SSPC Painting Practice Vol-1 PDF

SSPC-PS4.
02
T
62&Z
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PS4.02, "Vinyl Painting System, Three-And Four-Coatrn
was adopted on October 3, 1994 for use by the Department of
Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD activities must be
submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Commanding Officer,
Naval Construction Battalion Center, Code 156, 1000 23rd
Avenue, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301. DoD activities may
obtain copies of this standard from the Standardization
Document Order Desk, 700 Robbins Avenue, Building 4D,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other
Government agencies may purchase copies from the Steel
Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301,
Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
Custodians: Adopting Activity

Army - ME Navy - YD-1
Navy - YD-1
Air Force - 99
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SSPC-PAINT25
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT25, "Primer, Raw Linseed Oil and Aleyd, Red Iron
Oxide, Zinc Oxide," was adopted on October 3, 1994 f o r use
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by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD
activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity:
Commanding Officer, Naval Construction Battalion Center,
Code 156, 1000 23rd Avenue, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301.
DoD activities may obtain copies of this standard from the
Standardization Document Order Desk, 700 Robbins Avenue,
Building 4D, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private
sector and other Government agencies may purchase copies
from the Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry
Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
Custodians: Adopting Activity

Army-ME Navy - YD-1
Navy - YD-1
Air Force - 99
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release;
distribution is unlimited.
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SSPC-PAINT 1
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT 1, "Red Lead And Raw Linseed Oil Primer," was adopted on April 11,
1995 for use by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD
activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Naval Construction
Battalion Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Code 156, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301. DoD
activities may obtain copies of this standard from the Defense Printing Service
Detachment Office, Bldg. 4D (Customer Service), 700 Robbins Avenue,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other Government agencies
may purchase copies from Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry Street,
Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728.
Custodians: Adopting Activity:

Navy - YD1 Navy - YD1
(Project 8010-N998)
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is

unlimited.
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W 2 5 9 5 5 3 2 0079382 T30 B
SSPC-PAINT 2
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT 2 , "Red Lead, Iron Oxide, Raw Linseed Oil And Alkyd Primer," was
adopted on April 11, 1995 for use by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed
changes by DoD activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Naval
Construction Battalion Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Code 156, Port Hueneme, CA
93043-4301. DoD activities may obtain copies of this standard from the Defense
Printing Service Detachment Office, Bldg. 4D (Customer Service), 700 Robbins
Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other Government
agencies may purchase copies from Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry
Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728.

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(Project 8010-N997)
FSC 8010

un1imited.
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M 2575532 0079383 977
SSPC-PAINT 13
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT 13, "Red Or Brown One-Coat Shop Paint," was adopted on April 11,
1995 for use by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD
activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Naval Construction
Battalion Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Code 156, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301. DoD
activities may obtain copies of this standard from the Defense Printing Service
Detachment Office, Bldg. 4D (Customer Service), 700 Robbins Avenue,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other Government agencies
may purchase copies from Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry Street,
Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728.

(Project 8010-N996)
FSC 8010

unlimited.
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at 303-397-2295.
LEAD PAINT REMOVAL GUIDES:
SUPPLEMENT TO VOLUME 2
SSPC = GUIDE 61 (CON)

Guide for Containing Debris Generated
During Paint Removal Operations
and
SSPC = GUIDE 71 (DIS)

Guide for the Disposai of Lead-Contaminated Surface
Preparation Debris
STEEL STRUCTURES
SSPC 92-07
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at 303-397-2295.
’ SSPC T I T L E S S Y S T E M 91 W 8bè79LiO 0003359 T82
~
~~
DISCLAIMER
These specifications, guides and recommendations

have been developed in accordance with voluntary con-
sensus procedures by SSPC Advisory Committees and
are believed to present good current practice. They are
monitored and revised as practices improve, and sug-
gestions for revision are welcome. Other methods,
materials, and specifications may be equally effective or
superior. SSPC is not responsible for the application,
interpretation, or administration of these specifications,
guides and recommendations. Moreover, SSPC does
not issue interpretations of its specifications, guides or
recommendations; and no person is authorized to issue
an interpretation of an SSPC specification, guide, or rec-
ommendation on behalf of the SSPC. SSPC specifically
disclaims responsibility for the use or misuse of these
specifications, guides and recommendations. The sup-
plying of details about the patented formulations, treat-
ments, or processes is not to be regarded as conveying
any right or permitting the user of this manual to use or
sell any patented invention.
When it is known that the subject matter of the text is
covered by patent, such patents are reflected in the text.
Copyright 1992 by Steel Sîructures Painting Council
Ali Right Reserved
This book or any pati thereof must not be reproduced in

any form without the written permission of the publisher.
First Edition
March 1 , 1992
S T E E L S T R U C T U R E S PAINTING COUNCIL
4400 Fifth Avenue Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2683
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC T I T L E * A ** = 8627940 00034Lï 2 8 7 '1
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC T I T L E X A XX 8627940 0003420 T T 9
STEEL STRUCTURES PAINTING MANUAL
Volume 1
GOOD PAINTING PRACTICE

Third Edition
Executive Editor
John D. Keane
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Editors
Dean Berger, Harold Hower, Bernard R. Appleman
Assistant Editors
Joseph Bruno, Kitti Condiff, Mark O’DonneII,
Janet Rex, Aimee Beggs, Vilma Macura,
Terry Sowers, Monica Madaus
STEEL STRUCTURES PAINTING COUNCIL
4516 HENRY STREET, SUITE 301 PITTSBURGH, PA 15213-3728
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
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SSPC T I T L E * A YS ôb2794O 0003421 935
Copyright, 1993, by Steel Structures Painting Council
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All Rights Reserved
This book or any pari thereof must not be reproduced
in any form without the written permission of the publisher.
Third Edition
First Printing, January 1994
IBSN 0-938477-81-1
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC II
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC T I T L E S A * Y = 8627740 0003422 87%
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DISCLAIMER
The techniques, procedures, regulations and other in-
formation presented in this volume have been reviewed by
experts in each field and are believed to represent good cur-
rent practice. They are monitored and revised as practices
improve, and suggestions for revision are welcome.
SSPC is not responsible for the application, interpreta-
tion, or administration of the information outlined here. SSPC
specifically disclaims responsibility for the use or misuse of
any product, procedure or technology or misinterpretations
of any regulations referred to in this manual. The supplying
of details about patented formulations, treatments, or
processes is not to be regarded as conveying any right or
permitting the user of this manual to use or sell any patent-
ed invention.
When it is known that the subject matter of the text is
covered by patent, such patents are reflected in the text.
Ill Questions or comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
at 303-397-2295.
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SSPC T I T L E X A X X Ab27940 0003424 b4V
Table of Contents
Page
Foreword
Chapter 1.O INTRODUCTION
SSPC Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1.1 CORROSION O F STEEL - SIMPLIFIED THEORY
byF.L.LaQue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1.2 PAINTS FOR ANTI-CORROSION SERVICE
byCliveH.Hare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 2.0 SU RFAC E PREPARATION
b y H . W i l l i a m Hitzrot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chapter 2.1 MECHANICAL SURFACE PREPARATION
byA.W.Mallory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 2.2 M ETALLI C ABRASIVES
byEinarA.Borch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Chapter 2.3 NO N - METALLIC ABRASIVES
by H. William H i t z r o t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 2.4 ABRASIVE AIR BLAST CLEANING
b y J i m Bennett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter 2.5 WATER BLAST CLEANING
b y J i m Bennett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Chapter 2.6 H A N D A N D POWER TOOL CLEANING
b y Preston S. Hollister and R. Stanford Short ................................... 68
Chapter 2.7 FIELD SURFACE PREPARATION COSTS
byRobertB.Roth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Chapter 2.8 OTHER METHODS AND FACTORS I N SURFACE PREPARATION
by Bernard R. Appleman a n d John D. Keane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Chapter 2.9 CHEMICAL CLEANING
b y Melvin H. Sandler and Sam S p r i n g . ......................................... 90
Chapter 3.1 SPECIAL PRE-PAINT TREATMENTS: PHOSPHATING
bySamspring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Chapter 3.2 PICKLING STEEL SURFACES
by D. W. Christofferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Chapter 4.1 PAINT MATERIALS
by Sidney B. Levinson and Saul S p i n d e l . ....................................... 117
Chapter 4.2 ZINC-RICH PRIMERS
byCharlesG.Munger ....................................................... 125
Chapter 4.3 CORROSION INHIBITIVE PIGMENTS AND HOW THEY FUNCTION
byArnoldJ.Eickhoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Chapter 5.1 PAI NT APPLICATION
by Sidney B. Levinson and Saul S p i n d e l . . ...................................... 150
Chapter 5.2 SCAFFOLD ING
Chapter 5.3 SAFETY IN PAINT APPLICATION
Chapter 6.0 INSPECTION
by Kenneth B. Tator and Kenneth A. Trimber .................................... 181
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SSPC T I T L E X A X t 8627940 0003425 580
Chapter 7.1 QUALITY CONTROL O F PAINTS - AS MANUFACTURED

by J o h n F. M o n t l e a n d Mary A n n Stephens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Chapter 7.2 QUALITY ACCEPTANCE O F PAINTS - AS RECEIVED BY THE USER
by John R. O’Leary and Garland W. Steele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Chapter 8.0 COMPARATIVE PAINTING COSTS
by M. R. Sline, G. H. Brevoort, R. B. Feinberg,and S. J. Oechsle .................... 222
Chapter 9.0 SHOP PAINTING O F STEEL I N FABRICATING PLANTS
byW.J.Wallace,Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Chapter 10.0 PAINTING O F RAILROAD BRIDGES A N D STRUCTURES
byRayeA.Fraser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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263
Chapter 11.O PAINTING O F HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
by R. R. Ramsey and Bernard R. Appleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Chapter 12.0 PAINTING O F STEEL VESSELS FOR SALT WATER SERVICE
by David T. Bloodgood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Chapter 13.0 PAINTING O F STEEL VESSELS FOR FRESH WATER SERVICE
byJ.R.Foster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Chapter 14.1 PAINTING STEEL TANKS
byW.J.Wallace,Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Chapter 14.2 THE LINING O F STEEL TANKS
by Wallace P. Cathcart and Albert L. Hendricks ................................. 320
Chapter 15.0 PAINTING HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
byJ.L.Kiewit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Chapter 16.1 COATINGS FOR PIPELINES A N D OTHER UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
by R. N. Sloan a n d A. W. Peabody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Chapter 16.2 CATH ODIC PROTECTION
byA.W.Peabody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Chapter 17.0 PAINTING O F INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
by W i l l i a m F. C h a n d l e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Chapter 17.1 WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS
byThomasP.Delany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Chapter 17.2 PAINTING O F COKE A N D STEEL PLANTS
by Arthur R. Thompson and S. C. Frye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Chapter 17.3 PETROLEUM REFINERY COATINGS
byW.E.Stanford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Chapter 17.4 PAINTING CHEMICAL PLANTS
by J. Roy Allen and David M. M e t z g e r . ......................................... 412
Chapter 17.5 PAINTING PULP AND PAPER MILLS
by C. Edwin Wilkins and W i l l i a m F. Chandler ................................... 420
Chapter 17.6 PAINTING FOOD PLANTS
bySteven L.Schmidt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Chapter 17.7 POWER GENERATION FACILITIES
b y R o n a l d R.Skabo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Chapter 18.0 GOVERNMENT PAINTING PRACTICES
by Richard W. Drisko and H o w a r d G. Lasser .................................... 448
Chapter 19.0 TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR PAINTING
byJayl.Leanse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Chapter 20.0 THERMAL SPRAYED COATINGS
by S. J. Oechsle and J. N. Childs, Jr. ........................................... 456
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SSPC T I T L E t A t t m 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 000342b 417
Chapter 21 .O HOT DIP GALVANIZING

byErnestW.Horvick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Chapter 22.0 PAINTING GALVANIZED STEEL
by Richard W. Drisko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Chapter 23.0 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF PAINT FAILURE
by Charles G. Munger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Chapter 24.0 PAINTING NAVY SHIPS
by Stephen D. Rodgers, Richard W. Drisko and John Tock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Chapter 25.0 DESIGN OF CORROSION-SAFE STRUCTURES
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byV.RogerPludek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Chapter 26.0 SAFETY AND HEALTH IN THE PROTECTIVE COATINGS INDUSTRY
by Dan Adley, D. Brian Shuttleworth, Scott Ecoff, Sidney Levinson and Saul Spindel .. 538
Chapter 27.0 ENVI RON MENTAL REG U LATIONS AFFECTING PROTECTIVE COATINGS
by Bernard R. Appleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Chapter 27.1 AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS
by Bernard R. Appleman and Karen A. Kapsanis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Chapter 27.2 WASTE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL
by Bernard R. Appleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Chapter 27.3 OTHER REGULATIONS AFFECTING PROTECTIVE COATINGS
by Bernard R. Appleman and Monica Madaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Appendix A ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Appendix B DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
Appendix C STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS REFERENCED IN VOLUME 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Appendix D UNITS CONVERSION CHART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Index . . . . . . . ............................................................................ 630
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC T I T L E S A t X 9 8627940 0003427 353
FOREWORD
Coatings for structural steel have been called the prin- new realities. Because the list of specifications in the back
cipal means of protecting our principal construction of Volume 2, Systems and Specifications has been enthusias-
material-steel-from its principal weakness-corrosion. tically received, we have added such a list to Volume 1.
This technology has been the subject of an intensive pro-
gram by the Steel Structures Painting Council since 1950. Like its predecessors, the third edition is written from the
The purposes of the SSPC are to assess and advance the coating end user’s point of view and not that of the paint tech-
technology of surface preparation and coating of industrial nologist or scientist. Volume 1 should be considered a com-
structures by conducting research, developing standards, panion to Volume 2. Volume 1 was intentionally designed
and disseminating information: More specifically: to include some duplication between chapters. This tends
to make each chapter as complete as possible for the indus-
1. To instigate and carry on laboratory and field investiga- try being covered, to present shades of opinion with regard
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tions of techniques to mitigate corrosion through the use of to various controversial matters, and to spare the reader the
protective coatings; necessity of large amounts of cross-referencing. When such
2. To develop standards, specifications, and guides cover- cross-referencing is necessary, however, it is expedited by
ing techniques and materials of surface preparation and coat- the detailed Index, Glossary, Table of Contents and Specifi-
ing of structures; and cation list. Each chapter attempts to be a balanced presen-
3. To organize and communicate information intended to fur- tation in which each author has been given the benefit of the
ther improve and make more effective the protection of in- viewpoints of the outstanding leaders in his particular
dustrial structures. specialty, usually representing buyer, supplier, applicator,
manufacturer, contractor, maintenance engineer and
I. THE THIRD EDITION engineer-architect. The focus, of course, has been on coat-
The first undertaking of the Council was the preparation ings for structural steel rather than factory-applied enamels.
of Volume 1 of the Steel Structures Painting Manual. It has
been revised since then to incorporate new information. This II. ABOUT THE SSPC
third edition of Volume 1, Good Painting Practice is primari- The SSPC is a professional technical society whose
ly an editorial revision and update. A complete technical re- primary objective remains to improve the technology and
vision of the volume will take several years. In the interim, practice of protecting structures through the application of
several chapters have been added and several have been coatings. Headquarters and laboratories of the SSPC are lo-
revised to reflect changes in the industrial painting industry cated in Pittsburgh. SSPC membership is open to both in-
since 1982. dividuals and organizations, but SSPC services are not
restricted to its membership. These services include consen-
One of the most important changes since that time has sus standards developed by technical committees, to help
been the increased attention health and safety and environ- industry define and use good painting practice, a wide range
mental regulators have focused on the industry. In addition of publications, and annual national conference and specialty
to their other duties, specifiers and users must now be conferences and tutorials offered throughout the year.
familiar with hazardous waste, air pollution control and other SSPC’s laboratory evaluates new materials and application
regulations. Worker safety has also become a concern. In techniques and develops procedures for coating performance
recognition of the increased importance of these issues to evaluation and surface characterization. SSPC’s Painting
painting concerns, an environmental chapter and a health Contractor Certification Program (PCCP) is a national, pre-
and safety chapter have been added to the third edition. qualification service developed for facility owners who hire
contractors. The PCCP confirms that an industrial painting
Concern about environmental and health effects has also contractor has met the standards for quality set forth in
led to major changes in the kinds of paint the industry uses. SSPC-QP-1, “Standard Procedure for Evaluating Qualifica-
Lead- and chromate-based paints, once a mainstay of the tions of Painting Contractors: Field Application to Complex
industry, are being rejected in favor of less toxic paints. Most Structures”.
military and federal specifications for lead- and chromate-
based paints have been canceled. SSPC has recently pro- 111. ORGANIZATION
posed to withdraw its specifications for lead-based paint and The affairs of the Steel Structures Painting Council are
is re-examining specifications for paints containing chromate managed by a Board of Governors composed of sixteen (16)
pigments. At the same time, paints are being reformulated elected members, a non-voting Secretary and Treasurer, and
to meet air pollution control requirements, and the recent additional ex-officio members appointed by the President.
amendments to the Clean Air Act will accelerate this process. The board of Governors annually elects a five-person Execu-
The tables in this volume have been revised in light of these
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC VIII
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~
SSPC T I T L E f A ft m 8627940 0003428 2îT m

