TheSparrettBookforMachinistsApprentices 10059235

HOWARD P .
FA I RFI EL D
sist an i Professor Mac hi ne Con st ructio n Worc este r Polytec h n ic
, I nsti tut e
A ND
CAR L S . D O W, S . B .
Editor -i n -c hief P rac tic a l M ech a ni ca l E n g i ne e ri n g
Edit or -i n-c h ief Pr ac t ic al S h op Wor k
PRI C E , 5 0 C E NTS
TH E L S S TA RRETT C OMPA N Y
. .
Th e
’
Wo r l d s G r e a t e s t To o l m a k e r s
ATHOL M ASSA C HUSETT S

,
C o w ma n ? 1917
T H E L S S TA RR E TT
. .
IN TR O D U C T I O N
L ayi n g out work p rel i mi n ary to machi ni n g i s tran s
ferri n g blue p ri nt i n struct i o n s o n t o the metal Whil e
-
.
the blue p ri nt g ves di m ens i o n s accurately without any

i
-
,
great p recisi o n i n the draw i n g itsel f li n es la i d o ut o n

,
the metal are to b e worked to an d must therefore b e

ac curat e N o on e can co ns i d er h i m self a sk i ll ed machi nist
.
unl ess he c an lay out h i s own work an d whe n c alled ,
up o n l a y o ut work for the l ess exp er i en c ed

,
z
.
T o b ecome sk i lle d i n lay i n g o ut shoul d b e the aim o f

every app renti c e P ossess i n g thi s sk i ll gi ves more o p
.
p o r t u n i t y to show ab i l i ty th an the run ni n g o f a machi n e .
I t i s a qualific ati o n o n e must have for advan c ed p osi

tio n s such a s tool m aker foreman o r sup eri nten dent
, , .
B ut lay i ng o ut re q u i res so m e k n owledge o f mathe

mati e s some skill at m echani cal d rawi ng a n d an ac q uai nt
‘
’
, ,
an c e with machi ni sts fin e tools an d s hop op erati o n s .
A ttent i o n to deta i ls an d extrem e c are are o f utmost i m

p ortan c e . I n creased l abo r cost as well as materi al
,
wasted b ecause o f errors i n layi n g out are the p en altie s

,
o f m istakes .
The app renti c e then shoul d los e n o opportunity t o

, ,
m ake himsel f c ap abl e o f lay i n g o ut work C lose ob serva .
t i o n o f pi ec es la i d out by sk i lle d machi nists i s o n e way

of b ec om i n g/ ac q uai nted w i th the art The fortun a te
.
app rentic e m a y also have Opp ortunity to observe a

sk i lled m achi n ist wh i le layi n g o ut vari ous j ob s .
The numb er of measur i ng an d l ay i n g o ut tools o r

i n struments n ow purchasabl e is very great an d the ap
p rent i c e must b ec ome fam i l i ar w i th p ract i c ally all o f
them He must kn ow what he can acco m plish with each
.
so that he w i ll i n sti n ctively select thos e b est s uited to the

jo b i n han d .
T H E S T A R R E T T B O O K
E co n o m y t i me i n l ayi n g o ut i s an other el ement of

of
suc c ess Time sav i n g tool s such as the di al test i n di

.
-
,
cator qui ck acti n g m i crometer an d c ombi n atio n s et

,
-
, ,
should b e amon g thos e ready for use The c o m b i n ati o n .
s et for i nstan c e c ombi n es a rul e square m iter p r o t r a c

, , , , ,
’
tor c enter s quare d epth gage height gage an d l evel The
, , , , .
fewer the tools used p rov i ded the o n es at h an d are really

,
goo d o n es the l ess the b en ch w i l l b e littered with tools

,
whi ch may b e used o nly oc casio n ally

’
.
The tools i n a m a chi nist s tool box are a sure i n di ca

-
t i o n o f h i s ab i l i ty A well fi t t e d k i t o f fi n e tools help s

.
-
.
h i m hol d a j ob i n hard times an d i s o n e of the b est ,
assets a man c an have when applyi n g for a j ob The p os .
sess i o n o f m any fi n e tools i n d i cates a love for ac curate

work freedo m from the b orrowi n g habit an d a d e t e r
, ,
m in a t i o n to d o work which will d eman d r e c og n i t i o n .
N ext to havi n g a c ompl ete outfit o f fi n e too l s i s the dis

p ositio n o u the p art o f the app rentic e t o a dd the b est
tool s as rapi dly as he c an afford them .
I n p rep ari n g thi s b ook the a i m has b een to se l ect

,
those e l em entary features most essential to the advan c e

’
m ent o f mach i nists app rent i c es an d students i n t e c h n i
cal an d m anual trai n i n g schools I t i s i nten ded to give
.
such stud ents a p ortio n o f the i nstructio n ord i nar i ly

given by t h e teacher o r by m ore exp eri en c ed mach i nists .
I t will also serve a s a referen c e boo k fo r dat a n o t t o

b e memorize d .
T H E S T A R R E T T
'
B O O K
READ IN G W O RKI N G D RAW IN G S
D raw i n g i s the l an guage o f the en gi n eer d es i gn er , ,
an d mach i n i st Unl ess a mach i ni st c an at l east read

.
work i ng draw i n gs he can n ot b e k nown as a sk i lled me

c h an ic C erta i n co nvent i on s rel at i n g to v i ews lin es
. , ,
scales sect i o n s an d other rep resentatio n s a r e what make

, , ,
u p the l an g uage of d rawi n gs

-
an d the correct use of ,
these i s read i ly l earn ed A set o f worki ng draw i n gs

.
c on s i sts of
G E N ER A L D R AW I N G showi n g the ent i re m achi n e ,
with all the p arts lo cated i n the i r p rop er relatio n to o n e

an other Th i s drawi ng i s usually made to a reduce d
.
scale ; for example o n e quarter o r on e hal f s i z e ; it i s

,
- -
o ften ter m e d the A sse m bled o r A sse m bly D rawi n g .
D E T A I L D R A W I N G S show each p art o f the m achi n e

” “ ”
s ep arate l y ; they are often termed detail or d etails , .
A detail draw i ng shoul d b e suppl i ed w i th c ompl ete data

for co n str u cti n g the p art such as dimen s i o n s mater i al , ,
used nu m b er of p i ec es Op eratio n s to b e p erfor m ed etc

, , , .
,
an d shoul d co ns i st o f suffic i ent v i ews to b e eas i ly read .
I n p ract i c e so m e fir m s group several d eta i ls up o n a s i ngl e

sheet others plac e a s i n gl e detail up o n a sheet .
S E C T I O N A L D R A W ING S show c erta i n asse m bled

p orti on s as i f a p art of the stock had b ee n sl i ce d away
,
to more clearly i llustrate the i nterior co n struct i o n often ,

'
ter m e d secti o n s
“
P os i t i o n of secti o n is shown by a
.
“ ”
“ ”
full l i n e drawn through a vi ew an d l ettered at each en d .
B OL T A ND S C R E W L I S T S O n these are ta bul ated .
all b olts , screws etc which are com m o n to the stock

, .
,
room an d n ec essary t o the erect i n g of the m achi n e

, .
M O T I O N D I A G R A M S I n struct i on i s so m etimes n ec
.
essary co n c erni n g the relatio n o f c erta i n c enters to the

motio n o f p arts vel oc i ty ratios an d d i recti on o f motio n ;
, ,
therefore where a mach i n e has a nu m b er o f m o re o r l ess

compl i c ate d motio n s m ot i o n d i ag rams a re p rovi d e d
, .
7
VI E W S . A ll m aterial
thi ngs have three d i m en sio n s ;
’
l en g th breadth an d th i ckn ess or he i ght The draftsman

, , .
o f n ec ess i ty makes use of some m ethod o f p roj ecti o n to

get hi s var i o u s v i ews o n a fl at surfac e o n wh i ch o nly two
d i m en s i on s c an b e shown — the m ethod o f p roj ect i on i n
mach i n e shop u s e plac es the fro nt v i ew with the other
-
vi ews group ed aro u n d i n the ord er of the i r n a m es as ,
top v i ew above b ottom vi ew b el ow etc ; each vi ew c en

, , .
ter i n g o n either a hori zo ntal o r a verti c al c enter li n e .
FU LL LI N E
'
Z’ '
DO T T ED LI NE
C ENT E R L I N E
DI M ENS I O N LI NE
S H A DE LI N E
L IN E S . Full li n es o n a drawi n g i n di cate the vi sibl e

l i n es o r edges o f the obj ect D otted l i n es i n di cate hi d d e n
.
o r i nvisibl e l i n es an d edges B roken li n es made up o f

. ,
dots an d dashes i n d i cate c enter l i n es

,
A ll lay outs .
-
shoul d start fro m c enter l i n es .
D i m en s i o n l i n es are us u ally ful l li n es with a b reak

i n the lin e for dime n s i on fi gures an d an arrow head at
each en d to i n di c ate the surfac es d i men si on ed S ect i on .
li n es are p arallel l i n es d rawn acro ss a surfac e whi ch i s

rep resented as b ei n g i n s ect i on ; they a re usually drawn
at an i n cli n atio n o f 4 5 o r
°
an d equally sp ac e d .
B y usi n g for s ect i o n s various combi n ati o n s o f ful l an d

dotted li n es an d sp eci al sp aci ngs di fferent material s o f ,
c on struct i o n such as c ast i ro n steel etc can b e i n di c a ted

, , , .
,
.
S C A L E S Where co nven i ent all drawi n gs are made

. ,
actual siz e termed ful l scale When the obj ect i s t o o

,
.
10
l arge to b e co nveni ently rep resente d full siz e the draw ,
i n g i s mad e to a regularly reduced s i z e called a reduc ed

,
scale d raw i n g The usual scal es are full s i ze hal f size

.
-
,
-
,
quarter s i z e a n d e i ghth s i ze also k n own as 1 2

-
,
-
,
an d 1 1743 to 1 foot W hen work i n g from drawi ngs the

"
.
d i m en sio n figures sho u l d b e i nvari ably followed — meas

u r e m e n t s s houl d n ot b e taken from the dr a w i n g .
CA S T L COPP ER
,
I RO N S TE E
B RAS S OR BRONZ E W HI TE A LLOYS AL MU INUM
11
A BBR E V I A T I O N S A ll i n formati o n
. on a drawi ng i s,
when p oss i bl e ab breviated as follows :
,
C ON V E N T I ON A L A B B R E V I A T I ON S
F i n i sh : S urfac e is R H . . : R ight Han d
to b e fi n i shed
G ri n d : S u rfac e i s L . H . : L eft Han d

to b e gro u n d
Fac e : To s q u a re
B ore : Use of bo r C I . . : C ast I ro n

i n g tool s o r b ars
R eam : Hol e shoul d M . S . : M achi n e
b e reamed S teel
T . Tool S teel
S . :
C R S : C ol d
. . .
R oll ed S teel
T ap Hol e
: is to b e C S . . : C arbo n S teel
tapp e d
S p eed S teel .
D rill : Hol e is to R un n in g Fi t , D rive

b e drill ed Fi t , Forc e Fit ,
S h r i n k Fi t , T a p e r
Fit : A llowan ces
to b e m ad e i n
s i ze O f shaft
S C REW T H RE AD S S T R U CT U R A L R I V E T ING PIP E

, ,
F I TT ING S L IN E SHA FT BE A R ING S e t c are so stan d

, , .
,
ar d iz e d that c onventio n al rep resentati on s are always

used by the d rafts m en .
12
T H E _
S q
T A R R E T O
T H
B D O K ‘
M EAS U R IN G T OO L S
M easurem ents i n gen eral are those O f l en gth area , ,
an d volume I n mach i n e sh O p p racti c e the measurement

.
-
O f length i s the com m on o n e Th i s i s O f such i mp or .
tanc e an d man y o f the measure m ents are o f s uch exact

,
n ess that a mult i tud e O f m easur i n g tools are b ei n g

,
m arketed n early all o f whi ch are for the mai n purp o s e

,
o f Obta i n i n g li n ear m easure m ents .
TH E Y A R D I n the U n i ted S tates the S tan dard O f

.
len gth i s the B ri tish yard o f wh i ch two c op i es are own ed

-
,
b y the United S tates G overn ment .
TH E M E T ER which i s the French stan dard o f

,
l en gth i s al so c o m i ng i nto use i n the Un i ted S tates

, ,
n otably i n i n stru m ent work The m eter e q ual s .
i n ches .
The use of measuri n g tool s i n machi n e work i s

largely c o nfin ed to the thirty s i xth sub d i vis i o n o f the -
yard or the i nch The i n ch i s sub divi ded i nto vari ous
, .
l en gths o f whi ch the ten thousan dth p art i s the short

,
-
est p racti cal sh O p m easure m ent M easurements shorter .
t han thi s are however c o m m o n enough i n s ci entific

, ,
lab oratory work .
The p ract i c al m achi nist a n d to olmaker d ivi d es hi s

work i nto two classes :
( a ) F l at Work an d ( b) R oun d Work Whil e i t c an .
n ot be sai d that each class has its di sti n ctive l i n e o f

m easuri n g too l s , the work m an who han dles fl at work
o n l y will usually have a so m ewhat di ff erent s et of meas
uri ng tool s from the workman on roun d work .
FL AT W O RK
I gen eral the worker o n flat work w i ll n ee d to b e
n
p rovi ded w i th steel rules divi ders p rotr a ctors straight , , ,
13
C o m bin a t i o n Se t
’
To o l m ak e r s C al ip e rs M ic r o m e t e r D e pt h G ag e
14
edges steel s quares surfac e height d epth an d thi ckn ess

, , , , ,
gages c enter p un ches p arallels sl i de calip ers etc

, , , , .
R O UND W ORK
Fo r roun d work the measurements are b y c o ntact an d ,
the usual tools are thos e havi n g co ntact p o i nt s C ontact .
measure m ents are mad e i n two ways : ( a ) The c ontact

tool i s fi r st set to som e stan d ard of l en gth as for ex
'
, ,
“ ”
ampl e a steel rul e o r a stan dard gage The set d i m e n
, , .
si o n may then b e use d as a stan dard for testi n g the work .
( b) The revers e of thi s m ethod ma y b e u sed for deter

m i n i n g sizes vi z : by first setti n g the c ontact p oi nts to
, .
the surfac es O f the work afterward usi n g the steel rule

,
o r stan dard gage to read the s i z e .
FEE L
The accur a cy o f all
c ontact m easurements i s
d ep en d ent up o n the sens e
o f touch ( feel ) I n the .
c ase o f sk i lled workmen ,
as for exa m pl e t o o l m ak
, ,
ers the s en se o f touch i s

,
highly d evelop ed Usi ng .
suitable co ntact m e asur

i n g too l s the skill ed m e
,
”
chani e c an read i ly feel
the di fferen c e i n co ntact
m ade by changes o f d i
m e n si o n s as small a s
I n the human han d

the s en se o f touch i s m ost p romi n ent i n the fi n g e r tip s -
.
Therefore the co ntact m easuri n g tool shoul d b e hel d by ‘
15
the fi n gers o nly an d i n such a way as to bri n g it i n c o n

,
tact w i th the fi n g e r tip s I f the tool i s harshly grasp ed

-
.
by the fi n g ers the s en s e of touch o r feel i s muc h r e

,
d uc e d . For this reaso n the tool shoul d b e d eli cately an d

l i ghtly hel d i nstead o f gr i pp ed t i ghtly .
The m ore c o m mo n tools for co ntact m easurements

are i n si d e an d outsi d e calip ers used i n co nj un cti o n w i th
,
steel rules plug an d ri n g gages an d dimens i o n blocks

, , .
W h i l e it i s p oss i bl e to tran sfer by feel a l en g th

“
with a n error n ot exc eed i n g o n e quarter of o n e thou

.
-
s a n d t h i n ch the results are n ot always eas i ly r e ad ; for

,
-
thi s reaso n m echani cs p refer to use di rect readi n g tools

fo r the more acc u rate c o ntact work Two metho d s o f .
d i rect read i n g are i n c ommo n use .
V ERNI ER C A LI PERS
Thi s tool i s a comb i n at i o n o f co ntact p oi nts a n d
steel rul es O n e o f the co ntact p oi nts i s a fixed p art
.
O f a graduated steel rul e whil e the other contact p o i nt

,
i s a p art O f a graduated slid er mounted up o n the blad e

o f the first B y combi n i n g the use of the sep arate scales
. ,
d i rect readi n gs of o n e thousan dth part Of an i n ch are

-
readily made .
16
M I C R O ME T ER C A LI PERS
W ith the i nventi o n the m i crometer sc rew there
O f
c a m e i nto use a n ew m etho d O f d i rect read i ngs i n co ntact
m easurements The great acc u racy of the mi cro m eter
.
screw b ecom es evi dent when i t i s real i zed th at threaded

sp i n dl es w i th a l i m i t O f error o f i n o n e foot -
l en g ths are co m m erc i ally p ossible I n m i crometer c o n .
struct i o n w i th a use d le ng th O f screw thread o f o n e i n ch

o nly the erro r is n egligi bl e A m i cro m eter head co n
, .
s i sts o f a sp i n dl e threaded forty to the i nch fitted

, ,
through a thread ed sl eeve havi n g an en closi n g thimbl e

,
fasten ed to its outer en d S uitabl e graduati o n s m ade

.
axially o n the threaded sl eeve co m bi n ed w i th the grad

u at i o n s o n the edge O f the rotati ng th i m bl e g i ve d i rect
readi n gs o f o n e thousan dth p art O f o n e i n ch B y mean s
-
.
o f a vern i er scal e used o n the rear of the sl eeve d i rect
co ntact read i n gs as s m all as o n e ten thousan dth p art o f -
o n e i n ch can b e read i ly m ade .
M i cro m eter sc rews are mounted i n a fram e wh i ch

may b e var i ed i n shap e an d size to ren der it c o nveni ent
for the d es i red purp oses The c o ntact p o i nts are also
, .
shap ed to the p art i cular use d esi red an d i n stru m ents o f ,
thi s typ e i n a vari ety O f styl es an d o f the h i ghest d egree

O f ac c u racy co nven i en c e an d fi ni sh are p urchasabl e
, , ,
for e i ther i n si d e or o uts i d e m eas u re m ents .
F or m e r
asu e m e nt b y t housan dt hs up t o o h al f inch
ne - .
19
M ic r o m e t e r M e asu r e m e n t s
Th li m it of cc u r cy o b t in d b y m
e a au ri ng b t w n cont ct d p n d
a e e as e ee a s e e s
the gr d t io on t h in t rum nt I t
a ua ns e wd t t h t s th fi n n of t h
e 18 e en a as e e e ss e
gr d u t ion incr t h c h nc for m t k m g gr d t ion for not h r l o
.
a a e a se s , e a es r s a one a ua a e a s
i ncr t h t o m ot h r m t h od of d t
e ase so a s e mm mg xt r m ly cc r t m
e e ur e er e e e a u a e e as e
m n t m u t b d vi d
e s s e e se
co m m on in t rum nt for m ki n g uch m r m n t i known
.
Th e s e a s e as u e e s s as a
mi cro m t r c lip r I t co m b in
e e -
a e th do bl cont ct of t h lid c li p r wit h
es e u e a e s e a e s
cr w dj u t m nt W h h m y b r d W t h gr t cc r cy
.
.
a s e a s e IC a e ea l ea a u a .
20
H O W T O R EA D A M I C R OM E T E R
The p itch O f the screw thread s o n the co n c eal ed p art
o f the spi n dl e i s forty to a n i n ch O n e comp l ete r e v o l u .
t i o n o f the sp i n dle therefore moves i t l en gthw i se o n e

, ,
fort i eth ( o r twenty fi v e thousan dths ) o f an i n ch The

-
.
sl eeve D i s m arked with forty li n es to the i n ch corre ,
s p o n d i n g to the nu m b er o f threads o n the sp i n dl e .
E ach vertical l i n e i n di cates a distan c e o f o n e forti eth -
E very fourth l i n e i s m ad e l o nger than the

!
o f an i n ch .
others an d i s nu m b ered 0 1 2 3 etc E ach numb ered

, , , , , .
line i n di cates a distan c e o f four times forti eth of n

o e -
an i n ch o r o n e tenth
, .
The b evel ed edge O f the th i m ble i s marked i n twenty

fi v e d i v i s i on s an d every fifth l i n e i s numb ered from
, ,
0 to R otat i ng the th i m bl e from o n e O f thes e marks

to the n ext moves the sp i n dl e lon gi tudi n ally on e twenty
fi ft h O f twenty fi v e thousan dths or o n e thousan dth O f
-
,
an i n ch R otati n g i t two d i v i sio n s i n d i cates two thou

.
sa n d t h s etc,
Twenty fi v e d i vi s i on s will i n d i c ate a com
.
-
p l e t e revolution 0 2 5 o r o n e forti eth O f an i n ch

-
. .
,
To read the m i cro m eter therefore m ult i ply the num

, ,
b er o f vertical d i v i s i o n s vi sibl e on the sl eeve by twenty

fi v e an d ad d the numb er o f d i vi s i o n s o n the b evel of
,
the thi mbl e from 0 to the l i n e whi ch c oi n ci des with the

,
21
horizontal li n e o n the sleeve For exa m pl e i n the e n .

,
gravi n g there are s even d i vi si o n s vi sibl e o n the sl eeve

, .
M ul t i ply th i s number b y twenty fi v e an d a dd the numb er-

,
Of divi s i on s shown o n the b evel o f the th i mbl e 3 The , .
m i c rom eter i s op en on e hun dred an d seventy e i ght tho u -
sa n d t h s. ( 7 X 25 1 7 5 an d 1 7 5 3
H O W T O RE A D A V E RN I E R
R eadi n gs i n ten thousan dths O f an i n ch o n c al i p er

squares m i c ro m eters etc are Obtai n ed by the use of
, , .
,
a Vern i er n a m ed from P i erre Vern i er who i n ve nt efl the

, ,
d ev i c e i n 1 6 31 For the V erni er c alip er the scal e o n the

.
,
tool i s graduated i n forti eths o f an i n ch O n the

V erni er plate i s a d i stan c e d i v i d ed i nto twenty fi v e p arts -
,
an d these twen ty fi v e divis i o n s oc cupy the same d i stan c e

-
as twenty four divis i o n s o n the scal e The d i ff eren ce

-
.
b etween o n e O f the twenty fi v e space s an d o n e Of the

-
twenty four sp ac es i s o n e twenty fi ft h o f on e forti eth

- - -
,
o r o n e thousa n dth of a n i n ch .
To read the tool , n ote how m any i n ches tenths ( o r ,
an d forti eths ( or 0 2 5 ) the 0 mark o n the Verni er

.
i s from the 0 mar k o n the sc al e ; then n ote the numb er o f

divi s i o n s o n the V erni er from 0 to a li n e whi ch exactly
coi n ci des with a l i n e o n the scal e .
I n the en gr a vi n g above the Verni er has b een moved

,
to the ri ght o n e an d four tenths an d o n e forti eth i n ches

- -
22
as shown o n the s cal e an d the el eventh li n e ,
o n the Verni er coi n ci d es with a li n e o n the scal e E leve n .
thousan dths O f an i n ch are therefore to b e ad ded to , ,
the re a di n g o n the sc al e an d the total read i n g i s o n e a nd

,
four hun dred an d thirty six thousan dths i n ches

-
whi ch i s the di stan c e the j aws have b een op en ed .
H O W T O R EA D A VERN I ER M I C R OM E T E R
R eadi ngs i n ten thousan dths of an i n ch are obtai n e d
O N TH E MI C RO M E T E R b y the use O f a Vern i er wh i ch ,
op erates o n the same p ri n cipl e as the Vern i er o n the

c alip er I n thi s case however ten divisi on s o n the sl eeve
.
, ,
oc cup y th e d i stan c e O f n i n e divis i o ns o n the th i m ble

-
.
.
The di ff eren c e b etween the wi dth O f o n e of the ten

sp ac es an d o n e o f the n i n e sp ac es i s o n e tenth o f a -
TH I MB LE
C
di vi si o n o n the t h imb l e N ow each divi s i o n o n th e
.
thi m bl e rep resents o n e thousan dth of an i n ch an d on e

-
,
tenth O f o n e thousan dth e q ual s O n e ten thousan dth To

- -
.
read a ten thousan dth mi crometer first n ote the thou

-
,
s a n d t h s as i n the ordi n ary m i cro m eter Then Observe .
/
the li n e o n the sl eeve wh i ch coi n ci d es with a li n e o n the
th i mbl e I n the d i agra m shown above there are n i n e
.
verti c al d i vi s i o n s v i sibl e o n the sl eeve an d 9 X 2 5 225 , ,
s o that the read i n g O f the ordi n ary mi crometer woul d b e

. 225 . L i n e m arked 7 on the sl eeve c o i n c i des with a
“ ”
l i n e o n the thi m bl e an d therefore we ad d seven to the

, ,
read i n g O f the ordi n ary mi crometer Th i s seven i s s even .
ten thousan dths

-
an d the readi n gs w i ll b e 2 2 5 7 . .
23
H f In c h M i c r o m e t e r
al -
For m easurement
by thousan dths up t o
on e half i n ch
-
.
The anvil i s shorten ed for ,
us e i n pl ac es where the ordi n ary

anv i l i s t o o l o ng to b e i n s erted .
Has lock nut an d r atchet
! u ic k -
A d ju s t i ng M ic r o m e t e r
Has ratchet stop an d l ock nut .
S ix - I nc h Mic r o m e t e r
Fo r m eas u ri n g roun d work to 4% i n ches an d flat
work to 6 i n ches .
24
T R A N S F ERR IN G MEA SU R EMENT S

Transferri n g a m easurement may b e a d eli cate jo b
or n ot wholly dep en d i n g up o n the d egree o f accuracy
,
sought . The m ost c o m m o n Of all m ach i n e shop tools -
fo r tran s ferri ng m easure m ents are steel r u les an d

sp ri n g cal i p ers With these tools either i n c o m b i n at i o n
.
,
o r use d sep arately are m ad e the bulk o f c o m mo n m a

,
ch i n e shop m easure m ents whether those O f i nsi d e o r

-
,
outs i de surfac es .
STEE L R UL ES
These are thi n blad es o f steel O f varyi n g l en gths ,
wi dths an d thick n esses us u ally graduated i n i n ches an d

, ,
vari ous subd 1 v rsm n s Of the i n ch up o n each edge Of b oth

s i des an d often at the en ds The m akers term the var i.
ous sub divi s i on s o f the i n ch by graduat i o n n umb ers

”
for exampl e N O 4 G raduati on 1 st edge 6 4 ths ; 2 d edge

, .
, . .
32 d s ; 3d edge 1 6 ths ; 4 t h edge 8ths

. B y m ean s O f slid
. .
i n g o r fixed attachm ents a great vari ety O f l en gth m eas

u r e m e n t s may b e m ade w i th the ordi nary steel rul e .
S PR IN G C A LI PERS
Th e most co m m o n l y used tool fo r co ntact measure
m ents i s the ordi n ary sp ri n g cal i p er whi ch i s used for ,
m easuri n g over surfac es o r b etween surfac es I n shop .
lan guage th i s i s called m aki n g outsi d e o r i n s i d e meas - - -
ur e m e n t s.The l egs Of the sp r i n g c alip er are curved

down t o make two Opp osite c o ntact p oi nts the d i stan c e
, ,
b etween b ei n g co ntrolle d by a sc rew wh i ch works aga i nst

a tensio n sp r i n g F o r either outsi d e or i nsid e m easure
"
ments they m a y b e set to or they may b e read to a

graduated steel rul e I n th i s way a workman c an tran s
.
fer l en gths with a n error O f l ess than Wh ere

