?)—H(s (d) The C—N bond is sp*—sp". The N—H bonds are sp (€) Both carbons atoms involved in the triple bond are sp hybridized. Therefore the bond between them will be sp—sp. There are two pi (m) bonds between them. Each consists of side-by-side p—p overlap, The bond to the other (tetrahedral) carbon is sp—sp’ (8 The C—N o bond will be sp bridized. The remaini bond. T sp*, because the carbon atom is also trigonal planar and sp’ p) orbitals on nitr n and carbon align side-by-side to give a p—p e NH bonds are sp*—s @ () Be ‘0. © ©Solutions to Problems * 15 e Top view Side view of 7 bond 38. (a), (b), and (c) Each carbon is bonded to four other atoms and, therefore, will possess approximate bridized. tetrahedral geometry. Each carbon in these molecules is sp? (a) Each carbon is attached to three other atoms (two hydrogens and the other carbon). The bonds to hydrogen are of o type. One of the carbon-carbon bonds is a and the other a 7. The result is that each carbon hus approximately trigonal geometry (like boron in BH;) and is sp* hybridized. In ‘other words, each carbon uses sp? orbitals in three 6 bonds, and the leftover p orbital in at bond. (©) Each carbon is attached to two other atoms (one hydrogen and the other carbon). The C—H bonds are @, as is one of the C—C bonds. The other two C—C bonds (of the “triple” bond) are 7 bonds. Geometry is linear (like beryllium in BeHla) and each carbon is sp hybridized. Each uses two sp orbitals for o bonds and two p orbitals for 7 bonds. () CH. ew (g) Hybridization must allow both carbons to be doubly bonded (resonance form on the right). Both, therefore, are sp? Hi H H HG, 11:0 | 39. (a) H—-C—c &) H—c—c—¢—e O-H H HOH H H HOH HOH 1d + (@) H—c—C—c—C—6—C—H (© H—-o— fe | | H H H H Line formulas do not as a rule show true bond angles.116 + Chapter 1. STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES 40. ts) H ©) pn HOH Dar me A L H—C—C—C-N H—C—C H A ees HOH Het Hy wl © wsieH HoH is Hg Peeecc= oc cou H H¢BrH H cH H oy aH H © uu HH H—C—6—C—C=N H—C—C—§—C—C—H H H hou HOH 41. (a) H)NCH;CH)NH) (b) CHsCH,OCH.CN (c) CHBr, In condensed formulas hydrogens typically immediately follow the atoms to which they are connected. This convention is occasionally inverted for the first atom at the left in a condensed formula, such as (a) which begins with HN rather than NH, or for a methyl substituent, which you may see written as HsC rather thar CH, in that position. However, be careful never to separate hydrogens from the atoms to which they are attached by any other atom symbol , ° 42. (a) (CH,);NH (b) CHSCNHCH,CH, (© CH,CHOHCH,CH.SH (@) CF,CH,OH (©) CHsCH=C(CHy)» (© CH. =CHCCH. ° Altemative correct answers exist for several structures in Problems 41 and 42. 43, From Problem 39: ° ‘on ou () —cN © NHL © 9 Oo Br I jr A e) i .. (@) B = fe 0 () HO ” ‘OH From Problem 42: ° fi a oH (a) ) — Nn © Hs H F yon iSolutions to Problems © 17 HH Vy ic H cl 44.(a) HC se (b) H-C 4\ 4%, Wel H cH H cl 45. (a) CsHj2. Begin with the isomer that con Then shorten the chain by one carbon at a time, connectit ains all the carbon atoms connected in a straight chain. the removed atom as a substituent to interior positions of the remaining chain until every possibility has be three isomers: n drawn. There are (1) CHj—CH)—CH—CH,—CH, or CH3CH;CH3CH,CH or CH3(CH3)3CHs. These are all commonly used forms of condensed formulas for the same molecule Bond-line: CH; CH (2) CH;—CH—CH,—CH; CH;—CH2—CH —CH; is the same molecule turned around CH; Also, CHyCHCH;CH; and (CH;);CHCH,CHs Bond-line: CHs (3) CH;—C—CH: ame as (CHs)4C CH; Bond-line: | (b) CHO. Again, there are three: (1) CHj;—CH,—CH,—OH Same as CH3CH;CH,OH. Bond-line: - OH OH CHs OH (2) CH;—CH—CH; Same as CH; —CH—OH Also CH;CHCHs, (CHs),CHOH, OH Bond-line18 + Chapter 1. STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES (3) CH;—CH,—O—CH, — Same as CH} —O—CH2—CH). Also CHsCH,0CH; Bond-line: oO 46. Remember: The most important consideration is the presence of electron octets around as many at as possible (except for H, of course). All C, N, and O atoms have octets in the structures below (a) HC=CCH; = and.» Hy»C=C=CH, CHN=C (b) CH;C= and Charges in CH3NC: for N, (5 valence electrons in atom) in Ione pa in bonds) = +1; for C, (4 valence e~ in atom) — +(6 ein bonds) 9 ( 9 | ea OH ) (©) CHsCH \cH;—C—H and. HC=CH \HC=C—H/ None of the pairs of molecules above consist of resonance forms: In each case the two structures differ in the relative positions of the atoms, Resonance forms differ only in the disposition of the electrons. R R (2) |R:B:0:R — R:B:0:R 47. (a) (1) > RiB::F:] We use the symbol ‘R’ here w represent CH (b) The octet rule takes precedence over the charge-separation rules, so the double bond-containi res are pre! in all three cases, (©) In each double-bond-containing structure a positive ch: (FO, oF N). As a result of the electron a positive cha e resides on an electroneg ativity order F > O > N, Fis least able to accommodat separated resonance form of R3BF will be favored to the x Facials resonance form is more favorable in RaBOR and is even better in RxBNR. ecause the ability of the electronegative atom to bear the positive charge ine Rene charge incr tom Thus, the charg smallest extent, This reson: ses in the order (@) Both are sp* hybridized to accommodate the resonance form with the double bond. 48. Each marked carbon is attached to its three unmarked neighbor arrangement is best explained by sp? hybridi c gonal planar manner. This Ratween cach C* and its CH, neighbors. The « bond connecting the two o¥ ee eee oP bonding the two planes incorporating the sp* hybrids and results from overt Reel ceaine lap of the pure p orbitals remain each C fo bon Sp ee cate CaCF | [AGE | ree mre C7 C* bond, esuling from overlap of unybridized p orbitals, » Tink ger and much weaker than theSolutions to Problems * 19 49. (a) (1) The negatively charged carbon is bonded to three other atoms and has a lone pair, similar to N in NH3: sp’, (2) Compare 38(d): Carbon will be sp? (double bond requires a p orbital) (3) Compare 38(¢): Carbon will be sp (triple bond requires two p orbitals), (b) How is orbital ¢ egy related to ability to accommodate negative charge? Species containing electrons in lower energy orbitals are more stable than those with electrons in higher energy levels. Given the orbital energy order sp < sp* < sp”, it follows that the relative ability to b charge will be HC=C- (charge in an sp orbital) > CH»=CH- (sp*) > CHsCH2 (sp) ar negative (© From (b), HC=C° is more stable than CH»=CH, which is more stable than CHsCH3. These are formed in the equilibria HC=CH == H* + (Most favor Wes most table anion CH)=CH; == H* + CH)>=CH- (tess CHsCH; == H* + CHCHy Least favorable leas stable Thus, we have the following order of acidity: HC=CH > CH;=CH; > CHsCHs. d>a>b After the 50. > (polarized) bonds to electronegative atoms. ation, positive character on carbon is related to number of 51. ‘The letters in the structure below refer to the letters in the problem. In some cases, only representative bonds or atoms are labeled H GZe Ui CH \e ‘ < any ae rel . CH. 6 la 67 -N CHy H HH H:0: H HiG:#tNs) HiG:C:C 1G: C:H HHH ¢ ii N o "On (b) and (e) : N c “1 The 8° car cyanide fon already hasan octet. So one electron pair ofthe two in the double bond is forced t9 move up wo the oxygen aor to avoid violating the ct rule20 + Chapter 1 53. 54. 55. 56. 57, (e) Divide the percentage v alue by the atomic weight to get the relative number of STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN ORGANIC MOLECULES atoms: carbon, 84/12=7 hydrogen, 16/1 = 16 () Aluminum: 3 (group number) — 0 (unshared electrons) — 1/2 (8) (shared electrons) = ~1 (a) Three atoms attached to the carbon: trigonal planar geometry = sp* hybridization © (a) Same total number of el trons: all atoms in same locations (same2 Structure and Reactivity: Acids and Bases, Polar and Nonpolar Molecules Organic chemistry is largely a study of chemical reactions involving organic molecules. The textbook chapter therefore begins with a review of the principles of kinetics and thermodynamics, which apply to all reactions. Then we proceed to discuss acids and bases, which serves two purposes: It provides us with good e thermodynamics as applied to reactions, and it illustrates a process that is actually closely related to most of the reactions of polar organic molecules. After an introduction to functional groups and the classes of organic compounds, the chapter turns to a consideration of the simplest of those classes, the nonpolar alkanes. These nples of sections cover (1) how to name organic molecules (nomenclature), (2) the relation of the physical properties lar structure, (3) flexibility and shape of molecules (conformation), and of molecules to their molecu! (4) applications of kinetics and thermodynamics to changes in molecular shape. In Chapter 3 we cover chemi- cal reactions of alkanes. Outline of the Chapter 2-1 Kinetics and Thermodynamics The energetic factors that govern the transformations of molecules. 2:2 Acids and Bases; Electrophiles and Nucleophiles seen before, with an eye to chemistry you will se a for of in the nic reactions take place Reviewing chemistry that you’ chapters to come. Also, a first look at the notation used to describe how 0 2:3 Functional Groups The “business ends” of molecules: where reactions are likely to occur. 2-4 StraightChain and Branched Alkanes Akanes of various structures. Isomers. 2-5 Nomenclature The es used to unambiguously name any organic compound. first of a group of ru 26 Physical Properties ‘Atopic that is usually not emphasized very much but that does reveal several useful, generalizable points about molecules. 27 and 2-8 Conformations A discussion of the spatial arrai associated with their interconversions. ents that are possible for atoms in alkanes and the eng22 * Chapter 2 STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY Keys to the Chapter 2-1, Kinetics and Thermodynamics This section introduces ideas associated with energy changes in ov may be somewhat fartiliar to you from general chemistry, a few comments may be useful for ori nic chemistry. Even though some of the terminol entation purp oses. In this course ,ou are going to enc of molecules or other species. This term will refer in.general to what is called potential energy in physics: en ergy that is stored in some way and can potentially be released in some process later on. Discussions involving energy will often refer to the stability or instability of various substances or systems. Energy and stability are related in the following way: A species with high-energy content will tend to want to nerally unstabl get rid of some of its energy somehow. $o, relatively speaking, high-ener s are spe also related, so high-energy species will have a tendency to unde Heat and ene: processes that give off lots of heat. However, that a substance is capable of doin is that the rare of a pr ics, and the two ate very different. E such a thing doesn’t necessarily mean that i will do it quickly. The point he ess is the subject of kinetics, whereas the energetic favorability is one of ther ically favorable processes car at all. A wooden 1 presence of air is a good chemical example of the latter. The reactions with oxygen of the compounds in the wood as well as on the head of the match are all extremely ene: ing perceptible happens at room tempera take place at fast rates, slow rates, or in some cases, hardly seem to take place ich in the ically favorable (thermodynamics), but noth ie. Why not? The rate of the reaction is too low: The numt molecules actually reacting with the oxygen at room temperature is so small that nothing seems to be hap- pening at all (kinetics). However, when we strike the match—heat the match head with friction—it starts to bum and continues until the whole th requires energy input to get started even thoug action of most 6 it ultimately results in net energy output after the reaction has finished. The reason is as follows: In most reactions, old bonds are broken and new ones are formed, but not exactly simultaneously. Some partial breaki requires an input of ener nic molecules with oxygen of old bonds has to take place before anything else, and that y. Once this process has started, it can lead to the formation of new bonds, and the release of energy—enough to make more old bonds break plus extra in the form of the flame and ing. This initial en rates of reactions, of bum Y input is the activation energy of the reaction, and it is a key factor governing kinetics. This section provides a brief mathematical description of e namics and kinetics as applied to organic chemistry. The application. The problems wil ch of the main concepts involved in thermody- equations are nerally fairly straightforward in their fe you several chances to use them, 2-2. Acids and Bases; Electrop| The b chemistry: the mechanics of acid-base chemistry. The guiding principle is zh and are governed by thermodynamics. Notions of stron; r tions of equilibria of the s and Nucleophiles