tive Committee, consisting of the President, President-Elect, c.1.2 METALLIC COATINGS
Vice President, and two additional members from the Board C.1.2.a Painting Galvanized Steel Dick Drisko
C.1.2.b Thermal Spray (Metallizing) Joe Butler
of Governors.
AI Kay
The 6-member Standards Review Committee determines c.1.2.c Shop-Applied Zinc (inactive) AI Roebuck
whether a standard is consistent with the Bylaws, mission
and overall best interests of SSPC and the industry before C.1.3 SOLVENTBORNECOATINGS
the standard is sent to the Board of Governors for approval. C.1.3.a Coal Tar Epoxy (inactive) AI Beitelman
C.1.3.b Chlorinated Rubber (inactive) Dick Wakefield
c.1.3.c Epoxy Polyamide (inactive) Dean Berger
The Executive Committee of the Board of Governors C.1.3.d Polyurethanes Dick Hergenrother
is responsible for the policy matters of the Council. It is elect- C.1.3.d.l Thick Film Polyurethanes Jeff Jarboe
ed annually, and is currently made up of the following: C.1.3.e Vinyls (inactive)
C.1.3.f Silicone-Containing Coatings (inactive)
C.1.3.g Alkyds Bill Johnson
R . Dale Atkinson Brock Enterprises, Inc. President
John F. Montle Carboline President-Elect C.1.3.h LOW-VOCAlkyds Clive Coady
William M. Medford North Carolina Vice President Susan Simpson
Department of
Transportation c.1.4 WATERBORNE COATINGS
Bernie Beethe Texas Eastman C.1.4.a Waterborne Epoxies Marcel Gaschke
Company C.1.4.b Water Miscible Coatings Richard Benton
R. Wayne Beason American Steel & C.1.4.c Latex Coatings Bob Washburne
Aluminum Co., Inc.
Dave Watson
Bernie Appleman SSPC Secretary (Ex Officio)
Barbara Fisher SSPC Treasurer (Ex Officio)
C.1.5 SPECIAL USE COATINGS
The following also served as members of the Board of C.1.5.a Aluminum-Pigmented Coatings Steve Delich
C.1.5.b Marine Coatings Steve Draskovich
Governors at the time of publication:
C.1.5.c Weathering Steel coatings (inactive) Gary Tinklenberg
C.1.5.d Surface Tolerant Coatings Tim Race
Fred Beckmann The American Institute C.1.5.e Coatings Under Fireproofing (inactive)
of Steel Construction C.1.6 Coatings & Linings for Concrete Tim Leise
Joseph L. Buerger Procter & Gamble
C.1.6.a Concrete Coatings Tim Leise
Company
C.1.6.b Floor Toppings for Concrete Bob Ketterlin
Ed Darrimon Bay Area Coating
Consulting Co C.1.6.c Coatings For Secondary Tim Hyde
Tom Dunkin, II Dunkin and Bush Containment Alan Holub
Marcel M. Gaschke CIBA-GEIGY
(Ex Officio) c.2
- SURFACE PREPARATION
E. Crone Knoy Tank Industry
Consultants, Inc c.2.0 Surface Preparation Steering Ken Trimber
Richard Lavergne Transocean Anti- c.2.1 Abrasives Bill Hitzrot
corrosion, Inc c.2.2 Abrasive Blast Cleaning (inactive)
Michael J. Masciale Valspar Corporation C.2.3 Power Tool Cleaning Duane Bloemke
Mark S. Schilling Unocal Corporation C.2.4 Wet Blast Cleaning Jerry Woodson
Steven L. Schmidt Porter International
Lydia Frenzel
Kenneth A. Trimber KTA-Tator
C.2.5 Visual Standards Ken Trimber
Charles H . Wyatt Enviro-Air Corporation
C.2.6 Industrial Blast Cleaning Ken Trimber
C.2.7 Soluble Salt Contamination Simon Boocock
Technical Committees are standing or ad-hoc groups as- C.2.7.a Chloride Extraction William Johnson
signed to address a specific or general technical topic with-
in the scope of SSPC. Activities of technical committees
g&3 APPLICATION, INSPECTION, AND QUALITY CONTROL
include developing consensus standards and providing fo-
rums for exchange of information on pertinent technical is- C.3.0 Application Steering TBA
C.3.1 Application Methods TEA
sues. Technical committees are open to those interested in
C.3.2 Paint Thickness Measurement Forrest Couch
participating in the above activities, including members and c.3.3 Inspection Dean Berger
non-members of SSPC. Dick Drisko
c.3.4 Quality Assurance Nick Kozuska
COMMITTEES AND CHAIRMEN Stan Gillard
c.3.5 Applicator Pre-Qualification Ralph Trallo
(1993)
Eric Kline
Number Name Chair 0 METHODS FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE

c.1
- COATING MATERIALS
C.4.1 Maintenance Painting TEA
c.1.0 Coatings Steering Mary McKnight C.4.2 Performance Evaluation Mary McKnight
c.1.1 Zinc-Rich (Unit) Dan Griffin c.4.3 New Specifying Methods (inactive)
C . l . l .a ZR Performance Specs (inactive) Gerald Evarts c.4.4 Economics AI Roebuck
C.l.1.b ZR Topcoating Systems Gary Tinklenberg Gordon Brevoort
C . l . l .c ZR Preconstruction Primers (inactive) John Peart
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SSPC T I T L E m A ** 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003429 1 2 6
c.4.5 Bridge Painting Research John Peart IV. PUBLICATIONS

C.4.6 Protective Linings Wallace Cathcart
c.4.7 Tank Painting (inactive) The Council makes available the results of its research,
C.4.8 Pulp & Paper Industry Dennis Justice surveys and specifications work in a wide range of reports,
c.4.9 Accelerated Testing Simon Boocock manuals, conference proceedings and training videotapes
which are listed in its publications sheet and which include,
c.5
- ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH AND SAFETY COMPLIANCE
in addition to Volumes 1 and 2, the following:
C.5.0 Environmental, Health and Safety Steering Dan Adley
C.5.1 Safety and Health Dan Adley Individual specifications from Volume 2 on surface
Scott Ecoff
Worker Protection Task Group (TG) Richard Thompson
preparation, painting systems, paints, application, safety,
C.5.1 .a
C.5.l.b Guidelines for Contract Documents Bill Dixon thickness and maintenance;
C.5.1.c Respiratory Protection TG Frank Pokrwyka Photographic standards for surface preparation and
C.5.l.d Safety and Health Guideline TG Doug Stephens degree of rusting;
C.5.1 .e Technical Peer Review Richard C. Miller SSPC National Conference proceedings, covering
C.5.1.f Lighting in Containment TG James A. Giese
John Baker
protective coatings, surface preparation and compliance
C.5.2 Regulations & Litigation
c.5.3 Hazardous Paint Removal with environmental and health and safety regulations;
and Disposal Lloyd Smith Reports on laboratory and full coating performance
C.5.3.a Lead Paint Containment Ken Trimber evaluation, influence of soluble salts, accelerated test-
C.5.3.b Lead Paint Disposal Lloyd Smith
ing and maintenance of weathering steel;
C.5.3.d Ambient Air Monitoring for Lead
Vincent Coluccio
Lead paint removal manuals, conference proceed-
Paint Abatement
c.5.4 VOC Performance Bob Klepser ing and reports;
C.5.4.a Reg-Neg Task Group Bob Klepser Video tape training on Abrasives, Protective Coat-
ings, and Application.
C.6
- EDUCATION AND CERTIFICATION
C.6.0 Education & Certification Steering Steve Pinney
Steve Pinney
Bernard Appleman
C.6.1 Education Main
C.6.2 Education Objectives & John Keane
Curriculum Review Harold Hower Dean Berger
C.6.4 Certification Requirements Ron Hayden Harold Hower
C.6.3 PCCP Advisory Ralph Trallo September 1993
C.6.5 Local Chapter Education Policy Mark Schilling
C.6.6 Local and National Painter
ComDetitions Richard LaVergne
C.A
- ADMINISTRATIVE
C.A.l Local Chapters Ed Feige1

C.A.2 National Conferences Rose Mary Surgent
C.A.4 Volume 1 Revision Terry Sowers
NACEISSPC JOINT TASK GROUPS
SSPC/NACE TG A Abrasive Blasting Ken Trimber