26
’
sp ecially ac curate spri n g c alip er measurements a re d e

s i red fixed gages a re used fo r sett i n g the c o ntact p oi nts
, .
The degree o f accuracy o f c o ntact i s d ep en d ent up on

“ ”
what the workman terms feel T O accurately tran sfer
.
a di m ens i o n with spri n g calip ers the sen se o f feel “ ”
m ust b e well d evelop ed by the work m a n fo r the c o ntact ,

.
p oi nts are at the en ds o f very sl en der arms .
S p r i ng cal i p ers b oth fo r i n s i d e an d outsi d e work

, ,
c an b e set t o dim en si o n s either l arger o r s m aller than

t h e g a g e s used b y i ntroduci n g th i ckn ess strip s b etween
~
the c ontact p o i nts an d the over o r i nsi d e surfac es .
Hard th i n ti ssue p ap er may b e used as th i ck n ess

,
-
stri p s o r b etter st i ll steel thi ckn ess gages or feel ers

, , ,
”
.
C a l ip e r in g O ve r a Fl a n g e
27
S PR IN G D I V I D ERS
I n thi s tool the co ntacts are p oi nts at the en ds o f

straight l egs D ivi d ers are use d for m easuri ng d i m e n
.
s i on s b etwee n l i n es or p o i nts for tran sferr i n g l en gt hs

,
taken d i rect fro m a grad u ated steel rul e o r for scr i b i ng

,
circ l es o r arcs . Feel d oes n ot

enter to such a n extent i nto the
tran sfer O f d i m en sion s when us i ng
sp r i n g div i ders as i t does wi th
sp r i ng c alip ers ; however a c erta i n
,
d el i c acy O f touch i s essential A .
m agn i fy i ng gl ass i s a won derful

help fo r the ac curate tran sfer Of
di m ensi o n w i th divi ders I f a con
.
s i d e r a bl e len g th i s to b e transferred ,
it i s b est to use the typ e where the

p o i nts are adj u stable alo ng a b ar ,
kn own as a Un i versal D iv i d er fo r ,
the p oi nts do n ot then i n cl i n e to

the surfac es worked up on .
28
FI TS A N D FI TT IN G
In m ach i n e c on struct i o n m any O f the p arts b ear
s uch a clos e an d i mp ortant relat i o n to on e another ,
that a c erta i n a m ount o f han d fitt i n g i s essent i al to make

the s u rfac e c o ntacts as they shoul d b e I f t h e surfaces .
i n co ntact are to move o n each other the fit i s classed

as a sl i d i ng o r r u n n i n g fit I f the surfac es are to mak e
.
co ntact with su ffi c i ent firm n ess to hol d the m together

u n der ord i n ary use the fit i s class ed e i ther as a dr i v i n g
, ,
shr i nk or forced fit
, .
S L I D I N G F I T Un d er thi s head m a y b e classed the

.
fi tt i n g O f c ross an d traversi n g sl i d es O f l athes m i ll i n g ,
m ach i n es dr i ll i n g m ach i n es b or i n g machi n es gr i n d i ng

, , ,
m achi n es an d plan ers

, I n m ost O f these fits the mov i n g
.
an d stat i o nary p arts are hel d i n co ntact w i th each other

b y mean s o f adj ustabl e co n tact str i p s o r g ib s s o m e t im e s ,
k n o wn a s p a c k i n g s t r ip s I n som e cases such as the

.
,
tabl e s o f gri n d i n g an d o f pla n i n g m ach i n es their weight ,
keeps the m i n su ffi c i ently close co ntact .
R U NN ING F I T S The j ourn al b eari n gs O f spi n dles

.
,
cra nk shafts l i n e shafti n g etc are cl assed un d er thi s

, , .
,
head i n g .
F OR C E D F I T S AND SH R IN K F I T S U n de r thi s .
head are class ed thos e fits where the sep arate parts m ust
b eco m e i n use as i f they were a s i n gl e p i ec e ; as for ,
exa m pl e the crank p i n s an d axl es i n l oco m otive dr i v i n g

,
wheels the c u tt er heads an d sp i n dl es O f nu m erous woo d

,
worki n g m achi n es as well as m any other cases

, .
.
L IMI T S I n the cas e o f run ni ng an d O f sli d i ng b ear

.
i ngs a c ertai n a m ount Of han d fitti n g i s n ec essary to

Obtai n des i re d results an d i n all cases certa i n l i m it i n g
,
requi re m ents Obta i n I n sli d i n g an d run n i ng b ear i ngs

.
'
the li m i ts are usually thos e O f al i gn m ent an d Of c ontact ,
wh i l e i n e i ther j ourn al b ear i ngs or i n fl at sl i din g b ear

i ngs it i s essent i al that c erta i n ac c u rate co ntact between
29
the surfaces shall b e mad e a n d there will al so b e a limi t

,
Of align m ent with other p arts o f the m achi n e For ex .
a m pl e i n the en g i n e l athe the ways o r vees an d the

,
cro ss sli d e O f the tool c arr i age m ust b e p arallel to or

at ri ght an gl es t o the ax i s Of the sp i n dles withi n set
-
l i m i ts
. I n en g i n e l athe co n struct i o n the l i m i t set for
this i s i n a foot O f l en gth I n test i ng the p arts .
use i s made Of the U niversal Test I n d i c ator w i th the

n eedl e readi n g o n a d i al o r up on a sector arm The .
i n d i c ato r m a y b e clamp ed t o a test bar a stra i ght edge , ,
o r d i rect to the lathe spi n dle ; also i f d e si r e d f i t ca n b e ,
a n d o ften i s held up o n a sp ec i al sl i d er stan d fitted t o

the vees O f the m achi n e .
I n the m aki n g Of shri nkage an d forc ed fits the

.
limits are us ually those O f size The a m ount O f p ressure .
n ec essary to plac e the two p arts together i s the l i miti ng

fact i n the cas e of forc ed fits I n fo rci n g the axles i nto .
l ocomot i ve d rivi n g wheels the sp ec i ficat i on s m ay li m i t

,
the p ressure to b etwee n o n e hun dre d to on e hun dred

an d fifty to n s However sp ec i fied i t i n fact reduces to
.
,
l i mits o f s i ze an d the use o f measuri n g tools These can .
b e O f the direct readi n g c o ntact typ e as the m i cro m eter ,
an d verni er b ar o r O f the i n direct read i n g co ntact typ e

, ,
as fo r exampl e the ordi n ary sp ri ng c alip er use d i n co n

, ,
“
j un cti o n with th i ckn ess gages or feel ers .
A M O U N T S T O LE A VE W here p i ns spi ndl es etc

.
, , .
,
are to b e forc ed i nto hol es o r where coll ars hubs , , ,
fl anges an d other mach i n e p arts are to b e shrunk o n to

,
sp i n dles i t i s customary to make the d i a m eter allow

,
an c e up o n the sp i n dle rather than up o n the hol e The .
amount wh i ch i t i s n ec essary to ad d to the sp i ndle or

shaft d i a m eter must of n ecessity vary w i th the len gth
an d di a m eter o f the hol e the m etals used an d the form
, ,
O f the surroun di n g hub The followi n g tabl es gi ve cer

.
ta i n p ract i c e .
30
A llo w a n c e s fo r D iffe r e n t C la sse s o f Fi t s — Ta ble l

N w ll E n gin rin g C o )
( e a ee .
Tol r nc e a es in S t n d rd H o l
a a e s!
Cl a ss
II ” ll— ” ”— ”
U p to 1% 6 _
2 l l
l fi B 41 /
i6 5
A llow nc for F orc d Fit

a es e s
A ll ow a nc e s for D ri ving Fit s
All ow anc e s for Push F it s
A l l ow a nc e s for R unnin g F it s 1 “
— 0 0012
0 0005
Tol r nc i p rovi d d for h ol wh ich ord in ry t n d rd r m r

e a e s e p ro
e s, a s a a ea e s c an
d uc ’i t w gr d C l
e n oA d B t h l ct ion of wh ich i q u t ion for t h
a e s, ass e s an e se e s a es e
r d ci ion d d p nd nt u p n t h q l it y of t h work r q uir d ; o m p r f r
, ,
use s e s an e e e o e ua e e s e e e
C l A workin g lim it d C l B in p ct ion limit
e
t u
o se a ss as s an a ss as s e s
TR u nn in g fi t w h ic h t h m o t co m m only r q ui r d di id d int o t h r
.
s, ar e e s e e ar e v e ee
gr d C l X for n gi n d ot h r work wh r y fit w nt d ; C l Y
,
a es : ass e e an e e e e as s ar e a e ass
for high spe e d d good v r g m c h in work ; C l Z for fi t oo l work
s an a e a e a e ass ne .
31
LI M I TS O F T O L ERA N C E
W hil e it is p oss i ble to p ro duc e m ach i n e p arts with
m easure m ents refin ed to any d egree of ac curacy ex ,
treme p rec i s i o n m a y p rove t o o costly for com m erc i al

work .
T O avo i d waste O f t i me l ab o r a nd m on ey the Taft

, , ,
P eirc e M anufacturi n g C o m p any has formul ated a set of

rules wh i ch d efi n es the d egree O f accuracy t o b e expected
.
i n thos e c ases where sp ec i ficat i o n s an d draw i ngs d o n ot

c all for greater p rec i s i o n than the rules p rov i d e
( 1 ) Full i n for m at i o n regard i ng l i mits Of toleran c e
s h oul d b e cl early shown by d raw i ngs sub m i tted o r b e ,
d efin i tely c overed by wr i tten sp ec i ficat i o n s t o wh i ch

referen c e m u st b e m ad e b y n o t at i o n s o n the drawi n gs .
( 2 ) W here the custo m er fa i ls to supply p rop er d ata

’
as to l i m i ts th i s C o m p any s E ngi n eers w i ll use the i r
,
b est j ud gm ent i n d ec i di n g j ust what l i m i ts it may b e

a dvi sabl e to work t o . The C o m p any w i ll n ot i n any
,
event assu m e r e sp On si bi li t y for p oss i bl e excessive cost

,
brought abo u t through work i n g to closer l i m i ts than

m a y b e n ec essary n or for p er m i tti n g greater latitud e
than m a y sub se q uently b e foun d to b e p rop er .
( 3) W here d i men s i on s are stated i n vul g ar frac

ti on s with n o l i m i ts o f tol eran ce sp ec i fied it will b e
,
assum ed that a c o n s i d erabl e m arg i n for vari at i o n fro m

figured dimen s i o n s i s ava i labl e ; unl ess otherw i se o r
’
dered the C o m p any s E n gi n eers w i ll p roceed ac cord i ng
,
to the d i ctates of the i r b est j udgm ent as to what l i m i ts

shoul d b e taken .
( 4 ) F o r all i m p ortant dimen sio n s D e c i m a l fi gu res

shoul d b e used an d l i m i ts cl early stated o n d etail d raw
i n gs
. I f D e c im a l fi g ures are n ot used fo r such d i m e n
s i on s a n otat i o n referr i n g to the de gree O f accuracy
requ i red m u st b e plac ed p ro m i n ently o n the draw i n g .
( 5 ) I t i s frequently n ec essary to reduc e fraction s

32
BENC H W O RK
B en ch work i n cludes l ay i n g o ut chipp i n g fili n g , , ,
p oli sh i n g han d reami n g han d tapp i n g a n d all the many

, , , ,
shop j ob s do n e a t the b en ch o r i n a v i s e .
L A YING O U T Th i s i s the shop term wh i ch i n cludes

.
the plac i n g of li n es c i rcl es an d centers up o n curved o r

, ,
fl at surfac es fo r the gui danc e o f the workman I t i s som e .
what an alogous to mechan i cal d raw i ng I t differs i n o n e .
i m p o r t a n t r e sp e c t however that whil e a l i n e drawi n g

‘
, ,
i s sel dom s e al e d an d therefore exact accuracy o f sp ac

i ng i s n ot requ i re d ; i n lai d out work the l i n es ; circles , ,
c enters etc are to b e followed exactly A ll li n es c e n

, .
, .
,
ters etc shoul d therefore b e exactly loc ated an d plac ed

, .
, ,
an d all scrib er d i v i der an d c e nter p oi nts shoul d wh i l e

, , ,
i n us e b e exact an d sharp
, P arti cular c are must b e .
m ai ntai n ed to i n sure fin e an d ac curate layi n g o ut .
P R E P A R ING TH E S UR F A C E I f work o f n o sp eci al .
ac c u racy is d es i red c arefully rubbi ng chalk o r white , ,
l ead m i xed with turp ent i n e up o n the surfac e O f the ,
work w i ll b e s u ffici ent as a c oat i n g For fi n e exact lay .
o u ts a sp eci al marki n g s olutio n must b e used The o n e .
i n co m m o n shop us e i s a m i xture of o n e oun c e c opp er

sulphate to four oun c es water A littl e n itri c aci d may .
with advantage b e add ed Thi s soluti o n appli e d to a .
cl ean ed i ron o r steel surfac e gives a dull c opp ered sur

fac e an d the fin est li n e s crib ed up o n it i s b rilli a ntly
,
v i s i bl e .
S C R I B ING L IN E S The usual sc r i bi n g p o i n t s are

.
those c o m mo n to divi d ers hermaphro dite c alip ers , ,
sc ratch awls scratch gages surface gages an d tramm el

, , ,
p oi nts C omb i n ed with the scrib i n g p oi nts m a y b e used

.
,
steel rul es b ev el p rotractors s teel squares steel stra i ght

, , ,
edges l evels en d m easur i n g ro ds m i c rometer o r verni er

, , ,
he i ght an d d epth gages an d the v a ri ous center pun ches ,

.
A bility t o so combi n e an d make us e o f the vari ous tools

35
36
‘ ‘
T H E S TF A
. R 1R I Z T T B O tD I I
as t o i n s u re a ccuracy is a co n si d erabl e asset to the lay

ing -
o ut m an .
PR O T R A C T O R S
A s mad e machi n e shop use t h e c ommo n protra e
fo r -
t o r i s p rov i ded with attached stra i ght edges an d can b e ,
used e i ther to m easure o r to l ay o ff l i n es at an angl e to

each other M easur i n g the an gularity Of two o r more
.
”
li n es w i th a p r otractor i s ter m ed readi n g the angles
“
.
A s o ftenti m es i t s us e i s d eterm i n i n g the an gl e m ade b y

two surfaces ( a b evel ) the tool i s usually term ed a b evel
,
p rotracto r P rotractors for c o m mo n shop use are grad

.
u a t e d to d egrees thro u gh a l en gth o f c i rcumferen c e Of

o n e hun dred an d e i ghty degrees A n attached verni er
.
en ables the user to read angl es t o o n e twelfth o f a degree -
( five mi nutes ) .
L A YING O UT P L A T E I f d esirab l e res ul ts a re to b e

.
37
obtai n ed i n l ayi n g o ut fl at work sp eci al metal p l ates ,
up o n whi ch to rest the wor k an d the tool s must b e p r o

vi d e d
. These are known as leveli n g surfac e o r l ay i ng , ,
o ut plates ; they furn ish an accurate plan e surfac e up o n

whi ch w o rk an d tool s m a y b e placed The si z e o f these .
plates var i es from those o f s m all areas used i n lay i ng o ut

small j i gs etc to those for large p i ec es havi n g si des
, .
, ,
s everal feet i n l e n gth The work may b e la i d directly

.
up o n the surfac e o f the plate or hel d up o n leveli ng strip s

o r blocks plac ed o n the plate an d the gages s q uares an d , , ,
other tools u se d a r o u n d the work I n other c ases it i s

'
c o nveni ent to cl amp the work to k n ee or angl e i ro ns ,
whi ch are then pl ac ed up on the l evel i n g pl ate .
C H I PP IN G
Formerl y many O f the surfaces O f machi n e p arts
were han d chipp ed an d fi led to a fit W h i l e the mechani c
-
.
i n the mod ern shop can usually fi n d methods o f machi n

i n g m ost o f the surf ac es h e n eeds to fit up there are still ,
occ asio n s when the work has to b e han d ch i pp ed -

.
T OOL S U S E D The commo n ch i pp i ng tool s are a

.
h an d ha m mer an d a han d ch i sel The han d ha m m er .
shoul d we i gh n ot l ess than three quart ers O f a p oun d -
n o r over two p oun ds an d m ay b e either o f the b all p een

,
o r fl at p een typ e
,
A chipp i n g hammer shoul d bal an c e
.
well i n the han d when fitted to a han dl e n o t more than

sixteen i n ches l o n g The h a n d l e n e a r where it enters
.
l
the ha m mer shoul d b e th i n n ed an d worked down to a

shank that i s s om ewhat fl ex i bl e so that the sho ck to the ,
arm an d han d will b e l ess The fac e o f a goo d ch i ppi ng

.
ha m m er shoul d crown sl i ghtly .
C h i pp i ng ch i sels ord i n ar i ly termed col d chisels are

, ,
Of various sorts an d are O ften kn own by the shap e Of

,
the cutti n g en d ; fo r exa m pl e fl at cap e roun d n os e dia , , , ,
mon d an d gouge chi sels The steel from which they are
, ,
38
mad e sho ul d b e eighty t o ni n ety p oi nt c a rb o n o f octa

,
g o n cross s ectio n w i th the cutti n g en d forged to the

‘
-
,
desi re d shap e wel l p ac k ed by the forge hammer hard

, ,
en ed an d the temp er drawn to a medium blue The

, .
hamme r en d O f the chi sel shoul d b e forged from the

octagon to a reduced roun d but n ot harden ed . Flat
chippi n g an d c ap e chi sel s shoul d b e g roun d w i th straight ,
sym m etri cal cutti n g edges at as acute an angl e as the

, ,
n ature Of the work wi l l p e rmit .
39
T H E S T A R R E T T B O O K \
I n han d chippi n g the hammer han dle shoul d b e

grasp ed n ear the en d an d the hammer swun g free from
over the shoul der with an easy forearm movement .
Hol d the chisel loosely i n the han d at a n angl e with the

work that p ermits an even ch i p Of r i ght depth The .
vi sio n shoul d b e d i rected to the cutt i ng edge Of the

chis el rather than at the en d struck b y the hammer
, .
A voi d gripp i n g hammer o r chi sel tightly as th i s rapi dly -

,
ti res the han d an d arm .
I n s h op s wh i ch have c ompress ed ai r use i s made O f ,
the m od ern p n eumati c ch i pp i n g hammer whi ch does ,

‘
rem ar k abl e work O f the he a vi er sorts .
FIL IN G
The fi l e i s essenti ally a fi ni sh i n g tool an d i n skilled ,
han ds su r fa c e s m a y b e m ad e very accurate an d smo oth

'
.
Files are d es i gn ated thus ( a ) by their l en gth — th i s

does n ot i n clud e the tan g ; ( b) by the i r cross secti on as -
, ,
fo r exa m pl e s quare roun d half roun d tri an gul a r fl at

, , ,
-
, , ,
kn i fe edge etc ; ( 0 ) by the i r cut

-
, . si ngl e o r doubl e cut ; -
( d ) by the d egree Of coarsen ess .
Fil es for some purp oses a re m a de tap ere d i n the i r

l en g th an d for other uses have str a ight si des The de
, .
grees o f co arsen ess a re d esign ated by the follow i n g

n a m es as rough c o a rs e b a stard ; 2 d — cut smooth an d
, , , ,
dead smooth ; extra fi n e files are d esign a te d by numb ers ,
N o 00 N O 0 N o 1 etc to N O 8 The d egree o f co a rse

.
, .
, .
, .
, . .
n ess vari es with the l en gth for exampl e a n 8 i n ch fi l e , ,

-
seco n d cut i s coars er than a sho rter fil e b astard cut .
Thi s co n fuses the user somewhat unless he i s f a mil i ar ,
with p ract i c e .
S i n gle c u t files a re thos e havi n g teeth made by si n gl e

-
p ara l lel cuts across the fac e at an an gl e o f twenty fi v e -
de grees I n doubl e cut files the teeth are mad e by b re a k

.
-
i ng up the si ngl e cuts i nto p oi nt s by a s ec o n d cut m a de

at an an gl e wit h the fi rst .
40
T H E S T A R R E T T B O O K .
P O S I T I O N O F TH E HAN D S I f the worker wishes .
t o avoi d t i r i n g p osit i o n i s very imp ortant ; p os i t i o n also

,
has di rect b ear i n g up o n the qual i ty an d q uant i ty o f the

p ro duct The worker shoul d clasp the fil e han dl e with
.
the exten d ed thumb o n top grasp i n g the p oi nt with the

,
fi ngers an d thumb O f the rema i ni n g han d with thumb

o n top .I n heavy fil i n g the p oi nt of the file m a y b e
grasp ed by the fi n g ers an d the p alm o f the han d with
the p alm o n top .
I n han d fi l i n g the worker shoul d trai n hi s han ds

-
,
arms an d b o dy to c arry the fil e across the Wor k w i th

“ "
re g ular even an d co ntrolled strokes A s the fil e i s i n

, , .
n o s en s e s el f g ui d ed the wor k er must trai n hi s b o dy t o

-
regular c ontrolle d mot i o n s i f he i s t o do e ffect i ve work .
D R A W F I L ING Used to s et the gra i n somewhat

.
s m oother than regular cross fi l i n g The worker should-

.
cl asp the blad e O f file n ear i t s e n ds i n each han d an d

the n draw the fil e hel d crosswi se alo n g the l en g th o f
, ,
the work A fin e grai n surfac e results

. .
T E S T ING F L A T F I L I N G Flat work i s tested by the

'
.
us e o f steel straight edges steel squares b evel p rotrae

, ,
tors etc
, .
P O L IS H ING
Wh ere a p arti cularly smooth surf a c e i s n ec ess a ry as , ,
fo r exampl e j ourn al b eari n gs o r where br i lli an cy o f

, ,
fi ni sh i s des i red the surfac es are p ol i s hed w i th some

,
fi n e a bras i ve For ord i n ary p ol i sh i n g o f m a chi n e p arts

.
,
j ourn als etc com m o n grai n abras i ve i s us ed — glued to

, .
, 3
cloth o r leather .
G ra i n a b rasives are k nown b y numbers as for ex

“
, ,
ampl e N o 1 00 wh i ch m ean s that the p articles are O f

, .
,
a s i z e to readily p ass through a si eve hav i n g o n e hun dred

meshes to the l i n ear i n ch The fi n er s i zes are Often
.
kn own as fl ours .
G RA D E S O F E M E R Y
Th e numb ers rep res enti n g the grad es o f emery run
from 8 to 1 2 0 , an d the d egree Of s m oothn ess Of surface
they l eave m a y b e c o m p ared to that l eft by files as follows
8 an d 1 0 re pre se nt t h e c ut of a wood rasp
co rse rough fi l
.
16 20 a a e
ord in ry ro ugh fi l
.
24 30 an a
b t rd fil
e .
36 40 a as a e
con d ut file
.
46 60 a se c
m oo t h fi l
-
.
70 80 a s e
u p rfi n fi l e
.
90 100 s e e
d FF de ad m oot h fil e
.
1 20F an a -
s .
S EV ER IN G MET A L W IT H H A C K S A W S
Hack saws are n arrow thi n bl ades of harden ed steel
,
w i th teeth c ut alo ng o n e edge an d are use d for s ever i ng

,
m etal. They are hel d i n su i tabl e han d o r p ower fra m es ,
which have the n ec essary adj ustments for hol di n g the

blad e i n st i ff ten si o n I t i s Obv i ous that i t re q uires care
.
an d goo d s ense i n us i n g a hack s aw blad e i f goo d results

-
are exp ected .
I f the stock to b e cut i s b oth hard an d thi n p arti cular ,
care i s requ i red to avo i d i nj ur i n g the blad e .
43
C U TT ING S P E E D When hack saw i n g u n der aver

.
,
age co n d i t i o n s an d without a lub ri cant a c u tti n g sp eed

,
O f fi fty to s i xty strokes p er mi nute shoul d b e mai n

t ain e d. I f the saw i s used i n a p ower m achi n e an d the ,
materi al i s so ft steel a cutti n g sp eed o f o n e hun dred

,
strokes p er m i nute may b e mad e usi ng a suitabl e l ubr i

,
c ant. U n a n n eal ed tool steel shoul d b e cut un der the

a bove c o n dit i on s at n ot to exceed sixty strokes p er
mi nute .
M O U N T ING TH E B L AD E The bl ad e when mounted

.
i n a han d frame shoul d have the cutt i n g t e e t h r ak e for

‘
- -
ward ; that i s t o s ay the s aw shou l d cut o n the for

,
ward stroke I n machi n e cutt i ng th i s i s usually s o but

. ,
n ot so with some makes of m ach i n es The cutt i n g stroke

.
i s always the p ressure stroke an d the return stroke is

,
m ad e as light as c o nveni ent without actually l i ft i n g the

blad e from its work .
The bl ad e shoul d b e un der c on s i derabl e ten sio n

whe n i n use I t must b e hel d i n the plan e b e i n g cut
.
,
a n d all ten den cy to b en d i n g the blad e avo i ded S u i tabl e .
bl ades an d frames m ay b e purchas ed for almost every

s e r vi c e f a n d the user s houl d c o ns i d er this fact i f c o m
m e r c i all y eco n omical results are d esire d .