ginning of this text section covers the material you are most likely to have encountered in general at such. process¢ are reversible and weak acids and bases are b: ased upon the posi neral sort = weaker acid + weaker base AG? <0, where the thermodynamic drivin, sion of the stronger cones. While this concept may be fat liar to you, you may not be quite and weak. In other words, a compound that acts as the stron the weak partner in another, or may even play the role of a base. After al covers sixty orders of magnitude, and in of scale, Water is the most familiar of subst acid and stronger base into the weaker as used to the relative nature of t ng acid terms stron; in one sue equation may be Il the range of known acid strengths nie chemistry we will encounter exam he inces to show such varied behavior. ‘ Water acts as a weak acid (the way we normally think of itKeys 10 the Chapter * 23 Hel NaOH —= NaCl + HO stronger stronger weaker weaker acid base base acid But water may act as the strong acid (and conversely, hydroxide as the weak base!) 10 NaNH NaOH + NH stronger stronger weaker weaker 1 base base acid And finally, water acts as a base when it encounters a strong enough acid HC) #0 —= Cl 0 stronger stronger weaker weaker acid base base acid In describing acid-base reactions, we define a very simple relationship: the one between an acid and its con. jugate base (or, conversely, a base and its conju the strength of acids and bases that we've never seen before by making structural comparisons with species with which we are more familiar, We use the notion that, relatively speaking, strong acids have weak conjugate bases, and vice versa. Through this relationship, we may use an ie acid). Through this relationship it is possible to estimate alysis of either component of a conjugate acid-base pair to find the strengths of both, relative to other acids au bases. The most common application is to determine the strength of an acid by evaluating effects that stabilize ¢ conjugate base: increased size and increased electronegativity of the negatively charged atom, and any that disperse negative charge away from the \d make weaker 2 atively charged atom, such as resonance." By compari ree to which these properties are present in each of a pair of conjugate bases, you can usually tell which of the corresponding conju: This text section also reviews the definitions of Lewis acids and bases and compares them with their analogs ate acids is stronger or weake in organic chemistry: electrophiles and nucleophiles. The latter are the two terms that we use to describe electron-poor and electron-rich atoms in molecules, respectively. Such atoms possess partial or full electrical charges and, as a result, are places where chemical reactivity is usually high. Many of the functional groups are characterized by the presence of electrophilic or nucleophilic carbon atoms, for example. The analogy be: tween a simple inorganic acid-base reaction and an organic nucleophilic substitution is illustrative of these prin- ciples. It also utilizes the “curved arrow” notation that we first presented in Chapter 1 when we discussed the shifting of electron pairs to interconvert resonance forms. Here, however, we use the arrows to show the ele ron movement that takes place when bonds break or form in the course of a chemical reaction. As your first ntion to the details here: We will be returning to these fed arrow convention is an especially powerful tool to help you understand how and why chemical reactions of organic compounds take place. The more you understand, the less you will to memoriz example of a polar organic reaction, pay close a principles repeatedly. The cui 2-3. Functional Groups One look at the 16 classes of organic compounds in Table 2. 3 (and these are only some of the most common ones!) will immediately tell you how complicated organic chemistry can become. At the ame time, however, closer inspection reveals f ares of these cat ories that can greatly simplify learning in this course. Each * You may have learned in general chemistry that the J strength between H and A in I-A relates inversely to its acid strength This comslation is not as general as you may have been led to believe: It hokls only when the aeiés being compared are all from th Same column of the periodic table, sich as the hydrogen halides, It fils, for instance, in the series CH, NH, HO, HE, where the acid ste Increases as the bond sre ond strength relates to homorytic bond el to give uncharged species: The two processes are very different, Differences in atomic electronegarivty affect heterlytic bond cleavage (and therefore acidity) much moce24 + Chopter 2 STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY compound class is characterized by a specific atomic grouping called a functional group. Notice that only nine different elements are represented: C, H, S, N, O, and the four halogens. In fact, 11 of these classes contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, Knowledge of the characteristics of these atoms and the bonds betweer them, as we will see, will tell us the properties of the functional groups in which they appear. The functional groups will, in turn, provide the key to understanding the chemistry of all the members of the category. Thus, all members of the “alcohol” class of compounds, for instance, have certain common physical and chemical properties, resulting from the presence of the OH group in all of them. This kind of generalizable, qualitative similarity among compounds in any given class allows ot nized, and, above all, logical way. Functi ured, orga anic chemistry to be leamed in a stru nal groups consist either of polarized bonds, whose atoms can attract other polarized or charg species, thereby leading to reactions, or of multiple (double or triple) bonds that also show reactivity for rea: sons we'll explore later. Functional groups are the parts of molecules that most often take part in chemical re actions of those molecules. They are the enters of reactivity” of molecules—where the action is, The most fundamental feature of alkanes relates to this concept of functional groups: Alkanes don’t have any. We'll see the consequences of this in the next chi er. 2-4 and 2-5. Structures and Names for Alkanes There are a lot of organic compounds. Table 2. lists the numbers of isomers of just alkanes, and only goes up to 20 carbons, and already over half a million structures are possible! Imagine how many more structures can be manufactured when functional groups are present, or when the molecules get larger. Obviously not all these possible structures exist in nature or have been prepared in laboratories. Nonetheless, over 80 million dif ferent compounds are known at present, and nomenclature is the language that allows anyone interested in any of these materials to communicate about them in a clear and sensible way. ‘The text presents f desriptions of the problems associated with naming compounds before the systematic procedures of the IUPAC were developed, It then goes on to introduce just the rules necessary for naming sim- ple alkanes; molecules wentaining only carbon and hydrogen atoms and having only single bonds holding the atoms together. Only four rules are needed at this stage 1. Identify the longest carbon chain (the parent chain) in the molecule and name it 2. Name all groups at 3. Number the carbon atoms of the parent chain from the end that gives the one containing the first substituents the lowest possible number. 4. Assemble the name, using the proper format ed to this chain as substituents Although examples are given in the text and there are lots of problems for you to practice on, here are four additional worked-out examples to further clarify some fine points of the procedure. Example 1 3. CH 2) a Proper aumbering CHCH;CH3 — Chain “b* Proper parent stem Name: CHsCHsCH;CHCH;CH,CH; — Chain“ Improper numbering Analysis: The longest chain contains seven carbons, so this is a heptane. However, the: tify a seven-carbon chain (see numbering). Which one is the parent? The rules spe ongest chain, the one with the most substituents is chosen as the parent. The © are tWo ways to iden y that, in case of a tie for seven-carbon chain labeled “Keys tothe Chop has one substituent (a sec-butyl group on carbon 4). The seven-carbon chain labeled “b” has two substituents yyl on carbon 3 and a propyl on carbon 4), so it wins. The molecule is called 3-methyl-4-propylheptane (ame Example 2. | CH;CH, CH; CH; CH; ? } Name: CH3CHCH;CH3CH,CHCH;CCH,C—CHCHCH,CH CHs CH; CH; CHy Analysis: The main chain here is unambigi correct numbering direction, however? Most of the groups are close to the right-hand end and will have low numbers if we number right-to-left. But that is m ous and 14 carbons long—the parent is tetradecane. Which is the the criterion for determining which way to number the chain, The rule says to number in the direction that gives the carbon containing the first substituent the low est possible number. Lf we number from right-to-left, the first substituted carbon is C3; if left-to-right, itis C2 So, left-to-right is correct, and the molecule’s name is 6,10-diethyl-2,8,8, 10,11,12-hexamethyltetradecane. Even though the name that comes from numbering the other way has mostly low numbers, (5.9-diethyl-3.4,5,7,7,13: hexamethyltetradecane), it is wrong—its lowest number is a “3.” and the correct name's lowest number is Example 3 CH; CH; CH3CH; Name: CH;—CH—CH—C—CH—CH. cH Analysis: A he left 4,5- pentamethythexane. The choice is made by comparing t gives 2,3,4,4,5-pentamethylhexane; right-to-left substituent numbers from lowest to b est. The name with the lower number at the first point of difference is the winner. So 2,3,3.45 is preferred over 2,3.4.4,5 Example 4. 30456 8 9 < Main numbers °HyCHCH.CH;CH,CH;, Name: CHsCH,CHs cHy cH—cH | 21 | CH; [ting SE nl Substtuen numbers Analysis: A nonane with a complicated substituent on carbon 5. Rule 3 illustrates what to do. Number the sub- int’s longest chain, stituent carbons from the point of attachment to the main chain, outward along the substi ‘The substituent has three carbons, so it has a name based on propyl. Then add appropriate numbers and names for groups attached to the substituent chain. So, 11.2-timethylpropyl is the complete name of the substituent. Now, attach the substituent’s name to the name of the main chain to get the ni of the whole molecule 5-(I,1,2-trimethylpropyl)nonane. Note punctuation. It’s not hard, but it does take some careful analysis.26 » Chapter 2 STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY The notes above refer to the systematic nomenclature method as it is currently used. Please note, however, that there are many nonsystematic names in common use that are holdovers from the olden days and are still used for convenience or by force of habit. A number of compounds whose systematic names are very compli: cated have been given names that are well understood by people in the business but may seem random to the uninitiated, Several of these are mentioned in the text. One more example provides perspective in this arca. Illustrated below is a compound that we eat every day CHL0H HO ok H a. OH awe) HOA — a oe ov \ cH.0n o. y CH,OH a By the end of this course, you could sit down with the handbook of IUPAC rules and come up with the name 1-[3,.4-dihydroxy-2,5-bisthydroxymethyl)oxacyclopent-2-oxy]-3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl}oxa eyclohexane (and even this is only partially complete, lacking certain indicators that distinguish it from other known isomers!). Fortunately, the name used by general consent for this molecule, which is none other than ordinary table sugar, is a lot shorter: sucrose. See, even chemists use common sense sometimes Fear not, odds are you will never, ever, have to give an IUPAC name toa molecule like this. I never di¢ Teast until I had to write this study guide. 