Fred Lichtenstadter
NACEISSPC TG B Thermal Cleaning Carroll Steely
SSPCINACE TG C Wet Abrasive Blasting Jerry Woodson
SSPCINACE TG D Water Jetting Carroll Steely
Lydia Frenzel
SSPCINACE TG E Solvent Cleaning Sy Solomon
NACEISSPC TG F Surface Preparation TBA
of Concrete Tom Aldinger
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Provided by IHS under license with SSPC X
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SSPC T I T L E t A t t 8627740 0003430 948
BIOGRAPHY BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Bernard R. Appleman
has been the Executive Director Dean M. Berger received his
of the Steel Structures Painting B.S. degree at North Central
Council since 1984. In this posi- College and did advance studies
tion, he is responsible for or- at the University of Wisconsin.
ganizing and managing He has had over 20 years of
operations of a technical socie- research experience at PPG
ty whose activities encompass Industries, and eight years at
research, development of indus- Union Carbide Research. Be-
try standards, and dissemination ginning in 1974, he worked for
of technical information via GilbetVCommonwealth,advising
reports, presentations, training engineers and architects on the
programs and conferences. He application and use of coatings.
has directed and coordinated In 1988 Mr. Berger retired from
numerous projects in coatings performance evaluations, surface Gilbert Associates and formed
preparation techniques, development of specifications and guides, his own coatings consulting firm, Berger Associates Inc., of Leola,
and lead paint removal and abatement. Pennsylvania. He has attained specific expertise in zinc rich coat-
His past work experience includes work as a CorrosionlCoat- ing technology, epoxy, coal tar epoxy, urethane, and vinyl coating
ings Specialist for Exxon Research and Engineering Company. From systems.
1977 to 1982, he was Project Manager, Coatings, for the Federal He has been a member of the Steel Structures Painting Council
Highway Administration. He also worked as a Research Chemist since 1960, chairman of the Epoxy Advisory Committee, and Co-
for the Naval Ship Research and Development Center. Chairman of both the Research Committee and the Inspection Com-
mittee. He was chairman of the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) Subcommittee 0-1.46 on Industrial Protective
Coatings. He is the Executive Director of the Board of Registration
BIOGRAPHY of Nuclear Safety-related Coating Engineers and Specialists, and
a member of ASTM Committee D-33 on Coatings for Power Gener-
ation Facilities. Mr. Berger is a recipient of the Man-of-the-Year
Award from the Washington Paint Technical Group, and belongs
to the Gallows Bird Society. In 1957 Mr. Berger was President of
the Pittsburgh Society for Coatings Technology Corrosion Commit-
tee, and of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE).
He is also a director of the Institute of Applied Technology, and a
member of the American Water Works Association Committee D102.
Mr. Berger is a licensed Professional Engineer in California, a
Nuclear-Safety-RelatedCoatings Engineer, and a NACE Corrosion
Specialist. He has published over 100 technical articles and present-
ed many papers on coating technology.
BIOGRAPHY
de Nemours and Company.
Mr. Keane is a member of various honorary societies, includ-
ing Tau Beta Pi, Phi Lambda Upsilon, Pi Nu Epsilon and Alpha Chi
Sigma. He has served as director of several civic and religious or-
ganizations and is the author of approximately 60 scientific and tech-
nical publications and 30 technical disclosures. He has represented
the United States at three international symposia and conferences
on coatings.
He served as a consultant, advisor, chairman, or active com-
mittee member in many societies, including the American institute
of Steel Construction, the American Iron and Steel Institute, the
Canadian Instituteof Steel Construction,the Painting and Decorating
Contractors of America, the Steel Plate Fabricators Association, the
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, the American So-
ciety of Association Executives, the National Paint and Coatings As-
sociation, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE),
the American Society for Testing and Materials, the Transportation
Research Board, the International Organization for Standardization,
and the American National Standards Institute. He is a Certified
Manufacturing Technologist (Coatings), a NACE Corrosion
Specialist, and a registered professional engineer (by examination)
in the states of Illinois, Pennsylvania and California.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC T I T L E * A Y* ö b 2 7 9 4 0 0004097 T30
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XII
at 303-397-2295.
CHAPTER 1.0
INTRODUCTION
by
SSPC Staff
This Third edition of the Steel Structures Painting Manual, A new chapter has been added to cover the aspects of
Good Painting Practice, also known as Volume 1, carries for- environmental regulations that affect suppliers, specifiers,
ward the mission of the Steel Structures Painting Council: and contractors most: air pollution issues, particularly the
recent Clean Air Act Amendments, hazardous waste disposal
1. To instigate and carry on laboratory and field inves-
as well as the requirements of the Toxic Substances Con-
tigations of techniques to mitigate corrosion through
trol Act, and requirements of the Clean Water and Safe Drink-
the use of protective coatings;
ing Water Acts.
2. To develop standards, specifications, and guides While worker safety regulations have not grown at the
covering techniques and materials of surface prepa- same rate as environmental regulations, greater attention has
ration and coating of structures; and been focused on health and safety aspects of coating oper-
ations, particularly exposures to lead. A revised health and
3. To organize and communicate information intend-
safety chapter addresses the most important health and safe-
ed to further improve and make more effective the
ty regulations facing coating applicators. Issues associated
protection of industrial structures.
with exposure to lead in industries such as the coating in-
The first edition appeared in 1954 and the revised is- dustry are sufficiently distinct from those in general industry
sue in 1964. The new edition is a technical update and editori- that OSHA recently issued a standard specifically address-
al revision of the work that for nearly 40 years has been the ing such exposures in the construction industry. Those in the
“bible” in protective anti-corrosion coatings. Its aims remain coating industry must also be concerned with exposures to
the same as that of the original: the manual is written from solvents, safety when working at heights, the flammability
the viewpoint of paint users; it is not intended to be a scien- of solvents and coatings and communicating chemical haz-
tific or highly technical treatise on paint formulation, but rather ards to workers.
a practical encyclopedia on painting methods, equipment,
and systems that in the recent past have proved to be both II. THE EDITORIAL PROCESS
economical and satisfactory.
All sections of the manual were reviewed to identify
The manual is still appropriate to the varied audiences
needed changes. Leading authorities in their fields were
using it: contractors, engineers, specifiers, formulators, in-
asked to review and update selected chapters. Some aspects
spectors, suppliers, technicians, maintenance painters,
of the coating industry have changed more than others. Wil-
users, and manufacturers. Given this wide audience with
liam D. Corbett revised Chapter 6.0, “Inspection”. Gordon
different levels of understanding about the subjects of the
Brevoort revised Chapter 8.0, “Comparative Painting Costs”
manual, it is necessary to present some material in a gener-
and John Tock revised Chapter 24.0 “Painting Navy Ships”.
al rather than a detailed way, although some chapters have
Dick Drisko rewrote chapter 22.0, “Painting of Galvanized
always been more detailed than others because the subject
Steel.” All specifications that have been canceled or fallen
demanded it.
into disuse have been deleted from tables recommending
paint for particular uses. Several recent SSPC specifications
I. PRINCIPAL CHANGES
have been added, and specification for paints using lead pig-
Volume 1 is intended as a companion to Volume 2, ments have been deleted.
“Systems and Specifications”. The latter was revised in
1991. Like Volume 2, it now includes a list of specifications 111. USING THE MANUAL
referenced throughout the book.
The reader of the Manual may wish to take advantage
During the last decade, there has been a tremendous
of several features that may be helpful: the Table of Con-
increase in the number and the complexity of environmen-
tents, Index, Glossary, Metric Conversion Table and List of
tal and health and safety regulations. These regulations now
Referenced Specifications. The Index, for example, makes
apply in some way to most coating operations. Often, many
it possible to find both specialized information on a particu-
different aspects of the same omperation are affected by a
lar industry, and information applicable to most or all coat-
number of different regulations.
ing operations.
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Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 1 Questions or comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
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SSPC CHAPTER*L.O 93 8627740 0003432 710 =
Definitions common to most industries and practices are scientific to engineering to jargon in legitimate use in spe-
given in the Glossary. Even in these, considerable variation cial contexts. Proprietary names have been avoided
exists within the standardizing bodies in the VariOUS indus- whenever a term could be described in any other way.
tries involved. Whenever deemed necessary, definitions are
included with the textual material, since terms range from
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Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 2

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L - L 93 8627940 0003433 b 5 7
CHAPTER 1.1
CORROSION OF STEEL -
SI MPLIFIED TH EORY
by
F.L. La Que
This chapter describes how steel corrodes. Because achieving this recult.
corrosion is the fundamental problem of coatings Obviously, if the metal can be isolated from a cor-
technology, the discussion presents an explanation that rosive environment, no corrosion reaction can occur. Such
will be useful to those who design and develop innovative isolation is the most important function of a paint coating.
protective coatings and to others who must put into prac- In addition, some constituents of a coating can suppress
tice the technology of coating systems. the rate of corrosion reactions where complete isolation is
Let us examine first the processes involved in the cor- not achieved either generally or locally, as at pores,
rosion reactions that paint coatings will be required to scratches or other discontinuities (holidays) in a coating.
suppress. Consideration must be given, also, to the possibility
that a constituent of a coating might actually accelerate a
I. ENERGY EXCHANGE corrosion reaction.
Steel corrodes in reaction with its environment Experience has shown that corrosion in the presence
because of the thermodynamically unstable condition of of a paint coating is likely t o be much more serious where
iron after it has been extracted from its ores. Reduction of it is localized at discontinuities in a coating rather than
iron from its state as an oxide in ore requires energy in the where it occurs in a more general attack under a coating.
reduction process. The fundamental laws of nature govern- This is true even if a coating is unable to isolate the metal
ing conservation of energy require that, eventually, from its environment. Consequently, what happens at
balance must be restored by return of the unstable metal discontinuities in a coating as related to the processes of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to its oxidized state. In the case of iron (steel) the oxidized corrosion requires special consideration.
state usually appears as rust. Rust is similar in ap-
pearance and practically identical in composition (Fe,O,) 111. THE MECHANISM OF CORROSION
to the most common form of iron ore (hematite). It has been well established by experimental
Appropriate conditions yield two other oxidized d e m o n s t r a t i ~ n ( ~ , ~ .that
~ . ~ .corrosion
~ . ~ . ~ ) is the result of an
forms, one of which has the same chemical composition electrochemical process involving an anodic reaction.
as a principal form of iron ore magnetite (Fe304).The other Here, the metal goes into solution as an ion, and acathodic
is the lowest oxide of iron, Feo. All three of these oxides reaction takes place where the electrons released by the
are components of the “mill scale” formed on steel by ox- anodic reaction are discharged to maintain electrical
idation at temperatures encountered in the manufacture of neutrality by reaction with ions in solution, e.g. hydrogen
steel into structural shapes and plates. Effects of such ions in acid solutions, or by reduction of oxygen in solution
mill scale must be taken into account in preparing and in neutral or alkaline solutions.
painting steel to prevent corrosion. The anode in a corrosion cell is analogous to the
The principal difference, in terms of energy, between negative zinc electrode in an ordinary dry cell battery. The
reduction from ore and eventual conversion into rust by cathode is analogous to the positive carbon electrode in
corrosion is not the amount of energy required but the rate such a cell. The current flows in the electrolyte inside the
of reaction. Fortunately, ambient environmental corrosion battery cell from the anode, zinc, to the cathode, carbon.
of iron proceeds much more slowly than high temperature The electrons generated by the cell move in the external
oxidation. The principal function of a paint coating is to circuit from the zinc electrode ( - ) to the carbon electrode
reduce the rate of corrosion in the environment and the k( +). By convention, the flow of current in the external cir-
area of the metal involved as much as possible, ideally to cuit is opposite the electron movement.
zero. Whether a particular area of a steel surface will act as
an anode or a cathode will be determined by a number of
II. CORROSION PROCESSES factors. One factor is the condition of the thin, air-formed
Understanding the process of corrosion provides the oxide films that exist on dry steel. Such films when they
key to steps that may be taken to prevent the reaction from are intact induce a modest level of passivity that makes
occurring and to identify the role that paint can play in the film-covered surfaces more noble than, and therefore
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cathodic to, adjacent surfaces where a less protective film
may exist.
Observations of steel surfaces after immersion in
water for several days have shown that, ordinarily, about
50% of the surface has been corroding as an anode with
the remaining cathodic surfaces showing little or no
evidence of attack. As time progresses, there is
breakdown of the protective films on the original cathodic
Ic ATH O D E,Y \CATHODE
I
surfaces so that corrosion spreads eventually over the FIGURE 1
whole surface. But a division between anodic and cathodic
surfaces persists with the cathodic areas at any time be-
ing protected from corrosion by currents flowing from ad- It may be possible under some circumstances to pre-
jacent anodic areas. vent corrosion by interfering with the anodic reaction by a
Other factors in establishing anodic areas are dif- process called passivation or reduction of the tendency of
ferences in crystal orientation, the presence of contamina- the iron to go into solution. In the case of steel, passiva
tion on the surface of the steel, and, in exceptional cases, tion usually is accomplished by very thin adherent oxide
the effects of stresses above the elastic limit of the metal, films which change the corrosion potential of the iron in
which cause rupture of protective oxide films by plastic the more noble direction (towards gold in the elec-
deformation. tromotive series).
Anodic areas can be established also by variations in Galvanic Corrosion Induced by Passivation
the dissolved oxygen concentration of a solution i n dif- The change in potential of steel as a result of passivation,
ferent zones on the steel surface. These variations can achieved for example by contact with passivating
give rise to what is called an oxygen concentration cell in pigments such as red lead and chromates, can create
which current will flow from an anodic area in contact with galvanic couples between the passivated iron under the
the solution having the low concentration of dissolved oxy- paint film and adjacent unpassivated iron at bare spots.
gen to a cathodic area in contact with the solution having The result would be galvanic acceleration of corrosion of
the higher concentration. The difference in corrosion the exposed iron.
potential that can be created by this mechanism on a steel For this reason it Was been proposed that passivating
surface can exceed 100 mV. pigments be excluded from paints used to protect steel
The anodic and cathodic reactions in the corrosion of under conditions of continuous or frequent, complete or
iron can be written as follows: partial immersion. However, with no more than the thin
At the anode where the metal goes into solution - film of electrolyte with limited electrical conductivity that
Fe (solid) Fe++(ion) + 2e- (electrons)
+ will exist on surfaces exposed only to the atmosphere, a
-.-
At the cathode - significant galvanic effect on a bare spot need not be an-
2H' (hydrogen ions) + 2e- H, (gas) ticipated. The benefit of passivating the bare spot by a pig-
or 2H' + %O, (air) + 2e-
or O, + 2 H,O + 4e- -
H,O
4 OH- (hydroxyl ion)
The hydroxyl ions generated by cathodic reactions
ment will more than offset the galvanic effect of passiva-
tion under the paint film. For this reason passivating
pigments such as zinc chromate are beneficial rather than
can contribute to degradation of paints subject to attack harmful in paints used for protection of steel in at-
by alkali. mospheric exposures.
Figure 1 helps to illustrate the process of corrosion. In view of the fact that an electrolyte (water or
Iron ions (Fe++)released by the anodic reaction in- moisture) must be present for corrosion to occur, the prin-
teract with hydroxyl (OH-) ions generated by cathodic reac- cipal function of a paint coating is to provide a barrier to
tions to form Fe(OH), near the boundaries of anodic and penetration of water or moisture to the underlying metal
cathodic areas. Oxygen reaching the precipitated Fe(OH), surface.
reacts with it to form Fe(OH), and, eventually, rust Fe,O,. Transfer of water or moisture through a paint coating
The essential requirements for the electrochemical can occur by water absorption by a coating or by transfer
reactions in corrosion are, therefore, a thermodynamically of water vapor through a coating. Details of these proc-
unstable metal, iron; an electrolytic conductor of ions, esses will be described in other chapters of this book. For
water or another conductive solution; an electrical conduc- the present it will suffice to note that penetration of water
tor, the metal; and an electron acceptor, hydrogen ions or or moisture is accompanied by poor adhesion of the
disso Ived oxygen. coating to the metal. This permits osmotic effects to
We have the metal that we wish to protect from corro- operate through the coating acting as a membrane and
sion. What we need to control, therefore, is the availability thereby results in the development of blisters. Such action
of an electrolyte. This is best accomplished by an isolating may be accentuated further by the superimposed effects
barrier such as paint, or by reducing the concentration of of electrical currents created by corrosion, leading to the
electron acceptors such as hydrogen ions or dissolved phenomenon of electroendosmosis5 with resulting blisters
oxygen. --````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- adjacent to cathodic areas.
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SSPC CHAPTER*L.L 93 m 8627940 0003435 42T m
IV. CORROSION AT DISCONTINUITIES IN A EFFECTS OF POLARIZATION AND RESISTANCE