H A C K S A W MA C H IN E
Hack saw blades used i n cutti ng up bar stock or

struct u ral shap es are much m ore e ffic i ent i n a mach i n e so
_
d es i gn ed that i t s several m oti o n s an d adj ust m ents c an b e

p rop erly c o ntrolled S uch a machi n e i s as sens i t i ve t o
.
the Op erator a s a han d frame .
The m ach i n e shown above has b een esp eci ally d e

s i gn e d to effic i ently Op erate hack saw blades The b as e
.
c olum n carr i es the work in g p arts an d the work hold i ng -
v i se B y m ean s O f su i tabl e we i ghts the cutt i n g p ressure

. ,
up o n the blade m ay b e regulated ac cord i n g to the m ater i al

b e i n g se v e r e d /
a n d the stroke l en gth Of the blade carry i ng
-
fra m e c an b e adj uste d to use the ent i re blade l ength n o ,
m atter what d i a m eter o f b ar is b ei n g s evered thus getti n g

,
the full e ffic i ent s ervic e from each blade .
To avo i d blad e b reakage through carel ess han dl i n g ,
a safety d evi c e i n the form O f a dash p ot i s c o n n ected

with the blad e carry i ng fra m e t o p revent the blad e from
-
b ei n g d ropp e d sud denly up o n the work The bl ad e carry

.
-
45
ing fram e i s r a ised by a foot l ever l eavi ng the han ds free

fo r work adj ustments a n d m easure m ents T h e cutt i ng .
l u bri cant i s c onveyed to the blad e fro m a tank i n the

c olum n by mean s O f a small rotary pu m p .
W h a t H a c k S aw t o U se
N o 1 03 in
. h an d frames t o c ut c ast st e e l cast iron t oo l t e e l d l l olid
, , , s s an a s
N o 1 0313i h an d fr m e s t o c ut co l d roll d t oc k
n a d soft m t l e s an e a s
h n d fram es t o c ut h t m t l d t u bin g 1 6 t 1 8 g ge
.
, .
N o 1 02 in a s ee e a an o a
253 in h n d fra m t o ut h e e t d t u b in g t h inn r t h n 1 8 g g
. , .
N o a es, c s s an e a a e
N o 1 1 2 for h ea vy h n d fr a m e wor k d l igh t pow r m ch in on t ool t e l
. .
a an e a e s, s e s
N o 1 12B for li ght po we r m achine work on oft t e e l d h vy h n d fr m e
.
.
. s s , an ea a a
N o 1 14 for ge n r l wor k i m e d ium w ight pow r m ach in e

e a n e e s
N o 1 1 5 on e l ct ric l con d uit pipe b rass t oc k li ght n gl d ch ann l iron
. .
e a s a e an e
N o 255 on h i gh s pe e d m c hi n cutt i n g t ool t e l
. .
, , ,
a es s e s
255 8 on h igh spe e d m c h in e s c utt ing m c h in ry t e e l c a t i ron e t c
. .
N o a a e s s
N o 262 for c ut t in g n gl e i ron b r ss st oc k an d orn am e n t l i ron work
.
, , .
a a a
N o 254 for h e vy hi gh pe e d m a ch in e s t o c ut t ool st l
. , .
a s ee
N o 2S4E for he a vy hi gh pe e d m a ch in es t o c ut col d rol l e d sh ft in g an d
. , .
s a
m achi n e ry st e e l
.
,
259 for c utt ing iron p i pe l igh t t ru c t ur l iron aut o fr m

.
N o setc a a e s,
256 for e x t r h e vy p ow r m c h in t c ut t ool t l
. .
, ,
N o a a e a e s. o s ee
N o 25 6 B for e x t r h e a vy p ow r m ac h in
. .
. a e es .
D R ILLIN G
D R I LL S A dr i ll i s an en d cutti n g tool c o n s isti ng
.
-
,
usually O f two cutt i n g edges set at an an gl e w i th the

ax i s The more com m o n typ es O f dr i ll s are flat — flat
.
t wi sted stra i ght flut e d sp i ral flut e d

-
an d gu n barrel - -
.
The most c om m on a n d fo r m ost p u rpos es t h e m ost e ffi

,
ci ent typ e i s the spi ral flut e d k nown as a twi st drill

,
-
, .
Tw i st d rills are m ad e w i th two three o r four cut , ,
t i n g lip s The two lip dr i ll i s used when drilli ng sol i d

.
-
stock The three an d four l i p drills are used for e n

.
l a r g i n g hol es p revi ously cored or drill ed W hen d r i ll i ng .
sol i d stock with a two lipp ed dr i ll the p o i nt o f the drill-

,
c o ntrols the cutt i n g edges an d i f the d rill i s correctly ,
groun d the result i n g hol e w i ll b e reason ably roun d ,
stra i ght an d the s i ze of the dr i ll W hen a d rill i s used

, .
for enlargi n g hol es al ready m ad e e i ther by c ori n g or by ,
p rev i ous dr i ll i n g the dr i ll i s g u i d ed by i t s s i des an d a

,
three or fo u r flut e d dr i ll w i ll g i ve b etter results .
F OR M O F P O I N T I n .
the typ es referred to all

exc ept gun b arrel drill s -
are co n e p oi nted o n th e
-
cutti n g en d The g un
.
barrel dr i ll used when ,
esp ec i ally strai ght roun d , ,
a n d true hol es are es sen

tial has a blunt en d with
,
a s n gl e cutti n g p
i l i .
F 10 1
A c o n e p oi nted drill O f two o r m ore cutti ng l i p s

-
d e pen d s for its e ffi c i ent work i ng up o n fo u r factors :

( a ) A ll the cutt i n g l i p s shall have the sa m e i n cli n a
ti o n to the axi s Of the dr i ll .
( b) C utti n g lip s shoul d b e Of exactly e q ual l ength .
( 0 ) A p rop er l i p cl earan c e O f the surfac e back o f

the cutti n g edges .
47
(d ) A c orrect angl e O f l i p cl earan c e .
Fi gs 1 2 an d 3 show the result Of c arel ess free han d

.
, ,
-
gri n d i n g F i gs 4 an d 5 show how to test the l en gth

. .
O f the cutt i n g l i p s also thei r i ncl i n ati o n to the axis

, .
A fter sharp en i n g a
drill free han d use the -
,
han d feed at fi rst an d o h

-
s erve ( a ) the chip s m ad e

b y the cutti n g ; ( b) the
si ze O f the hol e I f the .
cutti n g lip s are s hap ed to —
a p rop er cl earan ce the ,
chip s will curl as they

start from the cutti n g
FI G 2
edge ; but i f the cutt i n g
.
l i ps l ack a p rop er cl e a ran c e the resulti ng chips have the

app earan c e of be i n g groun d o ff rather tha n freely cut .
I f the cutt i n g l i p s are O f u n even l en gth the hol e will b e

e nl arged over the d i ameter O f the drill D r i llin gs from .
c ast i ro n shoul d l ook as i n F i g 6 an d thos e from steel

.
,
as i n Fi g 7 i f the drill i s p rop erly sharp en ed

.
,
.
Free han d gr i n di n g
-
results are usually so d i s

app o i nti n g that i n most
m ach i n e shop s the dr i lls
are sharp en ed i n a sp e
c i al d r i ll gr i n d i n g m a
-
chi n e The d esign O f thi s

.
m achi n e i s such that ,
when it i s set for gri n d

i n g any siz e Of d r i ll the FIG 3
cutti ng lip s are mad e Of
.
equal l en gth an d O f the c orrect form Fi g 8 s h ows h o w

. .
the cu tt i n g lip i s located to correctly gr i n d the ed ges .
F EE D ING TH E D R I LL To get the b est results from

.
d rills an d dril l i n g m ach i n es the d r i ll shoul d advan c e

,
48
to forty feet an d fo r high sp eed drills seventy feet to

,
-
one hun dred feet Worki n g c o n diti o n s may at times

.
c aus e a change i n thes e fi g ures W hen the extre m e outer

.
c orn ers of the cutti n g edges wear rapi dly it i s ev i den c e

o f too high a surfac e sp eed .
FIG 6 . FIG 7 .
Tabl e N o 3 gives the revolutio ns p er mi nute at

.
wh i ch to run dri lls fo r vari ous cutt i n g o r surfac e

sp eeds F o r exampl e w i th a 1 i n ch d r i ll an d s eventy
-
feet as the s electe d cutti n g sp eed read across fro m

.
,
’
,
1 i n ch i n the l eft han d colum n an d u n d er headin g 7 0

- -
fi n d 2 6 7 the revolution s p er mi nute

, .
FIG . 8
Sp e e d s an d Fe e d s fo r D r illin g fl Tabl e ‘—
'
H ig h S pe e d St e e l D rills
-
C tas
Br I ron Cast M ild D ro p M al T oo l C t

I ron St l F or g I ron St l
, . as
ass ,
An ee St I
ne l e d H ard
ee
fo
, e
300
, .
, '
F e et
a
1 70 80 Fe e t
, 120 60
F t F t F t
.
ee ee ee Fe e t F t ee
I nche s R . P . M . li JPl DALlKJPLhd l§ Jt . d I KJPl hd

. RPM . . . R P . . M .
4880 7320 3660

244 0 3660 1 830
162 6 244 0 1 21 0
1 220 1 830 9 15 1 375
9 76 1 464 732
813 1220 61 0
261 4 698 1 04 6 5 22
610 9 15 45 8
488 732 366
4 07 6 10 305
349 5 23 261
244
204 305 153
1 75 2 62 1 31
1 53 2 29 1 15
C rb on St l D rill
a ee s
B ron z e
I ron C ast M il d D rop
Br a ss ,
A n I ron St l
,
ee Fo r g I ron
n ale d H rd so
, .
, ,
1 50 30
Fe e t e
85 40 F e e t F e e t
, a ,
Fe e t
I nch e s R . P . M RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM R P M
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 1 50 5 1 85 2440 3660 1 830 2 745 1 830 1 220

45 75 259 3 1 220 1 840 9 15 1 375 9 15 610
305 0 1728 81 3 122 0 610 9 15 61 0 407
2287 1 296 610 9 15 458 636 458 305
1 830 1 037 488 732 366 5 69 366 245
1 5 25 864 407 610 305 45 8 305 203
1 307 741 349 523 2 61 392 261 1 74
1 1 43 648 305 458 2 29 343 229 1 53
9 15 5 19 244 366 1 83 275 1 83 1 22
7 62 432 204 305 1 53 2 12 1 53 1 02
654 371 1 75 262 1 31 196 1 31 87
57 1 323 1 53 2 29 1 15 1 72 1 15 77
458 260 1 22 183 92 1 38 92 61
381 2 16 1 02 1 53 77 1 06 77 51
327 1 86 88 1 31 66 98 66 44
286 1 62 77 1 15 58 86 58 39
Co py rig ht . 1 9 11 , by t h e H e nr y W right M fg . Co .
51
T he Sp e e d o D r ills
f — Ta bl e 3
A fe e d e of 004 t o 007 for d rill inch an d m l l e r an d fr om
r e vo l n t io n s s a
007 t o 01 5 fp rlarg e r 8 bo ut all t h t ho uld b re quir d
. .
,
on 1 a a s e e
Thi fe e d 18 b ase d on pe h r l pe e d of dn ll e qu l t
. .
s a n e a s a a o
30 fe e t p e u ut e forr nt 35 fe e t pe mm ut e for i ron ;
n s r
for b rass
I t m y a l so b fou n d d vi sa b l e t v ry t h sp e d so m e wh at ccor di ng as t h e
.
a e a o a e e
m t i a l t b d ri ll d i s m ore or l e ss r e fr ct ory
a
a er o e e a
W e b li v e t h at t h e se pe e d houl d o t be e x c e d e d un d e r ordin ary
.
e e s s s n e
c u m t anc e s
s .
T a bl e o f C u t t i n g S p e e d s
R EV O LU T I ON S PE R MI N U TE
1 834 . 2140 2445 . 2 75 1 305 7 .
9 17 . 1 070 1 222 . 1375 1 528 .
61 1 . 7 13 815 . 9 17 1 01 9 .
458 . 61 1 . 7 64 .
367 . 428 55 0 61 1 .
306 . 35 7 458 5 09 .
262 . 349 . 393 437 .
229 . 2 68 306 .
1 84 . 2 14 245 . 27 6 306 .
153 . 1 78 203 . 229
131 . 1 53 175 . 196 2 19 .
1 15 . 1 34 1 53 . 1 72 19 1 .
1 02 . 1 19 136 . 153 1 70 .
9 1 1 3 107 1 23 . 137 153 .
831 3 9 7 12 111 . 125 1 39 .
761 3 89 12 102 . 1 15 12 7 .
31 1 5 82 12 9 31 9 1 06 1 17 .
651 5 7 6 14 87 1 3 9 8 12 1 09 .
7 1 53 81 1 5 1 02 .
5 7 13 66 13 762 1 86 1) 951 5
511 ) 5 9 44 681 ) 7 6 22 85 1 )
45 1 3 53 55 61 1 3 6853 7 61 3
48 15 55 1 5 62 55 69 1 5
381 ! 44 6-
511) 5 7 13
52
C U TT ING C O MP O U N D S T o mai ntai n hi g h cutti n g

.
sp eeds it i s n ecessary to use a lubri cant Thos e r e c o m

,
.
m en ded have sto o d the test o f servi c e :

F o r h a rd an d refractory steel turp enti n e k erosen e , , ,
o r so da water .
For soft steel an d wrought i ro n l ard O il o r soda , ,
water .
F o r b rass p a r affi n e Oil

‘
.
,
F o r alumi num turp e nti n e kerosen e o r so d a water

, , , .
For cast i ro n a j et O f ai r i f an ythi ng i s use d — usu

,
ally worked dry .
L A YING O U T L oc ati n g the c enters fo r d rill ed hol es

.
“
up o n the bo dy o f the work i s terme d l a y i n g o ut ”
On .
the small er j ob s l ay i n g o ut an d drilli n g are usually do n e

,
b y the workman L arger amounts of work warrant a

.
s killed layer out

“
.
L ayi n g o ut for d ri l l i n g c omes u n d er two heads viz : ,
A PP RO XIM A T E an d A CC U R A T E Unless the hol es whe n .
drilled are to m a tch up with other hol es o r with fixe d

studs it i s en ough i f the center i s l ai d O ff with a chal k
,
p e n c i l an d a steel rul e F o r j i g tool an d exp erimental

.
, ,
work the c enters must b e ac curately lai d o ut a n d scrib e d

,
up o n the surfac e o f the work The p racti c e i s to scrib e.
two or more li n es whi ch i nters ect at the ex a ct d esired

p oi nt as shown i n Fi g 9 A ssume that the li nk i s to
. .
FIG . 9
co n n ect t wo studs P roc ee d to s crib e t wo i ntersecti n g

.
li n es up o n o n e O f the hub s as shown i n Fi g 9 usi n g a

, .
,
c ombi n ati o n s quare fitted w i th a c enter he a d A t the .
i ntersecti o n ac curately plac e a light center p unch i n -
dentati o n. P lac e o n e l eg O f a sp ri n g divi d er w i th its

p oi nt i n the c enter mark an d adj ust the other l eg to have
its p o i nt touch the edge li n e O f the hub an d n ote the
c o n centri city Of the c enter I f c orrect cl ose divi ders to
.
,
sc rib e a circl e the di ameter o f the require d d rilled ho l e ,
s etti n g the p oi nts by the sc a l e gr a du a ti on s up o n a steel
h e . 10
rul e L ocate light c enter p un ch marks o n the scrib ed

.
-
c i rcl e as shown i n F i g 1 0
. .
Whe n the work i s la i d out by an other than the

d ri ll er a sec o n d c irc l e h a vi n g a s l ight l y gre a ter d iameter

, , ,
shoul d b e scrib ed This check will show whether the

.
hol e was drille d to the o ri gi n al lay out I f n o i mp or .
tan ce i s attache d to the c enter to ce nter di stan c e Of the

hol es p ro c eed as b efore with the s eco n d hub Where .
the c enter to c enter di stan c e i s imp ortant set the p oi nts ,
O f the universal divi ders t o the c enter l en gth an d with ,
the p oi nt A Fi g 1 1 i n the p revi ously lo cated c enter mark

, .
,
scrib e o n the opp o s ite hub S crib e a short li n e across .
its fac e afterward p roc eed i n g as b efore

, .
For all ac cur a te work us e the automati c c enter

pun ch Fi g 1 2 a n d for heavy work the machi n ists
, .
,
’
c enter pun ch shown i n F i g 1 3
-
, . .
P RE P A R ING TH E SU R F A C E For .
accurate layi ng o ut cl ean the m ach i n e d ,
surfaces an d wet the p ort i o n to b e

worked up o n with the copp er sulphate
( blue vitriol ) solutio n W hen d ry the ,
surfac e will di sti n ctly show any li n es

whi ch are m ade up o n it C halk well .
r ubbed i nto the surfac e i s su ffici ent fo r

the l ess ac curate j ob s .
S TA R T ING TH E D R I LL .
A fter l ayi n g out an d p rev i o u s

to drilli n g greatly enl arge the
,
c enter hol es w i th a c enter

pun ch to assist the start i n g o f S C RI BI NG c i ne mas W I T H DIV I DERS
the dr i ll S tart the hol e with
.
drill p oi nt i n t h e enlarged c enter usi n g han d fee d until ,
a reaso nabl e dimp l e i s made i n the work O b serve if .
this i s central with the scrib ed c ircl e an d i f n o t c e ntral ,
us e c enter gouge as i n Fi g 1 4 an d rep eat until ac curat e

, .
,
.
T O D R A W A D R I LL When starti n g a drill it Often .
has a ten den cy to sli d e o r c rowd O ff to o n e si d e Where .
it i s essential that the drill ed hole coi n ci d e o r c enter

with som e pr eviously scrib ed circl e or l ayout the dri ll ,
55
m us t b e b rought b ack i nto the c orrect posi

t i o n Thi s i s ac compli shed by the use O f a
.
s m all gouge p oi nted ch i sel somet i m es call ed

-
,
a c enter ch i sel an d the p roc ess i s termed

, ,
“ ”
drawi n g the d rill Fi rst n ote toward whi ch
.
,
si d e o f the small dimple l eft by the drill p oi nt -
it i s n ec essary to shift the d rill The n .
chi sel a smal l groove i n that s i d e O f

the dimpl e .
I f the start i s very ec c entri c s ev ,
eral chi sel grooves may b e n ec ess a ry ;

whereas i f o nly sli ghtly ecc entri c a
, ,
mere touch O f the chi sel will O fte n

suffic e I t i s readily s een that the drill
.
i s mad e to cut m ore eas i ly where the

grooves are an d therefore the n atural
,
res i stanc e of the opp os i te si d e p ushes

the dr i ll toward the s i d e cut by the
gouge p oi nted chisel
-
D ri ll drawi n g .
c an o nly b e do n e p revi ous to reach

i n g the full di ameter O f cut .
H OL D ING TH E WORK C arel ess .
n ess i n hol d i n g the work i s r e sp o n

sibl e for many d r i lli n g ac ci d ents I f .
n o sp eci al hol di n g d ev i c e i s availabl e ,
the work sho u l d b e hel d i n a drilli n g

vi se cl a m p ed di rectly to the drilli n g
,
machi n e tabl e or cl amp e d to an an gl e

,
i ro n F i g 1 5 i llustrates a m etho d Of
. .
hold i n g the work safely When o n ce .
t h e work i s cl a m p ed i n p osit i o n o n
the dri ll i n g m achi n e tabl e adj ust the
-
,
tabl e to c enter the l oc ated hole with

the drill rather than r e c l a m p the work .
H OL D ING TH E D R I LL I n F i g . .
1 6 at A the drill i s shown hel d di

.
FI G 12
.
, , Frc 13 .
56
a s i n gl e rea m i n g op eratio n will O ften suffi c e I f t h e ho l es

.
are relat i vely l o n g the dri ll shoul d b e

, to
sm aller than the fi ni she d hol e diameter to allow fo r ,
p assi ng a machi n e reamer small through the hol e

whi ch i s afterward han d reamed -
This m etho d gives
.
res ul ts as ac curate as any exc ept by gri n di ng a n d i s

, ,
ac c epted p ractic e for goo d work .
D R I LL ING F O R T A PPING ‘Where a ful l thre a d

.
depth i s ess enti al the hol e to b e tapp ed shoul d b e mad e

with a drill O f a di ameter small er than the n o ini n al
di ameter o f the b olt by a n amount equal to do ubl e the
d ep t h O f the thread I n p ractic e the n earest c ommerci al
.
siz e o f drill i s li sted for dril l i n g tapp e d hol es .
FIG . 16
58
Le t t e r S iz e s o f D r i ll s — Ta bl e 4
S iz e s o f T a p D r il ls -
T a bl e 5
Drill for U . 8
. D rill for
St nd r d
a a s W h it wort h
Se e l op g
a s a es 78, 1 76 an d 177 .
59
H an d y E q
u i v al e n t T a bl e s
M ad e o f S p rin g S t e el
MACHNE S CREW TAPS
TAP DR’
IL LS ONE OR TWO
S I Z E S O F T A P D R I LL S B ec aus e Of the large num

.
b er o f screw thread stan dard s i n use many tables woul d ,
b e requi red to cover all s el ecti o n s O f tap dr i lls .
The sizes o f tap dri ll for all p i tches of V threads may

b e foun d by the followi n g for m ula .
Tap d rill D
T
n umb er of threads p er i n c h
di a Of tap o r thread
.
E XA MP L E W hat d i ameter
.
o f tap drill shoul d b e used fo r a
X 1 0 tap ?
Tap d rill 2: . 75
10
75 14
. 61
N O TE . For U S S tan dard . .
thread s use sa m e form ula but ,
shoul d b e used i n pl ac e o f
FI G- 1 7 D R I LL ING L A R G E H OLE S .
Twi st dr i lls are sol d ran gi ng i n ,
size fro m N O 80 wire gage to four i n ches i n d i a m eter

. .
A s the dri ll i n c reases i n d i ameter the web i s c orre

sp o n d i n gl y thi cken ed an d as the cutt i n g edges at the
,
web d o n ot cut as effectively as they d o outsi de the web

thickn ess co n si d erabl e p ressure i s re q uired to forc e the
,
larger dr i ll s i nto the work at an effic i ent c u tt i n g feed .
For th i s reaso n man y work m en first d r i ll a l ead hol e ,
usi n g a dr i ll whose d i a m eter app rox i m ates the web th i ck

n ess O f the l arger dr i ll as shown i n F i g 1 7 A l ead hol e
'
. .
,
'
will also assi st i n c enteri n g the d r ill u p o n an i ncl i n ed
s u rfac e However i f the i n cl i n at i o n i s c o n s i derabl e i t
.
,
i s n ec essary to b u tt m i ll o r han d chip a sp ot g i v i ng
61
suffi ci ent s urf a c e t o wor k up o n The p racti c e Of some .
fi rm s i s t o use i n pl ac e o f a si n gl e l arge drill a relatively

smal ler o n e afterward enl argi n g the hol e by so m e metho d
,
Of counterb ori n g at a much l ess exp en se for tool s a n d

at a s rap i d a p roduct i o n rate as by enti re drill i n g .
BOL T H OL E S When the b olts are for holdi ng p ur

.
p oses o nly an d are n ot use d fo r aligni n g the s ever al

p i ec es it i s customary t o drill the hol es through wh i ch
,
the b olts p ass som ewhat l arger tha n the b olt d i ameters .
Thi s allows for a var i at i o n i n the bolt sizes an d fo r i n

ac cur a cy i n l oc at i n g the c enters .
D EE P H OLE D R I LL I N G U n d er this n ame m ay b e

.
c l a s sed the drilli n g of hol es through the axes o f sp i n dles

— lathe milli n g mach i n e an d g r i n d er
,
-
, a n d that sp eci al
l i n e o f drilli n g k n own as gun b arrel drilli ng -
Wh i l e fo r .
spi n dl e drilli n g it i s p oss i bl e to use ordi n ary twi st drill s

with exten ded shanks it i s customary i n effic i ent drilli ng
,
O f this sort t o us e sp ec i al drills d esign e d for the purp ose .
F i g 1 8 shows a sp eci al hollow dril l Often use d fo r

.
d rilli n g axi al ho l es i n lathe sp i n dles an d Fi g 1 9 shows , .
the m a chi n e with the dri l l gui de s i n wor k i n g p ositio n .
FIG . 18
man c ase s O f d eep ho l e drilli n g it i s b etter t o rotate

.
-
the work rather than the drill The drill must b e started .
exactly c o n c entri c with the axi s Of the machi n e For .
thi s reason a starti n g hol e the exact di am eter O f the drill

-
i s fi rst c ounterb ored .
C O U N T E RBOR ING There are many cases i n which

.
it i s d e s i rabl e to enl a rge a hol e throughout a p o rtion of

62
FIG . 19
its l en gth I f a d rill i s used for this purp ose there i s

.
n o c erta i nty that it h e two di a m eters w i ll b e co n c entri c .
The p ract i c e i s to e nlarge the already drill e d hol e by

us i n g a cutti n g t o o l h a v i n g a p ilot o r l ead er to gu i d e the
'
cutt i n g edges Thi s tool i s k n own as a c ounterb ore an d

.
,
i t s use i s ter m ed counterb ori n g .I n Fi g 2 0 are shown the

.
tool i n op erati o n an d i t s purp ose .

T H E
'
S T A R R E T T B O O K
T H E S T A R R E
'
T T B O O K
c o ntact a n d b y adj usti n g the foot sto ck frame up o n its

,
-
c ri cket b ri n g them i nto as exact truth as i s reaso n ably

p ossibl e . W i th the foot stock cla m p ed i n p ositi o n to
-
receive the work surfac e the d i a m eter o f a tri al pi ec e

,
fo r a l en gth suffi ci ent to allow testi ng its d i a m eter at

s everal pl ac es I f the di ameter i n creases o r d ecreases
.
_
as the tool p asses alo n g the l en gth o f the work readj ust ,
the foot stock an d rep eat the test until the re q u i red
-
C ONTAC
L
T P OI NTS
FU LSI ZE
U NIV ERSAL DIAL TES T I NDI CATOR

FIG 2 1 .
d egree o f ac curac y i s obtai n ed To test the l i ve c enter .
fo r c o n c entri c i ty place i n the to ol p ost a universal test -
i n di cator as sho w
,
, n i n Fi g 2 1 with the feeler i n touch

.
,
with the c o n e p oi nt R otate t h e head stock sp i n dle

-
.
-
slowly by han d an d n ote the dial I f the d i al shows an .
ec centri c i ty i n exc ess o f the all owed li m its for the jo b

’
66
t o be d on e the co n e p oi nt shoul d b e machi n ed true

,
-
In .
cases where it i s customary to have the l i ve as well as

the dead center harden ed the co n e p o i nt must b e trued
,
-
by som e gri n din g attachment as for exampl e a tool p ost

, , ,
-
gri n di n g fixture B y many workme n the live c enter i s

.
l eft unharden ed an d c an b e trued with a s q uare n ose

,
cutti ng tool an d afterw a rd lightly fi l e d to a sin o o t h sur

,
FI G 22
.
fac e
. T o test eit h er center for its p rop er c o n e p o i nt
-
angle use i s mad e of a c enter gage shown i n Fi g 2 2

, . .
T E S T IN D I C A T OR This i s a to ol for i n dic at i n g

.
m i nute c o ntact variatio n s up o n a graduated d i al o r up o n

Tr u in g W o rk in C h uc k
Tr u in g J ig on Fa c e P l a t e
I n d ic a t o r U se d w it h S u rfa c e G a g e on Be n c h Pla t e
68
T H E
, S T A R R E T T B O O K
a graduated arc The gra d uatio n s a re usu a l l y o n e hun

.
dre d i n a c omplete c i rcl e w i th an easily read wi dth Of

spaci n g The i n strument i s built i n such a way that o n e
.
of these sp ac es rep resents a movem ent of th e c o ntact

p oi nt O f i n ch .
Vari ous m echanis m s are emp l oyed for mul tiplyi n g

the move m ent of the c o ntact p o i nt all o f whi ch are -
,
b ased up o n a c o m b i n at i o n O f short an d l on g arm l evers .
U S E The test i n d i cator may b e use d with ad v a nta g e

.
-
i n any Of the c o m m o n machi n e tools to i n ,
d i c a t e ecc entr i city i n the lathe milli ng ma ,
ch i n e O r gri n di n g mach i n e ; to i n d i cate uni

,
form i ty O f height i n the plan er shap er b ori n g , ,
m ach i n e o r milli n g mach i n e ; to i n di cate p ar

,
all el i sm an d to test fo r align ment i n any

, .
m ach i n e .
WORK C E N T ER S M ost turn ed wor k i s .
do n e up o n the l athe c enters an d it b ecomes ,
n ec essary to p rovi d e suitabl e cav i ti es i n the

work c on ed I O fi t the c o n e p oi nts This i s
,
'
-
.
“ ”
termed c enteri n g the work an d c o n sists i n ,
first l oc ati n g the p ositio n o f the c aviti es an d

afterward d rilli n g an d ream i n g them to form
an d size B est p racti c e i n thi s resp ect is t o use
.
a comb i n atio n drill an d c enter reamer as i t ,
i n sures exact co n centri c i ty i n the d rilled an d

reamed h Ol e .
L O C AT I N G T H E C E N T ER S
/
I t i s evi d ent .
that the c enters shoul d b e so l oc ated that the

enti re d i ameter o f the turn ed j ob shal l fi ni s h
to si ze B esi d e th i s e ffici ent turni n g d eman d s H M PH RO
.
, ,
that the chip taken shall b e Of p racti cally un i B I TE

f orm depth as the work rotates agai n st t h e CALI PE RS
cutti ng tool For thes e reaso ns som e d egree o f accuracy
.
i n c enteri ng i s n ecess ary W here the turn ed j ob i s mad e

.
from ordi n a ry b l a ck b a r stock the c enters m a y b e lo cate d

,
69
L A T H E T OO S L
1 LEFT-H AND S IDE TOO L 4 RIG HT HAND D IAM OND POINT

-
2 RIGH T HA ND S I D E TO O L
-
5 LEF T HA N D DI A M O ND POI N T
-
3 RI G HT HA ND B EN T T OO L
-
6 R O UND Nos E TO O L
-
7 CUTTING O FF TOO L
- 10
8 T HRE A DI N G TOOL 11
9 B EN T T HRE ADING T OO L 12 I NSI D E TH READING TOOL
70
‘
by scrib i n g l i n es at an angle across the en ds usi n g a ,
c ombi n ati o n s quare w i th a c enter head an d the p rovi ded

scrib er I n plac e o f thi s tool a her m aphro d i te calip er
.
may b e used to scrib e the en ds o f the stock The c enter .
i s located w i th a c enter p un ch at the i ntersecti o n o f the

-
sc rib e d li n es an d the c o n c entri city teste d b y sp i n ni n g

the bar up o n the l athe c enters I f n ec essary the c enter .
;
pun ch marks are shifted I f the p i ec e i s b ent i t must.