2-6. Physical Properties Every time we encounter a new class of compounds, we will br fly discuss common “physical properties” of members of that compound class. These will include general comments on the nature of the compound under ordinary conditions (c.g., diethylamine, colorless liquid, smells like something died, or, 2-hydroperoxy-2-iso- propoxypropane, colorless crystalline solid, blows up like an A-bomb if you look at it cross-eyed), The put pose of these comments is to give you a feeling for what these materials are really like (as well as alertin to the fact that some organic molecules may not be your friends). For the record, alkanes are colorless or liquids, with rather light odors, or white, waxy solids (candle wax is mainly alkanes), More specific discussion will focus on relat onships between molecular structure and physical the class of compounds as a whole. In this chapt properties for brief summary of the kinds of forces that attract mole cules to each other is presented. Alkanes, lacking charged atoms or highly polarized bonds, do not exhibit ther ionic or dipolar forces. As nonpolar molecules, alkane molecules are attracted to each other by only the rather weak London forces. These can be understood fairly simply. In even a totally unpolarized bond, the elec {rons are always moving. Even though the average location of the electron pair is exactly half-way betweer the atoms, at any particular moment in time, the electrons may be closer to one atom or the other spol ADA vs AtA ova Aca” During these moments, the bond is polarized. Because this polarization is not permanent, the partial charges associated with it are only transient, or flee wg in nature, thus the name fleeting dipoles. When two nonpolar molecules are close to each other and a bond in one of them exhibits a fleet bond of the other molecule will be pushed away from the fleeting dipole’s * dipole, the electrons in a nearby end and attracted toward its end. The positions and movements of all the electrons are said to be “correlatedKeys tothe Chopter « 27 Original Molecule 1 ADA Repel Attract Attract Attract Molecule 2: AA. ipo te vriginal The result will be a new dipole in the second molecule’s bond, “induced” by the original fleeting dipole in th first molecule. As the diagram shows, the polarizations that result lead to an attractive force between the mol ecules—the so-called London forces, Even though the dipoles involved have only transient existence and all the bonds are nonpolar, it turns out that the odds always favor the presence of some fleeting dipoles in a mol ecule, and the net result is this weak, but real, London attraction, Because of the weakness of this attraction, alkanes exhibit relatively low melting points and boiling points relative to those of more polar or charged molecules. The nonpolar nature of alkanes results in other physical consequences, such as rather limited ability to serve as solvents for polar compounds (remember “like dissolves like” from freshman chemistry?). Lack of polarized bonds also very much limits the chemistry that alkanes car display. This subject will be taken up in the next chapter 2-7 and 2-8. Conformations Although we generally draw pictures of molecules in a single geometrical representation, the fact is that no ctrons in bonds can be viewed as an elastic glue holding the atoms molecule has a single rigid geometry. The together, The bonds are therefore somewhat flexible and are subject to some So, even in the simplest molecules like H., the atoms are capable of some degree of movement with respect to one another. In more complicated molecules, additional forms of internal motion become possible. The con. formations of ethane and larger alkan easy process, This section describes the energetics associated with this rot re a result of rotation about carbon-carbon single bonds, a relatively tion and the names associated with n projections provide an “end-on” view o' the various shapes of the molecules as this rotation occurs, News these conformations: ‘ X, Y = substituents Eclipsed Staggered Gauche Anti At this point you should take a look at a set of molecular models so that you can become familiar with these conformations in three dimensions. Conformational energetics can be summarized for alkanes as follows: (less stable) than staggered for ethane, 1, Eclipsed is 2.9 keal mol" higher in energ 2. Each CH,-H eclipsing is 0.3 kcal mol! worse than an H-H eclipsing ered conformation energies). (relative to corresponding changes in stage 3. Each CH;-CH; eclipsing is 2.0 keal mol”! worse than an H-H eclipsing 4. Each CH,—CH, gauche is 0.9 kcal mol~' worse than CH;—CH, anti raph of energy vs. rotational angle can be readily sketched for simple ies (heat content, or AH’ With these individual estimates, the alkanes. Note: es are actually enthalp values). These “28 + Chapter 2 STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY Solutions to Problems 26. (a) Remember, AH? (reaction) = AH® (bonds broken) — AH” (bonds formed). (i) To calculate the AH? associ double bonds, use AH? (C formi ied with breaking one of the two bonds in the carbon—carbon >) as a bond-breaking contribution and AH? (C—C) as a bond- contribution AH? = 146 + 46 - 83 — 2(68) = —27 kcal mol 7 Ff 1 ; break foe om cmc cc CHB (i) AH? = 99 + 46 - 68 - =10 kcal mol! 4 ; + 1 teak break form 8 CH BeBe CBr HBr (b) In reaction (i), two molecules combine to make one. This concentrates the energy content of the system into fewer particles, resulting-ratarge Te-gative value for AS* (~35 entropy units) for reaction (i). If you like, the system becomes mor In reaction (ii), two molecules re content of the system unde ordered,” which is saying much the same thing ct to make two different molecules. The dispersal of the energy pes no major change, resulting in a AS* of approximately zero, (©) For (i) at 25°C AG? = AH? ~ TAS "7 — 298(—35 x 10-*) = = 17 keal mol For (i) at 600°C, AG? = AH? ~ TAS' 7 — 873(—-35 X 107) = +4 Keal mol For (ii) at either 25°C or 600°C, AG? = AH” = ~10 kcal mol”! because AS? = 0. Both reactions have negative AG® at 25°C, so both are thermodyna for reaction (i) has made its AG? value positive: The reaction is thei i) is stil just as good as it was at 25°C. nically favorable. At 600°C, the AS: efore energetically unfavorable. Reaction 27. Don't identify the acids until you've looked to see which species give up protons; many of the species here can act both as acids and bases! ‘The equilibrium lies to the side of the weaker acid/base pair, as indicated by the unequal lengths of the forward and reverse arrows. From the data in Table 2-2, you can ide ids as the species with the larger K, or smaller (Iess positive or more negative) pK, The equilibrium constant for each reaction is found by dividing K, for the acid on the left by K, for the ac con the right. How did I know that? Here's how. For the follow ify the stronger HA, + Ap~ == HA, +A, we have K,, = (H*IL VHA] and Ky, = (H°IA2“V{HAaI, right? So, K,/Ky, = [AVAL TASHA, JOH )[A2 | = (HASIAL VIHAGITAS 1 = Keg) @) 1,0 HCN =— H,0° CN7 Keg =1.3x 1071! weaker base weaker acid stronger aid (b) CH,O- + NH, =— CH,OH eG EBTI LOT (HF + CH,COO~ —= =F + CH,COOH Kk, =(@) CH; + NH CH, + stronger base stronger ac weaker acid wi @® 0* + a c= HO + weaker acid weaker base stronger base (f) CH;COOH + CH3S° —= CH;COO™ + Stronger acid stuonger base weaker base H 28. ( oH aH H N-H == cH,—O—H 103 (©) CH3C CHC H H (a H—-C—H H=N—-H NHS ——iGHyi H+ H— 20: EO (©) CH,C—6>H cHse—6 29. (a) CN (©) (CH;);CH is a Lewis base is a Lewis acid (e) CH,BH, is a Lewis acid (f) CHS Ni ker base HCI Solutions to Problems * 29 Keq= 10! CH3SH_ Keg = 2.0 x 10° 2CN? + HSCH (b) CHOH is a Lewis base (d) MgBr is a Lewis acid is a Lewis base Let's be smart about the second part. We have three Lewis acids and three Lewis bases. So pair them up and answer the question with just three equations. To reduce clutter, the three lone pairs around each halogen atom have been left out: CH + *¢H—cH; — Br—Mg+ 36—CH, —> Br Broo H CHB CH; —> CH CH; C—CH—CH; Me—6* cH; Br H B CH28 + Chapter 2. STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY Solutions to Problems 26. (a) Remember, AH? (reaction) = AH? (bonds broken) — AH® (bonds formed), (i) To calculate the AH° associated with breaking one of the two bonds in the carbon-carbon double bonds, use AH? (C=C) as a bond-breaking contribution and AH® (C—C) as a bond forming contribution: AH® = 146 + 46 — 83 — 2(68) = ~27 kcal mol! t 5 i fs Rene eon en Cac BB C-C | 2C—Br (i) AH? = 99 + 46 68 - 87 10 kcal mol? i t fe ; break break crm form CH BeBe te HB ) In reaction (f), two molecules combine to make one. This concentrates the energy content of the system into fewer particles, esullmE-trertarge Negative value for AS° (—35 entropy units) for reaction (i) If you like, the system becomes more “ordered,” which is saying much the same thi In reaction (ji, two molecules react to make two different molecules, The dispersal of the energy content of the system undergoes no major change, resulting in a AS° of approximately zero. (©) For (i) at 25°C, AG? = AH? — TAS? = ~27 — 298(—35 x 10-3) = ~17 keal mol! For (i) at 600°C AG? = AH? — TAS? = -27 ~ 873(-35 x 10-3) = +4 keal mol”! For (ii) at either 25°C or 600°C, AG: AH? = ~10 keal mol” because AS® ~ 0. Both reactions have negative AG? at 25°C, so both are thermodynamically favorable. At 600°C. the AS for reaction (i) has made its AG? value positive: The r Gi) is still just as good as it was at 25°C. action is therefore energetically unfavorable. Reaction, 27. Don't identify the acids until you've looked to see whic he fh species give up an act both as acids and bases! ‘The equilibrium lies to the side of the we indicated by the unequal lengths of the forward and reve identify the stronger acids as the protons; many of the species ker acid/base pair, as se arrows. From the data in Table 2-2, you ¢ tive) pK. K, for the acid on the left by K, for the acid g general rea cies with the larger K, or smaller (less positive or more The equilibrium constant for each reaction is found by dividing on the right. How did I know that? Here’s how. For the followin, HA, + Ay” = HA, + A, we have Ky, = {H "TA, ~V[HA,] and K,, = [H*][A2-VIHA3], ti (HUA WHAS/IHA, HHO Y(AS” | = (HASIA, “VIHA IAS) (@) HO + HCN =— H,0* + cN weaker hate weaker ai stronger acid stronger ba (>) CHAO) NH; =*— CH,OH + NH, HF CH;COO-"—=== CH,COOH K., = 32Solutions to Problems * 29 (a) CH; + NH, > + NH stronger base stronger acid : @® HOt + Cl = HCL weaker acid weaker base stronger acd (f) CH;COOH + CH,S~ —= CH,COO~ + CH)SH K.,=2.0x 10° base weaker base weaker acid CN: H 4 @ H—C—H = H=N—H == CH, + 7:NHp Sas ell Ne @H :0: = () CHycC—6>H 29. (a) CN” is a Lewis base (b) CH,OH is a Lewis base isa Lewis acid (4) MgBry is a Lewis acid - (©) CBI; is a Lewis acid (f) CHS” is a Lewis base Let’s be smart about the second part. We have three Lewis acids and three Lewis bases. So pair them up and answer the question with just three equations. To reduce clutter, the three lone pairs around each halogen atom have been left out CHy CH I + +CH—CH; — :N' —CH—CH; Br O—CH; —> Br—Mg—O~cH H Br H CH, —> CH,=B H90 + Chapter 2. STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY 30. Refer to any table of electronegativitis to determine bond polarities. Butane, 2-methylpropene 2-butyne, and methylbenzene lack polarized bonds. The other structures have the polarized bonds shown CH,CH,—Br (CH3),CH—O—H CHyCH;—O—CH3 CH,CH)—S—H ize) =o O° CH;CH,—C—H CH,CH;—C—CH,CH,CH CH;CH: O- H. ke og oO CHCH—C—9-C-cHt.cHs _cHCHy—~L-0-cH, “ow “cH CH3CH,CH,—C—N’ CH; N—CH, i in CHS, *'CHs 81. Nucleophiles: (a) and (4), Both I king electron-deficient atoms such as those Lewis bases, capable of atta Electrophiles: (b), (c), (e), emical interaction with electron-rich species such capable of cl and S in these species contain one or more lone pairs, making them found in Lewis acids and (f). All four species lack filled outer shells; they are all Lewis acids as Lewis bases (nucleophiles) On) 32. (a) @ | Alcohol : Ketone Oo a ° y xf } Sp ® oy Aldehyde Ester compound = 7 0 0) o (ue : f i) Ho") , in dw WAY i), Or > oy @ 0 Carboxylic acids 1 \ \o/ Amide Anhydride Ys 33. (a) CHy—CH,—Br I atract the negatively chargedSolutions to Problems © 31 (b) CHy HH —-The * carbon will attract the F nitrogen of ammonia. Att will atract a 8° hydrogen (©) CHs—CH,—O—CHy 5° oxyeen lone pair wil bond w 1 1 ively charged cacbon of the (@) CHs CH,—CH2—CH3 The ket carb N The lone paic on nitrogen willbe atracted to the postive f_ chareed carbon () CHs (f) No reaction. Butane has no polarized atoms; it is therefore not r polarized species. wctive toward chat 34, (a) H H,C-Gr —> HOCH + Br Sena cH cH £0: (b) CH;—CH>—C—H_ :NH3 —> CH3—CH2—C—H ite Example 4a =e xcept the electron-pair NH3_ donor is neutral not negative. ae " rate Eerie 2 © Ch—6-—cr,ce, Ht => cH,9*cH,CHy Site 1203 6: (a) CH;—CH.—CH— 3CHs —> CH;—CH,—CH,—C—CH,—CH, Ses CHy (©) CHs =N—CH,_ Lite part (c) above 35. Recall that condensed formulas tell you only what atoms are connected to what other atoms, not the real three-dimensional shape of a molecule, The lor st chain is the chain with the most atoms, not necessarily the one drawn on a single horizontal line in these formulas. ar (a) CHsCH3CHCH; 2,3-Dimethylpentane ocd cue “cH‘92 + Chapter 2. STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY (b) Parent chain is already horizontal; number left-to-right (nonane): 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethy!)-5: (-methylpropy!nonane. (© 33-Diethylpentane, any way you look at it CH, CH 10 } (@) Parent: CHs-+CH—C— C—CH,CH2CH:CH2CH3 10 carbons, ethyl IAS CHy CH; CH: trimethyl s-(2-methy propyl)decane. 14 CH; CH; CH(CHs), CH; CH3 CH; CHs (©) Redraw: CHj—CH—CH—CH—CH—CH3 —~ 234,5-tetramethytnexane (f) Hexane, Don’t be fooled by the way it’s drawn. (g) 2-Methylpropane. For this one as well as the next three, redraw to show all the atoms, if you need to. (h) 2,2-Dimethylbutane () 2-Methylpentane ({) 2,5-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyDheptane CH; ie peal 2 Reena a CH CH—CHoGHs, “pettane:s an daccmrect parent aim (Comet name i cthy-2-metyiexane ‘ si ae CH.