PAINT FILM ON CORROSION CURRENTS
As noted previously, corrosion of steel associated
with paint films is most troublesome at, or adjacent to,
pores, scratches or other bare spots. It is convenient,
therefore, to examine the factors related to attack at bare
spots. The most important of these factors is the location
of the cathodic areas in the corrosion reaction. Possible
locations of cathodic surfaces are shown diagrammatical-
ly in Figure 2.
The extent of corrosion at an anodic area will be deter- I I
I i l
mined by the magnitude of the current generated by the 1 I 1 1
local reactive corrosion cell. It will be governed by Ohm’s Corrosion Current Corrosion CurrZnt
law: Limited by Resistance Limited by Polarization
and Polarization
Equation 1
FIGURE 3
where I = corrosion current
E = difference in potential between anodic As a result of polarization the original potential of the
and cathodic surfaces anode PA will be reduced by a factor Ap, and the original
R = resistance of the circuit potential of the cathode PC will shift towards that of the
When current flows in a corrosion cell, the initial anode by a factor Cp.
potential difference E is reduced by what is called polariza As a result, the effective potential difference (E) in
tion. The potential of the anodic surfaces drifts towards equation 1 will become:
that of the cathodic surfaces as a result of an accumula- (PA - Ap) - (PC Cp) +
tion of corrosion products. The potential of the cathodic and equation 1 becomes:
surfaces drifts towards that of the anodic surfaces as a I = (PA - Ap) - (PC + Cp) Equation 2
result of accumulation of the products of the cathodic R
reactions. The latter is affected by the rates of evolution of Let us now examine the factors that determine the
hydrogen as a gas or, more importantly in applications of magnitude of the resistance A.
steel, the rate at which oxygen in solution can react with These will include, in series, the resistance of the
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
electrons reaching cathodic surfaces after release by the electrolyte or whatever else occupies the discontinuity (D)
anodic reaction. In most applications of painted steel the in the coating (RDt), the resistance of the solution or film
extent of cathodic polarization will determine the rate of of moisture outside the discontinuity (RL), and the
the overall corrosion reaction. Anodic corrosion cannot oc- resistance of the paint coating (C), (RCt).
cur at a rate higher than that accommodated by the The resistance of the metallic electron path is suffi-
cathodic reaction. ciently low to be neglected.
Figure 3 illustrates the potential shifts that result The factor t in (RDt) and (RCt) takes into account the
from polarization. As indicated, polarization limits the fact that the resistance of the electrolyte within a discon-
amount of current that can flow. It will be reduced further tinuity and the resistance of a coating will increase as the
by an increase in the resistance of the circuit. thickness of the coating i s increased.
Combining all these component elements, the
resistance factor R becomes:
POSSIBLE LOCATIONS OF CATHODES IN CORROSION
RDt + RL + RCt and
CELLS AT BARE SPOTS IN A PAINT COATING ON STEEL
equation 2 becomes:
I = (PA - Ap) - (PC + Cp) Equation 3
ELECTROLYTE 7 1 AN OTHER METAL
RDt + RL + RCt
Now let us examine possible effects of the location ot
the cathode on the corrosion reaction at the base of the
discontinuity.
PRIMER
Location 1 in Figure 2 assumes that both the anodic
and cathodic reactions will have to occur at the base of a
(I) At Base Coating
pore or other discontinuity in a coating. This automatically
(2) At Surface of Coating
( 3 ) At Base of Primer limits the area that can act as a cathode and, consequent-
( 4 ) At Other Metal Surface ly, by increasing the cathode current density, increases
favorably the value of the term Cp in equation 3.
FIGURE 2 Even more importantly, as the dimensions of the
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 5Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R s L - L 93 H 8627940 000343b 3bb
discontinuity decrease and the thickness of the coating in- than that of bare steel. Metal exposed at discontinuities in
creases, the discontinuity resistance factor RDt may in- such mill scale becomes the anode in a powerful galvanic
crease dramatically; especially when, as frequently oc- cell with resulting severe localized attack at such anodic
curs, the discontinuity becomes clogged with rust (Fe203) areas. The possibility of such effects produced by mill
which has a very high electrical resistance. scale under paint coatings and the generally poor
The positive effect of thick coatings is shown by sea adherence of mechanically disturbed mill scale account
water tests of steel covered with a paint of proper for the need to remove mill scale from steel in preparation
thickness, but subsequently found to have many very of steel for painting.
small pores. The steel showed no visible evidence of corro-
sion after immersion in sea water for more than a year. V. EFFECT OF ANODIC PIGMENTATION
What has just been described supports the advantage A very favorable condition can be achieved if a paint
of increasing the thickness of a paint film, especially i f the system includes zinc in either an organic or inorganic
application involves exposure under conditions of immer- (silicate) matrix. Since zinc is anodic to steel, an anodic
sion. potential in the opposite direction is superimposed on the
The factor R L covering the resistance of the solution steel so that the factor in the numerator of equation 3
or film of moisture explains why corrosion is likely to be becomes zero or even negative and consequently the cor-
more severe in sea water than in fresh water and under rosion current I is eliminated. This accounts for the ex-
conditions of immersion as compared with atmospheric cellent performance of zinc-rich coatings used either as
exposure. In the case of the latter, humid atmospheres primers or alone for protection of steel in marine and other
containing chlorides, sulfur dioxide or other pollutants can severely corrosive environments. An essential requirement
promote more corrosion than dry, unpolluted at- is that the zinc pigment loading be extensive enough to
mosp heres. achieve electrical contact between the zinc particles so
The rather startling 8500 to 1 range in corrosivities that they can function as effective galvanic anodes for the
of atmospheres was demonstrated by a test program cathodic protection of the steel.
undertaken by ASTM.6
The factor RCt, the electrical resistance of the VI. EFFECT OF CATHODIC PIGMENT
coating, becomes important only i f the cathode of the cor-
rosion reaction exists underneath the coating, (location 3, It is unlikely that any paint system would create a
Figure 2). In such circumstances, favorable factors will be cathode at location 2, Figure 2, at the outer surface of the
the thickness of the coating “t” and the resistance of the coating; however, this could happen in the case of an an-
coating to water absorption and moisture penetration as tifouling paint sufficiently loaded with copper powder or
well as its basic electrical resistance characteristics. flake to form an effective copper cathode. Dangers from
this source have restricted the use of antifouling paints
A cathode created under a coating by the passivating
based on metallic copper pigment.
action of primers containing inhibitive pigments such as
red lead or chromates will have a low potential, Cp, and a
relatively large area with low cathodic polarization, Cp in Vil. EFFECT OF GALVANIC COUPLES
equation 3. Thus, the effect is to increase the corrosion The most dangerous location of a cathode is location
current I. This supports the recommendation that 4, Figure 2. This would be the case of painted steel in elec-
passivating pigments should not be used in paints on steel trical contact with a more noble (cathodic) metal such as a
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
in services involving continuous or frequent, partial or copper or nickel alloy or stainless steel, both being im-
complete immersion. mersed in an electrolyte.
As another example, it is possible also to create a Such a situation would provide a cathode much larger
cathode under a paint film by migration of copper from an than the very small anodes exposed at discontinuities in a
antifouling paint containing cuprous oxide or metallic cop- paint film and with a large potential difference between
per. the anode and the cathode (EA EC), over 500 mV be--
Copper ions reaching the steel surface from an an- tween the steel and the more noble metal.
tifouling paint can deposit on the steel by cementation and The resulting galvanic corrosion would result in fairly
thereby become a powerful cathode to steel at the base of rapid penetration (pitting) of the steel.
an adjacent discontinuity in a coating. Thus, an anti- Painting the anodic (steel) member of such a galvanic
fouling paint system based on copper must include an ef- couple will aggravate rather than minimize galvanic corro-
fective anti-corrosive film under the anti-fouling topcoat. sion of the steel. It would be much better to leave the steel
Quite different from the thin invisible oxide films bare and tolerate the extent of the broadly spread galvanic
formed on steel by exposure to dry air, mentioned above, corrosion that would result. But the best practice would be
are the relatively thick oxide scales formed on steel during to paint both metals in the galvanic couple so as t o
high temperature manufacturing operations. This “mill eliminate both galvanic and normal corrosion.
scale” has the composition Fe,O,. It exhibits a potential The next best choice would be to paint the more noble
that in sea water can be more than 500 mV more noble (cathodic) member of the couple and leave the steel bare.

6
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L.L 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003437 2T2 =
Discontinuities in a coating on the cathodic member can Cathodic protection is usually monitored and con-
be tolerated in view of the small area of cathode that trolled by measurement of the potential of the protected
would become involved. metal. This potential is measured relative to that of an ap-
Coatings to be used on cathodic surfaces must be propriate “bench mark” reference electrode. One such
able to tolerate the alkali generated by cathodic reactions. electrode is a saturated calomel half cell.
An interesting form of galvanic corrosion has been en- It is assumed that protection of steel has been
countered in oil production systems in the North Sea. achieved when its normal potential in sea water of about
Here, steel drilling and production structures are - 600 mV has been raised to - 850 mV.
associated with very large concrete vessels used for Potential measurements can be used, as well, to
storage of oil. The reinforcing steel embedded in the con- avoid hydrogen blistering of paints by restricting the
crete can develop films that make the reinforcing steel potential resulting from cathodic protection. A conser-
strongly cathodic to steel outside the concrete. The vative maximum polarized potential would be about
galvanic cell generated in this way can accelerate the cor- - 1000 mV versus a saturated calomel half cell.
rosion of the outside steel. This can be particularly serious
if the galvanic effect is concentrated at discontinuities in a IX. EFFECTS OF STRAY CURRENTS
paint coating. This could be a factor in deciding whether to The advantage of a substantially intact paint film hav-
use a paint coating as a supplement to cathodic protection ing high electrical resistance in connection with cathodic
and in determining the amount of current required for protection is reversed in situations, usually rare, where
cathodic protection of the steel in the concrete. painted steel immersed in an electrolyte becomes involved
in the passage of a “stray” electrical current. Under such
VIII. CATHODIC PROTECTION USED IN circumstances the current is forced to leave the metal at
CONJUNCTION WITH PAINTS discontinuities in the coating with consequent severe
Cathodic protection can be achieved using either localized attack. This has been observed, for example, on
galvanic anodes (zinc, aluminum or magnesium) or im- painted ship hulls when an on-shore source of current for
pressed current systems as the source of the protective electrical welding on a floating ship has been provided
current. As in the case of cathodic protection from zinc in- with inadequate negative return cables. This leads to a
corporated in a paint, the effect of the impressed current is substantial amount of current returning to ground through
to eliminate or change the direction of the potential dif- the water path in parallel with the return cable path. The ef-
ference in the numerator of equation 3. fect is to increase greatly the anodic potential AP in equa-
Cathodic protection simply substitutes electrons tion 3 leading to a high corrosion current l concentrated at
from an external source for the electrons otherwise discontinuities in the coating.
generated in a corrosion cell to accommodate reduction of
hydrogen ions and oxygen at the cathodic surfaces. X. EFFECTS OF COMPOSITION OF STEEL
The electrical resistance of the coating (RCt) plays an Self-limiting forms of rust can offer protection to steel
important role in cathodic protection by increasing the under certain conditions of atmospheric exposure. The
“throwing power” of the usually relatively small anodes by protective qualities of such rust films are affected by alloy-
enabling the protective current to extend for greater ing elements and other minor constituents of steel. Cop-
distances from the current source. per, chromium, nickel and phosphorus have beneficial ef-
It has been found that under severe service conditions fects. Sulfur has the greatest detrimental effect, which can
a combination of a good paint system and cathodic protec- be compensated for by the presence of copper in an
tion is better than either one alone. amount greater than the sulfur content.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In addition to the “throwing power” effect, a paint Combinations of favorable alloying elements are
system reduces the current required for cathodic protec- more effective than the same content of a single beneficial
tion by as much as 100 to 1, depending on the condition of element. This is the case with the so-called “high-strength,
the paint. low-alloy’’ steels. As measured by weight loss after ex-
Even when there may be no opportunity for renewal of posure in certain corrosive atmospheres for 10 years,
a paint system, its use can be justified in conjunction with these steels showed an advantage over ordinary steel in a
cathodic protection in sea water. This is based on the ratio of about 4 to 1 or greater.
probability that, in the course of time, the calcareous The advantage of the low-alloy steels is even greater
deposits created by cathodic reactions will replace the when the steels are painted,’,* as illustrated by Figure 4.
original paint system in achieving distribution of current Painted specimens of a steel of very low copper content
and maintaining the level of current required for protec- have poor resistance to a marine atmosphere as compared
tion.‘O with a better steel containing about 0.20% copper and an
Paint systems used with cathodic protection not only even better steel containing copper, nickel, chromium and
must tolerate attack by cathodic alkali, but must be pro- phosphorus. The alloy steel suffered much less spreading
tected from the danger of blistering by hydrogen which can of corrosion adjacent to the scribe marks in‘the paint.
result from too high a cathodic current density. Further improvement was achieved by a phosphating
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERaL.1 9 3 = 8627940 0003438 139 =
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Untreoted Surface
Open Heorth Iron 01% Cu Steei Cr-Ni-Si-Cu-P Steel
Bonderito Troated Surface

Open Hearth tron 0.2% Cu Steel Cr-Ni-Si-Cu-$ Steel
FIGURE 4
- Months in Atmosphere 80 Feet from the Ocean at Kure Beach,
Effect of Surface Treatment on Painted Steels Exposed Eight
N.C.
pre-treatment of the steel before painting. As measured by ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

weight loss of scribed panels the advantage of the alloy The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
steel over the poorest steel was in the ratio of 10 to 1. The chapter: Roy Boyd, Theodore Dowd, Richard Drisko, Arnold
combination of the phosphate pre-treatment and alloying Eickhoff, W.P. Gallagher, Clive Hare, William Hitzrot, William
resulted in an improvement to a ratio of 20 to 1. Mathay, Chuck Munger, Bruno Perfetti, Percy Pierce, Melvin
Sandler, and William Wallace.
The advantage of a low-alloy steel observed in at-
mospheric exposure is not duplicated under conditions of
immersion. The better performance of the alloy steel in at-
mospheric exposure is based on the superior protective
qualities of the thin film of rust that forms on the alloy
steels, while the voluminous hydrated rusts that form on
steels under conditions of immersion do not exhibit a BIOGRAPHY
similar difference in protective ability. Furthermore, the The late Francis L. LaQue,
former Vice President of inco
principal factors that influence corrosion under water, Ltd.,(formerly International Nick-
such as dissolved oxygen, effects of organisms and water el Co. of Canada), was often
velocity, are external to the steel rather than related to its called a “pioneer” in corrosion
research and had a distin-
composition. guished career in metallurgy. He
devoted half his life to the
XI. CONCLUSION research and development in-
terests of the company, retiring
Knowledge of the reactions involved in the corrosion in 1968, as Vice President and
of steel combined with a knowledge of how a paint system Special Assistant to the
President.
can impede these reactions and the qualities of a paint An honored member of many technical societies, Mr. LaQue
system needed t o achieve the desired results, as de- served as President of the National Association of Corrosion En-
scribed in the following chapter, along with proper gineers from 1948 to 1949, the American Society for Testing and
Materials from 1959 to 1960,the ElectrochemicalSociety from 1962
preparation of steel of desirable composition, can serve as to 1963, the American National Standards Institute from 1966 to
an effective guide for using protective coatings to prevent 1971, and the international Organization for Standardization (ISO)
corrosion. from 1971 to 1973. He was a Fellow and Honorary Member of the
American Society for Metals.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.L 93 W 8627940 0003439 075
He influenced several professional areas within the scope of