,
after c enteri n g b e straighten ed to reaso n abl e truth F o r

, .
exact turn ed work the c enters shoul d afterward b e lightly

r e r e a m e d to c orrect the errors i n thei r a lign ment due to
the strai ghten i ng O f the bar .

0
’
Whe n the j ob i s to b e turn ed from a for gi n g it i s ,
usual to roll the for gi n g o n straight e dges an d scrib e

li n es across the en ds usi n g a surfac e o r he i ght gage
, .
I n such c ases the forgi n g i s s o lo c a te d with T e fe r e n c e to

the straight edges as to give a fair a verage O f the surfac e
errors due to forgi ng I t i s als o usual to l eave a greater
.
exc ess O f stock for fi nishi ng purp os es up o n a forgi n g

th a n up o n rolled bar stock Whe n the c enters are well .
located the hol es m a y b e drilled un d er a d r i ll p res s o r -
i n a han d lathe as c o nven i ent

-
, Where much b ar sto ck .
must be c entere d a sp ecial s el f l oc ati n g c enteri n g m achi n e-
i s O ften used .
L A T H E T OOL S A s et of tools fo r us e i n the e ngi n e

.
lathe i s shown i n the ch a rt o n p age 7 0 Whi l e i n c om .
m o n shop l an guage all these a re k n own as cutti n g tool s ,
techni cally sp eaki n g many O f them s ep arate the stock i n

,
a man n er that i s an al ogous to c rowd i n g O ff the m etal

rather than b y pure cuttin g actio n C utti n g i n its p rop er .
s en se i s a splitti n g action an d a p rop erly groun d an d ,
p rop erly s et cutti ng tool i s a wedge i n that i t splits O ff

the exc ess stock A mo n g the c ommo n l athe tool s the
. ,
si de tool an d the d i amon d p oi nt tool are the b est ex a m-
p l e s of wedge o r splitti n g acti o n .
The n ose o f a cutti n g tool h a s s e ve r al si d e s t wo O f ,
71
wh i ch c ome together at some an gl e to form a cutt i ng

edge The an gl e for m e d by thes e surfaces must b e s uffi
.
c ient for strengt h an d to furn i sh enou gh m etal to co n

,
duct away the heat gen erated by the cuttin g acti o n F o r .
turn i n g ord i n ary soft steel an d soft gray i ro n an angl e

o f s i xty d egrees i s good p ract i c e For hard er m ater i als
.
the an gl e m a y b e i n creased I n the c ase o f forged lathe

.
tools the worki n g en d O f the tool i s forged up o n the en d

,
o f a short p i ec e o f square o r rectan gular bar stock The .
l en gth a n d si ze O f the shank O f the forged tool d ep en d

up o n the s i ze Of chip an d the machi n e used .
‘
R A KE The an gl e whi ch the upp er si d e o f the tool
.
makes with the hori zo ntal i s term ed the rake I f the

”
.
l sa o n r
C LE A ‘
R A NC E
FIG . 23
sl a nt i s aw a y from the wor k it i s terme d fro nt r ak e ; i f

i n the directi o n of the axi s o f the work it i s termed s i d e
,
rake A cutti n g tool may have its upp er fac e forged an d

.
groun d with either a fro nt o r a si de r a ke o r a comb i n a

ti o n Of b oth ( S ee Fi g
. .
C LE A R A N C E B y cl ear a n c e i s m e ant the an gl e whi ch

.
the un der si d e of the tool makes w i th the vert i cal A s .
“ ”
i n the cas e o f rake the cl earan c e directly away from
the a xis o f t h e wor k o r l athe i s t e rm e d front c l e a r a n c e ,
72
the to ol up o n the rest rather than from it an d shoul d ,
run true an d i n b alan c e E ffic i ent cutti ng d ep en ds very

.
largely up o n the c orrect sharp eni n g as well as the cor

,
rect sett i n g O f the cutt i n g tool an d great care shoul d b e

,
take n when gr in di n g a lathe tool to have the several

fac es true an d m aki ng correct an gl es with each other .
The m an n er O f do i n g th i s i s a p retty goo d i n d ex of t h e

workm an . The usual l athe cutti n g tools h a ve well d e
- -
fi n ed cutti n g e d g es a n d the an gul arity O f the surf a c e s

,
which m eet to form the cutti n g e dge c an Often b e m eas

u r e d w i th a b evel p rotractor an d i n the c ase Of a s i xty
,
de g ree angl e the c enter gage i s suitabl e Th i s tool i s .
al so used to test the an gl e when gri n di n g a vee p oi nted

-
thread tool as illustrate d i n Fi g 2 4

, . .
T E S T ING TH E C U TT ING A NG LE S A s the usual .
m achi n e c o nstructi o n m ater i al s are n ot exc essively hard ,
a cutti n g an gl e o f n ot far from s i xty d egrees may

b e mainta i n ed o n such tools as the s i d e tool an d the
d i amo n d p o i nt I n this c ase t h e an gl e can b e tested by
.
use o f the usual c enter gage W here cutti n g angles other

.
74
'
than 6 0 are used al so for testi n g c l earanc es t h e uni

°
, ,
versal B evel P rotractor i s useful .
T OOL H OL D E R S The high c ost o f the m aterials

.
used fo r mod ern cutt i n g to ol s has resulted i n the mar

keti n g o f a vari ety O f hol d ers desi g n ed to hol d cutti n g
p oi nts I n thi s m an n er a large numb er of relatively
.
’
i n exp en sive cutti ng p o i nts are made to i nt erchange i n
a si ngle shan k o r hol der O n e form o f tool hol der i s
.
-
made to hol d p oi nts forge d i n the regul ar forms shown

i n the chart p age 7 0 I n some exampl es however the
, .
, ,
hol ders are mad e t o carry short bits broken from s q uare
bar sto ck an d afterward sharp en ed i nto some resem
blan c e to the true forged shap e ( S ee F i g . .
FI G 25
.
M A T ER I A L S F O R C U TT ING T OOL S Thes e are .
kn own as c arbo n steel ( tool steel ) h i gh sp eed steel an d

,
-
,
a n ew p roduct o f the electr i c furn ac e sol d un d er the

trade n a m e of S tellite
“ ”
C arbo n steel o r as it was
.
, ,
“ ”
formerly term ed tool steel i s high i n carb o n eighty
, , ,
p oi nt to o n e hun dred a n d twenty fi v e p oi nt a n d when

-
,
c orrectly h e até d an d afterward plun ged i n c ol d water ,
hard en s to a very h i gh degree Un fortu nately fo r high

.
sp ee d cutt i ng the hard n ess i s d rawn at a comp aratively

l o w heat an d care m ust Obta i n n ot to overheat o r blue it
, .
High sp ee d steel i s a sp eci al steel hav i ng i t s c o m

-
p osit i o n alloyed w i th tungsten an d p erhap s van ad i um

o r m olyb denum W hil e heat treat m ent does n ot gi ve it
.
the e xc eedi n g hard n ess o f tool or carbo n steel high ,

sp eed steel has the p ecul i ar p rop erty O f retai n i ng its

hard n ess at temp eratures c o n si derably i n excess of those
whi ch readily soften tool steel Tools m ade fro m hi gh .
sp eed steel are used at sp eeds feeds an d cuts whi ch , ,
heat the tools a n d chip s to a dull red .
S tellite i s a n ew cutti n g m ater i al co m p os ed O f c h r o

mium c ob alt an d so m etimes tungsten
, , I t i s c ast i nto .
form an d c an n ot b e forged I ts hard n es s i s equal to the

.
di a m o n d a n d u n d er favorabl e c o n d i t i o ns marvel ous turn

,
i n g m a y b e d on e .
M A N D REL S W here the work i s to b e t t i rn éd i r ue

' '
with a hol e through i t as for exampl e turn ed p ull eys , , , ,
work c enters must b e prov i de d fo r holdi n g i t o n the lathe

-
centers The co m mo n way i s to forc e o r drive i nto

.
the work hol e a b ar havi n g c enter hol es i n its en ds This

-
.
b ar shoul d b e cl assed as a to ol ro om t ool a n d i s prop erly -

,
kn own as a man d rel although O ft e n c all e d an arb or

, ,
.
A stan dard set of m an drel s vari es i n diam eter an d i n

l en gth ac cordi n g to the shop c on diti o ns
, They are .
made Of either tool steel harden e d an d groun d true w i th

the c e nters o r fro m so ft m achi n ery steel c ase carbo nized
, ,
-
an d afterward g roun d The en ds for a sh o r t distanc e

'
are reduc ed i n di ameter an d p rovi d ed with flats for

clamp i n g on the d o g M an drel s usually tap er at the rate
.
of i n an i n ch The di am eter O f the hol e fitted

.
by the man drel i s stamp ed up o n the l arger en d A s the .
quality O f the work d ep en ds up o n the truth Of the man

d rel it s houl d b e tested up o n d ead c enters with a test
i n di cator b efore b ei n g used To use d rive o r forc e it i nto
.
,
pl ac e usi ng a M an drel p ress for forci n g o r a l ead ha m mer

,
fo r drivi n g c arefully removi n g di rt chip s o r pi ec es of

, , ,
lead from the c enters b efore placi n g t h e work i n a lathe .
L athe d rive with the usual l athe d o g as for any j ob do n e -
o n the c enters A voi d forci ng o r drivi n g the man drel

.
i nto a hol e th a t i s n either roun d n or straight A lso avoi d .
s cori n g the man drel with the cutti n g tool .
76
S C REW T H RE AD C U TT ING A screw threa d i s a .
h eli cal groove cut o r for m ed i nto the surfac e O f a b ar ,
rod , o r b olt
, or i n s i d e a nut For ordi nary m ach i n e
.
screws b olts studs etc the threads are mad e with

, , ,
sp eci al tools c all ed threadi n g d i es Thes e are screwed .
up o n the b olt sc rew o r stud t o b e threade d by rotating

, ,
e i ther the work o r the d i e Threadi n g di e s are used

.
b oth by han d an d i n p ower drive n m achi n es-

.
S C REW T H RE AD S There are numerous sc rew

.
thread stan dards i n m ore or l ess gen eral use The so .
c all ed Un ited S tates stan dard i s i n this c ountry the more

gen erally acc epted o n e an d i s therefore illustrated i n
,
F i g 2 6 an d Tabl e 6
. I t will b e n ote d that i n additio n
.
to a d e fi nite form o f thread cross s ectio n each d i ameter -
has a sp ecified numb er Of thread s p er i n ch O f l en gth .
The U n i ted S tates stan d ard thread when s ect i o n ed shows , ,
a trun cated s i xty degrees tr i angl e with the sp ac e an d

the lan d al i ke .
P I TC H AND LE AD .
P itch i n a thre a d i s the

I TC i W l DTH
q
'
o P I H - , ,
distan c e m easured fro m the
n
“ O F FLAT
c enter O f o n e thread to T
'
the c enter o f an adj ac ent DEP

OF
thread I f the screw threa d
.
i s a si n gle hel i x the l ead i s

,
equal to pitch I f the helix

.
is doubl e the l ead i s doub l e FI G 26 :
the pitch W hile str i ctly sp e ak i n g p itch i s the recip roc al

.
/
O f the numb er O f thread s p er i n ch as fo r exampl e , , ,
p i tch for a sc rew thread 7 p er li n ear i n ch shop men ,
sp eak o f it as 7 pitch written 7 P , , .
T H RE AD I N G IN A L A T H E Wh en screw threads .
are cut i n a n en gi n e l athe the p oi nt of the cutti n g tool

,
i s shap ed to the exact form O f the sp ac es b etwee n threads .
B y m ean s o f a l ead sc rew an d a trai n O f geari n g the tool -
i s comp elled to move alon g the axi s o f the work at a

77
U . S . S t an d a r d S c r e w Th r e ad s T a bl e 6
D im n ion f N
e s s O ut s
d Bolt H d
.
an ea s
f
o
r l
l
e i
t r
e
a
mp D
i a
DT
H
?3
H
5
5
I
1 2 562
2 1 964 4 47 6
.
2 1 546
31 17434
3%
4 982
CO URTES Y O F MA CHIN ER Y
Se e l op
a s ag e s 5 5 , 56 , 1 68 a n d 1 69 .
78
d e fi nite rate o f adv a n c e as the work rotates A s the .
trai n O f gears us u ally furn ished with an engi n e l athe

c an b e change d 1 0 give d i fferent rates o f advanc e it i s ,
i n th i s man n er p ossibl e to c u t thread s o f a large var i ety .
O f p itches I n p ract i c e a s et O f several gears hav i ng di f

.
fe r e n t numb ers o f teeth are furn i shed w i th each lathe .
Thos e furn i shed w i ll usually p rov i d e for cutti n g all the

threads with i n the usual ran ge O f the lathe with wh i ch
”
they come Thes e are k n own as change gears
.
“
an d ,
their use i s Obvi ous .
S E LE CT I N G C HA N G E G E A R S G iven the numb er

.
o f threads p er l i n ear i n ch to b e cut an d the numb er o f
threads p er li n ear i n ch Of the l ead screw the p robl em ,
i s t o sel ect gears gi v i n g the desi red rati o of cut to l ead

sc rew . For exa m ple i t i s d esi red that si ngle seven
,
threads p er li n ear i n ch shall b e cut u p o n a 1 % i n ch -
b olt an d it i s foun d by scal i ng that the l athe l ead screw

,
has si n gl e five threads p er li n ear i n ch The ratio o f cut .
t o l ead screw i s then that Of s even to five The

chan ge gears sel ected shoul d therefore b e as seven i s
, ,
t o five . I f b oth m e m b ers of a fract i o n are multipl i ed

by the sa m e numb er the rati o i s n ot chan ged
, Thi s .
allows O f rai si ng the fracti o n to su i t the gears wh i ch are

7 5 35
i n the set furnished ; for exampl e , I f gears
5 5 25
h a vi n g thirty fi v e teeth an d twenty fi v e teeth r e sp e c
- -
,
t i v e l y are foun d i n the furn i shed set the s el ecti o n Of

, ,
these gears w i l l give when r i ghtly plac ed the d esired

, ,
tool advan c e for cutti n g s eve n thread s p er l i n ear i nch .
The directi on s above refer t o the m ost simpl e form

o f l athe Vari ous lathe m anufacturers have i ntro duc ed
.
different arran ge m ents o f the gear i n g but with any lathe

,
the ab ove p roc edure w i ll g ive correct res u lts i f it i s first

determ i n ed what n umb er of threads p er i n ch will b e
cut i f gears O f the sam e numb er o f teeth are p l aced o n
S pi n dl e stud an d l ead sc rew Th i s numb er call ed t h e
.
79
‘
B O O K
'
La t h e S e t U p fo r Th r e a d C u t ti n g
N o te Th r e a d S t o p at A
to allow Of mounti n g geari n g an d usually the upp er

c o n e fo r the fee d b elt G ears mounte d or to b e mounted
.
up on t h i s p roj ectin g stu d are term ed stud gears

“ ”
Thos e .
m ounted up o n the p roj ect i n g en d o f the lead screw are

k n own as l ead gears W he n the nu m b er o f threads to b e
.
cut i s m ore p er l i n ear i n ch than that Of the l ead screw ,
the small er Of the s el ected gears i s place d up o n the

“
S T UD an d the l arger up o n the l ead sc rew I n the
”
.
exampl e the 2 5 to oth gear woul d b e pl ac ed o n the stud

,
-
an d the 35 tooth gear o n the l ead screw R evers e the

-
.
o rder i f the numb er O f threads p er li n ear i n ch i s l ess —w
than that O f the lead sc rew The numb er Of t ee th i n the

~
large i dl er gear has n o b eari n g up o n the results as it ,
s i m ply c o nveys the moti o n of the upp er o r stud gear to

the l ower or l ead sc rew gear I n the ab ove it i s assu m ed
-
.
that t h e stud rotates i n un i so n with the l athe sp i n dle .
C O MP O U N D ING TH E G E A R S A s a m ean s of e u
.
-
l a r g i n g the range O f threads p er li n ear i n ch p ossibl e to

b e cut w i th an y set O f change gears most lathes are ,
p rovi de d with an adj ustabl e c omp oun d auxil i ary stud

wh i ch i s prov i d ed with two locked gears havi n g a rati o
each to the other of two to o n e A s an example of the i r
.
us e a ssume that a gear havi n g ni n ety teeth was n eeded

,
up o n the l ead s crew to cut a given numb er O f threads .
I f the set Of gears furn i she d failed to p rov i d e a ni n ety

gear but di d p rovi d e o n e o f forty fi v e teeth placi ng
,
-
,
thi s o n the l ead screw an d m eshi n g the two to o n e com

p oun d stud i nto the trai n compl etes the d esired rat i o ,
an d adva n ces the tool as i f the 9 0 tooth gear had b een -
us ed .
T H R E AD T OOL A mo n g the tools li sted on p age 7 0

.
i s shown the ordi n ary thread i ng tool p oi nt I t i s Obv i ous

-
.
that th i s o r any other form o f p oi nt m ust b e formed an d

tested to give the c orrect form Of thread The p oi nt .
shown h a s si des at an an gl e w i th each other O f sixty

degrees The p oi nt c an therefore b e tested with a center
.
82
MES H
C R EW
gage or rul e The sa m e gage m a y al so b e u sed i n setti n g

.
the tool s q uare w i th the ax i s Of the work ( s ee p age

G R I N D ING T H R E AD T OOL S I t i s imp ortant that
.
the p o i nt O f the thread tool shall co nfor m to the outl i n e

Of the groove b etween the adj ac ent threads a n d that ,
the surfac es b el ow the c u tt i n g edge p rop erl y cl ear the

Stock b e i n g cut When gr i n d i n g a thread tool p a r t i c u
.
,
83
l ar c a re shoul d b e give n t o h a ve the c l e a ran ces suffi ci ent

fo r the l ead o f the thread .
S E TT ING TH E T OOL S et the tool p oi nt at the

.
e xa ct hei ght O f the lathe c enters an d at right angl es to ,

-
t h e axi s O f the l athe

‘
.
U S E S O F C U TT ING L U B R I C AN T Use lard O i l .
when threadi ng steel wrought an d m alleable i ron C ut

, , .
the c a st metals dry .
THREA D CUTTIN G T OO L S ET A T H EI GHT O F LATH E CENTER

R I G H T AND LE FT T H RE AD S . A right han d thread
-
resul ts when the threadi n g tool i s advan ced from r i ght

t o l eft as it cuts I f the too l when cutti n g a dvan c es
.
from l eft t o right the resul ti n g screw has a l eft han d -
threa d .
M E ASU R ING AND T E S T ING S C REW T H RE AD S .
For ordi n ary purp oses screw thread s when cut are fitted
t o some threaded ho l e Thi s m ay b e a harden ed an d
.
gr oun d ga g e o r m a y b e an o rdi n ary thread ed nut

, ,
d ep en di n g up o n the a ccuracy o f the work Where the .
qual ity o f the work d eman ds sp eci al ac curacy o r where .

,
84
st a n d a r d thre ad ed g a ge s a re n ot a v a i l abl e the thread

,
i s teste d by measurements m ad e with c alip ers I f the .
p oi nt o f the thread tool ha s b een c a refully an d exactly

forme d an d ac curately set i n plac e m easur i n g the d i am
,
eter a t the root o f the thread m ay give su ffic i ently ac cu
CALIPERS FO R TES TING THREADS

r a te result s an d thi s may b e d o n e with a s et O f thi n
,
poi nt sp r i n g c alip ers W hen greater ac cur a cy tha n this

.
i s requi red m i crometers havi n g sp eci al thread m e a sur

,
-
i n g p oi nts are resorte d t o ( see Fi g I n all this it

\
i s assumed that the threa d tool i s groun d s et a n d Op er

, ,
ated to give an ex a ct thre a d outli n e .
M E ASU R ING L A T H E WORK Work do n e i n the

.
en gi n e lathe i s O f such a vari ety that a c o n si der a bl e list

o f m e a suri n g tools m ay b e n eede d to c over al l ca s es .
O rdi n a rily however the d i ameter me a sure m ents ca n b e

, ,
85
mad e with sp ri n g c alip ers micrometers o r som e Of the

, ,
usual b ar c al i p ers C yl i n dr i cal plug an d r i ng gages

.
,
as well as l i m i t s nap gages are al so used for di a m eter

,
m easurements an d many O f these m ay b e used i n meas

,
uri n g the shorter l en gths For the lon ger m easure m ents
.
o f l en gth steel rul es are p rovid ed w i th o r without sl i ders

, .
The m ore accurate me a surements are usual ly made by

usi n g a mi crometer .
FIG 27 .
T A P ER T U R NING Where two p arts are to fit fi rmly

.
together when i n use as for exa m pl e c e nters i nto lathe

, , ,
sp i n dles an d it i t d es i rabl e to have the m eas i ly r e m o v

,
abl e what are kn own as tap er fi t s are us ed For this

,
-
.
p urp os e s everal rates O f chan ge i n diameter h a ve b ecom e

stan dards P ages 87 an d 88 give the m ore co m m o n stan d
.
ards The B rown

. S harp e S tan dard i s i n gen eral use
for the S pi n dl e tap ers i n m i lli n g machi n es The M orse .
tap er i s the on e co m mo n l y used for all drills an d d ri ll

i n g machi n ery .E ither Of thes e m ay b e used for the
tap ered hol e i n l athe sp i n dl es whil e so me l athe m a nu
,
fa c t u r e r s h a ve establ i shed stan d ards of thei r o w n .
86
Br o w n 8: S h ar p e Ta p e r S ha n k s Ta bl e 7
o mu w‘ Ta n a 7 A flt 0
P LU G
T p rp
a e er ft is 3
. 6 in .
, e x ce pt for N o . 10 S h an k whe re t h e t ap e r i
, s in p e r ft
. .
87
M o r se S t a n d a r d Ta p e r S han k s — Table 8
S O C K ET “
S D LE
PI N
Sh o t Sh n k
r a s
The dim n ion giv n b ov for r gu l r (ful l l ngt h ) M or t p r h n k

e s s e a e e a e se a e s a s ar e
t ho Wh h h v b
se IC n cc pt d t d d d
a e ee a e ed b y m o t m n uf c t r r
as s an ar an ar e u se s a a u e s
I n r ec nt c t lo gu of t h M or T wi t D rill M c hin C h ow v r t bl i
.
O
a e a a e e se s a e o e e a a e s
whi ch t h l n gt h of t h t n g d con qu n t ly t h w h ol l n gt h of t h
.
, .
g l ve n I n e e e a an se e e e e e
h n k i li ght ly ncr d T h incr i l n gt h h ow v r li ght t h t it
, ,
a s s I e a se e e ase n e e e 1 3 so s a
t p r v nt t h h n k fro m fi tt in g in t o t h d m y t n d rd t p r oc k t
s
do
,
,
.
e s no e e e S a e or ar s a a a e s e .
88
the requi red rate O f di a meter ch a n g e A s all tap er att a ch .
m ents are gr a du a ted t o read direct they are easily set ,
for the requi red tap er A dj ustment Of the foot stock o f

.
-
an en gi n e l athe i s n ot s o simple as the tap er attachme nt .
I n s etti n g the tap er attachment the axial distan c e the ,
c enter p oi nts are ap art i s n o t i m p ortant whil e th i s d i s ,
t a n c e must b e co n si d ere d i n s etti n g over the foot stoc k -
o f t h e l a th e .
A M O U N T T O O FF S E T C E N T ER S F O R GIVE N
T A P ER I f the d i st a n c e the c enter p oi nts enter the
.
work o r the m an drel i s ignored the m an drel l en gth c an ,

“
b e c o n s i dered as the di stan c e ap art of the c enter p oi nts .
The c alculat i o n n ecessary to determi n e the di stan c e which

the c enters shall b e Offset i s that of multiplyi n g the ,
l en gth o f the work o r m a n drel i n feet by o n e hal f o f the -
requi red tap er i n i n ches T O turn a B row n S harp e

.
tap er o n a p i ec e o f work n i n e i n ches lo ng the p robl em

woul d wor k o ut as follows
. 5 00 9
X
‘
2 12 16
a n d the foot stock woul d b e set over 946 i n c h
-
.
I n the ab ove illustrative examp l e b oth len gth a n d

amou n t Of tap er are given but the a m ount of tap er is n ot ,
always kn own S upp o se a p iec e i s 8 i n ches lon g an d a

.
tap er i s to b e turn ed o n o n e en d the tap ered p orti on to ,
b e 4 i n ches lo n g T h e d i fferen c e i n di ameters o f these

.
4 i n ches i s to b e 34 i n ch How m uch must the tail sto ck

.
b e Offset ? I f the tap er i s 76 i n ch i n 4 i n ches it woul d b e

1
1 36 i n ches i n a foot an d the tail stock woul d b e moved

over o n e hal f o f 1 36 i n ches o r 54 i n ch i f the pi ec e were a
- 9
,
foot lon g but as it i s o nly 8 i n ches o r 36 Of a foot lo n g