—CH.—CHs (b) CHsCH3CH,CH,CHCH,CH3CH;CH3 Name is come CH; —C—CH;—CH CH; CHy CH; CH; Heal gosh (©) CHy—CH—CH —CH;CH,CH3 Not a heptane. Should be 5 § ”23.A-timethyi-4-propyloctane (CH:CH,CH,CH, 1 CH—CHy, | cH (@) CHsCH.CHsC—CH—CHy pent an numbering a bath wrong Rename as 44,.-dimetiylehyty 2 dimethylheptane CH:—C—CH, CHy (©) CHsCHsCHsCHCH;CH-CH2CHsCHsCH3 Wrong paren cin, Tis in $-thyl5-propylundecan He Beagae (CHjCH3CHCH,CHy,Solutions to Problems * 33, CH Pe ee al (©) CHs—CH—CH;—C—CH3 The numbering is backward. It should be CH cH; (g) CH.CH,CH,CHCH;CH,CH. ee eee CH3CHCH,CH Call it 3-metiyl-+-propyliepiane. CH (h) CH; —CH—CHCH;CH:CH; —tsohepane isa common ame: (CH,).CH group athe end of an bere sagt chain, TUPAC cH, ( CH;—C—CH,CH,CH, Another common name: Neo denotes the (CH)sC group atthe end, The TUPAC aa 1H. 2,2-dimethyipentane Ch CH; 37. (a) CH;CH)CH,CH—CHCH; Nu incorrect, Numbering should go the other wa cH 1 | (®)CHSCHLECH:CH, pane emt we is CHLCHICH, tot ena CH (©) CF;CHCH; The name is correct. »CHBrCH, (a) CH,CH.CHsCHCH:CHCH;CHCH, 38. Do not answer questions like this by haphazardly writing down possible structures. You will almost certainly write down some molecules more than once. Do the problem systematically: Write down answers ‘with successively shorter parent chains as shown here. There are nine C;Hy, isomers. (1) CHyCH;CHCH;CH3CH;CH —Heptane 7-carbon parent94 + Chapter 2 STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY CH 2) CHsCHCH,CH,CH;CHy —2-Metiyhexane CHy @) CHCH;CHCH:CH:CHs —_ 3-Netiexan CH; (4) CHsCCH:CH:CHs —22Dimettyipentan CH; CH (5) CHsCHCHGH;CH; —2,3-.Dimetytpemtan cn CH; CHy (6) CHjCHCH;CHCH; —2,4-Dimethyipentane CHy (7) CH3CH,CCH:CH, _A3-Dimethyipent cH CH.CH (8) CHyCH:CHCH:CH3/ —s.pyipenane CH; (9) CH;C—CHCH; HCH 39. (a) CHj—CH, Both carbons and all hyioges re primary o) CH) —CH— CH, (CH Secondary 1 cH) — (© (Cry) —cH-{cH HCH.) — Primary CH, CH; CHy (@) CH;—C—C—CH—CH, anc, cH; Ex]. Tertiary SecondarySolutions to Problems * 35 40. The designation is assigned according to the type of carbon at position number 1 (the “point of connection” position, indicated by the “open” bond). Primary cH @) ({CHIHCH—CH)—CH, Primary; 2 metyibuy! (b) Primary; 3-methylbutyl Open” bond (ce) Secondary; 1,2-dimethylpropy! (d) Primary; 2-ethylbutyl (©) Secondary; 1,2-dimethyIbutyl (f) Tertiary; 1-ethyl-I-methylpropy 41. These are all isomers (CyHys) lacking polar functional groups, so the only consideration is th increasing boiling point correlates with increasing molecular surface area: the greater the surface area, the greater the total attractive force between molecules. Therefore straight chain compounds with extended geometric shapes will have the highest boiling points, and more branched isomers with more compact shapes will boil at lower temperatures. The most reasonable order is therefore (A) < (e) < (a) < (b). H CH, cH cH * 42. (a) CH; —CH—CH;—CH. Best conformation is yy CH. H For more details, see Problem 44, . H CHs cH cH (b) CH,—C 9) c BL CH. Z cH CH. ce H H (©) CHy—C—CH:—CH;—CHy p cH H CH CH, @ CHC CH p "i cHy H . CCHS) 43. (a) That would be just 1/5 of the energy difference between staggered and eclipsed ethane, or about 1.0 kcal mol (b) Methyl-hydrogen eclipsing appears in both propane and butane, In propane, the eclipsed conformations are 3.2 keal mol ' above the staggered, 0.3 kcal mol ' higher than the 2.9 kc mol torsional energy of ethane. This excess corresponds to the difference between CH;-H eclipsing and H-H eclipsing, giving us an estimate of 1.3 kcal mol! for the methyl-hydrogen interaction, We may check this estimate from the 60° and 300 Figure 2-13. Each has one H-H and two CHy-H eclipsing interactions, and should have an energy of 1.0 + 2(1.3) = 3.6 keal mol”', exactly what the plot reveals. It appears from th lipsed conformations of butane in example that these values are additive, and may be used to predict conformationa34 + Chapter 2 STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY cH CH;CHCH:CH;CH;CHy —_2-Methyihexan Ch 6 carbon parents) @) CH:CH,CHCH;CH.CH; —_ +Meiytoxane chy (4) CHsCCH,CH,CHs 22 Dinethytpenan cH CHy (5) CHCHCHCH:CHs — 23-Dimetyipentine CH CHy CHy \ arbon parents (©) CHjCHCH,CHCH DimethyIpentne cH () CH,CHsCCH:CH, —/A>Dimeth CH CHCH (8) CH3CHaCHCH:CH3/ 3.e1nyipenu cH (9) CHyC—CHCH, CH,CHy 39, (a) CHs—CH, Both carbons and all byuogoas ace primary (by (CH; -CH,—CH,—CH.—{CH (© (CHa) —CH-{CHs}H{CH,) Prim: CH, CHs CH; (a) CH;—C—C—CH—CH, CHy (CH Tertiary CHySolutions to Problems + 35 4O. The designation is assigned according to the type of carbon at position number 1 (the “ connection” position, indicated by the “open” bond) ) cH (a) AeH-CH—CH;—CHy Pinuy:2menyituyl ——(b) Primary; 3-methytbuty re ses Open ond (6) Secondary; 1,2-dimethylpropyl (€) Primary; 2-ethylbutyl (e) Secondary; 1,2-dimethylbuty! (f) Tertiary; 1-cthyl-1-methylpropyl 41, These are all isomers (CyHis) lacking polar functional groups, so the only cons n is that inereasing boiling point correlates with increasing molecular surface area: the greater the surface area, the greater the total attractive force betw n molecules, Therefore straight chain compounds with extended cometric shapes will have the highest boiling points, and more branched isomers with more compact sha will boil at lower temperatures. The most sonable order is therefore (d) < (c) < (a) < (b H cH cH cH x 42. (a) CH;—CH—CH.—CH, Best conformation is yoy, 2 u For more details, see Problem 44. H Cs CH. CH. (b) CH; —C—CH.CH, niece saggere BS L ‘nformatons st c H CH, Squat i cH cH i CHy ) H H CCHS) CHy CH CH; H H 1 : (@) CH;—C—CH,—CH— CH. Ta — 5 cay 1 “Ht oe CCH), 43. (a) That would be just "Vs of the energy difference between staggered and eclipsed ethane, or about 1.0 keal mol! (b) Methyl-hydrogen eclipsing appears in both propane and butane. In propane, the eclipsed conformations are 3.2 keal mol ' above the s than the 2.9 keal ponds to the difference between CH,-H us an estimate of 1.3 kcal mol for the methyl-hydrogen interaction. We may check this estimate from the 60° and 300° eclipsed conformations of butane in ered, 03 kcal mol hig gy of ethane, This excess corre eclipsing and H-H eclipsing, givi re 2-13, Each has one H-H and ovo CH,-H eclipsing interactions, and should have an energy of 1.0 + 2(1.3) = 3.6 keal mol ', exactly what the plot reveals. It appears from this example that these values are additive, and may be used to predict conformational energies in general36 * Chapter 2. STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY (©) The CHy-CH; eclipsed conformation in butane (180° in Figure 2-13) is 49 ke al mol”! above the erst sable conformation. If we assume that 2.0 kcal mol” of this total derives from the two pairs Of eclipsing hydrogens, we arrive at a value of 2.9 keal mol” ' for the methyl-methy! interaction. (@ Armethyl-methyl gauche interaction energy value may be obtained direetly from the enerBy difference between the anti and gauche forms of butane, 0.9 kal mol ‘AA, ‘The problem deals with conformations about the C2—C bond of (CHs);GH—CH:CHs (@) Use AG? = -RT In K = ~2.303RT log K, T= 298 K, K = 90%6/10% = 9, and R= 1,986 cal deg! mol“. So, AG? = -2.303(1.986\298) log 9 = —(1 (1.360)(0.954) 1297 cal mol = ~1.30 keal mo! Do (b) and (c) together: You can’t draw the diagram uintil you know what all the conformations 1ook ike! It doesn’t matter where you start (what you define as the 0° conformation). Here are four Newman projections showing 180° rotation of C3: CH; H. CH; CH; CH ICH; CH. H HH ie HCH; ° wo 120 ei The 240° conformation is like the cone, and the 300° conformation is like the 60° one (make a model), Next, calculate relative energies for the diagram. Note that these will be enthalpies (AH°), not free energies (AG). Determine the energies of each conformation relative to a 0 keal mol”! refe corresponds to a stag conformations, the Set th The 0° conformation has two gauche CH./CH; interactions; its relative energy is therefore 2 0.9 = +1,8 keal mol The 60%/300° conformations are eclipsed with one H-H eclipsing (add 1.0 kcal mol eclipsing (add 1.3 keal mot"), and one CHs~CHs eclipsing (ad: mol” above our zero reference, 4.3 kcal mol nce level that gered auche CH:/CHs pair ed conformation with no groups gauche to each other. Of the sta; 10°/240° ones are best, with one anti CHs/CHs pair and one at +0.9 keal mol! (for the one gauche CHyCHy pair) ), one CH,-H 2.9 kcal mol), for a total of +5.2 kcal above the best staggered conformations at 120° and 240: The 180° conformation is eclipsed, with three CHs-H eclipsings (add 3 X 1.3 = 3.9 keal mol '), 3.0 keal mol” above the 120°/240° conformations. So the graph looks like this:Solutions to Problems + 37 HH 0) Aldehyde 0) 0) On) é 45. (CH.),CHCH.CH:\Q~C/cH; \y—¢/-cH—cu,—6n) He” “cH Aldehyde Aobol | HC CH } compound (i H o CH CH cH (NEO cH—€ cc sia : cH. cH HiS)-cH—CH-\C—on1 Meo eo cH eS ae Gt cH Thiol Amine Carboxylic Ketone Alkene Eu CHa CH) CH CHa oy, —-CH - cht CH cH {cH cH} C=0{C=0}{cH—=cH}-cH, OH! Contant. Cai nc cu\Ncn) AM e Alkyne Alkene Alcohol 1,5-dimethylhexyl (secondary In cholesterol: secondary). In leucine 46. In vitamin Dg: 1,4,5-trimethylhexyl (secondary). In vitamin E: 4,8,12-trimethyltridecyl (primary). In valine: I-methylethy -methylpropyl (primary). In isoleucine: 1-methylpropyl (secondary). just what this question is asking. By “effect on k understand quan 47. Before starting, you n of a change in temperature, we mean temperature,” or the ratio “Knigher tomp/Kiower tem.” You can’t answer a question befor the question is asking, (a) E, = 15 kcal mol”! k= AeW®* es, 80 it will divide out Set up: It has to be assumed that A is constant at the different temperatures, s ing the general solution. Then, remember that R = 1.986 cal deg so E, must be changed from k mol” ', Get out your calculator (1) For a 10° rise, ksi oes38 * Chopter 2. STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY ems _ 2.62 x 107! eerie 10 Q) For a 30° rise, ky39° = oT L16 x 10 1.16 x 10 5 x 107 ‘alas 9.91 aoe 116 x10! 3) For a 50° rise, kaso» = 36.6 ksoo (b) E, = 30 keal mol”! = 30,000 cal mol se gaa sou s86v1 gg x 10 () For a 10° rise, karo: = amar asaaon = 1.36 x 10 2) For a 30° rise, kaso 3) For a 50? rise, Ksse (©) E,=45 kcal mol! = 45,000 cal mol! {a0 90031 4.80 x 10 () For a 10° rise, kno = cameo = 7 eae 158 x 10 un (2) For a 30° rise, Ky30: = 958.6 hsoo 3) For a 50° rise, kaso: = 48.480 kop } Let’s summarize in tabular form, rounding off the above answers E, 15 keal mol” 30 kcal mol 1 mot? | Kaio MR 2 0 owl 10 100 1000 kssolkwo 40 1300 50,000 This problem illustrates the effect of temperature change on rate constants of reactions with three different ies. Notice the followi activation ener (1) Reactions with high activation energies are the most sensitive to temperature changes. show rather signific 2) Even reactions with lower activation energ s to fairly modest nt respon temperature increases. This is relevant because many reactions in organic (and biological) chemistry have E, values in the 15~30 kcal mol range 48, The with the equation in the problem jeneral equation for a straight line that plots x vs. y is y = (intercept) + (slope)(x). Compare this Ey 23RT gA If we rewrite it! tly, separating out the term 1/7, we get agra \/ rir) log k = log A — (Solutions to Problems © 39 Comparing this with the equation fora straight line, we see that a plot of log & vs, W/T ~(EJ2.3R) and an intercept equal to log A. . An example of such a plot is shown below. will have a slope of Therefore, multiplying the slope of the line by ~2.3R gives E, Intercept = log A= 11 E Slope =- 4, = 2000 deg Pe == 5g = 2000 d ay = (2000 de 98 cal deg“! mol! 9100 cal mol =9,1 keal mot ats At400K,_ Experimental \. i 2) data 1 \ A100, | og k= | ot Soir © 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 UT eg) 49. (a) We have a slight problem ere: The positively polarized carbon atom in bromoethane has a closed shell and, therefore, is not a Lewis acid site. See Problem 51 for more on reactions of haloalkanes with Lewis bases. H O: H (b) CH3CH2 ?N—H —> CH;CH)—C—N*—H Hiner pe Hl HH CH; —> H—O*—CH, CH.CH; CH.CH H :0: H (a) CH,CH)—C* + FC — CH i CH;CH) H CH3CH H © CH,—c=!40 + Chapter 2 STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY 50, (a) From 44(a) we have AG? = =1.30 keal mol”!. T= 298 K and AS® = +1.4eal deg”? mol Ow +14 X 10"? keal deg! mol™', So AG? = AH® — TAS* needs to be rearranged to solve for AIT AH? = AG? + TAS? = -1.30 + 298(+1.4 x 10°%) = —1.30 + 0.42, AH? = —0.88 kcal mol This agrees very nicely with the AH” = -0.9 kcal mol”' calculated in Problem 44(b),(c) on page 36 from the number of gauche interactions in the 0° conformation re conformation. 