his diversified interests. He was instrumental in the formation of
I S 0 Technical Committee TC156, “Corrosion of Metals”, served
as chairman of the U.S. Corrosion Research Council, and as a
Deputy Assistant Secretary to the U S . Department of Commerce.
He was a senior lecturer at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography
at the University of California, in LaJolla, California and a profes-
sor at the University of Hawaii.
He is best remembered for his specialization in marine corro-
sion engineering and for the establishment in 1935 of the world-
renowned marine corrosion test site at Kure Beach, North Caroli-
na. The LaQue Center for Corrosion Technology, Inc. Wrightsville
Beach, North Carolina, (a corporate unit of Inco Ltd.) stands as a
monument to his achievements.
REFERENCES
1. W.R. Whitney, “The Corrosion of Iron” J. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol.
22, p. 394, 1903.
2. T.P. Hoar and U.R. Evans, “The Velocity of Corrosion from the
Electrochemical Standpoint, Part II” Proc. Roy. Soc. (A) 137,
343, 1932.
3. G.D. Beniouah.
, U.R. Evans. T.P. Hoar and F. Wormwell. “The
Corrosion of Metals by Salt Solutions and Natural Waters -
an Agreed Statement,” Chem. ind., p. 1043, 1938.
4. R.B. Mears and R.H. Brown, “Causes of Corrosion Currents”
J. Ind. & Eng. Chem., Vol. 33, p. 1001, 1941.
5. W.W. Kettelberger and A.C. Elm, “Water Immersion Testing of
Metal Protective Paints”, ind. & Eng. Chem, 39, 1947.
6. S.K. Coburn, C.P. Larrabee, H.H. Lawson and 0.8. Ellis, “Cor-
rosiveness of Various Atmospheric Test Sites as Measured
by Specimens of Steel and Zinc,” ASTM “Metal Corrosion in
the Atmosphere Symposium” June 1967; published June 1968.
7. H.R. Copson and C.P. Larrabee, “Extra Durability of Paint on
Low Alloy Steels” ASTM Bull. 242, 68, Dec. 1959.
8. F.L. LaQue and J.A. Boylan, Corrosion, 9, 1953, p. 237.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L - 2 9 3 W 8627940 0003440 8 9 7 September 1993 (Editorial Changes)
CHAPTER 1.2
PAINTS FOR ANTI-CORROSION SERVICE

by
Clive H. Hare
The chapter on corrosion has been primarily concerned tion removes such contamination, and exposes many more
with the metallic side of the metal/paint film interface. reactive sites, thereby dramatically increasing the amount
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Proceeding across this interface, review will now be made of surface area where adhesion can occur.
of some basic principles of paint technology as they apply
to the design of protective coating systems. These principles I I . BARRIER PRIMERS
underline the specifics discussed in the chapters on paint The removal of surface contamination is important
materials (Chapter 4.1), inhibitors (Chapter 4.3),and zinc rich not only for adhesion, but also for good corrosion
(Chapter 4.2). resistance. The barrier film prevents corrosion by increas-
Protective coatings may function by one or more of ing the electrical resistance (RCt) of the path of currents
three mechanisms: (1) the barrier principle, (2) the in- generated by slight differences in electrochemical poten-
hibitive primer principle, Or(3) the galvanic or zinc-rich prin- tial between adjacent areas of the metal surface or be-
ciple',*. Often, coating systems employ two of the three tween the underlying metal and another metal having a dif-
mechanisms in conjunction for improved effect. For in- ferent potential. Paint films are not completely im-
stance, the barrier principle may operate in a finish coat permeable to the concentration of water and oxygen, and
while another principle operates in the primer. Inhibitive transmission of both is normally high enough so that
pigments are sometimes used in the finish coat as well as prevention of the cathode reaction is impossible6.'.*.
in the primer, and thick-film systems utilizing the barrier Penetration by water and oxygen does not produce a
principle alone are widely used on buried structures. Zinc- resistance low enough to maintain a corrosion current,
rich coatings, to work at all, must be electrically con- and though most paint films take up water relatively quick-
tiguous with steel and are used only as primers, with or ly, they take up ion solutions only very slowly3. This keeps
without barrier coats. the electrolyte resistance relatively high and the corrosion
low since corrosion is dependent upon ionic flow.
I. ADHESION AND SURFACE PREPARATION However, even when the electrical resistance of
The primer is the critical element in most coating penetrating moisture is reduced by absorption of ions, the
systems because it is most responsible for preserving the resistance of a good barrier film remains high enough to
metallic state of the substrate, and it must also anchor the achieve an important reduction in the magnitude of the
total system to the steel. This it may do in one of two ways, corrosion current.
depending upon the nature of the primer vehicle3. Most Underfilm ionogenic (ion producing) materials (par-
coatings adhere to metal via purely physical attractions ticularly chlorides and sulphates) that are left after poor
(e.g. hydrogen bonds) that develop when two surfaces are surface preparation can be dissolved as ion-free water,
brought closely together.' Paint vehicles with polar groups penetrate the film, form conductive electrolytes, and in-
( - OH, - COOH, etc.) have good wetting characteristics crease corrosion.
and show excellent physical adhesion characteristics Also, under conditions of immersion, differences in
(epoxies, oil paints, alkyds, etc.). Much stronger chemical- ionic concentration between liquids beneath and outside
ly bonded adhesion is possible when the primer can ac- the film give rise to osmotic migrations of water into the
tually react with the metal, as in the case of a WP-1 wash film. This promotes blistering and eventual film rupture.
primer5 pretreatment (SSPC-Paint 27),or a phosphate con- Further degradation and loss of protective value can result
version coating. from electroendosmosis generated by differences in the
For adhesion to take place, the coating and substrate electrochemical potential on the metal surface at and
must not be separated from one another by more than ap- around the film disruption.
pro:iimately 5 8, - about three times the diameter of an Salts may also form from soluble matter within the
oxygen atom. Any contaminant on the steel will increase film. The effect of corrosive salts such as chlorides is ob-
the separation and decrease paint film adhesion. vious. Inhibitive ions, themselves, however, may also
Moreover, reactive sites on steel at which adhesion can oc- cause problems. At the interface, the ionic solution from
cur are masked not only by contamination, but also by inhibitive pigments passivates the metal by increasing
chemically bound species which may themselves satisfy the polarization of the anode (Ap in equation 2 in Chap-
sites on the steel that would otherwise be available for ter 1.1). However, such passivation of underfilm sur-
reaction with the paint vehicle. Thorough surface prepara-

10
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L = 2 9 3 W 8627740 000344l 723
faces can have a detrimental effect under certain condi- High-build vinyl and chlorinated rubber systems of 8
tions by accelerating the corrosion at bare spots. There mils and more make excellent barrier systems. Both
will be a considerable difference between the potential of polymers contain an inherent flexibility. They employ a
the unpassivated metal at a bare spot (PA in equation 2) moderately slow solvent system with an efficient thix-
and the relatively large areas of passivated metal (PC in atrope to produce high wet film builds. Organomont-
equation 2) under the paint film. This can result in ac- mori Ilonites, pyrogenic si Ik a s , hydrogenated caster oi I
celerated corrosion at the bare spot. For this reason the derivatives or high molecular weight polyolefins are often
use of inhibitive primers (containing passivating pigments) used as thixatropes. Minimum effect on viscosity is
is avoided by some formulators on surfaces submerged in desirable for ease of application. Solvent systems with
conductive electrolytes such as salt water. high boiling aromatics or mono ethyl ether acetate are
Unlike well cured films, insufficiently cured films used. Application of up to 20 wet mils (5-7 dry mils) in one
allow the penetration of much more ionic materiallo,ll. coat is possible. High build epoxy systems are also effec-
Polymer groups such as carboxyls and hydroxyls tend to tive. Such synthetics are more permeable than coal tar
foster ionic p e n e t r a t i ~ n ~ ~ As
~ , ~pigment
~ . ~ ~ ,volume
~ ~ ' . con- enamels applied in super thick films. One hundred mils of
centration (P.V.C.)' is increased, these factors are over- coal tar on buried pipelines or immersed structures used in
whelmed because interstitial penetration dominates. combination with impressed current cathodic protection
Good barrier films, therefore, are high molecular weight can reduce current requirements for cathodic protection
films with uniform crosslink density, cured uniformly, for- ten thousandfold as compared to requirements for bare
mulated well below the critical pigment volume concentra- steeIl7.
tion (C.P.V.C.)** with low water solubility pigments. High solids thermosets produce good barrier films,
Lamellar pigments (leafing type aluminum) dramatically but they bring their own problems. Urethanes and epoxies
reduce ionic transmission rates. Care must always be may suffer from an unfavorable potlifeldrytime ratio
taken in using metal flakes (such as copper or stainless resulting from exotherms that tend to increase reaction
steel) to ensure complete pigment encapsulation to avoid rate in the can but which are dissipated from the applied
unwanted galvanic effects. Lamellar metallic pigmented film. High solids urethanes often have the additional prob-
barrier films are best used as finish coats, with a non- lem of hygroscopicity. The successful use of multiple com-
metallic primer to improve adhesion. Similarly, tie coats ponent systems is very dependent on the skill of the ap-
should be used to improve adhesion between such plicator. Mixing and application instructions must be
metallic barrier films and zinc-rich primers. followed exactly.
All things being equal in atmospheric service, thicker 111. THE INHIBITIVE PRIMER
barrier systems give better protection, as shown in work by
In this type of primer, pigments are incorporated to
SSPC and the FSCTl8. In general, the more severe the en-
provide a source of corrosion inhibitive ions which can be
vironment, or the longer the requirement for protection, the
carried to the metal interface as water penetrates the film.
greater will be the coating dry film thickness required.
Here they modify anode andlor cathode reactions, driving
Care should be taken, however, in the application of high
build systems to thin walled structures and other dimen- the steel potential into its passive region1a.
sionally unstable substrates. Thick films (particularly There are two principal routes to such inhibition. The
those of rigid thermosets) are less able to provide the first, direct inhibition, relies on a controlled dissolution of
ions from the pigment itself. At the interface, the ionic
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
necessary flexibility to substrate movement (e.g. expan-
sion and contraction) than are thinner films, and can easily solutions passivate the metal by increasing the polariza-
tion of the anode (increasing Ap in equation 2), by increas-
undergo adhesive and cohesive failure leading to subse-
ing the polarization of the cathode (Cp), or by thickening
quent disbondment. Such delamination has been found in
the natural oxide layer and increasing the electrical
rail car tank linings, for example.
resistance across anode and cathode (increasing R).
Vehicle choice for barrier primers is also important.
Perhaps the most efficient direct inhibitives are the salts
High molecular weight thermoplastics (e.9. vinyls and
of hexavalent chromium. (Chromate pigments are toxic sub-
chlorinated rubbers) are effective, particularly at high
stances. Follow all applicable health, safety and environmen-
builds. Thermosetting systems such as epoxylphenolics
tal requirements in applying, handling or disposing of these
and certain polyesters are also effective vehicles, as are
materials.) In paint films, chromate inhibition is provided from
the coal tar epoxies. Vehicles with high hydroxyl or car-
such pigments as zinc potassium chromate, strontium chro-
boxyl contents (oils, alkyds, acrylics, etc) tend to attract
mate, etc. Pigment solubility is most important. Highly solu-
water into the film.
ble pigments (calcium chromate) are rapidly depleted, while
those with very low solubility (lead chromate) provide too few
'Ratio of the volume of pigment to the volume of total
hexavalent chromate ions for protection. Zinc chromate offers
hon-volatile material (¡.e., pigment and binder) present in
a moderate solubility and is extensively used. Other less toxic
a coating.
inhibitors, the molybdates, phosphates, phosphosilicates,
"Level of pigmentation where just sufficient binder is
borates, and borosilicates also protect by similar mech-
present to fill the voids between pigment particles in the
anisms. Both type and loading of pigment are important, as
dry film.
are the type of vehicle and its moisture vapor transmission
rate (MVTR).
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L*2 9 3 = 8627740 0003442 bbT
tant, as are the type of vehicle and its moisture vapor weight linear epoxies and epoxy ester systems are used as
transmission rate (MVTR). binders. Epoxy esters do not have quite the alkali
The ratio of the primer’s pigment volume concentra- resistance of other vehicles, but certain specific vehicles
tion (P.V.C.) to the critical pigment volume concentration (high epoxy content) offer acceptable compositions.
(C.P.V.C.)of the pigment system is equally important. Very Primer films will vary and reflect the properties of the vehi-
low ratios (low pigment content) give overly tight films and cle type.
increase the tendency of the primer to blister. Filiform cor- In adjusting the P.V.C. to levels slightly higher than
rosion of the substrate can occur. Too high a ratio provides C.P.V.C.,the primer achieves its tightest zinc to zinc pack-
rapid dissolution of the inhibitor, and allows corrosive ions ing, and zinc encapsulation is minimized. Judicious mixing
such as chlorides from the environment to penetrate the of zinc dust of different particle sizes will also assist here
film. to provide more uniform packing, resulting in better parti-
Chlorides and other depassivators compete with in- cle contact and ultimate galvanic protection. Too high a
hibitive ions for anodic adsorption, and can nullify inhibi- P.V.C., produces a coating having poor physical and ap-
tion, or at least increase the quantities of inhibitor needed. plication properties. Were zinc the only pigment, the P.V.C.
Inhibitive primers are best restricted to environments fixation of a zinc primer (and, therefore, its optimum zinc
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
where the penetration of chloride ions is limited. Their use loading) would be simple. Formulations are complicated
in immersion conditions is definitely not recommended by pigment anti-gassing agents, thixotropes, anti-settling
because of the danger of osmotic blistering. The best pig- agents, extenders, etc. Small amounts of highly oil absorb-
ment volume concentration: critical pigment volume con- ent materials markedly depress the C.P.V.C.,but not the
centration ratio is determined experimentally, but a level P.V.C., and the coating becomes porous. Used in controlled
near 0.9: 1 is often used. amounts such materials may be employed to reduce zinc
Barrier type vehicles are less effective with inhibitive levels, and maintain a P.V.C.:C.P.V.C. ratio, thus obtaining a
primers than the more permeable vehicles (oils, alkyds, strong film. This provides enough film and filmlcubstrate
etc.). Oils and alkyds do not, however, have the alkali conductivity for good protection. Up to 15% mica has been
resistance of vinyls, etc., and this is a disadvantage. effectively used in this way1e.The use of conductive ex-
Alkai generated at the cathode can rapidly saponify alkali- tenders (di-iron phosphide) is not related to P.V.C. effects,
sensitive coatings. Alkali attack occurs at cathode areas ad- and high zinc replacements have been achieved with this
jacent to or surrounding corroding areas (anodes). Vehicle type of pigmentz0.
saponification can render a film quite water-soluble in such Careless application of any organic zinc-rich primer
areas. This frequently occurs in alkyd systems where adhe- can severely change the P.V.C.:C.P.V.C. ration in the applied
sion is destroyed. For more information on corrosion inhibi- film. Even with the best thixotropes, zinc settlement is
tive pigments, see Chapter 4.3. possible, particularly in single package coatings. In a non-
homogenous film, some areas must surely be underbound,
IV. ZINC-RICH PRIMERS and some low in pigment. Poor physical properties, or zinc
Zinc, employed in coating films at loadings that in- encapsulation (resulting in a nullification of cathodic pro-
tection) are the result. Zinc encapsulation has ruined many
sure the film conductivity, will form an efficient anode of a
galvanic couple with steel, sacrificially corroding itself, jobs at the outset, although the coating system itself may
and overriding local cell activity on the steel which have been quite satisfactory. Application of organic zinc-
becomes entirely cathodic and protected. rich paints must involve continuous agitation throughout
The concept is easily adaptable to practical coating sys- the application.
tems, and such primers are the most efficient of all. Zinc-
rich primers based on both organic and inorganic vehicles B. INORGANIC ZINC-RICH PRIMERS
are widely and successfully employed. For more information Inorganic zinc-rich paints, unlike the organics, depart
on zinc-rich primers, see Chapter 4.2. radically from conventional paint technology. These
vehicles (generally silicates) do not bind zinc as do the
A. ORGANIC ZINC-RICH PRIMERS organics, but chemically react with zinc ions on zinc parti-
The organic zinc-rich primer may be considered a cle surfaces forming primary bonded zinc silicate
special case of a high pigment volume concentration matrices.
As presented in the SSPC-Paint 20 classification,
(P.V.C.) paint. It must maintain zinc particle to zinc particle
contact within its continuum and contact between pig- vehicles may generally be classed as either alkaline
ment and substrate to ensure electrical conductivity silicates (water solutions of sodium, potassium, lithium, or
within the film and across the interface. These r e quaternary ammonium silicates) or alkyl silicates which
quirements translate to a paint formulated at a pigment may be ethyl silicate (the most common) or higher alkyl or
volume concentration slightly above the CPVC. The film alkoxy homologues.
must also display sufficient adhesion at these loadings to 1. Alkali Silicates
anchor the system to the steel. Because of cathodic alkali Film formation of the alkali silicates involves water
generation at the interface, the vehicle must resist alkalis.
Chlorinated rubber, epoxylpolyamides, high molecular
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L - 2 9 3 8627740 0003443 5Tb W
evaporation followed by neutralization of the unknown. Surface preparation requirements are ex-
silicate alkalinity (either by post curing solutions or acting (particularly with the alkaline silicate
by acids derived from the atmosphere such as systems), a commercial blast being the very
carbonic acid) to form silicic acid. This then reacts minimum acceptable, and a white or near white
with zinc ions to form the three dimensional zinc- blast with a typical surface profile of 1 to 2 mils be-
oxygen-silicon (zinc silicate) matrix. Further atmos- ing more usual and often mandatory. Alkyl silicates
pheric neutralization of residual alkali with con- are rather more tolerant of poorly blasted
sequent tightening of the matrix will occur with substrates than the water-based type, probably
aging2'. reflecting their higher organic content and lower
2. Alkyl Silicates surface energies.
The alkyl silicates form their matrix by an Despite their incompatibility with poorly
analogous route (evaporation of solvent, and prepared surfaces, the inorganics may be con-
hydrolysis of the vehicle to silicic acid by at- sidered safer coatings than the organics. Not only
mospheric moisture with evolution of the pertinent are the organics subject to encapsulation, but also
alcohol)z2.The silicic acid forms a matrix with the they can mislead the applicator by adhering initial-
zinc similar to that described abovez3. Again, ly to poorly prepared substrates. But adhesion is
hydrolysis continues for some time after initial cur- not protection, which is possible only through in-
ing. The chemical nature of fully cured zinc sil- timate contact of iron and zinc (the more contact,
icates is (theoretically, at least) identical, irrespec- the better the protection). Inorganics require such
tive of the silicate used. contact (through good surface preparation) not on-
3. Single-package ly for protection, which may be initially difficult to
Single-pack inorganic primers of the polyol silicate determine, but also for good initial adhesion, which
type involving ester exchange or interester ex- is easy to determine. If an inorganic sticks,. it
change reactions with alkyl, alkoxy and hydroxy should protect. If an organic sticks, protection is
alkoxy silicates to form mixed esters pursue the still an open question.
same basic chemistry to provide similar film 5. Secondary Mechanisms
matricesz4.Organic moieties remain within these If cathodic protection were the sole mechanism of
films and subtract from their wholly inorganic zinc-rich primers, they would rapidly break down as
nature. Other routes to single package inorganic zinc was consumed. In practice, this is not the
zinc-rich primers include the use of amine-initiated case. As zinc corrodes, its corrosion products
hydrolysis of alkyl p o l y s i l i c a t e ~and
, ~ ~the
~ ~ use
~ of (depending upon the environment) tend to polarize
alkali metal alkoxide catalysis of hydroxyl free the reaction, coating the zinc and bridging the
alkyl silicatesz7. Single pack inorganic silicate voids within the film, thereby packing them so that
vehicles are now generally available. Some are the primer is sealed from the environment. The film
modifications of silanes. is slowly transformed from a zinc-rich primer to a
4. Inorganic vs. Organic barrier primer, and, in this state, it is maintained
With inorganic primers the P.V.C.concepts must be until the zinc is again exposed by some abuse. The
modified. Also, zinc levels lower than those neces- zinc will then corrode again and be healed with cor-
sary for the organics are possible with little immedi- rosion product (providing that the agents of
ate loss of performance. Zinc levels of 70% of film physical or chemical abuse have been removed).
weight can give acceptable performance, and even These phenomena are primarily responsible for
levels of 50% (such as SSPC-Paint 29) if enhanced long term zinc-rich protection.
by other conductive pigments. Some have reported Zinc-rich primers are normally applied at ap-
that reduced zinc level products do not have as good proximately 3 dry mils. Some compositions form
a performance in the long term as do the 85% load- good films at thicknesses up to 6 mils, while others
ed primers's. may severely mud-crack at these high builds.
As discussed in the chapter on zinc-rich The porosity of zinc-rich films (particularly the
paints, the inorganic films show better perform- inorganic) can lead to problems because of air oc-
ance than most organics. Their films are strong, clusion on top coating. The resultant bubbling and
hard, and resistant to impact and abrasion. They pinholing of applied top coats may necessitate the
are quite resistant to heat. The matrix of the in- use of mist coats, thinned finish coats or tie coats
organic primer film is not subject to age-related (such as the WP-1 wash Orimer, SSPC-Paint 27)
deterioration as are organic primers. Weathering before finish coat application28.Careful formula-
may actually improve its physical properties. tion of solvent system and pigmentation of the
Adhesion is of an exceptionally high order and finish coat can mitigate this problem, and many
has led to speculation on the formation of primary manufacturers carefully tailor finish coats for
valency linkages with the substrate as well as the bubble-free application over the zinc-rich
zinc. The mechanism of adhesion at this point is SSPC-PS Guide 8 includes a list of such finish
coats. --````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