, ,
the tail stoc k shoul d b e move d over m ultipli ed by 74

9
74 i n ch Had the pi ece b ee n 1 8 i n ches l on g the tail

o r 1
. ,
st o c k sh o ul d b e m ove d over m ul tipli e d by 74 o r 1 34;

9
'
i n ches .
90
I t has b een assumed for these simple calc ul ati o n s

that the lathe c enters m erely touch the en ds Of the p i ec e ,
thus m ak i ng the len gth O f the p i ec e the sa m e as the dis

tan c e b etween c enters B ut i n actual work the distan c e
.
the c enters enter the p i ece must b e co n si dered The .
c al culat i o n shoul d b e as accurate as p ossibl e to avoi d ‘
co nt i nually chan g i n g the ta i l stock to get a reaso n ably

goo d tap er fit The n ec essity O f c o n si d eri n g the di stan c e
.
the ce nter enters the p i ec e d ep en ds so m ewhat up o n i t s

l en gth I f the p i ec e is very l ong the actual tap er will
.
,
differ co n si derably from the c alcul ated tap er I f each .
c e nte r enters the p i ec e o n e fourth i n ch they woul d e nter

-
a total o f o n e half i n ch an d the l en gth O f the p i ec e

-
,
shoul d b e reduc ed by o n e hal f i n ch i n the c al culati on

-
.
W h i l e turn i n g the tap er the calip ers shoul d b e used i r e

q uently so that i t may b e soo n determi n ed wh ether o r n ot ‘
the ta i l sto ck i s c orrectly plac ed .
For c on i n g pull eys s et the foot stoc k aw a y from the

,
-
op er ator whe n adjusti n g I n m ost tap er work however

.
, ,
the c enter i s O ffs et towards the op erator .
S E TT ING TH E T OOL The tool p oi nt s houl d b e set

.
-
at the exact he i ght O f the axis of the lathe .
T E S T ING TH E T UR N E D T A P ER T o t est the tap er .
a s it i s turn ed groun d o r fil ed it shoul d b e p resse d

, , ,
l i ghtly i nto a stan dard tap ered hol e an d worked b ack an d

forth suffici ently t o m a r k the pl ac es where b ear i n g oc curs
‘
.
I f the work has b een l i ghtly c overed with so m e marki n g

pi gm e nt the b ear i n g p oi nts w i ll b e more disti n ct C are
, .
,
however must obta i n that the c o a ti n g i s n ot su ffici ent to

,
/
s m oo ch as i t will d ec eiv e the workman A dj ust tap er

‘
, .
setti ng unt i l a c orrect fit i s Obtai n ed .
E CC E N T R I C T U R N ING Whil e for the m ost p art the

.
l athe i s used for work exactly co n c entr i c with the ax i s ,
it c an b e us ed for turn i n g work n ot c o n c entri c with the

“ ”
axis Work of th i s so rt i s termed ec c e ntr i c an d an
.
,
exampl e Of such work i s seen i n the ecc entri cs which

91
A m o un t o f T ap e r in a G i v e n Le n g t h W he n
, th e Ta p e r pe r
Fo o t i s K n o w n — T a bl e 9
m
op erate the valves of steam en gi n es I f the wo r k has a .
hol e through it as i n the ab ove exampl e the hole is first

, ,
fi nished to requ i red dimen si ons A man drel i s then used

.
for carry i n g the work o n the c enters W hil e the m an drel

.
h a s been bu i lt o n on e s et o f c enters exactly true with its

a xis, for ec centri c turn i n g i t has a s eco n d s e t o f c enters
wh i ch are O ff set the a m ount re q ui red fo r t h e ecc entri city
sp ecified I n the c ase of ec c entri cs made soli d with the
.
sh a ft the two s ets of c enters o n e fo r turn i n g the shaft

, ,
‘
an d the other for fi nishi n g the ec ce ntri c s are made ,
s i de by s i d e i n the en ds O f the shaft as show n i n Fi g 2 8

,
. .
W hen the sp ecified ecc entri city i s too extreme to

allow both p airs Of c enters c omin g withi n the l imits Of
the dia m eter o f the shaft sp ec i al en ds may b e c ast o r
,
forged o n the en ds o f the work an d can afterward b e

,
mach i n ed o ff I n crank shaft turni ng sp eci al attach

.
-
,
ments are p rovi ded for the en d s o f the shaft S p ec i al .
ecc entri c turni ng c h uc k s m a y b e mad e to hol d the work .
C HU C K I N G C hucki n g i n cludes n ot o nly the mount

.
,
i n g O f the work i n the chuck but p erformi ng the n e c e s

,
“ ”
sary op erati on s o n it whil e so hel d The n ame chuck.
i s give n t o a li n e of tools h a vi n g a vari ety O f form al l ,
93
T H E S T A R R E T T . B O O K
of wh i c h a re d e s i g n e d to h o l d wor k o r too l s upo n t h e

n os e Of a spi n dl e I n gen eral the heavi er sort s a re
.
mounted up o n a fac e plate whi ch screws up o n the en d

-
O f the sp i n dl e whil e smaller siz es are fitted with a tap er

,
shank whi ch fits tightly i nto the tap ered hol e i n the
sp i n dl e The s m aller s i zes are use d for c arryi n g tools
.
,
such as drills a l s o s c r e w s studs wi re p i n s etc ; an d are

, , , , “ .
kn own as dr i ll chucks -
.
The larger s i zes are wi d ely used for hol di n g work

fo r m a chi n e op erat i o n s an d are som eti m es c alled work
,
chucks .
”
O n the i r fac e they are p rovi ded w i th adj ust
i n g j aws movable regularly to an d from the c enter ; these
j aws are so d esign ed that a c o n si d erabl e var i ety of work
m a y b e read i l y hel d an d succ ess fully worked up o n with
c ommo n cutt i ng tools The j aws are moved by m ean s
.
O f screws or gears an d c an b e adj usted i n d e p e n d e n t l y

, s ,
the chuck b ei ng c alle d a n i n dep en d ent j aw chuck ; o r -

,
all the j aws may b e m a d e to move together i n wh i ch ,
case it i s kn own as a Un iversal chuck .
H OL D ING TH E W ORK The work must b e clamp ed .
firmly i n the chuck whil e b ei n g machi n ed C are must .
al so b e taken that the cl ampi n g Of a sl en d er p i ec e i s

n ot so fi r m as to distort o r sp ri n g it I f work sl i p s
,
.
,
tools m ay b e broken an d i f hel d t o o tightly an d sp rung

,
o r crushed , the work is i nj ured an d i n some cases e n

t i re l y rui n ed .
T R U ING TH E WORK A dj usti n g the chuck j aws .

-
s o that the wor k will run a s true as d es i red i s termed ,

“
trui n g up the w o r k Thi s i s p reli m i n ar y to any tool
f
i n g whi ch m
.
a y b e do n e o n the j ob O ften thi s trui n g .
O f the work c a n b e a ccompli she d b y hol di n g a p i ec e
o f chalk to j ust touch the work l eavi n g a plai n m ark

,
i n g — thi s metho d i s used whe n chucki n g rough p ull eys

for d rill i n g o ut the hol e i n the hub W here greater .
ac curacy i s requi red t h e wor k i s i n dic ate d with a Un i

,
vers al d i al t est i n d i cator .
95
T H E
'
C HU C K ING T OOL S With the work located i n the

.
c h uc k it may b e tool ed with ordi n a ry l athe tools such ,
a s shown i n the too l chart ( p age -

o r it may b e drilled
with two three or four fl uted twi st drills an d reamed

, , ,
with m achi n e reamers o r sp eci al shell bits a n d c oun

,
t e r bo r e s .
C HU C K S O N T U RRE T L A T H E S I n turret lathe

.
work fo r b a r stock the chuck i s a p art O f the regular

,
-
,
tool equipm ent ; thes e chucks are often o f sp eci al design ,
so m ad e that they Op en an d cl ose by han d O p erated -
l evers o r automati c a lly op erated cams-

.
K N U RL ING The surfac es of adj usti n g sc rews an d

‘
small machi n e p arts are Often given a re g ular rough sur

fac e for easy gripp i n g I n the m a chi n e s hop thi s is
.
don e by u s i n g a tool k n own a s a k nurl or k nurli ng

“ ” “
tool whi ch c o n sist s O f o n e o r more i n d ented roll ers o r

”
,
k nurl s mounted t o rot a te i n s ome form o f ho l d er .
These k nurls are forc ed

i nto an d fed alo ng the stock
u ntil the i n d ented d esign has
b een suffici ently i mp ri nt e d
i nto the surfac e W hen n eatly
.
a n d e ff ectively do n e the r e
s ul t s gi ve a fin e gripp i ng sur
f a c e a n d a rath er p l e a s i n g e ff ect to the eye The k nurli ng

.
t o o ! may b e fed alo n g the surfac e o f the work by hand ,
but usually the p ower traverse feed i s used The p roc ess .
i s rep eated i f o n e p a ss a ge Of the tool do es n o t gi ve sum

ci ent depth .
Fi g 2 9 s h ow s k nurl i ng o n a mi crometer
.
.
96
ess of e nl argi n g a drilled hol e R ea m ers are Of two well

.
“ ” “ ”
defi n e d typ es k n own as fluted reamers an d rose
,
reamers . T h e fl u t ed reamer i s o n e havi ng numerous

flutes o n the c i rcumferen c e O f the c utt i n g p ort i o n o f
the tool I n other wo rd s the cutt i n g i s d o n e o n the cir
.
,
c u m fe r e n c e i n stead o f at the en d as w i th a d r i ll
, .
The nu m b er Of fl u tes o n the surfac e of a reamer

vari es w i th the di a m eter an d with so m e m akes the num
,
b er Of fl utes i s greater for a give n d i ame t er when the

reamer i s to b e used i n a m ach i n e i n stead O f for h a nd
ream i n g .
A s i t s n ame i m p l i e s a fl ute d han d rea m er i s m ade

,
fo r han d use an d i s s el do m c all e d up o n to enl arge a

,
hol e m ore than 00 7 for a ny d i ameter an d n ot m ore

.
,
”
than 003 i n the small er s i z es
. .
I n the case of mach i n e o r l athe ream ers the l en g th ,
o f the flutes for an y gi ven d i ameter i s fifty p er c ent
less than the stan dard l en gth for han d reamers The .
depth o f fl ute i s usually so m ewhat i n e xc ess o f that Of

han d reamers I n most cases machi n e reamers are used
.
for enlargi n g d rilled holes to a d i am eter whi ch o nly

a ll ows suffici ent s tock for han d rea m i n g W hen the hol es .
are n ot to exc eed a di am eter i n l en g th mach i n e reamers ,
m ay b e use d for fi n i sh i n g the drill ed h ol e t o its f ul l

d i am eter ; but when straight roun d accurate holes are
, ,
to b e o f exact d i am eter the b etter p racti c e i s to fir s t dril l

to un d er si z e enlarge to han d reami n g s ize
,
with a m achi n e ream er an d then c a refully han d ream to

,
e xact s i z e .
E C C E N TR I C F L U TE S Form erly flute d reamers had

.
a n o d d numb er o f flutes such as n i n e o r el even Although

, .
thi s m etho d eli m i n ated chatter i n g to som e extent it ha d ,
the d i sadvantage O f m aki n g i t d iffi cult to calip er the

d i a m eter o f the cutti n g edges E cc entri c flut i n g as it
.
,
i s c alled c o ns i sts i n m i ll i n g the flutes with u n even S p ac

,
i n g t o obvi ate chatteri n g but havi n g them exactly opp o

‘
,
98
site so that a dia m eter mea s urement m ay b e mad e with

,
a micro m eter .
A ro se rea m er i s an en d cuttin g tool an d i s Ofte n

‘
- -
,
use d i n pl ac e O f a drill i n c ored hol es I t i s n ever mad e .
for h a n d use an d i n gen eral p racti c e i s sel dom used fo r

,
ex a ct d i am eter .
-
MI LL ING C U TT ER S I n l athe wor k the cutti n g too l
.
i s fixed an d the work rotat es I n a milli n g m achi n e the .

-
cutter rotates an d work i s fe d agai n st it The rotati n g .
“ ”
cutter ter m e d a m i ll i n g cutter has an almost unlimite d
, ,
vari ety of si zes an d shap es for m illi n g regular an d i rreg

ular for m s M illi n g cutters are made from som e o f the
.
tool steels heat treated to give the ri ght c u tti n g q uali

,
-
t i es the stock co m i n g to the tool maker i n the form Of

, .
-
rough blanks carefully an n eal ed W here t h e cutter has

, .
a hol e through it this i s first drill ed b ored or r eamed to , ,
a di a m eter somewhat s m aller tha n that i n the fi nished

‘
cutter The reaso n for this i s that all the exact true sur
.
fac es must b e fi nished after the cutter has b een harden ed

so m e gri n d i ng p roc ess b ei n g n ec essary whi ch requires
an excess o f stock .
W hen the l en g th Of the cutter i s greater than ab out

o n e hal f i n ch
-
it i s usual to cha m b er the hol e to a shap e
,
that ren d ers it n ec essary to d i a m eter gri n d the hol es at

the en ds o nly I n cutters O f c on s i d erabl e l en gth the
.
s av i ng i n gr i n di n g b y thi s p roc edure i s c o nsid erabl e .
The s i de s o f the blanks are usually rec essed gi vi ng a hub ,
an d r i m e ff ect at the si d es Of the cutter A n e v e n num

'
-
.
b er Of teeth is p referabl e an d thes e are sp ace d to a cir

,
c u m fe r e n t i a l p itch varyi n g fro m three ei ghths to three -
quarters i n ch fo r ordi n ary cutter sizes .
W hen the teeth are mill e d i nto the s oli d blank a ,
cutter givi n g a sp ac e angl e o f sixty d egr ees i s p referred

fo r cutti n g the p eripheral teeth wh i l e o n e o f seventy ,
degrees i s gen erally used fo r the si d e teeth Wh ere .
milli ng cutters are made i n quantity sp eci al sp ac e cutters ,
99
are wor k e d o ut to gi ve the m aximum chip room con

s i stent with tooth stren gth .
A fter the cutter has b een h e at treated to the p rop er

-
hardn ess it i s fi ni shed to the sp ecific dimen si on s by

,
gri n di ng
.
G R IN D ING TH E H OLE U nl ess sp ec i al methods

.
an d tools are empl oyed the hole i s compl etely fi ni shed

as the fi rst Op erati o n O f gri nd i ng Thi s i s ac co m plished
.
b y hol di n g the cutter trued i n a chuck screwed o n the

sp i n dl e o f a Un iversal gri n der an d gri n di n g o ut the hol e
to stan dard s i ze usi ng a n i ntern al gri n di n g attach ment
, .
G R I N D ING TH E S I D E S Fi g 30 shows h o w t o
. .
gri n d the si des with the cutter hel d fl at agai n st a face

p l ate I f the cutter i s to b e used fo r deep cuts the fac e
. ,
p l a te i s s et t o give a sl i ght c o nc avity t o the s i des O f

the cutter .
FI G 30
.
C LE A R AN C E O F TH E T E E T H Th e teeth O f m i ll i ng
.
cutters are given a sli ght cl earan c e b ack from the cutt i ng
edge s ; fi ve degrees i s usual l y s uffi c i e n t
'
1 00
T H E
“
S T A R R E T T -
B O O K
plan ed to fi n al dimen si on s
”
I n s om e cases j i g b odies
.
are fi nished by gri n di n g i n a surfac e gr i n d er .
LO C A T I N G BU SH I N G H O L E S I f n o p arti cul ar
.
ac curacy i s deman ded the holes fo r bush i n gs ca n b e

,
locate d directly b y c areful attent i o n to ordi n ary layi ng

o u t m etho ds ,an d the hol e drill ed an d re a med directly .
FIG . 31
When the a ll owabl e error i s very smal l a m er e ac curate

'
s che m e must b e followed an d t h e b est o f s everal m eth

,
o d s fo r the average tool maker i s that k nown as the

-
butto n m etho d I n thi s the hol es are l oc ated by l ay i n g

.
o ut scrib e d c enter li n es an d l o c ati n g i ntersect i o ns where .
the hol es are to b e c ente red ; I n stead O f dr i ll i n g an d .
re a mi n g the bushi n g holes hol es are dr i ll ed an d tapp ed

,
t o fit th e button screws T h e j i g button s are small

.
’
.
‘
,
ac curately groun d cyl i n d ers as s h own i n Fi g 32 T fi e se

, f .
are h el d by m eans o f the s c r e w sy l i g h t l y clamp e d i n pl ace ;

1 02
‘
and xactly loc ated to c enters by ac c u rate m easure m ent s

e .
The h i ghest p oss i ble accuracy i n l oc at i ng hol es i s s ecure d

by th i s m etho d .
FIG . 32
BOR ING H OLE S The hol es for the hard en ed bush

.
i ngs are usually bored by sw i n gi n g the j i g b ody up o n a

fac e plate i n an en gi n e lathe
-
The j i g b ody i s the n
.
sh i fted u p o n the fac e pl ate u nt i l a b u tto n i n d i cates tr u e

-
F I G 33
.
1 03
with a U niversal D i al I n d i cator as shown i n Fi g 33

.
, . .
The ji g bo dy i s then cla m p ed t i ghtly u p o n the face plate -

.
A fter re m ov i n g the ji g butto n the hole i s first rough

,
U ONS I N PLA CE
B TT
AD J US TIN G BUTT ONS TO S ID E O F PLA TE
1 04
drille d app roxi m a tely to siz e a n d aft erwards careful ly

,
’
b ore d exactly to s i z e Th i s p rep ares the hol e for b ol d
.
.
i n g the harden ed steel bush i ng ; t h e p roc es s i s rep eated

‘
’
fo r al l the p revi ously located b u tto n s .
J I G B U SH ING S I f the hol es i n a c ast i ro n o r soft

.
-
stee l ji g b o dy were l eft as b ored they woul d soo n l os e

-
.
,
ac curac y b y weari n g O ff c enter T O p revent thi s wear .
the holes are l i n ed with hard en e d an d Carefully groun d

bushi n gs p resse d o r drive n
,
i nto place These .
bushi ngs are mad e with a hol e havi n g a di ameter e qual

to that O f the tool wh i ch p a ss e s t h r o ug h the m The ,
.
bushi ngs are s uffi c i e n t l y l o n g to supp ort the d rill I n

a
.
case the ji g bushin gs must b e removed frequently they ,
are k n own as sl i p bushi n gs an d the hol e i n whi ch they

,
sl i p i s l i n e d with a steel li ni n g i tself harden ed an d

"
groun d I n so m e cases the bushi n g l ocat es the work as

,
w ell a s t h e tool a n d i f so the bushi n g s crews through

7
'
t h e b od y of the ji g an d aga i n st some p romi n ent p art o f

the work as a b oss for exampl e
, .
1 07
T OLER A NC E S I n all co nstructi o n wor k a c ertai n

.
a m ount O f i n exactn ess i s allowable I n other words

.
,
i t i s imp ossibl e to Obta i n absolute p recisio n an d the

,
”
allowabl e errors i n exactn ess are term ed toleran ces
“
.
I n som e c ases a tol eran c e Of o n e S ixteenth i nch mi ght

-
b e allowed whil e i n others exactn ess to the fract i o n Of

,
a thousan dth p art O f an i n ch may b e n ec essary S ee .
p a g es 31 an d
JI G FO R RILLI NG BOLT H OLES I N CYLINDER FLANGE A ND H EA D

D
Th e p roj ecti o n o n the j i g k eep s it c o n c entri c with

the b ore o f the cyl i n der a n d t h e reces s fi t s over the p ro
,
je c t i o n o n the he a d .
1 08
'
A ll o w an c e s fo r G r i n d in g — T a bl e 10
All ow ance I nch e s

,
o us grades O f hard n ess are obtai n ed by usi n g bo n ds o f

different ten s i l e stren gth The i deal b o n d i s o n e whi ch
.
retai n s th e grai n s o f abras i ve until suffic i ently dull ed

b y us e an d then allows them to brea k away an d i n this
, ,
m an n er bri n g fresh cutti n g edges an d p oi nts i nto gri n d

i n g co ntact .
S I L I C A T E W H EEL S S ilic ate o f S o d a i s the bo n d

.
-
us ed i n silicate wheel s ; an d wheels mad e by thi s p roc ‘
ess are m ost e ffici ent for tool a n d k ni fe gri ndi ng .
EL AS T I C W H EEL S Thi s p rocess of b on di n g i s

.
gen erally used for the very thi n wheel s used fo r slitti n g
m etals The p ri n c i p al i n gredi ent o f the b o n d i s shell ac
. .
G R AD ING TH E A B R AS I V E B y numerous crushi n g .

,
gri n di n g cl ean si n g an d sorti n g p rocesses the abrasive i s

, , ,
graded i nto a seri es o f sizes whi ch give the wheel i t s

gra i n numb er This nu m b er c on forms to the si eve m esh
.
through which the abrasive i s p assed ; for exampl e grai n ,
N O 4 0 i n dicates that the ab rasive was graded through a

.
si eve havi n g a m esh of forty to the li n ear i n ch .
C O M B IN A T I O N W H EEL S For many gri n di n g pur .
p oses the c ombi n at i o n wheel i s p referred to a wheel Of

s i n gl e grad e C ombi natio n wheel s are m a d e up of ab ra
.
s i v e s Of several gra i n nu m b ers .
BO N D ING The i d eal b on d i s o n e which i s i m p er

.
v i o u s to moisture does n ot soften by heat an d wh i ch

, ,
hol ds fir m ly the cutti ng p oi nts O f the abrasive unt i l they

b ecom e dul l e d by us e The bo n d then rel eases the dull
.
abrasive an d p erm i ts fresh sharp p oi nts to b egi n cutti n g

, .
W ith ab ras ive s o f e q ual quality the maker who n earest

app roaches the i deal bo n d p ro duc es the sup erio r wheel
’
.
G R AD ING T H E W H EEL S '
I n gr i n d ers l an guage .
,
abrasive wheel s are kn own as hard wheels an d so ft

w h eels The maker therefore li sts h i s wheel s as hard
.
, ,
o r so ft b y som e scal e o f numb ers or by letters A p ro m .
i n e nt fi r m uses the l etters O f the alphab et as shown i n ,
t h e foll owi n g l i st i n whi ch M is m ed i um

“ ”
.
111
N o rt o n G ra d e L is t
The followi n g grad e list i s used to design ate the
d egree Of hard n ess of o u r V i tr i fied an d S i l i c ate W heels ,
both A lun du m an d C rystolon .
M edi um S o ft
MED IUM M E D I UM
M edium Hard .
Har d
E xtremely Hard
The i nterm edi ate l etters b etween thos e d esign ated as

soft m edium soft etc i n d i cate s o many d egrees harder
, , .
,
or softer ; e g L i s o n e gr ad e or d egre e softer than me

. .
,
d i u m ; 0 two d egrees harder than med i um but n ot qu i te

, ,
m ed i um hard .
E lasti c W heels are grad ed as follows : 1 1 76 2 2 76 3

1 1
, , , , ,
4 5 an d 6
, ,
G rad e 1 i s the softest an d grad e 6 the hard est
.
.
1 12
Ta bl e o f G r in d i n g W he e l S p e e d s — T a bl e 11
Rev r M te in u fo r R e v e r M i te f
S pee d f
nu or Rev e r Mi te f
nu or
ete r W h ee l ete r
. . .
s of
5s
su Sn S d of
D iam M il l im s
ac e ace o ace e
M ete r M ete r ete r

00 0 1 3 5 , F 00 0 ee t, e e t,
M
'
or I ,2 00 s or I 5 , 00 s or s
Th e R P M atwh ich wh e e l e r u is d e pe n de nt on condi t ion

s ar n s an d st yl e
of m chi n e work t o b groun d
. . .
an d th e e
in ct u l p ract ice fro m 4 000 t o
a
Wh e ls fee t pe r m inut e ; om e
.
e a r e r un a a ,
in s
in st ance s as h ig h as 7 , 500 fe e t .
1 14
Gr a d e an d G r a in o f G r i n d in g W h e e ls fo r D iffe r e n t M a te rial s !
T a bl e 1 2
( Th e N ort on C o ).
A l un d um C ry t o lon
s
C la of W ork ss
G rain G rade G r ai n Gr d
a e
Aluminum c ast in g s 36 t o 46
Br ass or b ron e c ast in g s ( larg e ) z

Br ass or b ron e c ast i gs ( sm a ll ) z n
C ar wh l s c ast i ron
ee
C ar w h e e l c h il l e d
,
s,
C a t iron cylin d ric al
s
C ast iron u f ci n g
,
s r a
C t iron ( m all ) c st in gs
,
as -
s a
C t iron ( large ) c ast in gs
as
C hille d i ron c t ings
-
as
D i C hil le d i ron
e s,
D i s st l
e ee
D rop for gin gs
,
I nt e rn l cyli nd e r grin ding

-
a 30 to 60 I to L
I nt e rn l grin d ing h rd n d t l
a a e e s ee
M c hin S ho p u e g ne r l
,
a e s e a
M ll b le i ron c t in g ( l arg )
.
,
a ea as s e
M ll b le iron c t i g ( m all )
a ea as n s s
M i lli ng c utt r m a chine g rin d ing e s,
M ill in g c ut t e rs h an d grin di ng
N ic k e l c t i n g
.
,
as s
Pu ll e y ur f c i n g c
s, s t i ron a as
R e am e rs t a ps e t c h an d grind ing
R m r t ap pe c ial m a ch ine s
, ,
ea e s, s, s
R ol l ( c t i ron ) w t
s as e
R o l l ( chill e d iron ) fi ni hing
,
s , s
Ro ll (chil le d i ron) ro ughi ng

s ,
S aw gumming a d S h a rpe ning

s, n
S aw cold cut t in g off
s, -
St e l (soft ) cylind ric al

e ,
I
St e e l ( oft ) su rface gr i d i
s n n
St e e l ( h ar de ne d ) cylind ric gri n d
,
S t I ( h rd e n e d ) ui f c e g ri n di ng
In
ee a
,
s
'
a
1
,
St l ( m n g n
ee a a e se ) , sa e f wor k
St r ct r l t l
u u a s ee
nform at ion cont ain d i t his t able is ge n e ral an d int e n de d only t o g ive
Th e i e n
an a p p ro xi m at e i d e a of t h e g r d e use d u n d e r ord in a r y c ond t ion s a i .
115
M O U N T ING TH E W H EEL The wheel shoul d b e

.
s o m ounted that there are n o u n e q ual stresses s et up .
S uitabl e guard s should b e p rov i ded to p revent i nj u ry

t o the work m en i n cas e O f the wheel b u rst i n g The .
acc o m p anyi n g ill u strat i on s S how R I GH T a n d WR ON G '
m etho ds of m ounti n g wheel s — carefully study the cuts .
M E AS U RING TH E WORK The use O f m icro m eters

.
fo r Obta i ni n g e xact m eas u re m ents i s n owhere b etter

illustrate d than i n gr i n di n g F i g 34 shows an op eri
. .
ator adj usti n g his mi cro m eter for Obtai ni n g a m eas u re

m ent o n a cyl i n dri cal p i ece an d Fi g 35 S hows the
, . -
op erator as he m akes h i s read i n g W hil e i n lathe

.
work the p ositio n O f the Op erator l ead s n aturally to

adj usti n g the m i c rom eter sp i n dl e w i th the fi n gers of
the r i ght han d the l eft h an d graspi n g the frame i n
, ,
gr i n der work the reverse i s gen erally true henc e h e ,
oc cupi es the p os i ti o n as shown .
G R I N D ING F L A T S U R F A C E S Fl at surfac e gri n d

.
i n g m ay b e divi ded i nto two gen eral cl ass es : ( a ) M achi n e

116
L ap s are gen erally m ade of s ome materi al so ft

e n ough s o th a t the abrasive can b e readily p resse d i nto
the s u rfac e ; o r as it i s c orrectly term ed the surface
, ,
“
i s charged . S oft clos e grai n ed c a st i ron c opp er
,
-
, ,
b rass o r l ead m a y b e used for the l ap an d any o f the

, ,
fl our ab ras i ves may b e charged i nto the surfac e by roll

i n g the ab rasive i nto the l a p e i ther w i th a hard en ed roll
o r o n a hard en e d surface .
FI G 35 .
I n s om e o f the fi n er gr i n di n g op erat i o n s the lap i s

c h arge d with d i am on d dust whi ch has b een p recipitated
o r settl e d i n a suitabl e di sh o f Olive Oil The several
.
grades are den ote d by the time taken to p recipitate ; as ,
for exampl e fi n en ess N o 5 takes ten hours

, . .
S i n c e l app i n g i s a somewhat sl ow an d tedious p ro c

es s it s houl d b e us ed o nly for the removal o f small
amounts O f stoc k . .
C O MM O N U S E S O F L A PP ING The more com m on

.
uses o f l appi n g are thos e Of fi ni shi n g mi crom eter en ds .