4 tive to the 120° (b) Don’t fo t to change °C to K by adding 273 (1) AG? (~250°C) = AHP = TAS 0.88 — (2 =0.91 ke K)(1.4 x 10-4) mol (2) AG? (~100°C) = AH? ~ TAS’ 0.88 = (1.73K)(1.4 » = =1.12 keal mol (3) AG? (500°C) = AH? — TAS 0.88 — (773K)(1.4 x 10% = —1.96 keal mol 10°) AG (©) Use AG® = —RT In K = ~2.303 RT log K. This rearranges to — = log K, or © @ = =k 1 UTaNges 10 ~ 5 S557 108725950 — antilog(—AGI2.303RD) aan me oC! (1) At T= -250°C = 23 K, AG° = ~0.91 keal mol“! = —910 cal mol"; on 2303RT — 8.65 = log K, so K = 4.5 X 10° 2.303(1.986)(23) r AG AtT = ~100°C = 173 K, AG* = 1.12 keal mol“! = —1120 cal mol 2.308RT =1120 -_ eae K, so K = 26. 2.303(1.986)(1 @) At P= 500°C = 773 K, AG* = ~1.96 keal mol! = ~1960 eal mot ooo, 1960 2.303RT 0.55 2.303(1.986)(773) oe hess We can summarize the results of Problems 50 and 44 in a litle table: 106) AG K =091 5X10" Lt 26 298 1.30 9 3 196 35 aaa eta he ong ina We higd eae of camped GAH At 23 K which Beer eee ans ares rakes eof erty ilion arc in ne tagherexeey (OD center Pe gee Serre alist cuesise mom quotes tic ln ereone Peet atau di hai As® vlee cosncaios AG ary with temperature, to, but the effect is small, since AS® is small. ; Be51. It is usually a good idea to make use of the given information—in fact, write it all out so that it's, sitting there in front of you—before trying to answer the question. (a) Br+I- — I+ Br x Br +1 > SOT + Bro Tis reaction is 10,000 times slowe (b) The reaction sites are indicated by dots in the structures above. They are both primary carbon ‘atoms because they are each attached direc ly to exactly one other carbon atom (©) Electrost ics suggests that the negative iodide ion will be attracted to the positively polarized carbon atom in the C—Br bond. However, because this ca the iodide cannot actually bring in an electron pair for bonding unless so ‘bon atom already has a closed shell other atom, such as the bromine, leaves and takes an electron pair away. The second-order kinetics does not support a sequence in which the bromide ion leaves before the iodide ion comes in. So most likely both events occur together The big rate reduction in the second example above, relative to the first, suggests that the increased size of the alkyl group has gotten in the way of the iodide ion in its attempt to bond to the carbon atom (an example of steric hindrance; see text Section 2-8, page 84). This makes the most sense if for some reason the iodide ion needs to pass close to this alkyl group to form a bond, perhaps in a trajectory that looks like the following sketch H @ 1 Hy. San mgeBo = (ass ( \YCHs Physical bulk ofthe alkyl CHs interes withthe approach ofthe idide ton ro this side c roup) and one tertiary (the CH) in CH\CHCI 52, (a) Two secondary hydrogens (on t came out lower in energy than starting materials, so ener 53. (b) Products are 54, (b) I's an alkane. All the angles are 109.5° 55. (c) Sce Figure 2-12 on text page 84 56. (e) The C=O group is part of an ester3 Reactions of Alkanes: Bond-Dissociation Energies, Radical Halogenation, and Relative Reactivity Discussing reactions of alkanes at the start of an organic chemistry course allows us to learn to work with several concepts that will be useful later. These include the idea of a general reaction mechanism that de: seribes how any member of an entire class of compounds is likely to behave under certain reaction condi- tions. We also see the relationship between the energy concepts introduced in Chapter 2 and reactions that require more than one step, Alkanes do not contain any functional groups: They are made up of nonpolar C—C and CH bonds, and nothing else. Therefore lar materials; indeed, alkanes are just about the kanes are essentially un tive of all compound classes. Therefore, their chem: istry is limited to processes that can lead to cleavage of nonpolar bonds. Thus, the only reasonable wa ‘an alkane bond to cleave is homolytically, leaving one electron with each of the formerly bond C=C > C+ + +CorC—H — C+ + +H. This kind of bond cleavage is difficult and only occ temperatures or in the presence of certain especially reactive species like hal This chapter covers three major ways alkane bonds are cleaved: pyrolysis (high temperature), halogenation (by halogen atoms), and combustion (high temperature and oxygen). You will note a strong emphasis on dis cussions involving bond en The mechanism presents the reaction in terms of a step-by-step, bond-by-bond analysis that is helpful for spotting trends and analogies. active toward ionic or po n atoms, cs. This should not surprise you, because bond cleavage requires an input of en Outline of the Chapter 3-1 Strength of Alkane Bonds: Radicals Exactly what does it take to cleave bonds in alkanes? 3-2 Alkyl Radicals and Hyperconjugation The nature of the species obtained upon alkane bond cleavage. 3:3. Conversion of Petroleum: Pyrolysis } A practical example 3-4 Chlorination of Methane: The Radical Chain Mechanism Radical substitution of chlorine for hydrogen in methane: mechanism and energetics 3-5 Other Radical Halogenations of Methane Similarities and differences 3-6 Chlorination of Higher Alkcnes What happens when substitution for different hydrogens in an alkane can give different products? a2Keys to the Chapter © 43 37 — Selectivity with Other Halogens Energetic comparisons of the reactions involving F; and Br, 3-8 Synthetic Aspects More practical considerations. 3.9 Synthetic Chlorine Compounds and the Stratospheric Ozone Layer Halogens in the “real world.” 3-10 Combustion and the Relative Stability of Alkanes Included is a detailed introduction to the evaluation of the energetics associated with a chemical reaction. Keys to the Chapter 3-1. Strength of Alkane Bonds: Radicals A minor but annoying stre point of confusion is often encountered when one discusses bond strengths. A bond’s th, or more properly, bond-dissociation energy (DH°), is defined as the energ: forms or, equivalently, the energy input required to break a bond released when a bond A-+B-—>A—-B AH®=-DH? _ Ene A-B—>A++B- AH*=DH? Ei Inspection of these two equations shows that the bonded molecule A—B is more stable—lower in energy content—than the separated atoms A and B by an amount equal to DH®. When the linkages in a molecule are strong (high DH?), the molecule is usually relatively low in energy content (e.g., stable Tong as you remember that DH” is the energy that has to be put in to break a bond, you won't fall into the common trap of associating large DH” values with high-energy species. Large DH” valves imply low energy, strongly bonded stable species. The tables and figures in this section should standing of the meaning of DH” values, in preparation for their use later on urther help you develop a comfortable under 3-2. Alkyl Radicals and Hyperconjugation Homolytic cleavage of any bond in an alkane generates radicals: species with a single unpaired electron where an attached group used to be. The section illustrates four such examples: methyl, ~CHs; ethyl, -CH.CH isopropyl, «CH(CHs)o: and tert-butyl, +C(CHs)s. Several points are made in the section. First, radical carbons are sp? hybridized (planar), not sp” hybridized (tetrahedral, as in alkanes). Why should this be? A partial reason goes back to basic of a species will be that Jence shell electron pair repulsion, or VSEPR?). In ammonia, -NHs, the four electron pairs around N are best accommodated by a pyramidal shape based on sp" hybridization: Repulsion between the lone pair andthe elec trons in the NH bonds is important in causing this geometry to be preferred. Reducing the number of non bonded electroft from two to one as in methyl radical, «CH, changes the situation. Now, electron repulsion between the pairs in the C—H bonds dominates, a situation leading to sp hybridization and trigonal planar geometry, which allows the C—H bonding electrons to spread out far away from one another The second main point in the chapter isthe stabilization ofa radical center by the presence of alky! groups “hed to the radical carbon. So, tert-butyl radical is more stable than isopropyl, which is better than ethyl alt methyl radical is the least stable, Hyperconjugation is one concept often used to explain this stabilization. Phys: ically, and electrostatically, the radical carbon can be viewed as somewhat electron deficient (7 valence elec trons instead of an octet). Hyperconjugation provides a means for bonds in neighboring alkyl groups to “lend it feel a little less electron-poor. In doing so, alittle electron density to the radical center, thereby makin4 + Chapter 3. REACTIONS OF ALKANES it, or “delocaliz. selves, spred roups effectively take some of the electron deficiency onto it, Delocalization of an electron deficiency or an electron excess over more than just the atom on which ss. It effectively allows the “prob: the concentrated burden of a single atom. like radicals is often taken to imply tha nors of electrons than hydrogen atoms. Alkyl groups are therefore referred to as electron it is nominally locate Tem” to be diluted o is ofien an energetically favorable, stabilizing prov a larger area, rather than bein The ability of alkyl groups to stabilize e ctron-deficient centei they are better di donating. 3-3. Conversion of Petroleum: Pyrolysis The practical, “real-world” aspects of bond c that often gi age and radical formation are explored. Pyrolysis is a process ves mixtures of many products, and methods have been developed (mostly within the petroleum industry) to control this reaction somewhat. We will frequently explore the issue of re tion control: the mod. ification of conditions under which a chemical transformation is carried out in order to give a desired mole- cule as a major or exclusive produc 3-4. Chlorination of Methane: The Radical Chain Mechanism In this section the reaction of methane with chlorine molecules is discussed. The process CH, + —> HCI + CH,CI is important bee: se it converts alkane) into a molecule containing a func tional group (a haloalkane). Once the functional group is present, many more kinds of chemical reactions b come possible. This section also presents the mechanism of this reaction in full detail, Pay close attention not only to the steps of the reaction (initiation, propagation, and termination) but also to the finer det AHF, E,, and transition state structure for each step. Although some of the terminology introduced here is ap. propriate only for radical mechanisms and not for the majority of reactions to come later, the type of information that the mechanism contains is critical to an understanding of how ‘occur. Take some time in this section to study each r nd why organic reactions What are its energetic circumstances, un. der what conditions does it occur, what rote does it play in the overall process? Try to establ the species involved as “stable” or “unstable,” “reactive” or “unreactiv anisms are intended to allow one to make sense out of oi for you ction step lish a feeling for * relatively speaking. Reaction mech ganic chemistry. Give this one the time to do that Be sure that you understand the procedure for calcula g the AH® value for a chemical reaction from the DH? values of the bonds taking part in the transformation. The general formula is AM exon = DH® (bonds broken) — SDH” (bonds formed) Energy input Energy ou To illustrate with a reaction different from those in the text, let us calculate AH Cale + Ho —> 2 CHy. Using the da for the process ta from Tables 3-1 and 3-2 in the text se CH;—CH; + HH —> 2C¥ DH’ 90 104 105 He, [90 + 104) H keal mol [2(105)] = ~16 keal mot Comment: This is a “hydrocracking” process that, although exothermic requires very high temperatures to ‘occur (cleavage of C—C bond is necessary iaKeys 1 the Chapter # 45 Note on energetics: The overall enthalpy of a radical chain reaction is the sum of the AA? values for only the propagation steps. If we “sum up” the species in these steps, we see that the free atoms and radicals “cance out,” leaving only the molecular species of the overall reaction: Propagation step 1 CH, + Cl+ > HCl + *CHy AH 2 keal mol Propagation step 2 -CHs + Cl > CHCl + Cl AH? = —27 kcal mol Sum: CH, + Cf + -€H5 + Ch > HCl + -€Hy + CHCl + er AH kcal mol Removing the Cl+ and + CH that appear on both sides of the equation leaves just the molecules of th overall process. What about the initiation and termination steps and their AH™s? They are separate. Their AH values are not a part of the enthalpy change as it is defined for the stoichiometric reaction. When we measur the heat of a radical reaction experimentally, the value we obtain will not be precisely equal to AH” for the propagation steps alone; initiation and termination steps are occurring, too, and their AHs will introduce an error. This deviation will usually be small, however, because initiation and termination steps occur only infre~ quently relative to the propagations, and because the AHs for the endothermic initiation are for the most part canceled out by those of the exothermic termination processes. 