13 Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L - 2 9 3 W 8627940 0003444 4 3 2
6. Pre-Construction Primers twice the coefficient of expansion of steel.

Single component inorganic zinc-rich films make Flexibility can be built into a system by P.V.C.ad-
good pre-construction primers, protecting steel justments, or by vehicle changes including blending,
during storage and fabrication. In thin films, they copolymerization, and plasticization. Primers are generally
allow easy cutting of steel and good weldability, kept less flexible than succeeding coats.
particularly when modified with the conductive ex- Finish coat selection is dictated by the environment,
tender, di-iron p h ~ s p h i d e ~ After
' . ~ ~ .fabrication, pre- although there are considerations with regard to the
construction primers may be recoated with a primer and intermediate coat that may influence this.
suitable primer and top coat. Further considera- Environments vary widely, ranging from exposure to
tions on zinc-rich primers are discussed in a weather and UV (ultraviolet light), to chemical immersion,
separate chapter. high temperatures, and physical abuse. They may be sim-
ple or complex involving intermittent immersion, chemical
V. INTERMEDIATE AND FINISH COATS FOR attack, large temperature differentials, and extreme a b r a
STEEL sion. All elements of the environment must be considered
A total coating system cannot be considered without and evaluated in terms of their relative importance to pro-
regard for its external interface. While the primer mitigates vide the best compromise system.
metallic corrosion, the finish coat must counteract The vehicle binder of the finish must bear the brunt of
malignancies specific to the environment in which the the environmental attack. Most design decisions should
system must function. be based on the polymer chemistry of the vehicle involved.
As finish coats are designed at low p.v.c./c.p.v.c. An empirical awareness of the effects of UV, moisture,
ratios, they are dense, highly dielectric, and are applied in oxygen, chemical attack, microbiological attack, high and
film thicknesses as high as possible. They are much like low temperatures, abrasion and impact, etc. on individual
barrier primers, and play no inconsiderable part in assist- finish coat polymers will often suffice, but in-depth ex-
ing the primer in its anti-corrosive function. Unlike barrier perience and understanding of the effects of such
primers, which are designed to be recoated and thus pro- phenomena on molecular structure may be essential when
tected from the environment, the finish coat must contend resin systems must be mixed or synthesized to attain the
with the environment from which it must shield the lower desired result s.
elements of the total system. An in-depth discussion of the wide ranging
Oleoresinous, varnish-type finish coats had to be built characteristics of each polymer type is quite beyond the
up of successive coats to the required film thickness, scope of this chapter and is presented in a separate
because of drying time difficulties inherent in thick, oxidiz- chapter. Table 1 presents a summary of the properties of
ing films. High-build thermoplastics and high solids ther- finish coat materials. The following is no more than a brief
mosets have enabled high film builds to be applied in discussion of those polymers commonly used in main-
single coats. While thinner coats applied successively give tenance finishes.
better solvent release, fewer pinholes and voids, and better A. LACQUERS: THERMOPLASTIC COATINGS
continuity throughout the film, high-build systems have A lacquer is simply a coating that forms its film by sol-
economic advantages and careful formulation can mini- vent evaporation alone. Vinyls are the most common lac-
mize their shortcomings. Statistically, more coats in- quers used in anti-corrosive maintenance finishes. Solu-
crease the risk of intercoat failure, although adhesion at tions of high molecular weight, vinyl chloridelvinyl acetate
any coatinglcoating interface is usually better than at a copolymers or terpolymers with vinyl alcohol or maleic
coatinglmetallic interface, acid, are used. Vinyls are distinguished by excellent acid
In any coating system, compatibility between coats is and alkali resistance (their backbone being exclusively
critical. Compatibility can prevent solvent attack on primer carbonkarbon bonds), good abrasion resistance and,
films by the finish coat, solvent induced bleeding of when pigmented, excellent exterior durability. Vinyl films
organic pigments from one coat to a subsequent coat, and are attacked by the solvents from which they were cast
other pitfalls. Less appreciated are effects of poorly (ketones, esters, etc.), also by concentrated organic acid,
matched viscoelastic properties, which may become ob- and softened by aromatics. They have low water and oxy.
vious only after aging. Inflexible finishes applied over flexi- gen transmission rates, and are suitable for water immer-
ble primers can eventually lead to cracking on aging. Too sion service.
flexible a finish coat can actually pull an inflexible primer Acrylic films have even better resistance to ultraviolet
from the substrate. Cohesive failures (cracking, checking, Ilght than the vinyls, and show long-term gloss and color
etc.), and adhesive failures (flaking, popping, blistering) retention as well as good weatherability in exterior en-
can have grave consequences in anti-corrosive coating vironments. They are more suitable for polymer modifica-
systems. All elements of the coating system must be tion than the vinyls, and copolymers of both acrylates and
matched to one another and to the substrate. For instance, methacrylates are possible. Acrylics are also copolymer-
thin steel siding requires a more flexible system than one ized with styrene and vinyl toluene. The introduction of
applied to structural members, as does aluminum with such aromatics may slightly upgrade the acid and alkali
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14
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SSPC C H A P T E R + L * 2 9 3 = 86279YO 0003445 379 a
resistance of acrylics, although the UV resistance is has included the evaluation of many water-based systems.
decreased.
Styrene is also copolymerized with butadiene. These C. OXIDIZING SYSTEMS
lacquers form films with better chemical resistance than Oxidizing systems are thermosets which convert to
the acrylics (all carbon-carbon backbones with the advan- three-dimensional polymeric networks by absorption of at-
tage of aromaticity), but aromaticity and unsaturation in mospheric oxygen. Such systems are based on fish and
certain species of these copolymers give poorer UV vegetable oils (esters of glycerol and vegetable oil, fatty
resistance. acids) or modification of such materials with other
Chlorinated rubber coatings have perhaps even lower species. Unmodified oils are rarely used now except in cer-
moisture and oxygen transmission properties than the tain specialized primers. They are slow drying and suscep
vinyls, and the absence of pendent ester groups provides tible to alkalis, but have excellent low surface energies
better chemical resistance than the acrylics. Solvent and are perhaps the best vehicles where surface prepara-
resistance is not as good as the vinyls, but chlorinated rub- tion is poor.
ber has better compatibility with other film formers than Alkyds are oxidizing systems, the polycondensation
have the unmodified products of multi-functional polyols and di-functional
In any lacquer, care must be taken with selection of acids which are generally oil modified to give a wide vari-
additives and modifiers (such as plasticizers) to suit the r e ety of vehicles. Alkyds may also be copolymerized with
quirements of the environment. Where high alkali phenol, silicones, styrene, acrylics and other resins. Still
resistance i s required, hydrolizable plasticizers the backbone of the coatings industry, alkyds have limited
(phthalates, etc.) are best avoided. The inert chlorinated applications i n heavy-duty maintenance. As with oils, the
paraffins are widely used with thermoplastics. Tricresyl ester groups in the alkyd backbone are easily cleaved by
phosphate is often used with vinyl systems. alkalis. Chemical resistance is poor, .and they are not
Because of the finite viscosity limitations of high suitable for immersion service, cementitious substrates,
molecular weight thermoplastics, high-solids lacquers are or for use directly over zinc-rich primers. They lend
not possible. By judicious formulation with slow to themselves well to polymer modification and may be used
medium evaporating solvents and efficient thixotropes, with certain thermoplastics to provide increased gloss and
however, high-build thermoplastics (vinyls, chlorinated adhesion.
rubbers) are quite possible and widely used. Alkyds make an excellent choice of vehicle in light-
Numerous other thermoplastics which can be duty environments. Thirty percent silicone modification
employed in maintenance systems are beyond the scope provides finish coats that have excellent ultraviolet light
of this chapter, although reference to their chemical struc- resistance and exceptionally good weathering properties.
ture will give a good general guide. Further data and case More alkali-resistant oxidizing vehicles are obtained
histories may be obtained from the respective resin with the phenolic varnishes and epoxy esters (epoxy resins
manufact urers. esterified with oil fatty acids). Both vehicles have better
All thermoplastics display a glass transition chemical resistance than either the unmodified oil or the
temperature (Tg), and will flow at high enough analogous alkyd, and, as phenolic or epoxy content of
temperatures, becoming soft and tacky. Heat resistance such resins increases, so does their chemical resistance.
may be somewhat limited, and at low enough Unfortunately, as with all epoxies, epoxy esters yellow and
temperatures, the coatings will become brittle with re- chalk markedly during exterior exposures, and while
duced physicals. deterioration is not progressive, chalking restricts usage
on aesthetic grounds. Epoxy esters are hard, resistant to
B. LATEX abrasion, and soluble in aromatic and even aliphatic
Latex systems show every possibility of expanding in. hydrocarbons.
to the maintenance painting area as technologies dgvelop. Replacing the dibasic acid with a polyisocyanate, the
Unlike lacquers, latexes are dispersions (not solutions) of alkyd becomes an oil-modified urethane or uralkyd. Ester
thermoplastic polymers in water. Molecular weights are linkages are replaced by urethane linkages, and chemical
not restricted by solution viscosities, and much higher and physical properties are again upgraded. Like epoxy
solids of very high molecular weight polymers are possi- esters, uralkyds both yellow and chalk on exterior ex-
ble. Film formation involves evaporation of water followed posure, and are difficult to recoat.
by coalescence of discreet particles of polymer (micelles)
dispersed in the water. Total coalescence has never been D. CHEMICALLY CURING THERMOSETS
and systems give higher moisture and oxygen
Oxidizing systems are a special case of thermosetting
transmission rates than their lower molecular weight
vehicle, where the activator is supplied by the environ-
analogues cast from solution. Great strides are being
ment. In other cases, water from the air will cure the vehi-
made and their excellent durability and mechanical proper-
cle. In baking finishes (e.g. alkydlamino) both reactive
ties indicate a bright future for latex maintenance systems
oligomers are added to one can, but are selected so that
in moderate environments. The PACE program of SSPC
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SSPC CHAPTER*L.Z 93 8627940 0003446 205
the reaction will only occur when the system is applied as hard, chemically resistant finishes, to soft rubbery
a film and subjected to high temperatures (180-400°F finishes having good abrasion resistance. Toluene diiso-
depending on vehicle type). cyanate coatings give exceptional chemical and abrasion
More commonly, maintenance painting systems are resistance, while hexamethylene diisocyanate systems
designed so that reactions occur at room temperature. have exceptional light and weather resistance, and despite
Reactive vehicles are packaged separately and combined high costs are finding ever increasing markets. Urethanes
in the field just before application. Of these two-package show better curing properties at low temperatures than do
systems, the two most important are epoxies and most epoxies, but specific properties will depend greatly
polyurethanes. The properties of both systems are related upon the type of modifier selectedJ7.
to the chemical constitution of the reactants. Epoxies are
less complex than polyurethanes because of the more VI. PIGMENTS IN ANTICORROSIVE FINISH
limited choice of reactants. Epoxies are available in COATS
molecular weights ranging from materials which are liquid Pigments for finish coats must also be chosen with
at room temperature to high molecular weight materials care. Some common types are discussed in a separate
which may themselves be used without crosslinking as chapter. Alkaline pigments ( c a l c i u m carbonate,
lacquers. The epoxy resin is most commonly cured in the ultramarine blue, etc.) must not be used in acidic en-
field with polyamines or polyamides. With a given epoxy, vironments, and alkalis will attack alkali-sensitive
polyamines produce a tighter crosslinked film having
pigments (chrome yellow, iron blue, etc.). Metallic
greater chemical resistance, hardness, and cure response pigments may be attacked at either extreme of pH, but,
than the same resin cured with a polyamide. The used in flake form in neutral environments, reduce the
polyamides give better flexibility, water resistance and ex- moisture and oxygen transmission. Aluminum and stain-
terior durability. As a molecular weight (distance between less steel flakes are also ideal for high temperature
reactive Oxirane groups) of the epoxy resin increases, the coatings. Other inert finishes may be employed with nickel
cured material becomes more flexible, but poorer in sol- titanate, chromium green oxide, titanium dioxide, iron ox-
vent resistance. ide (brown) and a range of calcined pigments based on
In general, epoxies show excellent adhesion, good mixed inorganic oxides.
chernical resistance, especially to alkalis, and good sol- If both the environment and the chemistry of the pig-
vent resistance. Epoxies have less acid resistance than ment are understood, design error can be avoided, and
vinyls and chlorinated rubbers, but show good abrasion pigmentation can assist the polymer in providing the
and impact resistance. Exterior durability is hampered on- necessary protection against the environment. Thus,
ly by a tendency to chalk and yellow, which is not pro- pigments may actually improve the ultraviolet resistance
gressive and does not affect resistance properties. Chalk of the vehicle, its resistance to microbiological and
resistant epoxies with good color retention are now biological agents such as marine foulants and mildew, and
availableJ5.Because of the variety of possible epoxy resins its physical properties.
and curing agents, performance capabilities will vary wide- Inert extenders may be used to advantage in finish
ly from one product to the nextJs. coats to adjust the p.v.c./c.p.v.c. ratios, at less cost than
With certain coal-tar pitches, epoxy systems give prime hiding pigments. Pyrogenic and ultrafine silicas may
synergistically improved coatings, which, at 16-20dry mils also be used as thixotropes and flatting agents.
or so, give good protection against moisture and oxygen
transmission, chemical attack and physical abuse. They VII. CONCLUSION:
are ideal coatings for areas with restricted access after ap-
plication. The design of effective anticorrosive coatings for
Polyurethane systems have an even wider variety of steel structures is a complex discipline that borrows ex-
possible reactants. While polyisocyanates are generally tensively from both corrosion science and coatings
limited to adducts of toluene diisocyanate or hex- technology. Unhappily, all too often there is too little com-
amethylene diisocyanates, polyols used in the formulation munication between these parent technologies and fewer
are exceptionally varied. Almost any resinous material attempts by scientists and engineers of either practice to
having di- or poly-functionality based on a hydrogen donor “cross the interface” and assess the same problem from
will react with isocyanates, although - O H functionality is the other’s perspective.
most widely used in coatings. The opportunities for If we are to serve our respective disciplines to mutual
molecular engineering with the urethane (and its benefit in our avowed war on corrosion, a more intensive
associated groups, ureas, substituted ureas, allo- effort to appreciate the problems involved on both sides of
phanates, biurets, etc.) are much greater than with other the interface is required of us all - corrosion engineer and
types of vehicles. Hydroxy-terminated polyesters and paint chemist alike. A desire to foster such effort has been
acrylics, epoxies and other polyethers, phenolics, the driving force behind the presentation of this chapter.
polycaprolactams, cellulosics, and even alkyds are all
possible hydrogen donors. The urethanes may range from
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 16
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 - 2 93 m 8627740 0003447 141 m
TABLE 1
SOME PROPERTIES OF FINISH COAT MATERIALS FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE
Oil Paints F F P F G F F F P P P F Oil Paints