,
plu g a n d ri n g gages hol es i n j i g bushi n g s a n d i n the

, ,
fi n e s t d i e a n d p un ch work .
118
L O C AT IN G A N D A LI G NIN G
M A C H IN ERY
When the p roduct o f the sh O p i s determi n e d the ,
prop er l o cati o n o f the machi n es m ay b e foun d by m ean s

o f a plan or l ocatio n drawi n g worked o u t i n the draft
i n g room . A n easy way to d o th i s i s to p rov id e r e c t a n g u

l ar slip s o f c ardb oard each representi n g to some d efinite
,
sc al e the plan outli n e of e a ch machi n e P lac i n g these

.
up o n the floor plan O f th e roo m the b etter of s everal

,
arran ge m ents m a y b e foun d an d by usi n g p ush p i n s the

,
c ardboard rep resentatio n s m ay b e fixe d i n positio n .
Hav i n g d eci ded up o n the l ocati o n the m achi n ery

,
m a y b e align ed i n these p osit i o n s by measurements from

so m e b ase l i n e m ad e up o n the floor o r c eili ng ; o r a
'
l eveli n g i nstrument ,
!
s uch as shown i n Fig 36 m ay .
,
b e us ed .
O rdin a ril y the machi n e s a re align e d by simpl e meas

S e e p ag e 1 24 for di re ct ion s for se t ti n g up a l e ve l
.
119
ur e m e n t s an d the countershaft i n g hung from the c eil

i n g verti cally over the mach i n e by plumbi n g up from
the previ ously located m achi n es I n such work thought
.
must always b e given to the l i n e shafti n g an d pulleys .
Unl ess c are i s used there m ay b e such i nterferen ces

,
as to n ecess i tate rep eati n g the work A s the e ffici en cy

.
o f the S h op dep en ds to a co ns i d erabl e extent o n a c o n
v e n i e n t arran gem ent o f the m ach i n es all i nterferenc es

,
shoul d b e take n c are o f o n the ceili n g rather than alter

i n g t h e arrangem ent O f the mach i n es .
A L I GN ING TH E SHA F T ING W ith the l o cat i o ns O f

.
the several li n es Of shaft i n g d etermi n e d up o n the usual ,
m etho d of alignment i s to stretch a w i re or c ord the

l en gth o f the room at the d es i red l evel O f the shaft a n d
,
at a di stan c e from its loc atio n suffici ently great to gi ve

easy worki n g ro om With the two en ds o f the wi re i n
.
p os i t i o n it shoul d b e stressed to bri n g i t taut an d shoul d

be supp orted at frequent i nterval s by wire han gers .
FI G 37 .
W ith the sh a fti n g h a n gers i n app roximate p ositi o n

an d the shafti n g i n pl ac e the n ec essary shi fts ca n b e
,
m ad e to b ri n g the shaft p a rall el with the wi re A ligh t .
sti ck n otched at o n e en d to rest up o n the shaft an d a

wi re b rad at the other en d for a feel er i s all that i s n e c e s
sary fo r ordi n ary al ignment L eveli n g the shaft i s don e
.
with sp eci al spi rit l evel s havi n g m etal frames the bases ,
O f whi ch h a ve b een carefully grooved to s et up o n the

shaft S uch a l eve l i s shown i n Fi g 37 S p eci al l evel
. . .
i n g a n d ali g ni n g a ttachm ents for setti n g a n d li ni n g up

1 20
L EV E LIN G IN STRU M E N T
’
Whil e the surveyors tran sit c an b e used i n shop l evel
i n g an d i n shaft al i gn i n g a much simpler an d a more
i n exp en sive i n strument term ed a l evel i n g i n strument i s
all that i s n eeded .
I t c o n sists O f a tabl e cap a bl e o f b ei n g adj usted i n t h e

hori zontal plan e whi ch c arri es a yoke whi ch i n turn
,
c arri es a twelve i n ch b rass tub e The whol e i n strument

-
.
i s pl aced up o n a suitabl e tripo d The tub e has n o l enses

’
.
an d therefore i s n o t a tel es cop e as i n the surveyors

i n strument .
A t o n e en d O f the tub e a re the usua l cross hairs

whi ch l ocate t h e ax i s an d at the opp osite en d i s a p e ep
hol e o r sight p i ec e for the eye The yok e whi ch carri es .
the tub e i s attached to a graduated a r e whi ch i s l e t i nto

the upp er p art o f the tabl e ; thi s allows the i n strument
t o sw i n g to read a ngl es i n the horizo nt a l p l an e .
AD J U S T ING TH E IN S T R U M E N T I n usi n g thi s i n .
stru m ent it i s imp ortant that the tabl e b e c areful ly l ev

ele d
. I t i s p ivoted o n the trip od tub e b y a b all an d socket
»
j oi nt . Three k nurl ed head adj usti n g sc rews thread ed

-
through the trip o d t o p an d resti n g aga i n st the un d er s i de

o f the tabl e furni sh a m ean s O f adj ust i n g the tabl e Up o n .
the tabl e c arryi n g the y ok e i s a b ent tub e sp i rit l eve l with -
a sen siti ve air bubbl e A fter th e tri p o d l egs h a ve b een

.
plac ed to roughly l evel the i n strument adj ust the knurled ,
l eveli n g s crews to gi ve as c orrect a c enteri n g fo r the

,
ai r bubbl e as i s p o s sibl e To test thi s adj u stment swi n g

.
the yoke wh i ch carri es the ai r bubbl e to s ever a l p osi

, ,
ti on s an d n ote any chan ge i n the p ositi o n o f the bubbl e .
I f there i s a change readj ust the l eveli n g s crews unt i l

"
,
.
the yoke ca n b e swun g through its travel with the a i r

bubbl e ma i ntai ni n g i t s c entral p ositi o n .
U S ING TH E LEVEL ING IN S T R U M E N T Whil e it i s .
p os s ib l e to so mount the l evel in g i n strument up o n a pl a t

1 22
form that its height will b e suffici ent fo r the use O f

targets mounte d upo n the s haft the usual metho d is to ,
han g targets up o n the s haft an d a dj ust them to sw i ng l o w

en ough t o allow the leveli ng i n strum ent to b e s et w i th
i t s trip o d o n the floor o r o n som e co nveni ent foun dati on
sp ot.
TH E T A R G E T S Thes e c o n sist o f sti r rup s whi ch

.
c arry a sp i rit l eve l an d block with verti c al a n d horizo ntal

l i n es cross i n g each other A plumb i s hung up o n the sti r
.
rup i n such m an n er a s to b e readily raised o r lowered .
O n e o f the t a rgets m a y b e hun g up o n the shaft free to

swi n g p l umb the other i s use d as a fi xed wall target
, .
U S E A fter the shafti n g h a s b een roughly ali gn ed

.
with the w al l O f the buil di n g or with a li n e O f c olum n s ,
thi s b ei n g d o n e by m e a surem ent the l eveli ng i n strument

,
i s pl a c e d verti cally b en eath o n e en d O f t h e shaft T O

loc ate the l eveli n g i n strument plumb d ow n from the ,
c enter O f the shaft u s in g the h a n gi n g target plumb h o b

, ,
an d l oc a t e a p oi nt i n the floor o r b o a rd pl a c e d o n the

foun dati o n A pri ck pun ch mark i n the flat hea d O f a
.
-
wire b r a d p revi ously driven i nto the floor p rovi des a

p erman ent p oi nt S et the tri p o d Of the l eveli ng i n st r u
.
m ent d i rectly over thi s p oi nt usi n g the p l umb b ob han g

,
i n g from the c enter o f the tabl e N ext c arefully l evel

.
the tabl e as already describ ed Hang the p ortabl e target

.
clo sely i n front o f the c ross hai r en d o i the tub e a n d

-
'
l evel a n d adj ust its height unti l the hori zo ntal cross hai r
o f the tub e c oi n ci des with the hori z o nt al c ross li n e O f
the tar g et .
I
,
R emov e the t a rget to th e far en d O f the sh a ft a n d

‘
swi n g the tub e o f the l eveli n g i n strum ent unti l the sight
through the tub e c oi n ci d es with the verti c al li n e o n the
tar g et With the h a ngin g t a rget di spl ac ed mount a fixed
.
,
target up o n the w a ll at the far en d O f the shaft a n d

a djust it unti l its cross li n es c oi n ci d e with the cros s
h ai rs O f the tub e as si ghted I f the i n strument i s i n its
.
1 23
ori gi n al p osit i o n with the plumb b ob over the p oi nt i n

the floor the s etti ng up O f the i nstrument i s compl ete
, .
B y referen c e to the fixed target it can at all times b e

chec k e d .
R epl ac e the hangi n g target at the far en d o f the shaft

an d adj ust the adj ac ent hanger so that the cross li n es
o f the target c o i n c i d e with the cross hai rs when sight
i n g through the tub e . R ep eat for each hanger unt i l the

target c an b e hun g up o n the shaft adj acent to any hanger
an d S how p erfect c oi n ci den c e of target cross li n es an d
tub e cross hai rs .
N ote that after the i n stru m ent an d target h a ve b ee n

" ”
set n either shoul d rec eive further adj ust m ent exc ept i n
c ase o f acci d ent — the shaft i tself rec eives the adj ust
m ent s .
H O W T O SE T U P T H E TRA N S I T
The S tarrett tran s i t o r l evel can b e used for the sam e
’
p urp os es as any en gi n eer s tra ns i t an d l evel an d b ec ause
,
O f its simpl i city an d freed om from c o m pli catio ns it ,
c an b e use d by any o n e i n l ay i n g out foun dat i o n s for

buil d i ngs al i gni n g m achi n ery an d i n bu i l di n g dams
, ,
an d rac eways fo r s i m pl e water p ower d evel opm ents

-
.
The transit comb i n es i n o n e i n strument the fac i li

ti es fo r measuri n g b oth hor i zo ntal an d vert i c al angl es ,
an d en ables the op erator to l ay out anyt hi n g that does

n ot require exc ess i ve refin em ent The l evel i s for meas
.
uri n g angles i n a hori zontal plan e o nly an d it shoul d b e

,
bo rn e i n mi n d that the l evel will d o all that the tran s i t

will do exc ept m easure vert i c al angl es
,
The transit
. , ,
whi ch i s furni shed either with a tel esc op e or pl a i n sight -
tub e i s mounte d o n a trip od an d has a plate c arryi n g

, ,
a graduated arc The tel escop e o r s i ght tub e i s c o n n ected

.
-
to a graduated vert i cal a r e so that vert i cal an gl es m a y

b e m easured as well as horizontal I t i s p rovi d ed with
.
1 24
E L E M E N TARY A L G E B RA
Ma n y en gi n eeri ng an d sh O p p robl ems can b e so l ved
more readily with al gebra than by mean s of arithm eti c .
I n fact som e p robl ems can n ot b e solved by arithmet i c ;

,
a s for exa m pl e whe n the co n d i tio n s are n ot ful ly an d

, ,
c o n cretely stated Al gebra i s ap pli ed by exp ress i n g the

.
rel at i o n s i n algeb rai c terms formi n g them i nto an equ a

,
t i o n whi ch states the c o n ditio n s an d then solvi ng the

, ,
e quati o n .
I n arithmeti c a fi gure has a d efi nite value 4 O r 2 0

"
‘
fo r i n stan c e an d the value remai n s un chan ged ; i t i s

“
al ways 4 or 2 0 I n algebra l etters are used an d as these

.
,
l etters d o n o t always have a d efi n i te value the i r us e adds ,
fl ex i bility to mathemat i c al O p erati on s S ome fi n d it eas i er .
at t h e b e gi n n i n g t o t hi nk O f the l etters a s a bb revi at i on s .
S YM B O L S
S om e O f the symbols si gn s of algeb ra are the

or
sam e as thos e use d i n arithmeti c .
TH E S YM BOL S O F ! UA N T I T Y are the figures used

i n ar i thm et i c an d the l etters O f the alphab et .
TH E C O MM O N S YM BOL S O F O P E R A T I O N are the

s i gn s used i n arithm et i c ; they are as follows :
i s the sign o f ad d i tio n c all ed plus , I f n o S ign .
p rec edes nu m b ers o r letters the plus S ign is un d erstoo d ; '
that i s 2 a bc i s 2 a bc
, .
i s the S ign O f subtracti o n o r differen c e c alled , ,
m i n us .
X i s the S i gn o f mul tipli cati o n call ed t i m es W hen , .
there i s n o si gn b etween l etters o r b etween letters an d

fi gures multipl i c at i o n i s un derstoo d Thus 3c d mean s
, .
3 X c X (I B ut thi s d o es n ot apply to numb ers : 32 8

.
I S n o t 3 X 2 X 8 but 32 8 sam e as i n arithmeti c

, ,
.
1 26
0
i s the S i g n of divi si o n read divi d e d by D ivi , .
sio n m ay al so b e exp resse d by a hor i zo ntal li n e b etween

a 16
the quantities as a
-
1 b 16 4
7 4
, , .
m
)
C OE FF I CI E N T The nu er i c al f a ctor o r numb er i s
.
gen er al ly c all ed the c o e fii c i e n t ; i n 5 a bc 5 i s the c o e ffi ,
ci e nt ; but stri ctly sp eaki ng 5 a i s the c o e ffici e nt o f be

, , ,
an d 5 a b i s the co e ffi c i ent Of c A ga i n i n the exp ress i o n

“
3a ( b 3a i s the c oe ffici ent Of ( b c) Or i n the ex ,
p re s si o n ( a b) x ( a l b) i s the c oe ffi ci ent o f x
,
-
.
W he n n o nu m eri c a l c oe ffici ent i s expressed it is ,
always unity o r 1 Thus a la . .
E XP O N E N T The small fi gure o r l etter wri tten at

.
the r i ght a n d a little ab ove a n u mb er or l etter i s c all ed

the exp o n ent ; it shows how many times the n umb er i s
t o b e ta k e n as a factor .
“
Thus 2 i s read 2 squared o r 2 with the exp o n ent
2
2. The numb er 2 is to b e use d twi c e as a facto r or m ul ,
t i p l i e d by itsel f S imil a rl y a i s read a cub ed or a w i th

.
“ “ ” “
the exp o n ent 3 The l etter a i s to b e taken th re e ti m es

.
‘
as a fa c tor o r a X a X a I n the sam e way ( m + n )
, .
(m + n ) (m I (m I n ) X
- - -
’
A gai n a bc ’ I
N ote th i s d ifferen c e
m >< m X m
S Y MBOL S O F REL A T I O N S how the rel ative values

of l etters.
i s the s ign o f e quality rea d equal s o r equal to , .
a b m ean s that a i s e qual to b o r whatever value i s ,
given to a the s am e value must b e given to b I f 4 a

, 3b .
,
4 tim es som e quantity rep rese nted by a i s equal to 3 t i m es

some qu a ntity rep re s ented by b but it i s ev i d ent that a ,
does n o t equal b .
“
i s re ad i s t o o r to I t i n d i c ates r a tio . .
I f two rati os are equ al they may , , cours e b e con

,
n e c t e d b y the s i gn o f equa l ity but m o , Often they are

c o n n ected by t his S i gn
S YM BO L S OF A GG R E G A T IO N
P arentheses .
B r ack ets .
B rac es .
Vi n culum .
R adi c al S ign ( s q
u a re root ) .
L etters o r qu a ntiti es en cl osed i n p arenthe s es are t o

b e han dl ed as a si n gl e quantity .
5 ( 0 + d ) m ean s th a t c I d a s o n e quantity i s to
- -
b e multip l i e d b y 5 .
O r ( a I b)
-
(x y ) m e a n s that a b taken as a
S i ngl e quantity i s to b e divi d ed by x y taken as a si n
gl e quantity A n other way o f exp ressi n g it i s the same
.
,
op er a ti o n p erform ed o n a must b e p erformed o n b also .
A gai n ( a b) m ean s that the sum Of a an d b taken

as a si n gl e quantity i s t o b e subtracte d I t d oes n ot m ean .
that a alo n e i s t o b e subtracted .
TH E R AD I C A L S IGN Thi s si gn i s used as i n arith

.
m eti c ; that i s i t shows that s om e root of th e quantity

,
i s t o b e foun d o r exp ressed

, .
The small numb er o r i n d ex use d i n c o n n ectio n with

the ra d i c al S i gn d en otes wh a t root i s meant T h u s e/ a .
”
“
i s re a d the cub e root o f a ”
{ / b i s read
. the fi
I
fth root
of b . When n o i n d ex fi gu re i s use d the s quare root i s
un derstoo d . Vx y the s quare root o f x y .
When the h orizo nt a l li n e exten ds over the exp ression

it m e a n s that th e i n d i c ated root i s to b e foun d o f the
“ ”
enti re e xp ressio n V m n . t h e squ a re root o f m n .
1 28
I f the term s h a ve di ffere nt s i g n s th ey can b e add ed

by al g ebr a .
6 a o add e d t o 1 8a c
‘
1 2 ac
6 a c adde d t o 1 8x11 1 8xy 6a c
“
2
Wh e n there are s ev eral quantiti es whi ch are ali k e ,
but th e s i gn s unlike we ad d them by a ddi n g al l the po s i

,
tive o r plus terms then subtract the s um of al l the n ega

,
tive o r mi nus terms For i n stanc e

.
,
5 mn
2mn
1 5 mn
3m n
6mn
l 5 mn
The p ositive term s i n the above equal 2 3m n an d
the n egative term s equal 8m a the result b ei ng ,
2 3m n 8m n l 5mn .
Had a ll the s i gn s b een chan ged the an s wer woul d ,
have b een l 5 m n ; for the S ign p refixed to th e an s wer

i s that O f the g reater s um .
S U B TRA C T I O N
S ubtracti o n i n m a ny w a ys i s l i k e a d ditio n ; th a t i s ,
like terms c an b e subtracted i n the sam e way th a t they

c an b e added an d un l ik e term s are subtr a cte d by i n d i
,
c ati n g the di fferen c e .
S ubtract i o n i s the p roc ess O f fi n di n g the D I FF ER

E NC E b etween t w o quantiti es .
I n arithm eti c the larger c an n ot b e subtracted from

the sm a ller but i n algebr a thi s c a n b e d o n e by express
,
i ng the d i fferen c e .
I n arithm eti c 1 1 c an n ot b e subtracted from 4 but ,
i n al geb ra 7 11 4 ; th a t i s 7 l a c ks 4 o f b ei n g e qu al
,
to 1 1 I t i s mi nu s 4
. .
1 30
The di ff eren c e ( i n numb er O f units ) b etween 8 an d

2 i s 6 whether it i s 8
, 2 or 2 8 Wh ether the diffe r
.
en c e i s 6 or 6 d ep en d s up o n whi ch numb er i s b ei n g
subtracted .
These few rul es shoul d b e rememb ered .
S ubtract i ng a quantity i s the sam e as ad di n g a

mi nus quantity .
S ubtracti n g a quantity i s the sam e as ad d i n g a

plus quantity .
The sum o f a m i nus quantity an d a plus quantity i s

the d i fferen c e b etween the quantiti es with the p refixed ,
S i gn of the larger .
The d i ff eren c e b etween a plus quantity a n d a mi nus

qu a ntity i s equal t o the sum O f the quantiti es .
M UL T I PLI C AT I O N
M ultipl i catio n i s a short metho d O f a d diti o n ; that i s ,
i f y o u ad d 4 a o fi ve time s the result i s the sa me a s mul

,
t i p l y i n g 4 a o by 5 .
M ul tip l ic atio n i s a p ro c e s s o f ta k i n g a g iven qu a n

tity as man y times as i n di cate d by a numb er o r an other
quantity .
M ultipli catio n d iffers from a dd itio n i n th a t unlik e

qu a ntiti e s c a n b e multipli e d .
5 a bx mul tipli e d by 6 a xy
’ ’
30a bx y
1 31
Thi s simpl e exampl e sh o ws ft h at t o mult i ply we first

mul t i ply the c oe ffici ents then an n ex the l etters m ul t i
, ,
ply i n g them when al i ke by ad di n g the exp on ents ; fo r

i n stan c e a X a
,
a x X x
2
, x
’ .
S IG N S I f b oth q uantiti es are plus the p roduct i s

.
,
plus ; i f b oth are mi nus the p ro duct i s plus ; i f o n e i s

,
plus an d the other m i nus the p roduct i s m i n u s

, .
M ultiplyi ng more compli c ated q uant i t i es thos e con ,
s i sti n g O f t wo o r m ore ter m s each i s illustrated by th i s ,
exampl e i n arithm et i c '
M ultiply 4 + 3+ 2 — 1 by 6
I n stead o f add i n g b efore mult i plyi n g l et us mul tiply

eac h numb er by 6 :
4 + 2 — 1
3+
6
I f we use l e tt e rs a l so , we p roc eed i n the sam e way :
Mul t i ply 4 a o 3a b 20 c by 6 a .
—
4ao 3a b I 2c -
c
6a
’
2 4a c 1 8a b
2
1 2a c 6a c
C ombi n i n g s i m i lar terms , 2 4a

2
c
’
1 8a b I
-
6a c
M ultiply 2a 4b by 3a 6b
2
6a + l 2 a b
l 2ab 24b
’
24b
’
1 32
.
S I GN S S i n c e divi si o n i s the co nvers e O f m ul tipli

.
c ati on the rul es govern i n g s i gn s are p racti cally the sa m e

,
W he n b oth divi sor an d divi den d are the quotient
Wh en b oth divisor an d d i vi d en d are the quot i ent
When the d i vi sor i s an d the d i vid en d i s the

quoti ent i s
W hen the divi sor i s an d the d ivi den d i s the
quoti ent i s
The p ro cess of p olyn o m i als i s m erely an extensi on
o f the p roc ess of d i v i d i ng m on om i als
’ ’ ’
.
E xa m pl e : D ivi d e 4 0 a 35 a b
4
8a b 7 a b by
z
8a 7a bz
8a
2
7 a b) 4 0a
‘ ’
35 a
b
’
8a b
z
7a b ( 5 a
2
b
‘
4 0a 35 a b
f
E ! U AT I O N S
AN E ! UA T I O N an al g ebrai c exp ressio n i n wh ic h
is
two o r more term s o r quantiti es are c on n ected by the
S i gn Of equality The t w o terms or exp ressi o ns are c alled
.
memb e rs or si d es o f the e q uatio n ; the ter m o n the l eft

han d s i d e i s called the fi r s t an d that o n the r i ght han d
,
-
s i d e i s c all ed the sec on d term .
The letter whose value i s to b e foun d i s ca l l ed the

”
unk n own quantity an d i t i s usual to rep re s ent the u n
,
k nown q uantity by the l etter ( T ) .
T O solve an e quati o n i s t o fi n d the value Of the u n

k n own quantity either i n ter m s of numb ers or i n ter m s
,
o f numb ers an d l etters .
A very imp ortant fact to rememb er about e q uation s i s

that i f the sam e op erat i o n i s p erfor m ed on b oth si d es o f
1 34
the e q uati o n the left han d si d e w i ll stil l b e equa l to the

-
ri ght han d si de
-
.
The equatio n will co nti nue to b e an equati o n i f

a The same quantity i s ad de d to b oth si des
. .
b The sam e qu a nt i ty i s subtracted from b oth s i des

. .
c B oth sid es are divid ed by the sa m e quantity

. .
d B oth si d es are multipli ed by the sa me quantity

. .
e B oth si des are rais ed to the same p ower

. .
f The s a m e root of b oth si d es i s e xtracted

. .
This f a ct i s m ad e us e of i n sol vi n g an equ a tio n ; for

i n stan c e ,
5 3: 20
D ivi di n g both si d es by 5, we h a ve
a: Z 4
A ga i n , /
l 5x 20
M ultip l yi ng b oth S i d e s by 5, we have
’
5 x 1/
5x 5 x 20
x : 1 00
B efore so l vi n g a n equatio n i t i s usual l y e a si er to

rewrite o r rearrange the ter m s so that x w i th its c o e ffi
ci ent wil l b e al o n e o n the l eft han d s i d e C hangi ng the -
.
“ ”
terms from o n e si d e to the other i s call e d tran sp os i n g .
I t i s evi d ent that i n transp osi n g the truth O f the S ign of

equality must n o t b e d estroyed .
B eari n g i n mi n d the fact that if the sam e op eratio n

i s p erformed o n b oth si des o f an equati o n the left han d -
si d e rem a i n s equal to the right han d si d e we c a n tran s -

,
p ose terms .
so 2a b
A ddi n g 2a to both si des we have ,
1 35
As 2a c an c els 2 a, we have
x b 2a
W e see from th i s that the has b een tran sposed 2a

from o n e s i d e to the other an d that i n transp osi ng the
,
only thi n g that happ en ed to it was that i t s S i gn was

changed .
N um erous exa m pl es woul d S how thi s simpl e fact that

to tran sp o se a q uant i ty fro m o n e s i d e O f an equ at i o n to
the other i t i s o nly n ec essary to wr i te the quant i ty o n
,
the other s i d e w i th i t s sign chan ged ; plus changed to

m i nus o r m i nus to plus .
I f the term co nta i n i n g x i s a fracti o n the deno m ,
i n a t o r c an b e el i mi n ated so that T will b e alo n e by m ul