3-5. Other Radical Halogenations of Methane One of the best features of organic chemistry is the fact that one mechanism can hold for many individual actions. Thus, the same types of steps that occur in the chlorination of methane are followed in its reactions with the of as a result the reaction-coordinate diagrams differ in appearance in a way that will become important as we continue through the chapter halogens, The similarities are qualitative, however, Differences in energetics are significant, and 3-6. Chlorination of Higher Alkanes The same mechanism also applies qualitatively to chlorination of other alk nature of the C—H bonds available in the alkane to be broken. They are generally less strong than those in methane, following a DH® order of CH, > 1° > 2° > 3°. (Note: 1° = primary, 2° = secondary, and 3° = ter tiary. These are commonly used symbols.) The weake different types of C—H bonds display a built-in se es. The only difference is in the 3°) are the most readily broken; thus, alkanes with wey tivity of 3 in their reactions with chlorine This section describes this selectivity quantitatively, illustrating how both reactivity differences and statistical factors combine to produce the observed ratios of products in several representative systems. 3-7. Selectivity with Other Halogens An extension of the previous sections. The most significant point is that reactivity and selectivity in radical halogenations are inversely related. Simply put, the more reactive halogens are less picky and show less pre erence for 3° vs. 2° vs. 1° C—H bonds relative to less reactive halogens. ‘The reason lies in the differen activation energies associated with the C—H bond-breaking step. The values for fluorine ar similar to one another. Fluorine thus reacts very rapidly with any C—H bond in a molecule. The activation energies, with significant differences associated with the differen ult i that bromine is much, much slower tha reactions for bromine have larg: types of C—H bonds present. Thi alkane, and bromine is much more discriminating (selective) in its or 1° C—H bonds. The contrasts between reaction-coordinate diagrams for the two halogens p rial representation of these differences. 3-8. Synthetic Aspects Synthesis is one primary function associated with organic chemistry. In synthesis, we st © produce a de- sired product in good yield'with high selectivity, to minimize the effort required to separate this material from side products. In particular, a reaction that gives rise to a hard-to-separate mixture of many components is syn- thetically useless. In this chapter we have seen a large number of possible pe alkane halogenation. Not all of the examples shown are equally useful synthetically. The best ones start with mutations of a single reaction46 + Chapter 3. REACTIONS OF ALKANES an alkane in which all hydrogens are chemically indistinguishable (methane, ethane, neopentane), because they can produce only one monohalogenation product. In the case of most alkanes, synthetic utility will be deter: mined by the number of different types of hydrogens present and whether the desired product derives from substitution of a more reactive or a less reactive hydrogen in the molecule. In isobutane, for example, there are one 3° and nine 1° hydrogens. If we desire to halogenate at the 3° cen- ter, the natural selectivity of bromine makes it the obvious halogen to choose. If we desire to halogenate a 1 carbon, a less selective, more reactive halogen would allow us to take best advantage of the statistical factor of nine possible 1° hydrogens available to be replaced in each molecule. Thus, CHs CH. I CH;—CH—CH + Bry —> CH;—C—CH; Major product Ge CH;—CH—CH; + F; —> F—CH.—CH—CH; Major product 3-10. Combustion and Relative Stability In order to obtain thermodynamic information experimentally, several methods may be used. The measurement of equilibrium constants gives energy differences between species, Directly measuring the heat of a reaction accomplishes the same thing. When the reaction is combustion of a hydrocarbon, the result is a measure of the energy content of the compound relative to that of the product molecules, CO; and HO, Such data allow com Parisons to be made between related compounds, which in turn reveal factors influencing the relative stabili- ties of different structures, Solutions to Problems 15. ‘This problem is relly a reminder of material from the previous chapter. For shorthand purposes, we Use the symbols 1° = primary, 2° = secondary, and 3° = tertiary CH; — } (a) CH\CHCHAC (b) CH3CH;CH,CH,CH, Ke 5: Dewipset, Zi a Ai Nin J. (@) 3% +H CHy <1 Asyouwil sein Chapter 4, most ring C pounds canbe treated jus like molecules ch cr ~ | Cra-CH 16. \a) (CH;CH,CHCH, (CH:CH.CH3CH |-Metiy}propsl (sec-butyl; see Table 2-4) Butyl radical Secondary (2°, more stale Primary (1) less stable Remember: Identify radicals as 1°, 2°, or 3° by the radical carbon. None o' Cs f the other carbons matter. Two hyperconjugation pictures may be drawn for I-methy [propyl radical, one with twoSolutions to Problems « 47 C-H bonds overlapping with the radical p orbital, and one with a C C bond participating instead of a C—H: bond participating ® ; i@ wv aay @ A ie ea ‘a — ro or e oo H (b) In naming these, remember that the radical carbon is always Cl (just like the attachment” carbon in alkyl point of ‘oups). The parent name is base on the longest carbon chain beginning at C1, and all appendages are named as substituents CHs—CHy cH.—CH CHs;—CH;—CH—CH,- CH; —CH;—C—CH ene SS 1 3 2 2-Kthylbutyl radical ——_1-Ethyl-1-methylpropyl radical Primary, less stable Tertiary, more stable Hyperconjugation Using H bonds) (©) Left to right: 1,2-dimethylpropyl radical, secondary, intermediate in stability; 1,1-dimethylpropyl radical, tertiary, most stable; 3-methylbutyl radical, primary, least stable Hyperconjugation in the 1,L-dimethylpropy! radical is the same as in L-ethyl-I-methylpropy! [(b) above} ‘an H should replace one of the end CH groups. im your pictu 17. Work problems like this “mechanistically”: Proceed via general reaction steps as you have previously CHsCH,* + *CHy — C—Chond cleavage Then there are three possible recombinations: (b) 2CHy- —> CH3CHs (¢) 2 CHsCH,- —> CH;CH.CH2CH. Ethane Butane (@) CHy: + CHsCH)- —> CH:CH;CH; (Reverse of first step) Propane48 * Chapter 3. REACTIONS OF ALKANES Two possible hydrogen abstractions can occur Ca (©) CH3* + CHy“CH,’ —> CH, + CH:=CH> | Methane Ethene MH (f) CHCHy* + CH)’ CH. > CH3CH; + CH,=CH2 Ethane Ethene Abstraction only occurs from the carbon next to a radical carbon, Methyl radical, - CHs, doesn’t have ction, It can still another carbon next to its radical center, $0 it cannot accept a hydrogen, however [reaction (e), above]. So there are four new products formed from cracking of propane: methane, ethane, butane, and ethene (ethylene), 18. (a) The weakest bond in butane is the C.—C3 bond, DH° = 88 kcal mol” (Table 3-2). Pyrolysis } should therefore proceed as follows: (1) CH.CH,~-CHCHy —> 2CH;CH;- C—C bond cleavage (2) 2.CH;CHy* — CH;CH2CH2CHs Reverse of (1) @) CHyCH! HY CH.“CH): —> CHCHs + CH2=CH; Hydrogen abstract Eth Ethene (b) The weakest bonds are the three equivalent C—C bonds, DH° = 88 kcal mol~!, Therefore, (1) (CHs).CH™ CH, — (CHy,CH:+-CHs Cleavage (2) 2CH;: —> CH.CH; Ethane (3) 2(CHs):CH- —> (CH3),CHCH(CHs)2 23-Dimethylbutane (4) CHa! “Y }CH(CHs) > (CHs);CH_ Reverse of (1); recombinations © CHa HCH CHCH; — CH, + CHy=CHCHs Hydrogen abstractions Met Propene (6) (CHy ‘CH, CHCH, —> CH;CHCHy + CH, =CHCH, Prope: 19. The DH? data are readily found (Tables 3-1 and 3-4). Values in kcal mol (a) 104 + 38 — 2136) = —130 (by 104 + 58 ~ 2(103) = —44 (©) 104 + 46 ~ 2(87) = -24 (@) 104 +36 — 2071) = (©) 965 +38 ~ (110 + 136) = -111.5 () 96.5 + 58 = (85 + 103) = -335 (@) 96.5 + 46 ~ (71 + 87) = ~15.5 (hy 96.5 +36 (55 +71) = +65Solutions to Problems © 49 20. {a) Two: |-halobutane and 2-halobutane (b) Three (see solution to Problem 21) (©) Four (see solution to Problem 21) (@) Four a X CH cH cH , x x (Halomethy!)- 1-Halo-t-methyl: —1-Halo-2-methyl- _I-Halo-3-methy- cyclopentane _cyclopentane cyelopent lopentane 21. (a) (i) CHsCHSCH.CH,CH3C1_(1-chloropentane), CH3CH:CH:CHCICH, (2-chloropentane), and (CH yCH)CHCICH,CH. 3-chloropentane (i) CH\CH,CH(CH,)CH;CH,Cl_(1-chloro-3-methylpentane), CH;CH;CH(CH;)CHCICH, _(2-chloro-3-methylpentane), CH,CH:CCI(CH,)CH,CH, (-chloro-3-methylpentane), and CH,CH,CH(CH;CI)CH,CH; _[3-(chloromethyl)pentane (b) To answer this question, you first have to count up and identify by type (1°, 2°, or 3°) all the ns whose removal could lead to each one of the products. Then multiply the number of ns you counted by the relative reactivity for that type of hydrogen in a chlorination reaction at 25°C, the conditions for the reaction stated in the problem. This procedure gives you s. After you have done the relative amount of product corresponding to removal of those hydrog this for all the products, you convert these relative amounts into percentage yields by normalizing to 100% (as shown below). (® 1-Chloropentane is formed by chlorination of any of the six primary hydrogens (each with a relative reactivity = 1) on carbons | and 5; .. its relative yield is 6 X 1 = 6. 2-Chloropentane formed by chlorination of any of the four secondary hydrogens (cach with a relative activity = 4) on carbons 2 and 4; -. its relative yield is 4 x 4 = 16. 3-Chloropentane is formed by chlorination of any of the two secondary hydrogens (each with a relative reactivity = 4) on carbon 3; .. its relative yield is 2 x 4 = 8, The absolute % yield for each product is calculated as follows Relative yield of the product 100% = % yield of that product ‘Sum of relative yields for all products So, Yield of L-chloropentane = 100% X 6/(6 + 16 + 8) = 100% x 6/30 = 209 Yield of 2-chloropentane = 100% x 16/30 = 53) Yield of 3-chloropentane = 100% * 8/30 = 27% Gi) L-Chioro-3-methylpentane is formed by chlorination of any of the six primary hydrogens relative yield is 6 X 1 = 6. 2-Chloro. (relative reactivity = 1) on carbons 1 and 5; it 3-methylpentane is formed by chlorination of any of the four secondary hydrogens (relative reactivity = 4) on carbons 2 and 4; its relative yield is 4 X 4 = 16, 3-Chloro-3-methylpentane is formed by chlorination of the single te hydrogen (relative reactivity = 5) on carbon 3) its relative yield is 1X 5 = S. 3-(Chloromethyl)pentane is formed by chlorination of any of the three primary hydrogens (relative reactivity = 1) on the methyl group attached to carbon 3; ~. its relative yield is 1 x 3 = 3.50 * Chapter 3 REACTIONS OF ALKANES So, Yield of 1-chloro-3-methylpentane = 100% X 6/(6 + 16 +5 + 3) 100% X 6/30 = 20% Yield of 2-chloro-3-methylpentane = 100% X 16/30 = 53% Yield of 3-chloro-3-methylpentane = 100% X 5/30 = 17% Yield of 3-(chloromethyl)pentane = 100% x 3/30 = 10% (©) Propagation step 1 [values below are DH® (kcal mol” ') for bonds made or broken]: CHs CH CH3CH2CHCH,CHs + Cl» —> HCl + CH,CH)CCH3CH3 ae 103 = -65 Propagation step 2: cH CH, (CH3CH2CCH:CH; + Cl; —> Cl + CHsCH;CCICH;CH, 58 85. AH? = -2 For the reaction overall, A 5 keal mol 22. Thie mechanism is qualitatively the same as that of chlorination of methane (textbook Section 3-4): Initiation: Bry —> 2B Propagation (1) Br- + CH, —> CH: + HBr 2) CHs: + Br) —> CHBr + Br+ Br- + Bry —> Bry CHy: + Bre —> CHSBr + — CH SCH, 23. The data néeded to prepare these di indhide Figures 3-7 and 3-8 rams may be found in Table 3-5. Examples to use as modelsSolutions to Problems * 51 24, Initiation: Bry —> 2Br+ AH? = +46 keal mol Propagation (1) Brs + CoHg —> HBr + Ces: AH? = +25 kcal mol”! 2) CoHs + Bry —> CoHsBr + Bre AH = ~35 kcal mol Overall AH” = ~10keal mo The overall AH® is not very different from those of typ alkane C—H bonds: methane, AH’ mol”!; 1° C—H, AH? = ~10; 2° C—H, AH® = ~13.5; 3° CH, AH® = ~15.5. However, the determining first propagation step in the reaction of benzene is much more endothermic than any of the alkane reactions, due to the exceptional strength of the C—H bonds in benzene. The result is that bromination of benzene by this mechanism is exceedingly difficult (very slow) and does not compete kinetically with bromination reactions of typical alk: 25. Qualitatively the same exercise as in Problem 23, but with different bond strength values. 26. The di products ale state, close to the starting materials. soram on the left shows that the first propagation step has a late transition state, close to the ve reaction coordinate, In contrast, the second propagation step (right) has an early transition 27. Unless otherwise stated, assume that no more than one halogen atom attaches to each alkane molecule (a) No reaction. Iodination of alkanes is endothermic (b) CH,CHPCH, + CHsCH,CHaF snot very selective (© CHy Br Bromination ste ia a CH cH. cH cH. cH cH CH,—CH—CH—C—CH, + CH;—CH—CH;—C—CH.