Alkyd-Long Oil F F P F G F G F P P F F Alkyd-Long Oil
Alkyd-MediumOil F F F F F G G F P F F F ' Alkyd-Medium Oil
A l k y d - S M Oil G P F F F G G F P F F F ' Alkyd-Short Oil
Alkyrhstyrenated F G F F F F G F F P F P ' Alkyd Styrenated
Alkyd-Siliconized F G F F E E E F P F F VG ' AlkyrhsiIiconized
Alkyd-AminoComb. E G G G G G G G G G E G * Alkyd-AmimCmb.
Silicone G F F F E E E G G F G E Silicone
Siliconized Polyester E E E G E E E E G G E E ' Siliconized Pdyester
Thermoplastic Acrylic F G F G E E E G G P F P ' Thermoplastic Acrylic
Thermosetting Acrylic E G G G E E E G G E G G ' Thermocetting Acrylic
Acrylic Latex P E F P E G E F F F F P Acrylic Latex
Fluorocarton E E E E E E E E VG E E E * Fluorocarton
Epoxy-Polyester E G G G E E G G F G E G Epoxy-Polyester
Epoxy-Phenolic E F G G P P P E E E E G ' Epoxy-Phenolic
Epoxy-Amine E F G G G P P G E E E F Epoxy-Amine
Epoxy-Amide E G G G G P P G VG VG E F Epoxy-Amide
Epoxy Ester G G F F F P P F F G G F ' Epoxy Ester
UrethaneOil Modified G G G F P P P F P F F F Urethane01Modified
UrethaneMoisture Cure G E E G F F P G G G G F UrethaneMoistureCure
UrethaneAliphaticTwo Pack E E E G E E E E E E E G ' UrethaneAliphaticTwo Pack
Urethanekomatic Two Pack E E E G F F P E E E E F ' UrethaneAromatic Two Pack
Vinyl Lacquer G E G E E E E E E F E P ' Vinyl Lacquer
Chlorinated Rubber G G G Ë G G G E E P E P Chlorinated Rubber
Styrene Butadiene G G G G G G G E E P E P Styrene Butadiene
Asphaltics P G F E G - - G G F E P Asphaltics
Coal Tar F G F E P - - G G F E P Coal Tar
Coal Tar-Epoxy G F E E F - - V G E G E P Coal Tar-Epoxy
Key: E = Excellent
VG = Very Good
G=Good
F = Fair
P = Poor
BIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Clive H. Hare of Coating
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active System Design, Inc. has been
participation of the following in the review process for this Editor of the Materials Technol-
chapter: Ted Dowd, Jarry Drake, Dick Drisko, Arnold Eickhoff, ogy section of the Journal of Pro-
Harlan Kline, Frank LaQue, Bob Martell, William Mathay, John tective Coatings and Linings
Montle, Chuck Munger, Bruno Perfetti, Percy Pierce, E. Praschan, since 1989. In his work as a con-
Melvin Sandler, Ron Skabo, William J. Wallace, Jr., and Harry sultant, after having spent ten
Wonders. years as chief chemist of Cadil-
lac Paint Ei Varnish, Hare has
developed anti-corrosive coat-
ings and coatings specifications
for many organizations, such as
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
raw materials suppliers, the mili-

tary, NASA, and highway
departments.
Among his numerous publications are Units 26 and 27 of the
original FSCT Series on Coatings Technology (Corrosion and the
Preparation of Metals for Painting and Anti-Corrosive Barriers and
Inhibitive Primers); "Specific Utility in the Design of Coatings Sys-
tems for Steel Bridges," JPCL, October 1984, for which he won
SSPC's Annual Publication Award; and the recently issued book,
The Painting of Steel Bridges, a synthesis of highway practice
emanating from his work for the Transportation Research Board.
He is an active member of the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers (NACE).
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SSPC CHAPTERaL.2 9 3 8627940 0003448 088 M
REFERENCES
1. L.I., Shreir, Corrosion Vol. 2, p.15.26 Wiley, New York, 1963.
2. C.H. Hare, Anti-Corrosive Barrier and Inhibitive Primers Unit
?7 Federation Series on Coatings Technology, Federation of
Societies for Coatings Technology, Phila., 1979.
3. C.H. Hare, Corrosion and the Preparation of Metals for Paint-
ing Unit 26 Federation Series on Coatings Technology,
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, Phila., 1978.
4. K.W. Allen, “Strength and Structures” Aspects of Adhesion“
Vol 1, 14, University Press of London, 1965.
5. T.R. Bullet and A.T.S. Rudram, J.O.C.C.A. 11, 1959, 789.
6. J.E.O. Mayne, Official Digest, 24, 325, 127, 1952.
7. D.M. MacDonald, Official Digest 33, 432, 7, 1961.
8. Pittsburgh Society for Paint Technology, Official Digest 33,
436, 1427, 1961.
9. W.W. Kittelberger and A.C. Elm, Ind. Eng. Chem., 44, 326,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1952.
10. J.E.O. Mayne, Br. Corr. J., 5, 106, 197.0.
11. J.E.O. Mayne and D.J. Mills, J.O.C.C.A., 58, 155, 1975.
12. C.C. Maitland, Ph.D. Thesis U. of Cambridge, England, 1959.
13. B.W. Cherry and J.E.O. Mayne, Official Digest, 33, 435, 469,
1961.
14. G.W. Raothwell, J.O.C.C.A., 52, 219, 1969.
15.. B.W. Cherry and J.E.O. Mayne, Sec. Int. Congress on Metallic
Corrosion (N.Y.) 680, 1966.
16. J.D. Keane, W. Wettach and C. Bosch, J.P.T., 41, 533, 372,
1969.
17. A.W. Peabody, Principles of Cathodic Protection, NACE Basic
Corrosion Course National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers, Houston, 1974.
18. M.J. Stern of Electrochemical Soc., 105, 11, 638, 1958.
19. A.J. Eickhoff, Am. Paint Journal, July 16, 1973, p54.
20. M. Kowalik, N. Intorp and N. Lange, 7th Int. Cong. on Metallic
Corrosion, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1978.
21. C.G. Munger, Mat. Perf. 14, 5, 25, 1975.
22. T. Ginsberg, C.N. Merriam, L.M. Robeson, J.O.C.C.A., 59,315,
1976.
23. D.M. Berger, Modern Paint and Coatings, June 1975.
24. D.M. Berger, Metal Finishing, 27, 1979.
25. G.H. Law, W.M. McMahon, US. Pat. 3,615,730 and 3,653,930.
26. G.H. Law, W.M. McMahon, Dutch Pat., 6,900,749.
27. A. Oken, U.S. Pat. 3,660,119.
28. M. Tellor, Mat. Perf., 17, 9, 37, 1978.
29. K.B. Tator, Mat. Perf. 15, 3, 9, 1976.
30. D.M. Berger, Modern Paint and Coatings, October 1980.
31. F.A. Simko, Jr., V.P. Simpson, J.C.T., 48, 614, 61, 1976.
32. R. Cressey, Bath Iron Works, Private Communication.
33. D.M. Berger, Metal Finishing, April 1978.
34. C.H. Hare, J.P.T. 47, 605, 69, 1975.
35. R.G. Young, J.C.T., 49, September 1977.
36. D.M. Berger, PDCA, November 1976.
37. D.M. Berger, Modern Paint and Coatings, July 1981.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*2.0 73 8627740 0003447 T L 4 September 1993 (Editorial Changes)
CHAPTER 2.0
SURFACE PREPARATION
by
H. William Hitzrot
I. INTRODUCTION high-pressure water blasting and high-pressure blasting