, ,
t i p l y i n g both si d es o f the equat i on by the d en o m i n ator .
a:
’
m + n ’
b b
F i rst ,
combi n e the fracti on s o n the right han d sid e -
,
b ec aus e they have the sam e d en o m i n ator thus ,
x m n
2 2
To get o
r alo n e on the l eft han d s i d e multiply b oth
-
,
si des by c
’ ’
.
c (m n n )
b
S up pos e x i s i n the d en omi n ator i n stead of i n the
nu m erator .
6 a b
a: 1 06
~
M ul t i plyi ng b oth si des by x gives

(a b) x
1 00
I f we l et 3: rep resent the total numb er o f machi n es ,
a: 2x
equ al s the nu m b er of m il li n g mach i n es a n d e q ual s
5 3
x
the n umb er Of lathes The total i s equal to added to
5
.
an d thi s sum is ad d ed to 28 to equal the unknown
t
a 2x
a:
5 3
M ultiply i n g b oth si des b y
the c ommo n 1 5, d e nomi
n ator to el i m i n ate the fracti on s we have
, ,
1 51: 3x 1 0x 420
1 5x 1 3x 420
Tr a n sp osi n g
1 5 a: 1 33: 420
420
a: 210
x 210 2x 420
42 mi ll i ng machi n es an d 1 4 0 1 at h e s .
5 5 3 3
I n d es i gni n g for m ulas are used an d these form ulas
, ,
are i n t h e for m o f equat i o n s the l etters hav i n g d efin i te ,
values Usually the values o f a ll but o n e l etter are k n own

.
o r assu m ed T h e p robl em then i s to fi n d the nu m eri cal

.
value Of the unk n own by s ub stituti n g the k nown values .
For i n stan c e i n d esi g ni ng keys some us e this formula :

,
X H P . .
D N
i n whi c h P the total twi sti n g m om ent o n the sh a ft ,
H P . the hors e p ower tran smitted D

. di am eter o f -
shaft i n i n ches an d N n umb er o f revolutio n s o f the

,
shaft p er mi nute .
1 38
I f 2 0 hors e p ower i s tran smitted at a rotative sp eed

-
o f 4 0 revol u ti o ns p er m i nute an d the S haft i s 2 i n ches i n
di ameter the twisti n g mom ent i s foun d by substituti n g

,
the k nown values an d solvi n g for P .
X 20
2 X 40
I n fi n d i n g the thi ck n ess o f the hub of a p ull ey som e ,
design ers use th i s formula

/
—
T . 14t BD
i n wh i ch T 2 th i ck n ess of hub i n i n ches ,
B wi dth o f fac e i n i n ches ,
D dia m eter O f p ull ey i n i n ches .
I f the fac e is 8 i n ches an d th e pu l l ey 2 7 i n ch es i n

di am eter we have
,
14 X 6
84 i nch or i n ch
1 39
.
M EN S U RAT I O N
A NG LE S O f all the plan e figures which the m ach i n
.
ist has t o d eal w i th the angl e i s the m ost i m p ortant an d

, ,
also the most tro u bl eso m e E xa m pl es of work i ng to an

.
angl e are foun d i n the sett i ng O f the co m p o u n d rest when

tap er turn i ng sett i ng the head O f the mill i n g machi n e
, _
for m illi n g sp i ral fl utes i n tw i st d rill s or rea m ers an d ,
i n the cutt i n g of b evel gears I n l ay i n g o ut work the .
machi n i st m u st un d erstan d the p rop ert i es O f angl es an d

the us e of the protractor so that he m a y work to the,
angl e that i s want ed n o t to some other angle

, .
A n angl e i s so metim es d e fi n ed as the d i ffe r e n c e i n

‘
d i rect i o n o f two straight li n es ; an other d efi n i t i o n i s : an

angl e i s the sp ac e b etween two stra i ght l i n es that meet ,
’
o r wo u l d m eet i f p ro duced A n gl es are al so used fo r

.
m easuri n g rotat i o n o r c i rcular m ove m ent .
I f a c i rcu m feren c e of a ci rcl e i s

d rawn h avi ng fo r a c enter the vertex
,
o f t h e angl e the m easure Of the angl e

,
wi l l b e that arc i n clud ed b etween the

s i d es O f the angl e A ngl e A O B i s meas
.
u r e d b y the a r e A B .
The ci rcumferen c e of th e ci rc l e i s
d i vi ded i nto 360 e q ual p arts each c all ed ,
a d egree E ach d egree i s d i v i ded i nto 6 0

.
e qu al p arts c alled m i nutes E ach m i nute .
i nto 6 0 e q ual p a r ts c all ed seco n ds The .
angl e A O B will b e an angl e o f 6 0 i f °
the a r e A B i s o n e sixth o f the circu m -
feren c e .
I t makes n o d i ff eren c e what the rad i us of the circl e

or arc may b e the d i ff eren c e i n directio n i s the sa me
, ,
an d the numb er o f degrees i s the same .
1 40 .
PROTRACTOR
A plan e figure O f three si des — all if
three si d es are equal i n l en gth the tri
angle i s e quilateral an d also equi an gul ar ;
that i s all the an gles are e q ual
, .
The sum o f all three an gles is e qual

t o two right angl es o r,
R NG
u se
T IA LE
A n y angl e equ als 1 80 m i nus the sum
°
Of the other two .
Th e areas o f two tr i angl es are equal i f they have

e qua l b ase an d equ al height o r altitude .
I f the three sid es o f a tri an gl e are p rop orti on al to

the c orresp o n di n g si des of an other tri angl e the trian gles
,
are s im il a r an d the c orresp on di ng angl es are equal .
I f the an gles O f a tri an gl e are equal t o the c orre

sp o n d i n g an gl es O f an other tri angle the tri angl es are
,
s i m i la r an d the corresp on di n g s i des are p rop ort i o nal .
The area of any tri angl e p ro duct of b ase an d

alt i tude divi d e d by 2 .
1 42
A righ t tri an gl e i s o n e havi ng o ne
right an gl e .
The hyp otenuse i s the si d e opposite

the ri ght angl e .
The s quare Of the hyp otenus e i s

RI GH T T R I A N G LE
equal to the sum Of the squ a res of the
other two si des .
b as e si d e
The a rea
Hyp oten us e V base s q u ared s i de s q uared .
B ase 2 V hyp otenuse s q uared s i d e s q uared .
S i de V hyp otenus e s q uared base s q uared .
A pl an e fi g ure of four si d es . A ll
four angl es are right angl es an d the O p ,
p o si t e s i d es are equal an d p arallel The .
sum O f all the an gl es e q uals four right

angl es o r
,
A rea s quare O f a si d e
S! U A R E
.
the s quare of a di agon al

2
Si d e V area
di ago n al X . 7 07 1
D i a go n al V area x
si d e X
A plan e fi g ure O f four si d es . A ll

four a n gl e s are right angl es an d the o p ,
p o si t e si des are equal a n d p a r al l e l.The .
sum of all the an gles e q ual s four ri ght

R ECTA N G LE an gles 0 1 36 0“ °
T h e di fferen c e b etween a square an d a rectangl e
1 43
i s that th e adj ac ent si des O f a square are equ al ; the

adj ac e nt s i des O f a rectangl e n eed n ot b e e q ual .
A re a p ro duct Of two adj ac ent si des

2
.
S hort s i d e area divi ded by l on g s i de .
L o n g si d e area divi ded by S hort S id e

2
.
D i ago n al V sum of s quares Of adj ac ent S i des .
A pl an e figure of four si des two of ,
whi ch are p arall el .
A rea sum o f p arall el s i d es X o n e

TRA P EZ I
O D hal f the al titud e .
A regul ar p l an e fi gure of s i x sid es .
_ A ll the si d es are equal an d all the

an gl es are equ al Th e sum o f all the
.
angl es e qual s
A rea s quare O f si d e X
2
A rea square o f radius o f ci rcum

scrib ed ci rcl e X
A rea s qu are o f radius O f i n scribed
ci rcl e
Si de radius Of ci rcu m scrib ed ci rcl e .
Si d e radius o f i n scrib ed ci rcl e X

2
“
R adius Of i n scrib ed ci rcl e si de X 866 . .
A plan e fi gure b oun ded by a curve d

li n e every p oi nt of which i s equally
,
distant from a p oi nt withi n cal le d the

c enter .
A diam eter i s any straight li n e p ass

i ng through the c enter an d touchi n g the
C'RC LE
c i rcumferen c e at each en d .
T wo ci rc l es havi n g equal radii are equal .
Two ci rcl es with u n equ al rad i i vary i n are a as the

sq uares o f the r a dii — the circumferen c es are p rop or
t i o n al t o the r adi i .
1 44
A rea X the p roduct o f i t s se m i axes -

.
A rea . 7 85 4 X p ro duct O f axes .
C i rcum feren c e ( app rox ) .

V su m O f S ( l u a r e
2
of axes
A cycloi d i s a cur ve formed

by a given p o i nt o n a ci rcumfer
en c e O f a ci rcl e rolli ng o n a
C YC LO I D straight li n e .
L en gth Of curve d i a m eter Of c i rcl e X

2
4 .
L en g th Of curve radius Of ci rcl e X 8 .
A rea 3 X X rad i us s quared .
A rea X rad i u s squared .
A re a area O f c i rcl e X 3 .
A n i nvolute i s a curve trac ed

by the en d o f a stri n g as it u n
wi n d s from a cyli n d er an d i s kept
taut The str i n g i s always tangent
.
to the cyl i n d er T O draw the curve .

,
d i v i de the circum feren c e i nto any

numb er of e q ual p arts the s m all er ,
the numb er the m ore ac curate the ,
curve Through these poi nts o n the .
circu m feren c e draw li n es at ri ght ,
angles to the rad i u s an d make the l en gths o f these tan

gents e q ual to the actual l en gth O f the arcs The curve .
drawn through these p o i nts i s an i nvolute .
S O L ID S
A soli d havi n g si x fac es each a ,
s q u are A ll faces an d edges are equ al

. .
Volu m e cub e o f edge .
E dge x/ ii
v o l um e .
Total are a s q uare o f edge X 6

CU B E
.
1 46
A sol i d h a vi n g a rectan gul ar b ase

an d rectan gu lar si des A ll oppos i te edges .
are equal an d p arallel .
Vol u m e p roduct O f the three

S ! UA R E PR I S M e dges .
A n y edge volum e
2 : p ro duct Of
oth er two edges .
Total area area o f b ase an d t o p

2
are a o f si d es .
Total area s m of areas o f the six

u
2 :
fac es all rectan g ular

, .
A p ri sm havi n g for its b ase a regul ar

hexago n an d b ases at right an gles to
,
faces .
Volum e 1: X s q uare of si d e Of
b as e X vert i cal edge or alti t ud e , .
L ateral area si de of b as e X ver

t i cal edge X 6 .
Total area lateral area X

s q uare O f si d e o f b as e )
A right pyrami d i s a soli d havi n g a
b ase a re g ular p olygo n an d fac es isos
c el es tr i an gles .
Volum e o n e third alt i tud e X area

“
1 -
o f b ase .
R EGU LA R PYR A M I D L ateral area p er i m eter o f b ase X

o n e hal f sl ant height
-
.
S l ant height alt i tud e O f tri an gular
S lant he i ght V vert i cal edge
A frustum of a regul ar p yrami d has

p arallel b ases ; that i s i t i s the l ower ,
p ort i o n O f a pyrami d cut by a plan e

F R U STU M O F PYR A M I D parall el to the base .
1 47
Volu m e s u m of areas o f the two b ases an d m ean

2
p rop orti o nal b etween the m X o n e th i rd alt i t u d e -

.
The m ean p rop ort i o n al i s equal to the square root

Of the p ro d u ct .
L ateral area the sum O f the p eri m eters Of the

t w o b ases X o n e half sl ant he i ght
-
.
O f s i d e Of bases .
A right c on e has a ci rc ular b ase an d

vertex i n a l i n e p erp en d i cular to the
c enter of the b ase I t i s a sol i d O f revo
.
l ut i o n ; that i s i t i s a sol i d fi gure for m ed

,
by revolvi n g a r i ght tr i angl e o n i t s verti

c al s i d e as a n ax i s
R I G H T CO NE
.
V olume 2 X square o f rad i us

O f b ase X altitud e .
V olume 2 2 6 1 8 X square O f di a m
.
eter O f b ase X alt i tud e .
C o ni cal area X radius of

b ase X slant h ei ght .
The frustum o f a c o n e has p arall el

bases I t i s the l ower p orti on O f a con e
.
when c ut by a pl an e p arall el to the base .
Volume o n e thi rd altitud e X sum -
O f the areas O f the two bases an d the

FR U S T U M O F C O N E
m ean p rop ort i onal b etween the two
b ases .
The m ean prop orti on al i s equal to the s quare root

o f the p roduct .
L ateral area sum O f p er i meters ( ci rcl es ) o f two

b ases X o n e hal f slant h e i ght
-
.
S lant he i ght V s q uare of alt it u d e s q uare Of

d i fferen c e i n rad i i .
1 48
'
B O O K
A rea 4 X X square O f radiu s ,
X squ a re o f r ad i us
/
.
ar e a
R ad i us 2
1
X V area
Hollow sphere .
Volum e di ff ere nce i n volumes Of two sphere s .
Volume X ( cub e o f large rad i us c ub e of
s m all radius ) .
A spheri c al s egment i s f ormed by

p ass i n g a plan e through a sphere I f the .
plan e p asses through the c enter the s eg ,
ment i s on e hal f the sphere I f it does

-
.
n o t p ass through the c enter
Volum e X s quare o f height

S PH E R ICAL S EGMENT X ( radius o n e th i rd he i ght ) -
Rad ius o f se gm ent V hei ght X ( d i a

m eter O f sphere height O f segment ) .
S urfac e o f spheri c al segment 2 X

X rad i us o f sphere X he i ght .
S urfac e o f spheri cal s egm ent

X r a d i us o f sphere X he i ght .
A spheri cal zo n e i s formed by p ass

i ng two p arall el pl an es through a sphere .
Volume volume o f sphere vo l
um e of segm ent .
A re a 2 X X radius of
S PH ER ICAL Z O N E sphere X hei ght .
A re a X radius o f sphere X
height .
1 50
ME C H ANI C S
A F OR C E i s an y caus e whi c h ten ds to p ro duc e or
mo dify motion I t i s measure d i n p oun ds usually Forc e , .
has three char a cter sti c s i — d i recti on plac e Of appl i ca

,
ti on magn i tud e
, .
WORK i s the p ro d uct Of forc e a n d di st a n c e I t i s .

.
measured i n foot p oun ds o r i n i n ch p oun d s Work does

- -
n o t i nvo l ve the element tim e .
P OWER i s the amount of wor k do n e i n a give n time .
I t i s the p ro duct o f forc e a n d distan c e div i d ed b y tim e ;

‘
an d i s exp ressed i n foot p oun ds p er mi nute o r foot

-
,
p oun ds p er seco n d The el ement o f t i me i s a lways

.
i n cluded .
P ower shoul d n ot b e given the sa me meani n g as forc e ,
although s ome c are l essly refer t o a n a ppli ed forc e as

b ei ng a p ower .
VELO CI T Y i s r a te O f moti o n I t i s di s t a n c e div i ded

.
by time a n d i s exp ressed i n feet p er mi nute o r feet p er

,
s ec o n d Vel o city d o es n o t i n c l ud e forc e n or wei g ht

M O M E N T O F F OR C E The mo ment Of a forc e i s
. .
the force multip l i e d by the p erp en d i cular distan c e from

the fixed p oi nt t o the di rectio n o f the forc e The fixed .
p oi nt i s c a lled the c enter o f moments an d the p e r p e n d i c

,
ul a r d ist a n c e is c a l l ed the l ever a rm o f the forc e M oment .
O f fo rc e i s me a sured i n foot p oun ds o r i n ch p oun ds

- -
.
GR A P H I C A L RE P RE S E N T A T I O N O F F OR C E S A .
forc e m a y b e rep resente d gr a phi cally by a straight l i n e ,
the l en gth b ei n g p rop ortio n al t o t h e magnitud e Th a t i s .

,
the l i n e i s d ra wn t o s om e s cal e O n e en d O f the li n e

.
rep resent s the p oi nt o f applic atio n an d an a rrow he a d

,
at the other en d rep re s ents the d irecti o n .
T wo o r more forces may a Ct together o n a b o d y .
T O fi n d a si n gl e forc e whi ch p roduces the same e ff ect

a s t wo o r more forc e s is t o fi n d the RE SU L T A N T The
, .
op er a ti o n i s c a lle d the C O MP O S I T I O N O F F OR C E S .
1 51
To fi n d two o r m ore forc es wh i ch co m b i n ed are
e q u ival ent to a gi ven forc e i s t o fi n d the C O MP O N E NT S .
The op erat i o n i s c alled the R E S OLU T I O N O F F O R C E S .
P A RA LLELO G R A M O F F OR C E S W hen two forc e s .
act i ng at a p o i nt can b e rep rese n ted i n

d i r e c t i o n an d m agn i tud e by the adj acent
p
s i des of a p arallelo g ra m the resultant ,
w i ll b e represented i n d i rect i o n an d m a g
n i t u d e by the d i ago n al of the p arallelo
gra m A B an d A C are the forc es an d

.
A R the resultant .
I f two forc es act i n the sa m e d i rect i o n the resultant ,
i s e q ual to the i r s u m .
I f two forc es act i n Opp os i te d i rect i on s the res ultant ,
i s thei r di ff eren c e .
P A R A LL E L F OR C E S W hen t w o .
forc es are p arallel an d act i n th e same

d i recti o n but n ot fro m the sa m e p oi nt
, ,
the i r resultant i s p arall el to b oth an d i s ,
e q ual to thei r s um The resultant i s

.
l oc at e d b etween the forc es at a p o i nt that

divi des the l i n e j o i ni n g the p o i nts of
a ppl i c at i o n i nvers ely as the magnitudes .
C D z A B Z A E z E C
I f the forc es act i n opp osite d irc e
ti o n s the resultant i s p arall el to b oth
, ,
R E S U LTA NT but i s l ocated outs i d e o f the m o n the

l i n e ( p ro duc ed ) j o i n i n g the p oi nts o f
0 appl i c at i o n I t i s n earer the greater forc e
.
a n d takes the sa m e di rectio n as the

greater forc e but i n i nten s i ty it i s e q ual
,
t o the d i fferen c e b etween the co m p o

n e nts The p o i nt o f appl i c at i o n of the
.
resultant i s :
A B z C D z
CE z A E
are then s everal moments o f weight The a d ditio n al .
moments o f we i ght are fou nd by mul tiplyi n g the wei ght

of the l ever arm by the distan ce o f its c enter o f gr a vity
from the ful crum I n a l ever o f the first c l a ss there will
.
b e two moments o f weight due to the weight o f the l ever ,
on e will act w i t h the mom ent o f forc e an d the ot h er act

with the m om ent o f wei ght W ith l evers o f the s eco n d
.
an d thi rd cl ass the ad diti on al mom ent o f weight will

,
act with the ori gi n a l mom ent of wei ght an d therefore , , ,
i s ad de d t o it
.
TH E W IN D L ASS The mom ent of .
forc e an d the moment o f weight are the

mean s fo r fi n di n g the forc e required to
l ift a wei ght by a r o p e w o u n d o n the
‘ ‘
d rum o f a Wi n dl a ss .
F >< L = W X I
W X I
L
P U LLE Y S O R BLO C K S .
re q
ui re d t o li ft the weight
the wei ght d i v i d ed b y the
rop es that are shorten ed .
I f th e re are five rop e s a n d t h e wei ght

is . 300 p oun ds the forc e i s
,
°
30 0
60 p oun ds
5
The veloc i ty with whi ch the weight
1 8 rai se d i s equa l to the velocity o f the
forc e d ivi d e d by the numb er o f rop es

sho rten ed .
V el ocity of F
Velo city
N
1 54
T H E ,
P U LLEYS
A simpl e way to trans m i t p ower either at the sam e ,
sp eed o r a chan ge o f sp eed i s t o plac e a pulley o n the

, ,
drivi n g shaft an d an other o n the driven shaft an d p ass

an en dless b elt over them I t i s evi d ent that the l i n ear
.
sp eed of the p ull eys i s the sam e ; that i s o n e revolut i o n ,
o f the drivi n g pull ey pulls the b elt through a di stan ce

e q ual to its ci rcumferen c e an d a p o i nt o n the p eriphery
,
o f the driven pulley will b e pull ed through thi s di stan ce
whether or n ot the p er i phery i s equal to the ci rcum fer

en c e o f the d rivi ng pull ey .
To chan ge the rotative sp eed of shafts it i s o nly

n ec es sa ry to pl a c e o n them p ulleys o f unlike diameters .
The revo l uti o n s are i nversely p rop orti o n al to the

ci rcumferen c es an d therefore to the d i am e t ers
, The , .
small er pull ey run s at the higher rot a tive sp eed .
D d iameter o f driver .
(1 di a meter o f d riven .
R evs o f dr i ven R evs of driver

. D . d .
R evs of dr i ven x d
. R evs o f driver . X D .
The p roduct o f the revolutio n s an d d i ameter o f o n e

pulley i s e q ual to the p ro duct o f the revolutio n s an d
diameter o f the other pull ey .
From R evs . of d r i ven x d R evs . of driver X D
R evs . of d river X D
we h a ve/ ( 1
R evs of . d r1 ve n
R evs . of driven x d
R evs . of driver
To fi n d the di ameter of the driven p ull ey m ultiply ,
the revolutio ns o f the driver b y i t s d i ameter an d div i d e

by the revolutio ns of the driven .
1 55
E xampl e : The d rivi n g shaft m akes 1 5 0

revolution s
p er m i n ute an d the d riv i n g pull ey i s 1 2 i n ches i n dia m
eter The driven shaft i s to make 6 00 revoluti on s ; what
.
d i ameter p ul l ey shoul d b e s elected ?

1 50 X 12
3 i n ches
600
The d rivi ng shaft m akes 2 0 0 revolutio n s a n d the

dri ven shaft i s to make 1 5 0 revolut i o n s p er m i nute .
W i th a d riven pull ey of 2 4 i n ches diameter what size ,
driver p ulley shoul d b e used ?

1 50 X 24
1 8 i n ches
To fi n d sp eeds when sizes o f p ull ey s are k nown

R evs o f d river X D
. R evs o f dr i ve n X ( 1
. .
R evs . of dri ven x d

R evs of driver
D
.
R evs of d r 1 v e r X D
.
R evs . of d riven
E xampl e : The driver pulley i s i n ches di ameter

16
an d the dr i ve n i s 1 8 i n ches d i ameter W he n t h e d r i v e r
'
run s at 2 7 0 revolut i o n s p er m i nute what will b e the sp eed

,
o f the d riven p ulley ?
1 56
T -
H E S T A R R E T T B O O K
The sam e pri n c i ples app l y to more co m pl ex b elti ng .
S upp ose two pu l l eys are o n the same shaft ; we then

have a c ombi n atio n that res embles a trai n of gears .
Th i s arran gement is often d esirabl e whe n i t i s i m

“
p ract i cabl e to g e t t h e sp eed reduct i o n with o n e b elt ;

j
th a t i s when the larger p ull ey woul d ha ve to b e very

,
l arge as comp ared with the smaller .
I n t h e a bo v e illustratio n the high rotative sp eed of

p ulley A ( o n a motor shaft fo r exa m pl e ) i s reduc ed to
a m uch l ower fi gure at pulley D .
!
R evs of A X diameter o f A
. R evs of B X d i ameter 2 .
o f B an d R evs o f C X d i am eter of C R evs o f D X d i a m

"
1 .
.
eter o f D B ut p ull eys B an d C are o n the same shaft an d

.
have the sam e rot a t i ve sp eed .
R evs . of B 2
"
R evs of C
. .
C ombi ni n g thes e equ ati o ns w e may express the rela

t i o n as foll ows :
T h e s p e e d o f t h e fir s t d r i ve r m u l t ip li e d by t h e
d i am e t e r s o f a l l t h e d r i ve r s i s e qua l t o t h e s p e e d o f t h e
l a st d r i ve n p ull e y m u l t ip li e d by th e d ia m e t e r s o f a ll
d r i ve n p ull e y s Or .
R evs . of A X di ameter of A X d i a m eter of C

R evs . o f D X d i a m e t er of B X di a m eter of D .
I f fi ve o f the ab ove q u a ntiti e s are kn own the s ixth

i s e a s i ly foun d .
1 58
'
E xamp l e : P ull ey A r un s at 1 2 0 0 R ev p er mi nute .