—Cl52 + Chapter 3. REACTIONS OF ALKANES A complex mixture is obtained. Cl, is more selective than F, but still prefers 3° to 1° positions by a factor of only about 5 to 1 CHs CHy (e) CHs—C—CH,, CHy _Brnis very selective for 3° C—H bonds. Br CHs 28, Relative yield = number of hydrogens of a given type in the starting alkane * relative reactive clatve yield of one product ogg, =e yield of that product sum of relative yields of all products Number of Relative Relative 9 Product hydrogens tivity yield yield (b) CH,CHFCH, 2 12 24 20, CH.CH.CHLE 6 1 6 (@ (CH),CCICH.C(CHY), 3 1 5 5 18 CICH.CH(CH,)CH,C(CH. 6 1 6 (CH),CHCHCICCHY) x 2 4 8 2» | (CH):CHCH.C(CH,).CH,C1 9 9 (©) and (e) 3° substitution by Bry is about 73% selective in (c) and 91% in (e) 29. Only the bromin: iy acceptable as synthetic methods. The other reactions, giving several products in comparable yields, are not synthetically useful. The fluorination (b) might look good on paper, but use of ion reactions (c) and (c) are re a reagent in practice is very difficult, 30, (a) Pentane has two kinds of hyde coups, because th ns—primary and secondary—put they are distributed in three distinct e different monobromopentanes are possible, depending on the site of radical bromination Replacement of any one of the six primary hydrogens at Cl and C5 (group ‘a’ in the structure below) wives ‘-bromopentane. We know that primary hydrogens are 1/80" as reactive as secondary, $0 this should be the product formed in the lowest yield. The six secondary hydrogens on C2, C3, and C4 are all reactive, Replacement of either of the two on C3 (group *b’) g of the four on C2.and C4 (group ‘c’) gi es 3-bromopentane. Replacement of any one 2-bromopentane. This will be the major product, be from replacement of the greatest number of the most reactive hydrogens in the startin cH (©) and (c) First draw the molecule in a conventional formula and identify the bond of rotation: Br H Hy CoE BE Bc’ 776° “ou, Fy Heh ess * sighting direction for preparing the Newman projections. For example, C2 in front and C3 behind. Begin with any arbitrary staggered conformation and proceed with 120 s fotations of one carbon (say.Solutions to Problems © 53 the back carbon, C3) with respect to the other, giving all possible staggered conformations arising from graph may be drawn rotation about the C2—C3 bond for this product molecule. The potential ene immediately below the structures. 5 CHs CHS CHs HCH HO CH.CH = «HC | TX Ly Br Bro SH Br H H H CHCHs Degrees of ation h. As indicated in 91. First write out the propagation steps and determine the AH® associated with Problem 30, the major product derives from halogenation at C2. Sketch the graphs, using Fi page 107 of the text as your basic model. The transition states are located at the maxima for each of the steps on the graphs. Bromination steps: Propagation step 1 CH;CH,CH;CH,CH; + Br* —> CHjCHCH,CH,CH; + HBr AH DH? = 98.5 keal mol” for sec C—H bond DIP (HBr) = 87 kcal mol ls Propagation step 2 CH;CHCH:CH.CH, + Br, —> CH3CHBrCH,CH;CH; + Br- AM" DH? (Br,) = 46 kcal mol? DH® = 71 keal mol for sec C—Br bond 25 Overall AH? = ~13.5 keal mot Todination steps Propagation step 1 —> CH;CHCH;CH.CH; + HI AH? (CHCH;CH2CH,CH DH® = 98.5 keal mol™! for sec C—H bond DEP (Hl) = 71 keal mot z HCH:CH,CH; + Ip —> CH3CHICH,CH,CH; + I Dit? (1s) = 36 kcal mol"! DH? = 56 kcal mol~ for see C—I bond Overall AH" 5 keal mo54 + Chapter 3. REACTIONS OF ALKANES Bromination graph: Todination graph: Pre Prop step | ——+}+-— Prop step 2 —*i oo { He Prop step | ++ — Prop Rese The main difference between the two halogenations is that the first propagation step for iodination is so much more endothermic that the overall reaction becomes endothermic as well 32. Although Br is sterically smaller than CH,, the polar C—Br bond gives rise t0 tive and negative charges in the molecule. As the structures below show, in both the g ions of partial posi ie and anti confor: Br bond dipoles are similar. In the gauche the negative ends of these dipoles are much closer to each other than is the case in the anti form. The repulsion between these two relatively high concentrations of negative charge located near the Br atoms raises the energy of the gauche form above Therefore, the a mations, the distances between the positive ends of the two C. conformation, however, what it would be on the basis of steries alone. i form is favored by more than would be the case otherwise. 1Br Br 33, (a) CHy + 20: —+C0, + 2H;0 (b) CsHy + 5.0, —+3 CO, + 41,0 (©) Colli2 + 902 —+6 CO; + 6 1,0 (€) C2H,O + 30; —>2 CO; + 3 H,0 (©) Ci2H20,, + 120, —+ 12 Co, 11H,0 34. (a) CsH.O + 40, +3 CO, + 3,0 (b) The energy difference is the difference between the h eats of combustion, 6.2 kcal mol whose combustion releases less h Acetone, had the lower energy content to begin with. , must have (©) Acetor - with a lower energy content, is the more stable compound. 35. You need to propose a bond-breaking process for saime goal as breaking the CL—Cl bond in Cl furyl chloride, $O3Cl;, which will accomplish the There is really only one option: a sulfur-chlorine bond. Initiation: 20: oO:Solutions to Problems * 55 H H a H—> :ClI—-H + -C—H H 20: @ H :Cl—S- + :Cl—CH, We will be stuck unless we can find a way for CISO,* to give rise to another propagation step to con tinue the chain process. Two options are possible, and with the information you have been given, either one is a reasonable proposal (a) Unimolecular decomposition of CISO3*; that is. 20: :6=S8=6: + -Cl:, followed by a new (b) An alternative propagation step that uses SO,Cl- in place of the Cl+ in step 1 H H H H > A ee H H Either is a qualitatively sensible mechanistic possibility 36. Recall (text Section 3-4) that £4 =4 keal mol”! = 4000 cal mol” for the reaction between Cl+ and Hg. Therefore, ees 1 enyy = Ae #001 586)298), and Keyes cnuy = A e791 3861256 So, kicie + cna/kies + cr1g = e150 9861298) = @253 = 9.7 X 10! That's a pretty big rate ratio. 37. As we saw in the case of the reaction of methane with a mixture of Br, and Cl3, the only kinetically Viable first propag reactions of Cl atoms with propane, Reactions of Br- atoms are far too slow to compete. It is thi radicals that form. Therefore, the selectivity obse or Br>, Because the ratio of radicals present was determined essentially jon steps in this case letermines the ratio of primary 10 seco? fed is that of Cl+ atoms. The two radicals both proceed to react rapidly with either molecular halogen, Cl in the prior step, the ratios of chloropropane isomers and of bromopropane isomers obtaine: the same, and reflect the selectivity of chlorination. 38. Calculate using the same method that was introduced in Section 3-6. There are three groups o and three on C3, From the relative yields, it activities: two on C1, to on hydrogens with different r appears that those on C3 are lowest in reactivity. It is sensible therefore to calculate how much more the hydrogens on C2 and Cl are compared to those on C3. First, let’s do C2 vs. C3 Relative reactivity 8 / 2c ofa hydrogen on C2 _ chlorination) / \hydrogens) _ . < Reape eaupnaecs iy (9sc3.\ Westretiet cat? s\tgeonts) of a hydrogen on56 * Chapter 3. REACTIONS OF ALKANES Now Cl ys, C3: Relative reactivity / 90% C1 ) 7/ 2C1 of a hydrogen on Cl _ \chrorination/ / \nydrogens) _ 4, lative reactivity 15%C3 )/( 303 of a hydrogen on C3 \chlorination// \hydrogens/ Recalng the resus From propane (Seton 3-6) the hydrogens at C2 (secondary) were aout 4 times mor reaetve than those at either Clot C3 (primary. The reason was that secondary allyl radicals are more Sable than primary alkyl radicals Tate molecule inthis problem, I-bromopropane, the mos reactive inden a toe oil Wei Bhai Fr i omnes is radical at C is reasonable to speculate that this stabilization may have something to do with the lone Re See ies cxicuctntiea an eaciioreonstien make hypetconjgaton, which allows electrons from neighboring bonds to localize towans the baler rata p abit In Lbromepropane, we cin imagine that p ebital containing» lone pon the Br could align and ovrap with th hal- CHX +H = 20 35 8 Q) H: + X:—> HX +X =45 41 35 (D+) CH. +X, — CHX+HX aH = —103 25 6 +13 (0) ih every cass the AH! for the hypothetical first propagation step above is much less favorable than Fone ttt the generally accepted, correct step (Table 3-5) Therefore, the E, values for te tee steps above will, in all probability, be much larger than the E, valuce to the correct propagation steps, then, the reaction X» + CH, very, very slow, and unlikely to compet. 40. Inhibition usually comes about by reaction of the inks Species in propagation step. Inthe case of radical halogenation, the alk! Prpauniitors. The products of the inhibition process are not reactive eneugh caren on to another The eraon SP, $0 the propagation “chain” is broken in much the samme wey ther ru nat 2 ch the same way that termination steps break the propagation chain process. We have the following " for the correct steps. Relative > CHSX + H+ will probably be kinetically bitor with one of the reactive “chain-carrying” radical is susceptible to reaction Ch — 2a Cl + CH; — HCl + CHy: Initiation Propagation step 1: AH® = +2 kcal mol Then, however, in the presence of Ip | eo CHIT: Tahibaton step, Ane 21 keal mot ne chain started by propagation sep 1 is now broken because 34 keal mol”', from Table 3-5). A ch, reaction system, permanently lost from t T cannot react with CH, (AH: iin carrying CH radical has bee heSolutions to Problems © 57 41. (a) Divide AHS, by the molecular weight: (kcal mol!) + (g mol”) = keal g Methane: ARI 212.8 keal mol! _ 16 g mol | (MW of CH,) 3 keal go! Ethane: AH2yny = 12.4 keal g Propane: AHZoniy = ~12.0 ka Pentane: AHSyny = 11.7 keal g (b) Ethanol (gas): AFaqn = —7.3 keal g (©) Qualitatively, the observation is quite consistent with the much lower heat production by weight from the combustion of ethanol vs. alkanes; oxygen-containing molecules are indeed poorer sources of energy as fuels 42. (a) 2 CH,OH + 3.0, —> 2.CO + 4,0 Except for liquid HzO, all substances are int 2 (CH,),COCH, + 150; —> 10 CO + 12 H,0 ae (b) The molecular weight of methanol (32) is close to that of ethane (30), but the AM‘.on value for etha ater in magnitude than that of methanol. Similarly, (CHs);COCH (372.8 keal mot ') is much 995.0 kcal has a molecular weight of 88, close to that of hexane (86). The AHomp for the latter is considerably more than that for 2-methoxy-2-methylpropane. Although addition of heat yield ps mol !, again enated compounds to the fuel mixtures of internal combustion engines reduces the supplied in these tnass of fuel upon combustion, it accomplishes two other goals, First, the ox s of the fuel mix, reducing additives contributes to permit more complete oxidation of the componet emission of partly oxidized byproducts such as CO. Second, the fuel mix is less susceptible to so-called ites before the piston has had a chance to reach the endpoint of its com pre-ignition, in which the fuel ig pression stroke in the cylinder. Pre‘ignition results in “knocking” noises in an |AH® for both the primary and the secondary hydrogen abstraction reactions first. Data: for secondary C—H, 98.5 keal mol~'; for HBr, 87 43. (a) Calcula DH? for primary C—H = 101 keal mol mol !, Therefore. AHP (peimary C—H absrectiony = 101 — 87 = +14 kcal mol”! IRE conaary Webern) = 98-5 11.5 kcal mol”! So, we have the following energy diagram as a result CHSCH,CHy + HBr 15 keal ml ie = sake no — (CHy,CH- + HBr 13 kcal mol TaancH, Sie = Reaction coordina58 + Chapter 3. REACTIONS OF ALKANES (b) These are both “late” transition states, most resembling the products in energy. (Contrast the ‘early” transition states in chlorination.) ore have closely resemble the product radicals in structures and theref ‘igure 3-9 (for chlorination) show much (© These transition states considerable radical character, By comparison, those in F Jess radical character, being much “earlier” and much less productlike. (@) Yes. For bromination the radical-like transition states for primary vs. secondary reaction differ in energy by an amount (2 keal mol ') that closely reflects the difference in energy of the radicals themselves (2.5 kcal mol"). For chlorination, the much less radical-like transition states do not reflect the energies of the product radicals nearly as much, so the difference between them is much less (1 keal mol, Selectivity here is totally determined by the energy difference between transition states of competing pathways; therefore, bromination is much more selective than chlorination. ‘AHP is calculated by subtracting the DH® values for the bonds formed from those of the bonds broken. Propagation step 1: AH = 26 ~ 64 = —38 keal mol" Propagation step 2: AH® = 64 — 120 = —56 keal mol ‘The overall reaction is just ©; + O > 20, with AH? = —94 kcal mol”. The reaction is extremely favorable energetically, and, as the equations show, it is catalyzed by Cl atoms. A single atom of chlorine is capable of destroying thousands of ozone molecules in propagation cycles such as this one. 45. (a) and (b) ~~~ ~~ Three monohalogenation products: es A =. Five monohalogenation products: 2-methylpentane x ee i x - x A x Four monohalogenation products: 3-methylpentane ‘Three monohalogenation products: 2.2-dimethylbutaneSolutions to Problems * 59 Two monohal nation products: 2,3-dimethylbutane (©) As illustrated above, 2,3-dimethylbutane possesses only indistinguishable tertiary hydro; X = Br, virtually the entire 46. (©) 47. (©) (1-Chlor two distinct sites for halogenation: two ns and twelve indisti iguishable primary H’s. In the oduct will arise from bromination at a tertiary position methyl-4-propyloctane) Yes, they actually ask questions like this. AB. (a) For chlorination, six secondary hydrogens outcompete the lone tertiary in (b) 49. (a)4 Cycoalkanes It is convenient to cover ordinary alkanes and cyclic ones in separate chapters of organic chemistry textbooks. In most cases, however, the presence or absence of a ring in a molecule makes little difference to its physical properties or its chemical behavior. What you have learned in Chapter ‘out char and 3 can be applied virtually with: ¢ to the molecules presented in Chapter 4. Cyclic alkanes are nonpolar, lacking in any functional groups, and therefore are relatively unreactive, like a actions are radical re: ic alkanes. For most of them, the only important re- tions. The major topics of concern are those dealing with the shapes (conformations) of the types of ring systems, and the effects of these shapes on the bonding and stability of each size ring. Some new points of nomenclature are presented. On the whole, however, the chapter contains only one new topic that is not a direct extrapolation of what has gone before: the concept of bond angle strain in compounds con- taining small rings. Outline of the Chapter 4.1 Nomenclature and Physical Properties Basic material 4-2. Ring Strain and Structure The bonding consequences of closing a chain of atoms into a ring 43 Cyclohexane The most common and most impor 44 Substituted Cyclohexanes More of the same, of three, four, or five carbons. fant ring size (six carbons). Its shapes, and their consequences. 45 larger Cycloalkanes Very brief overview 446 Polycyclic Alkanes Ditto 47 Carbocyclic Natural Products Common ring-containing molecules of biological importance Keys to the Chapter 4-1. Nomenclature and Physical Properties The naming of ring compounds requires two new procedures enol a P es in addition to those associated with acyclic sys- at that carbon around the ring givi nds," numbering starts lowest 60Solutions to Problems # 61 numbers for substituent groups, using the same criteria for “lowest numbers” presented earlier. Second, rings have a “top” and a “bottom” face, relatively speaking, Therefore, substituents on different ring carbons may either be on the same face or on opposite faces, necessitating the cis or trans denotation in the name. All other principles of nomenclature follow unchanged. 4-2. Ring Strain and Structure Electron pairs repel each other and try to be as far apart as possible. Rings with only three or four atoms force ther than is normal. The repulsion that results is the major compounds and is the physical cause of the ring strain referred the electron pairs of the C—C bonds to be closer t cause of the high-energy nature of small rin to in the text. To examine the structural aspects of these molecules, you will find your set of models to be indispensable Cyclopropane is the only flat cycloalkane ring. All larger cycloalkanes are nonplanar. Ring distortion away carbon—hydrogen bonds. from a planar structure reduces eclipsing interactions between neighboring 4-3 and 4-4. Cyclohexanes Before you do anything else, make a model of cyclohexane, Be sure to use the correct atoms and bonds from your kit. The completed model should not be too floppy and should be easily capable of holding the shape shown in Figure 4-5(B). This is the chair conformation, with three C—H bonds pointing stra C—H bonds pointing straight down (the axial C—H bonds). Starting from this point, you should be able to construet the other important cyclohexane conformations by moving an “end” carbon through the plane of the “middle” four carbons ofthe ting; that is, ht up and three Move up > Boat and boatlike conformations (rather floppy, t00) Lear to recognize axial and equatorial positions and their cis/trans interrelationships around the ring. Again, Uuse your model in conjunction with the chapter text and illustrations. Note the congestion associated with large groups in axial positions, a result of /,3-diaxial interactions, the main effect that causes diffe between the two possible chair conformations of a substituted cyclohexane. This is an example of a trans: annular (literally, “across the ring”) intera sing in this case from the ring structure forcing groups to adopt gauche conformational relationships. Be sure (0 use your models when trying to do the problems at the end of the chapter, 4-5 and 4-6. Larger Rings; Polycyclic Molecules ‘The material in these sections is intended only to give a very brief introduction to areas of organic chemistry that are important in current research but are generally beyond the scope of a course at this level. Only a small number of selected molecules are mentioned with relevant points of structure and nomenclature presented where appropriate, Solutions to Problems and systematically go through successively smaller rings: 21. Start with the largest ri CH CH; CH; Methyleyclobutane 1, 1-Dimethyleyelopropane CH.CHs \ .. CH; CE CH; CH cis-1,2-Dimethyl. —_rans-1, 2-Dimethyl- Ethyleyelopropane eyclopropane eyclopropane (Did you forget this one Lots of stude62 + Chapter 4 CYCLOAIKANES ent structure (in this case, cyclohexane itself), and work downward 22. As before, begin with the largest p: e aerangements to make up the re in ring size one carbon atom at a time, adding substituents in all possible arrangement p quired molecular formula, CH; Cyclobexane:[ Cyelopentane: Methyleyclopentane cH A CH,CHy fee F {-cHy Cyclobutanes: [ cu Etyleyclobutane __1,1-Dimethyleyclobutane _cis-1.2_Dimethyleyclobutane fl fit kh J Je ior H.C HC tans-12-Dimelhyleyclobuane cis-13-Dimehylyclobutane tran. 3,Dimethyleylobutane Cclopropanes Hage CHsCH.CH, ‘chi H.C CHCH, Propyleyclopropane _(I-Methylethyeyclopropane _1-Ethy-I-methyleycloppane CH:CHy ACH; ec aa HC. CH; e “CH; CH; iV 2-meheycepropene rane Btyl2methyleyeepropme_1,12Thimetyleyoun pane Hc” \ 1H. #123-Trimethylcyclopropane cistrans-l,23-Timethylcyctopropane These two applications ofthe cisfrans designations are longer in general use. Chapter $ will ese 23. (a) lodocyclopropane (b) trans-1-Methy|-3-(1-methylethy)eyclopentaneSolutions to Problems © 63 (©) cis-1,2-Dichlorocyclobutane (d) cis-I-Cyclohexyl-S-methyleyclodecane (e) To tell whether this is cis or trans, draw in the hydrogens on the substituted carbons: Br) — Groups on top of ring H # Br) < Groups on bottom of rng One Br on top, one on bottom, .". trans-1,3-dibromocyclohexane. (f) Similarly. Onwp > GP ) — onbotiom cis-1,2-dibromocyclohexane 24, (a) o follow IUPAC (b) The name is corset The name given is unambiguous, but TUPAC stipulates that in compounds ©) Ns With a ring attached toa straight chain, the parent should be whichever one has more carbon atoms, Call teylcyclohenane (@) The substivent is named incorectly.(-Methylpropy?:yclohexane is comect i | Correct cl © —_ (L.1-Dimethylethyyclobexan.64 + Chapter 4 CYCLOAIKANES 25. cHcih Br CH.CH, CHCH 1 i / me y-4 © "Gg perc CH:CHy CHACH, cH, FE Echt ec, @ x a ps is Be Nc I i, 26. (a) The very low relative radical chlorination reactivity of cyclopropane implies abnormally strong C-H bonds and an abnormally unstable cyclopropyl radical (b) Radicals prefer sp? bridization, with 120° bond angles. So in the cyclopropyl radical, the bond ‘angle strain at the radical carbon is greater (120° — 60° ~ 60° bond at carbon in cyclopropane itself (109.5° — 60° = 49.5° bond angle compression). Forming the radic: therefore inereases ring strain and is more difficult in cyclopropane than in a molecule lacking compression) than at a bond angle distortion to begin with 27. Initiation heat (A) or Saute ight iv)? Propagation: > HBr + HX ieee J = Br BB: HY > oBr WN Termination: Br Br: — Br os > Br Br : H H oH HXSolutions to Problems # 65 28, In all cases the reference value to begin with is the DH” for the C—C bond between CH» (2 ie., DH® for CHx3CH;—CH,CH;, 88 kcal mol! (Table 3-2 (a) Cleavage of a C—C bond in cyclopropane requires a smaller net energy input because ring is relieved in the process. Breaking a “normal” C—C bond would require 88 kcal mol ' input, but because 28 keal mol is recovered as a result of strain relief in opening the three-me! the DH® actually required is 88 ~ 28 = 60 kcal mol~', Note that this is consistent wit 65 keal mol”! for ring opening (Section 4-2). CH CH; + -CH;CH, os ae ian ge ind CH.CHACH. ei econ HCH) —CHCH CH. cH. CH (b) For cyclobutane, our estimated DH? = 88 — 26 = 62 keal mol (©) DH? = 88 81 kcal mol (@) DH? = 88 — 0 = 8 kcal mol Thus, the unusual ri -opening reactions of cyclopropane and cyclobutane (relative to other alkanes and cycloalkanes) are thermodynamically reasonable. 29. Here is a drawing of cyclobutane, with axial (a) and equatorial (¢) positions labeled, ackered form exchange axial and equatorial positions, e carbons are equivalent, and flipping the p as does flipping chair conformations in cyclohexane pp ‘Transannolr(13-dianal)imerstion66 * Chapter 4 CYCLOAIKANES i H CH; CH; Pest FL this the srans-1 2eampound is CH; 2— =H Za table because both © H CHy time. Inthe cis-1,2 (b) on previous ps Both CH,'s equatorial thc eye il romp in more stable either conformation. CH; Now itis the eis-1.3 ‘compound that can H_ have both CH,'s ‘equatorial atthe same time, Its more stable than the rans (below Equal in enetgy: one methyl axial and one equatorial i conformation 30. Refer to answers to Problems 23(e) and 23(f) for guidelines (a) Trans. Not most stable form. Ring flip gives diequatorial conformation: YET Z al (b) Trans! (Surprise!) Note positions of hydrogens, The two hydrogens are trans, so clearly the NH, and OCH, groups must be trans, too. The NH, is cis to the top H, and the OCH, is cis to the bottom H. i Both groups are equatorial, so this is the most stable conformation © Cis, if CH = CH(CH,), CH(CH,), HO.Solutions to Problems © 67 From Table 4-3, we see that CH(CH)> prefers an equatorial position more (2.2 keal mol”') than does OH (0.94 keal mol”), In the structure drawn, CH(CHs)3 is axial and OH is equatorial. This t, in which is not the most stable conformation because the ri CH(CH,), is equatorial and OH axial an flip to the form on the rig CH (@) Trans. HST. Most sabe conformation (CHs equatorial H é 07 ~ocH, 1 CHsCHs © Cis. L Most stable form (CH,CH; equator een W ERASE Br aioe sable rest grips equmcca H (Diciea aoe S— OCHS Most sable form (bath groups equatorial). HOH _ D1 GC pf OE Not moet sable form. Ring ip makes i iccustoral HOH Br @ Cis COOH Not most stable form. Ring flip makes HY ° HOC group equatorial, whichis preferable (Table 4-3) H (j) Trans, Most stable form [compare (b), on previous page} 31. The sign for AG? will be negative ifthe conformation shown in the problem is the less stable one and will be positive if the conformation shown is the more stable one (a) ~(1.70 + 0.52) keal mol (b) 1.4 + 0.75 = 2.2 keal mol (©) ~(2.20 — 0.94) = =1.26 keal mol”! (d) 1.70 = 1.29 = 0.41 kcal mol! (©) 1.75 ~ 0.46 = 1.29 keal mol” (£) 14 + 0.55 = 2.0 kcal mol (g) 1.70 + 0.75 = 2.45 keal mol (h) ~(0.94 + 0.25) = ~1.19 kcal mol (@ —(.41 ~ 0.55) = -0.86 keal mol”! (j) 2.20 + 0.52 = 2.72 keal mol68 * Chapter 4 CYCLOAIKANES 32. 33. In each case the more stable conformation is the one in Most stable conformation (@ / OH OH ww / ‘CH; (© CH. ~F~CH(CH,), CHO @ -~7~c1cn, “ ‘C(CHs)s @ cl From Table 4-3 @ 0.94 keal mol is higher in ene (less stable conformation (b) 1.7 ~ 0.94 = 08 keal mol (©) 2.2 + 1.7 = 3.9 keal mol”! (@) 1.75 ~ 0.75 = 1.00 keal mot”! 5 5.5 kcal mol Table 4-3 is equatorial 34, Ionger be equal in ene! The basic idea is that the two extren which the group with the largest AG es of the diag One has the methyl group have sufficient information to estimate the middle of the diag equatorial, but the other has it axial. You di energies of the twist-boat and im, Except to assume that they will prob: energy than the corresponding conform: conformations. Least stable conformation OH HO. CH CH; CH(CH,)» CEQ CH:CH; ‘ { C(CHs), Ratios, using AG° = —RT In Kg, 48 4 0.83 ee aged 83/17 ratio (in favor of more stable conformation) 79121 ratio Ka = 10°; 99.9/0.1 ratio Keg = 5.3; 84/16 ratio Keg ~ 10%; >> 99.9/0.1 ratio value from ‘am, the two chair conformations, will no lo not boat conformations in the ably be equal to or (more likely) higher in ations of cyclohexane itself, relative to the more stable chairSolutions to Problems * 69 7 kcal mol"! \d 35. Both rings can flip, so there are four possible combinations, two of which are ident H H H H / / These two are identi: p~/ H Heh H Most stable: each ring is attached by an rs Least stable: each ri equatorial bod tothe other is atached by an axial bond to the othe Hu 36. Notice how some positions around a boat conformation of eyclohexane are axial-like (“pseudoaxial and some are equatorial-like (“pseudoequatorial”): + Je a= pseudoaxial = pseudoequatorial the methyl group in each different type of position and examine each If you draw conformations placin conformation for strain, you will see the following: Methyl is pseudooquatorial CHy Best conformation