,
an d i s 4 i n ches i n diam eter P ull e y B i s 1 2 i n ches i n

. .
diameter C i s 5 i n c h e s a n d D i s 1 6 i n ches W hat i s

, ,
'
the sp eed of D ?
1 2 00 X 4 X 5 = R e v s . of D X 12 X 16
R evs . of D X 1 92
R evs . of D
I n the ab ove we have foun d the rotative sp eed of D

-
without fi n di n g the rotative sp eed o f B but we had gi ven ,
the d iameters o f B an d C .
S upp os e we had give n the sp eed o f D but d o n o t x
kn ow what pulleys t o us e i n plac e of B an d C
R evs . of first driver p ro duct of d i ameters o f all d rive n s
R evs of last dr i ven p ro duct d i a m eters all dr i vers

'
. of of
R evs . of A di ameter of B X di am eter of D
R evs . of D diam eter of A X d i a m eter of C

The two u n k nown quant i t i es are d i ameter o f B an d
diameter o f C ; but the R A T I O c an b e foun d Us i n g the .
d a ta i n the ab ove exampl e we have
1 2 00 16 X di a m eter of B
1 25 di ameter of C X 4
D iameter o f B 4 1 2 00
X
D i a meter o f C 16 1 25
12
1 59
'
Then the ratio o f the diameters i s an d any

pulleys havi n g d i a m eters i n th i s rat i o will give the d es i red
sp eeds The pulleys m a y b e 1 2 an d 5 i n ches 1 8 an d
.
,
o r 2 4 an d 1 0 .
E xa m pl e : The shaft o f 3 i n ch p u lley D i s to make

-
9 00 revolut i on s ; what pull eys m ust b e pl ac e d as B an d
C if A is
i n ches i n di a m eter an d
14
m akes 1 5 0 revol u t i o n s ? The ava i labl e
pulleys have thes e d i a m eters — 8 9 , ,
1 0 76 1 1 1 2
1
, , ,i n ches .
The formula to u s e is
R evs of fi rst d river

. p roduct of d i ameters of all d r ive n s
R evs . of last driven p roduct of d i a m eters o f all d r i vers

1 50 d i a m eter of B X 3
9 00 14 X dia m eter o f C
1 3 d i a m eter of B
X
6 14 d i a m eter of C
D i a m eter o f B 1 14
X
D i ameter o f C 6 3
1 60
Fo r m u l a fo r Len g t h o f C r o s se d B e l t
(R )
2
r
L z a u 0t + m+ 2 D +
D
The l etters have the sa m e values as above .
E xa m pl e : Two pull eys are 1 1 feet ap art an d a re 2 4 ‘ ’
an d 1 6 i n ches i n d i a m eter L en gth o f b elt ? O p en an d

.
c rossed .
(12
L X (1 2 8) (2 X 1 32 )
2 64
32 68 + 1 2 .
i n ches op en b elt
, .
L = 3 14 X .
2 64
3
i n ches c rosse d b elt
, .
G EARS
C O N S T A NT VELO C I T Y R A T I O B elts over pull eys .
an d plai n roll i ng cyl i n d ers can n ot b e dep en d ed up on

to give a c o n stant vel oc i ty ratio — there i s always so m e
loss o f sp eed due to slip B ut when two gears are i n
.
m esh a p o i nt o n the p i tch circl e of on e moves at the ‘
same li n ear velo c i ty as a p oi nt o u the p itch ci rcl e of -
the other an d the numb er of revoluti on s is always a

,
con stant r a ti o for these two gears .
1 62
Two gears i n m esh have the sam e pitch ; that i s the ,
distan c e from the c enter of a tooth to the center o f the

n ext tooth m easured alo ng the p itch ci rcl e i s the sam e
, , .
for b oth gears Therefore two gears o f the sam e p itch

.
, ,
but o f di fferent d i a m eters must have an un equal numb er

,
o f teeth .
I t m ay b e sai d that the sp ac e oc cupi ed by a tooth '

an d the sp ac e b etwee n two teeth i s the s a m e i n b oth
gears i f they have the same p it ch Thi s fact shows .
i mmedi ately that the li n ear velocity o f the p i tch ci rcles

m ust b e e q ual an d t h e rotative sp eeds can b e foun d i n the
sa m e way as w i t h b elts The pitch diameter or the n u m
.
b er o f t e e t h i s sub stituted fo r the pull ey di ameter fo r

'
the numb ers o f teeth are p rop ort i on a l to the p itch di am

e t e r s i n the sam e way that the p eripheri es o f pulleys are
p rop ortio n al to the d i a m eters ‘

.
A gear havi n g twi c e as many teeth as th e gear m esh

i n g with it will make but o n e half as many revolutio n s -
i n a given time O r the sp eed s ( rotative ) are i nvers ely

.
,
as the numb er of teeth ; the gear with the smaller numb er

o f teeth run s at th e h i gher sp eed .
A s i n b elts an d p ull eys o n e gear o f a p ai r i s the

,
driver an d the other the driven o r foll ower .
Th e n um be r o f r e vo l u t i o n s o f t h e d r i v e r m ul t ip l i e d
by t h e n um be r o f t e e t h o n t h e d r i ve r i s e q ua l t o t h e
n um be r o f r e vo l ut i o n s o f t h e fo llo we r m u l t ip l i e d by t h e
n um be r o f t e e t h o n t h e fo ll o we r .
R evs of driver X T
. R evs o f follower X t i f .
,
T nu m ber of teeth o n the d river an d t numb er o f

teeth o n the foll ower :
R evs fol l ower X
'
. of t
R evs . of driver
R evs . of driver X T
an d t
R evs . of foll ower
1 63
To fi n d th e numb er of teeth ( T ) o n the driver m ul ,
t i p l y th e revolut i o n s o f the follower by its numb er o f

teeth an d d i v i d e the p roduct by the revolutio n s of the
driver .
E xampl e : The follower has 6 4 teeth an d makes 30

revoluti o n s p er m i nute The d ri ver m akes 80 revoluti o n s
.
p er m i nute How m any teeth has the driver ?

.
BO X 6 4
24
“
E xampl e : The driver makes revolut i ons p er

1 60
m m ut ean d has 4 0 teeth . The follower makes 1 00 revo
lution s How man y teeth ?
.
1 60 X 40
R evs . of follower X t
R evs . of dri ver
T
R evs . of dr i ver X T
R evs . of follower
E xampl e : The follower has teeth an d m a kes 1 1 0

90
revol ut i o n s p er m i nute I f the d river has 4 4 teeth how
. ,
m a ny revolutio n s p er mi nute ?
110 X 90
R evs o f driver
.
E x a mpl e : A d river havi n g teeth m akes 80 0 revo

63
lut i o n s p er m i nute . I f the foll ower has 4 2 teeth what ,
will b e its sp eed ?

800 X 63
R evs . of follower 1 2 00
42
T H E
°
teeth o n A X teeth B X e e th o n C
fi
on t
V elocity rati o
teeth on L X teeth on M X teeth on N
14 X 13 X 15
70 X 1 04 X 75
1
2 00
K n owi n g the vel oc i ty ratio o f the trai n it i s easy to ,
fi n d the sp eed o f N i f the sp eed o f A i s kn own I f A .
run s at 1 800 revolut i o n s p er mi n u te N will make only ,
9 revolut i o n s for 1 80 0 2 00 9
z .
Wh en the sp eed o f the first driver o r the l ast fol

l ower i s al so kn own the sp ee d m ay be figure d from the
,
followi n g :
Mu l t ip ly th e r e vo l u t i o n s p e r m in ut e o f t h e firs t d r i ve r
by t h e c o n t in ue d p ro d u c t o f t h e n um be r o f t e e t h o n a l l
d r i ve r s a n d d i v i d e by t h e c o n t in ue d p ro d u c t o f t h e
,
t e e t h o n a ll fo ll o we r s . Th e q uo t i e n t wil l be t h e r e vo l u
t i o n s p e r m in ut e o f t h e l a s t fo l l o we r .
LA T H E G EAR IN G
The apprentic e who wi shes to fi g ure change gears
for sc rew cutti ng shoul d un derstan d the p r in c ip l e s as ,
1 66
T H E S T A R R E T T . B O O K
al ready exp l ai n ed rather th a n b e d ep en dent up o n fo r m u

,
las There i s but o n e statement to b e m emori z ed .
Th e c o n t in ue d p r o d uc t o f th e S p e e d o f t h e firs t
d r i ve r a n d t h e n um be r o f t e e t h o n a ll d r i ve r s is e q ,ua l
t o t h e sp e e d o f t h e l a s t fo ll o we r m ul t ip l i e d by t h e c o n
t in ue d p ro d uc t o f t h e t e e t h o n a ll fo ll o we rs .
I n fi guri n g change gears the numb er o f thread s p er

, ,
i nch to b e cut corresp o n ds to the revoluti o ns o f the

driver an d the n u m b er o f turn s o n the l ead s crew to
,
m ove the c arriage o n e i n ch corresp o n ds to the sp eed o f

the follower .
Th e n t h e n um be r o f t h r e a d s t o be c ut m u l t ip li e d by
t h e t e e t h o n t h e s p i n d l e s t ud e q ua l s t h e n um be r o f
t h r e a d s o n t h e l e a d s c r e w m u l t ip li e d by t h e t e e th o n
th e l e a d s c re w g e a r .Or
threads to b e cut teeth o n lead screw gear

threads on l ead screw teeth on sp i n dl e stud
S upp os e there are thread s o n the l ead screw an d

6
4 6 teeth o n the l ead s crew gear how m a ny threads w i ll
b e o ut i f a 2 4 tooth gear i s pl ace d o n the sp i n dle stud ?
-
threads to b e cut 40
24
threads to be cut
The ab ove assumes that the l athe i s geared 1 1 ; that

i s the l athe sc rew co nstant is e q ual to the numb er of
,
threads p er i n ch o n the l ead s crew I f the l athe i s n ot

.
so geared the l athe sc rew co nstant sh oul d b e used i n

,
plac e of the threads p er i nch o n the l e ad s crew .
1 67
The foregoi n g exampl e shows how the figuri n g c an

b e do n e when the gears are o n the sp i n dle stud an d lead
s crew ; but the p roblem i s usually o n e of fi n d i n g o ut what
gears to use .
S upp os e s even threads are to b e cut an d there are

,
five threads p er i n ch o n the l ead screw What gears .
are to b e used ?
thread s to b e cut teeth o n l ead screw gear
threads o n l ead s crew teeth o n stud gear
7 teeth o n l ead sc rew gear
5 teeth o n stud gear
The r a ti o o f the gears i s as 7 5 .
B y m u lt i plyi n g b oth 7 an d 5 by any numb er such ,
6 we get
,
42 teeth on l ea d sc rew gear

30 teeth o n stud gear
Usi n g the formula as ab ove may ai d i n di sp osi n g o f
“
that troubl esom e questi on Whi ch gear goes o n the
,
”
stud ?
I n so m e cases it m a y s ee m easi er to assu m e on e
gear an d go through the c al cul ati o n to fi n d the other ,
there b ei n g then o n e un k n own qu a ntity a n d three k nown

quantiti es.
1 68
Ta bl e 14
A v e ra g e S p e c i fi c G r a v it y o f M isc e ll a n e o u s S u bs t a n c e s
W e ig h t p er
S b t nc
u s a e C ub c F oot
1 ,
B ric k h rd , a
B rick work , in c e me nt
C o l nt hr cit
a a a e
C o l b it um inou
,
a , s
E rt h l oo
a , se .
So p t on
a s e
So il comm on b l c k
,
a
Ta bl e 1 5
S p e c ifi c G r a v i t y o f G a se s
(A t 32 d gr
e ees F ) .
Hy drog en
Ac etyle e n Illum in ating g as
Alcoh ol vapo r M erc ury va po r
.
Amm on ia
Carbo n d ioxid e N it r og en 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carbo n m o n o xid e N it r ic o xid e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ch lo rin e N itr ous o xid e

Eth er vapo r
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O xyg en
Et h ylen e
. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
S ulph ur d io xid e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
H y d r o fluo r ic ac id W ater vapo r 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hydr o ch lo ric ac id
1 c ub ic foot of air at 32 d gre e Fe s . a n d at m o ph e ri c p re ssure w e igh s

s po n d
u
Ta ble 1 6
S p e c ifi c G r a v it y o f L i qu id s
Li q idu Li q idu
Acetic acid M uriatic acid

A lco hol c omm er cial
, N ap h tha
Alcohol pur e , N itr ic acid
A mmo nia O live o il
Pal m o il
‘
B ro m in e Petr ole um o il
Pho sph or ic acid
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C arbo lic acid . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C arbon d isulphid e R ape o il

Co tto n seed o il
-
S ulphuric ac id
Eth er sul ph uric
,
T ar 0 0 0 0 0
Fluo ric acid Turpen tine o il 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gaso l ine Vineg ar

W ater
Lin se ed o il
M iner al o il W h ale o il
T a bl e 17
C o m p o s i t io n o f M isc e ll an e o u s A l l o y s
Alloys
Brass , co mm on ye llow
Brass , t o be ro lle d
Brass cast ing s common ,
G un m et al
C oppe r flan g es
Bro nze S tat uary
G erm an Silver 2 65
Britan n ia m e t al 50 25
Chinese white copper

Patte rn letters 15 15
Be ll m etal
Chin e se g ong s
White m etal ordinary,
284
Spelter
Typ e m etal
1 72
Ta bl e 19
T e m p le t s fo r D r ill i n g St a n d ar d an d Lo w P r ess ur e Fl a n g e d
V al v e s an d F i t t i n g s — A m e r i c a n S t a n d ar d
Bo lt hol e s ar e drill d
e i nch l arge r t h an nominal diam et e r of bolt s .
1 74
Ta bl e 20
Te m p le t s fo r Dr illin g E xt r a H e a v y Fla n g e d V a l v e s an d
Fi t t in g s — Am e r ic a n S t an d ar d
Di am of Th ick n e ss Di am of
F l n ge of F l n g B ol t G re le
.
a a e 1
Bolt h ol e s ar e d ril l d 3 inch l rg r t h n no min l d i

e 4 a e a a am e t e r of bol t s .
1 75
'
B O O K
T a b l e 2 1 — T a p D ri ll s
Fo r A . S M E S t a n d ar d a n d
. . . . S p e c ia l
M a c h in e S c r e w Ta p s
The d iam eter g i ve n fo r
eac h ho le to be t appe d allows fo r a
pr actic al c lear an ce at the r oot o f t h e th r ead o f t h e scr ew an d will
n o t im pos e un d ue s tr a in upon t h e tap in s ervice .
of T ap Thre ad s
No1
‘
Ez S p ci l T p
e a a s ar e in Bo ld F c T yp
a e e .
1 76
I ND EX
A bbr v i t ion for D r w i ng
e a s a s
A br i v Gr i n
as
’ e s, a
A d j u t i ng T ool m k r B u t t on w i t h M i cro m
s a e s s ete r
A l g br i c S ig
e a n s
A l i gn i ng Sh f t i ng a
A llo y C o m po i t i on of
s, s
A ng le , M u r m n t of eas e e .
B nc h Wor k
e
B ol t d S cr w L i t
an e s s
B or i ng H’ol i J i g B’o dy es n
B u t t on T oo l m k r s a e s
C l i p r i ng ov r F l ng
a e e a a e
C lip
a for T t i n g S cr w T h r d
e 1 s, es e ea
H r m p h ro d i t
s
C l ip
a e 1 s, e a e
C l ip r I n i d d O ut i d
a e s, s e an s e
C l i p r M i cro m t r
a e s, e e
C l i p r S pr i ng
a e s,
C lip
a V rn i r
e 1 s, e e
C i bo u S t l
a ee
C rbon S t l D r i ll S p d f
a ee s, ee o
C nt r G g
e e a e
C n t r P u nc h
.
e e es
Ch ng G r
a e ea s
Ch i pp i ng
Ch i l for Chi pp i ng
se s
Ch u c k i ng
Ch u c k i n g T ool s
Co ffi c i n t ( A lg br )
e e e a
C o m po i t i on of A l lo y
s s
C o m po u n d G foi T h d C ut t i n g
ea1 s i ea
C on t c t M u r i ng
a eas
C u t
o n b i g
e1 o1 n
C up W h l ee s
C u t t i ng C o m pou n d for D i ll s 1 s
Cu t t i n g L i p of D i l l s i s
C u t t i n g S cr w T h r d e ea s
D p H ol D r i ll i ng
ee e
D t i l D r w i ng
e a a s
D i v i d r S pr i ng
e s,
D r w F i l i ng
.
a
D r w i ng t h D i ll
.
a e 1
D r i ll Gr i n d i ng
Dril l S p d ee
D r i ll i ng
D r i ll i ng D p H o l ee es
D l 1 g D r w i ng t h
i l 1n D r i ll
a e
D i ll ing for R m e r
,
1 ea
D r i ll i ng for T pp i ng a
D r i ll i ng H ol d ing Wor k
D r i l l i ng L r g H ol
.
a e es
D r i ll i ng S t r t i ng D r i ll a
D r i ll i ng T mpl t s for E xt H v y F l n g d lv e I i tt in g s
,
, e e i a ea a e Va s an d 1
1 78
D r i ll i ng T e m pl e t s for S t a n d a r d d Low P r e u r F l a nge d V a lv e s an ss e

d F i t t i ng
,
s
D r i l l s Cu t t i ng C o m po un d s
D r i ll C u t t i ng L i p s
,
s,
D r i ll s K i n d s
D r i ll s L e t t e r S i e of
,
z s
D r i ll M a k i ng
,
s,
D r i ll T e st i ng C u t t ing L i p s
s,
E cc e n t r i c T u rn i n g 91
E l e m e n t a r y A lge br a 1 26
E me r y Gr a d e s of 43
Eq u a t i on s
,
1 34
Eq u i v a l e n t T a bl e s 60
Ex p a n s i on of M e t a l s 1 69
Ex pon e n t 1 27
Ex t r a H e a v y F la nged V a lv e s a nd F it t ings T e m p l e t s foi D r i ll i n g
m
, 1 75
F i l e s K in d s 40
F i l i ng ,
40
F i l i ng T e t i ng surf a c s e 42
F i t s A m ou n t s t L e a v
,
o e 30
F l a n g d F i t t i ngs T mpl e t s for D ri ll in g
,
e e 1 74
F orc e d F i t s
,
29
Forc e s 1 51
G e a r S p e e d s F or m u l a s for 1 65
G e r s for T h r e a d C ut t i ng
,
a 79
G r s S p e e d of
ea 1 63
G e a s T r a in s
,
1 1 65
G a d s of E m e r y
,
i e 43
Gr a d i ng Gr i n d i ng W h e e l s 111
Gr i n d i ng 1 09
Gr i n d i ng A llow nc e t a s o1 110
Gr i n d i ng A m o un t s t o l e v
,
a e 113
Gr i n d i ng Cy l i n d r i c l
,
a 113
Gr i n d i ng F l a t S u rf c a es 116
Gr i n d i ng W h e e l s Gr a d a d G in e n i a 115
Gr i n d i ng M a u i g W k
,
e s i n 0 1 116
Gr i n d i ng M i l l i ng C u t t e r
,
s 1 00
Gr i n d i ng S p e d for e s 1 14
Gr i n d i ng W h e l s e 1 09 111
Gr i n d i n g W h e e l G d e
,
s, i a s 111
Gr i n d i ng W h e e l s M o un t i ng ,
116
H a c k S a w M ch in e a 45
H ac k S a w s 43
H c k S a w s C u t t ing Sp e e d
a 44
H a c k S a w s W h’at O n e t o U s
,
e 46
H a n d Ch i pp i ng
,
38
H e i gh t G a ge
.
17
H i gh S p e d S t e l D r i ll S p e ed o f
e e s, 51
H ol d ing D i l l in S p i n d l e
1 56
H ol d i ng Wor k for D r i ll i ng 57
H ol d i ng Wor k i Ch u c k s n 95
H ow t o R e a d a M icro m e t e r 21
H ow t o R e a d a V e i e rn i 22
H ow t R e a d a V e i n i e r M i c o m e t
o r ei
I nvol ut e
J ig B ush i ng s
J i g for D r i ll i ng Cy l in de r F l a ng e
J ig s d F i xt ur y
an es
J i g s Loc t i ng B u h i ng H ol
a s es
J ig T y p
,
s, es
K n u rl i ng
L pp i ng
a
L tha e
La t h e Ce n t e r s
L a t h e G r i ng ea
L t h e T oo l s
a
L t h e Tool s C l r nc
a ea a e
L t h e T ool Gr i n d i ng
,
a s,
L a t h T ool R ke s, a e
L a t h e T ool S t t i ng s, e
L a t h e T ool T t i ng C ut t ing A ngl
s, es es
La t h e Wor k M u r i ng e as
L y i ng O u t for D r i ll i ng
,
a
L ng t h of B l t F or m u l fo
e e s, as i
L v e l for A l i gn i ng Sh f t i ng
e a
L v e l i ng I n t r u m n t
.
e s e
L v l i ng I n t r um n t H ow t o S t U p
.
e e s e e
L v l F i n d i ng D i ff r nc e
,
e e s, e e
Le v e r s
L i m i t of A cc ur c y
s a
Loc t i ng B u h i ng H ol i J i g
a s es n s
Loc t i ng J i g on F c e P l t e
a a a
Loc t i ng M c h i n r y
a a e
Low P r u r F l ng d Fi t t i ngs
e ss e a e
Lu br i ca n t for T h r e d C ut t i ng a
M a n d r e l s U se of
M a su r i ng L a t h e W o r k
,
e
M u r i ng S cr w Th r e a d
eas e s
M e ur i ng T ool s
as
M u r i ng Wor k G r i d i ng
eas n
M e cha nics
,
M e l t i ng P o i n t of M e t a l s
M e n u r t i on
s a
M icro me t e r A d j u t i ng B ut t on w i t h s s
M icro m t e r G ge
,
e as a a
M i cro m t r C a l i p re e e
M i cro m t r for M e a su r i ng S cr wTh r a d
s
e e e e s
M icro m t r H ow t R d
,
e e o ea
M i cro m t r s A d j u t m n t for W e a r
,
e e s e
M icro m e t r ! u i c k A d j u t m n t
,
e s, s e
M i ll i ng C ut t r e s
M i ll i g C ut t r s Gr i n d i ng
n e ,
P l a n F i gu r e
e s
P l t for L y i ng O u t
a e a
P l u m b B ob s
P ol i h i ng
s
P r e p r i ng S u rf c e for L a y i ng Ou t
a a
P ro t r c t or a s
P u ll e y D i m e t r d Sp ed
a F or m u l a for
e s an e s, s
P u ll y s e
1 80
T a rge t s
T st i ng C ut t i n g L i p s of D r i l l
e s
T e s t i ng F l a t F i l i ng
T s t I n d i c t or
e a
T st i ng T u rn d T a p
.
e e e1
T h r e a d T ool F m of o1
T h r e a d T ool S e t t in g
,
T ol r a nc e L im i t of
,
e s
T ool H ol d e s
,
1
T ool M a k i ng’
T ool m k r B u t t on
a e s s
T r a i n of G e a r s
T r a n f e rr i ng M e a u r e m n t
s s e s
T r u i ng Wor k i n Ch u c k s
T u rn i ng Wor k C e n t e r s
,
U n i v e r s a l D i a l T e s t I n d i c a t or 67, 1 03
V rn i e r C a l i p e r
e s
V e rn i r H e i gh t G a g
e e
V rn i e r H ow t
e Re a d o
V e n ie r M i H ow t R a d
,
1 me t cro e1 o e
V i t r ifi e d W h e e l s
,
W r of \I i c o m t
ea r e e rs
W e i gh t p C ub i c F oo t of Sub t nc
e1 s a es
Wh t H ack S w t o U e
a a s
W i n d l a ss
Wor k C t en ei s
Wor k C e n t e r s Loc t i ng a
Wor k i ng D r a w i ng A bbr e v i t i on
.
a s
Wor k i ng D r a w i ng s
1 82
SE T S O F T OO L S
APPR E N T I C E S AN D S T U DE N T S
SE T N O 9 00
‘
IN FOLDING LEAT H ER CASE

Size o f c as e fold ed , 7 ”
x 43 4
”
x 13
Set 900 con sist s o f t h e leat h e r case an d th e

followin g t oo ls :
No 11, 6 C o mb in t ion S qu r
”
a m a e co No 390 e te Cn r g
Ga e
No C lp r
. , .
,
”
pl t e e 2 41 4 a i e
N 1 1 78 C n t r Punch No d C l p r wit h o l id
.
,
”
0 e e 79 4 O ut s i e a i n ut
32 1 6 F l xibl St e e l Rul in poc k t No
e s
No I n d C pe r wi t h olid
. , .
,
” ”
e e e e 73 4 si e ali n ut
No
s
v d r w h oli d ut
. , .
,
”
. 83, 4 Di i e it s n
PR I C E , se t c o m pl e te
1 83
SE T S O F T OO L S
FO R APPR E N T I C ES AN D S T U DE N T S
SE T N O . 9 01
IN NI C ELY FINI S HED W OODEN
S ize of cas e , 12
”
x7 x ”
S e t No 901 c on sist s o f t h e wood e n

. case an d
follo win g t oo ls :
No 11C om b in t ion Squ r
”
6 c om No n r
390 C e t e G a e g
Dvd r w h ol id ut
a a e,
No
.
, ,
”
pl t 77 5 i i e it s n
No 32 1 6 F l xibl St l Rul
”
e e
in No
,
”
d
7 9 6 O u t si e a i C l p r wit h olid
e s n ut
In i d C l pe r wit h o lid
e e ee e
po k t c No
.
, ,
”
c e ase 73, 6 s e a i s n ut
N0 1 1 78 C n t r Punch
.
, e e
PR I C E se t c o m p le t e
,
1 84

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HOWARD P .

Editor -i n -c hief P rac tic a l M ech a ni ca l E n g i ne e ri n g

Edit or -i n-c h ief Pr ac t ic al S h op Wor k

ATHOL M ASSA C HUSETT S

the blue p ri nt g ves di m ens i o n s accurately without any

great p recisi o n i n the draw i n g itsel f li n es la i d o ut o n

the metal are to b e worked to an d must therefore b e

unl ess he c an lay out h i s own work an d whe n c alled ,

up o n l a y o ut work for the l ess exp er i en c ed

T o b ecome sk i lle d i n lay i n g o ut shoul d b e the aim o f

p o r t u n i t y to show ab i l i ty th an the run ni n g o f a machi n e .

I t i s a qualiﬁc ati o n o n e must have for advan c ed p osi

B ut lay i ng o ut re q u i res so m e k n owledge o f mathe

an c e with machi ni sts ﬁn e tools an d s hop op erati o n s .

A ttent i o n to deta i ls an d extrem e c are are o f utmost i m

wasted b ecause o f errors i n layi n g out are the p en altie s

The app renti c e then shoul d los e n o opportunity t o

m ake himsel f c ap abl e o f lay i n g o ut work C lose ob serva .

t i o n o f pi ec es la i d out by sk i lle d machi nists i s o n e way

app rentic e m a y also have Opp ortunity to observe a

The numb er of measur i ng an d l ay i n g o ut tools o r

so that he w i ll i n sti n ctively select thos e b est s uited to the

E co n o m y t i me i n l ayi n g o ut i s an other el ement of

suc c ess Time sav i n g tool s such as the di al test i n di

cator qui ck acti n g m i crometer an d c ombi n atio n s et

should b e amon g thos e ready for use The c o m b i n ati o n .

s et for i nstan c e c ombi n es a rul e square m iter p r o t r a c

fewer the tools used p rov i ded the o n es at h an d are really

goo d o n es the l ess the b en ch w i l l b e littered with tools

whi ch may b e used o nly oc casio n ally

The tools i n a m a chi nist s tool box are a sure i n di ca

t i o n o f h i s ab i l i ty A well ﬁ t t e d k i t o f ﬁ n e tools help s

h i m hol d a j ob i n hard times an d i s o n e of the b est ,

assets a man c an have when applyi n g for a j ob The p os .

sess i o n o f m any ﬁ n e tools i n d i cates a love for ac curate

m in a t i o n to d o work which will d eman d r e c og n i t i o n .

N ext to havi n g a c ompl ete outﬁt o f ﬁ n e too l s i s the dis

I n p rep ari n g thi s b ook the a i m has b een to se l ect

those e l em entary features most essential to the advan c e

such stud ents a p ortio n o f the i nstructio n ord i nar i ly

I t will also serve a s a referen c e boo k fo r dat a n o t t o

D raw i n g i s the l an guage o f the en gi n eer d es i gn er , ,

an d mach i n i st Unl ess a mach i ni st c an at l east read

work i ng draw i n gs he can n ot b e k nown as a sk i lled me

scales sect i o n s an d other rep resentatio n s a r e what make

u p the l an g uage of d rawi n gs

these i s read i ly l earn ed A set o f worki ng draw i n gs

with all the p arts lo cated i n the i r p rop er relatio n to o n e

scale ; for example o n e quarter o r on e hal f s i z e ; it i s

o ften ter m e d the A sse m bled o r A sse m bly D rawi n g .

D E T A I L D R A W I N G S show each p art o f the m achi n e

A detail draw i ng shoul d b e suppl i ed w i th c ompl ete data

used nu m b er of p i ec es Op eratio n s to b e p erfor m ed etc

an d shoul d co ns i st o f sufﬁc i ent v i ews to b e eas i ly read .

I n p ract i c e so m e ﬁr m s group several d eta i ls up o n a s i ngl e

S E C T I O N A L D R A W ING S show c erta i n asse m bled

to more clearly i llustrate the i nterior co n struct i o n often ,

B OL T A ND S C R E W L I S T S O n these are ta bul ated .

all b olts , screws etc which are com m o n to the stock

room an d n ec essary t o the erect i n g of the m achi n e

essary co n c erni n g the relatio n o f c erta i n c enters to the

therefore where a mach i n e has a nu m b er o f m o re o r l ess

l en g th breadth an d th i ckn ess or he i ght The draftsman