with a mixture of water and sand.
It is widely recognized that surface preparation is the
most Important single factor in coating performance. As
our knowledge of the relationship. between coating and
II. DISCUSSION
metal substrate expands, so also does the need for im- Mechanical surface preparation has been the tradi-
proved and varied surface preparation techniques. This tional approach to preparing metal substrates for subse
series of chapters represents the current state of the art quent coating systems. Surface preparation methods vary
and covers most aspects of industrial applications of from the most rudimentary hand scraper to laser beams.
mechanical surface preparation. The broad spectrum of tools available suggests that sur-
Chapter 2.1 Centrifugal Blast Cleaning face preparation is in fact a complex process and therefore
Chapter 2.2 Metallic Abrasives requires a good understanding of the mechanical surface
Chapter 2.3 Non-Metallic Abrasives preparation process and job parameters that dictate the
Chapter 2.4 Abrasive Air Blast Cleaning process. As an aid in selecting the proper mechanical sur-
Chapter 2.5 Water Blast Cleaning face preparation process, the following brief discussion of
Chapter 2.6 Hand and Power Tool Cleaning job parameters and associated techniques is provided.
Chapter 2.7 Field Surface Preparation Costs
Chapter 2.8 Other Methods and Factors in Sur- A. LOCATION OF JOB
face Preparation Although often not considered, the location of a job is
Chapter 2.9 Chemical Cleaning in the Field an important parameter in the selection of a surface
Pickling is described in a separate chapter. preparation method. I f the job is on a production line, then
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The chapters were authored by recognized authorities an automatic operation such as a centrifugal wheel
and cover not only the methods of surface preparation but machine should be considered. On the other hand, outside
also equipment, types of abrasive, surface preparation fabrication, maintenance or repair jobs generally call for
cost and some future alternatives. They provide up-to-date portable hand and power tools and manual sand blasting. If
information on mechanical surface preparation with a the job is located in an area where soluble salts could be a
ready reference and background for ChOOSinQthe proper surface contaminant, such as near the ocean or in an in-
technique for a given job. For those experienced in the dustrial atmosphere, then wet blast cleaning may be
field this material not only reviews techniques but offers preferable.
possible solutions for some of the out of the ordinary sur-
face preparation jobs as well. Each mechanical method is B. CONDITION OF SURFACE
described in detail together with recommended applica-
The surface preparation method selected will depend
tions and examples. Also included are types of equipment
on the condition of the surface to be cleaned. For example,
and anticipated performance criteria.
is it coated, rusted, painted, or coming directly from the
Both metallic and non-metallic abrasives are dis-
mill? Scaled and rusted surfaces are best cleaned by any of
cussed. The various abrasives available are described
along with recommended applications for these abrasives. the mechanical methods that employ an abrasive medium.
Painted surfaces can be cleaned by hand or with power
Reference is made to a number of specialty abrasive prod-
ucts and their applications. tools to remove loose paint. For more extensive cleaning of
painted surfaces, an abrasive blast cleaning method can be
Surface preparation costs are discussed as a separate
used. Steel coming directly from the mill is usually cleaned
section, providing the reader with one means of com-
by means of production line centrifugal wheel machines.
parison among the various approaches to mechanical sur-
face preparation.
These chapters cover those methods of surface
C. DEGREE OF CLEANLINESS
preparation requiring mechanical force as well as the The required degree of cleanliness as defined by the
related equipment, abrasive materials, and costs. SSPC Surface Preparation Specification is a determining
Mechanical methods include hand and power tool clean- factor in the method of cleaning. Hand tool and power tool
ing, centrifugal wheel blasting, compressed air blasting, specifications apply only where localized surface prepara-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERsZ-0 93 m 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003450 736 m
tion is required, as in the removal of loose paint, loose rust, or finishing steps. If the final coating is two mils or less,
or other localized surface defects. Blast cleaning the surface finish should be finer than if a heavy coating
specifications usually cover applications where the entire were required. Ideally, test panels prepared prior to the
surface is to be prepared to a defined degree of start of a job offer the best method for testing the ade-
cleanliness. quacy of a chosen surface finish. A report is available from
the SSPC on profile, its formation, its measurement, its
D. PHYSICAL VERSUS CHEMICAL control, and its effect on coating performance4.
CLEAN LIN ESS. Most coating manufacturers recommend a degree of
Studies by R. Allen’ and A. McKelvie2, confirmed by cleanliness and a minimum etch or profile for good coating
SSPC3, show that residual chemical contaminants may adhesion. When .choosing a mechanical surface prepara-
be a greater threat to a coating system than physical sur- tion method, one should take into consideration the com-
face imperfections. According to these studies, ordinary patibility of the subsequent coating. To aid in selecting the
abrasive blast cleaning techniques do not remove non- proper abrasive for a given surface profile or etch, Table I
visible contaminants such as salts from a rusted, con- is provided as a guide.
taminated surface. Methods such as high-pressure water
F. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS
blasting and high-pressure water-abrasive blast cleaning
have proven more effective in removing such surface con- In recent years environmental constraints have played
taminants. A further discussion of water blasting is given an ever larger role in the selection of surface preparation
in the subsection dealing with water blast cleaning. methods. To minimize dust, cheaper sands are being
replaced by costlier and less abundant products such as
boiler slags or copper slags. Also, enclosed rather than
E. PROFILE open blasting is being favored. If enclosed blast cleaning
The surface finish (or profile) resulting from surface is necessary, consideration should be given to recyclable
preparation should be compatible with subsequent coating steel abrasives and automated centrifugal wheel blasting
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 1
Typical Profiles Produced by Some Commercial Abrasive Media
Maximum Typical Profile Height, (mils)

U.S. Sieve “Average”
Size Maximum Maximum
Steel Abrasives
Shot 5-230 20 2.9 f 0.2 2.2 f 0.3
Shot S-280 18 3.5 f 0.3 2.5 f 0.4
Shot S-330 16 3.8 f 0.4 2.8 f 0.5
Shot S-390 14 4.6 f 0.5 3.5 f 0.7
Grit G-50 30 2.2 f 0.3 1.6 f 0.3
Grit G-40 20 3.4 f 0.4 2.4 f 0.5
Grit G-25 16 4.6 f 0.5 3.1 f 0.7
Grit G-14 12 6.5 f 0.8 5.1 f 0.9
Mineral 81 Slag Abrasives

Heavy Mineral Sand Medium-Fine 3.5 f 0.4 2.6 f 0.4
Flint Shot Medium-Fine 3.5 f 0.4 2.7 f 0.4
Silica Sand Medium 4.0 f 0.5 2.9 f 0.4
Boiler Slag Medium 4.6 f 0.5 3.1 f 0.5
Boiler Slag Coarse 6.0 f 0.7 3.7 fi 0.7
St aurolite Medium-Fine 2.6 f 0.4 2.2 f 0.4
Copper Slag (Air-Cooled) Coarse 6.0 f .7 5.5 f .5
Copper Slag (Air-Cooled) Medium 4.5 f .5 4.0 f .5
Copper Slag (Air-Cooled) Medium-Fine 3.5 f .5 3.0 f .5
Copper Slag (Air-Cooled) Fine 2.5 f .5 2.0 f .5
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*2.0 73 8627740 0003453 672
machines. To m i n i m i z e subsequent environmental prob- BIOGRAPHY

--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
lems, one should investiaate - the environmental imDact of a Bill Hitzrot is an active
given surface preparation mechanism. This subject is ex-
member of the Steel Structures
plored in a separate chapter on other surface preparation Painting Council and currently
methods. This chapter is also available for t h o s e w h o have chairman of the Abrasives Com-
d i f f i c u l t or u n i q u e cleaning p r o b l e m s or ones that require mittee. ’pent 31 years with
Bethlehem Steel, initially in the
a novel approach. Research Department and then
with a business unit developing
and then manufacturing steel
abrasives. Currently, Bill is Vice
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS President of Chesapeake
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active Specialty Products, Inc., a
participation of the following in the review process for this manufacturer of steel abrasives.
chapter: William Chandler, Ted Dowd, Richard Drisko, M. He is actively involved in the abrasives industry.
Lichtenstadter, A.W. Mallory, Marshall McGee and William Pear-
son.
REFERENCES
1. J.R. Allen and C. Calabrese, Corrosion, pp. 331-338, Vol. 34,
No. 10, Oct. 1978.
2. A.N. McKelvie, “Evaluation of Various Cleaning Processes for
Steel”, Paint Research Association, Waldegrove Rd., Ted-
dington Middlesex, TW11 8LD, England.
3. J.D. Keane, J.A. Bruno and R.E.F. Weaver, “Surface Profile for
Anti-Corrosion Paints”, Steel Structures Painting Council,
1976.
4. Keane, et. al.
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R * Z = L 9 3 W 86279YO 0003Y52 509 W
CHAPTER 2.1
MECHANICAL SURFACE PREPARATION

CentrifugaI Blast Cleaning
by
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A. W.Mallory
Centrifugal blast cleaning relates, not only to clean- Among the most prominent applications of centrifugal
ing structural steel, but to a wide range of applications blast cleaning is surface preparation of structural steel for
that include etching, deburring, deflashing, texturing, shot painting. Centrifugal blast cleaning of structural steel
peening, cleaning and descaling. It is typically used for
machine parts, castings, forgings, steel mill rolls, steel
plates and shapes, fabricated units, molded plastic and
rubber parts, cut stone and acoustical ceiling tile. The list
grows annually as new applications are discovered, as
costs of other means become prohibitive, and as pres-
sures increase from OSHA, environmentalists and ecolo-
gists. The art of air blasting began prior to the turn of the
century, but centrifugal (airless) blast cleaning, since its
introduction in 1932, has emerged as an efficient process
for ever increasing types of applications.
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
Centrifugal Blast Wheel; Development of Blast Pattern. Centrifugal Blast Wheel; Abrasive Feed and Blast.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye Inc. Courtesy of Pangborn.
at 303-397-2295.
RECOMMENDED BLAST P A T T E R N FOR T Y P I C A L continuous surface preparation and painting systems,
FABRICATED BEAM including air blast enclosures for touch-up blasting. Cen-
trifugal blast cleaning machines are used in most steel
fabrication shops.
Traditionally, the process has been limited to installa
tions in fabricator shops. However, portable systems
recently have been developed to provide on-site, dust-free
cleaning of structures, such as storage tanks and ships,
during construction as well as maintenance.
Portable systems are economical and environmen-
tally acceptable. Mobile (transportable) systems also have
been developed for surface preparation prior to steel
coating at construction sites.
Major advantages of centrifugal blast cleaning, com-
pared to airblast cleaning, are savings in time, labor,
energy and abrasive consumption. A further advantage is
automation of the cleaning operation, which provides
superior, more uniform cleaning of steel and more ac-
ceptable environmental operating conditions.
30’ -
MINIMUM EFFECTIVE
ANGLE OF IMPINGEMENT
FIGURE 3
Typical Blast Pattern; Wide Flange or Fabricated Beam (4 Blast
Wheels).
Courtesy of Pangborn.
dates back to the late 1940’s and, of steel for major con-
struction projects, to the middle 1950’s. Since then, cen-
trifugal blast systems have been developed for cleaning
structural steel before and after fabrication, including
massive fabrications of irregular shapes and complex con-
struction. Machines are often integrated into “in-line”,
@l WHEEL UNIT
i
2 CABINET ,Y, _,’
~-
FIGURE 5
Airwash Separator System.
Courtesy Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
5DUST I. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Centrifugal blast cleaning machines use motor-
driven, bladed wheels to hurl abrasive at the surface by
centrifugal force. The abrasive used for structural steel
cleaning consists of tiny particles of alloy steel, generally
ranging in size from 0.005 to 0.040 inches in diameter.
These particles, unlike sand, resist fracturing despite re-
peated impacts at high velocity. Abrasive is fed to the
center of the wheel and moved onto the inner end of the
blades by an impeller. As abrasive particles move down
the blade (Figure l), they are accelerated and hurled at
4 ABRASIVE CLEANING & RECYCLING high velocity at the surface. Centrifugal blast wheels are
FIGURE 4
Blast Cleaning Machine. available in several sizes and may be equipped with drive
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc. motors of up to 100 hp (horsepower) for high production
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.L 93 ab27940 0003454 3ôL
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
DESCALING MACHINE
ABRASIVE REMOVAL SECTION
EXIT ROLL CONVEYOR
DRAG CHAIN CONVEYOR
DRAG CHAIN CONVEYOR
FIGURE 6
Pre-Fabricating Descaiing and Painting System. Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
applications. Generally, motor sizes o f 15 to 60 hp, with
wheels ranging from 15 to 20 inches in diameter, are used
for structural steel cleaning.
Until recently, under average operating conditions,
velocities of the abrasive from the airblast nozzle or the
airless wheel were similar, about 14,000 feet per minute
(fpm). For special applications the velocity can be de-
creased by reducing air pressure to the nozzle or cutting
the rotational speed of centrifugal units. New develop
ments in centrifugal blast units have increased abrasive
velocities to 18,000 - 19,000 fpm, with impressive cleaning
results. Since work accomplished is based on the familiar
MV2
formula -, where M = mass and V = velocity of the
2
abrasive particles, it is easy to visualize the effect ob-
tained when the velocity component (V) is increased.
FIGURE 8
Pre-Fabrication Descaling System (4 Blast Wheels); Cleaning of
Small Parts on Racks.
Courtesy of Pangborn.
Because blast cleaning*results depend on volume or mass
(M) of abrasive particles impinged against the surface per
unit of time, additional horsepower also can be used to in-
crease the volume of abrasive being thrown and to in-
C l A l & & *L * I i 4
crease the blast cleaning rate.
FIGURE 7 Centrifugal blast cleaning machines incorporate one
Pre-Fabrication Descaling System Channels-Prior to and After
Blast Cleaning. or more wheel units, positioned so the abrasive blast will
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc. reach the entire surface. Generally, the abrasive from each

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 . 1 9 3 8627940 0003455 218
ROOF SLOT FOR OVERHEAD

CONVEYOR OR CRANE
~-~-__-- -Y
FIGURE 9
Post-Fabrication Descaling System.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
wheel is thrown in a fan-like pattern (Figure 3) covering an Essential components of all centrifugal blast clean-
area about 3-4 inches wide and 36 inches long. The number ing systems are blast wheels, blast enclosure, work
of wheels needed is determined by the size, complexity conveyors, abrasive recovery and recycling system, and
and shape of the surface. Cleaning can be accomplished dust collector (Figure 4). The type and arrangement of com-
in one loadinglunloading cycle or, in the case of structural ponents will differ greatly, depending on application of the
steel surface preparation, in one pass through the system. It is essential to provide sufficient ventilation to
machine. Rate and degree of cleaning will vary depending ensure that air pressure within the blast enclosure is lower
on the number of wheels used and the size, type and quan- than the ambient pressure. That allows dust generated by
tity of abrasive. The nature of the material to be cleaned the blast cleaning to be drawn into the dust collector and
and other variables also must be considered. prevents it from escaping from the blast enclosure into
Specifications for the machine selected should be adjacent work areas. Openings provided for conveying the
based on analysis of present and future surface prepara- work through the blast enclosure must be equipped with
tion requirements, in terms of work size and production good seals to prevent flying abrasive and dust from
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
volume. Although larger and smaller machines are escaping.

available for particular needs, a typical structural steel Spent abrasive thrown by the blast wheels drops into
blast cleaning machine generally has a combination of hoppers beneath the blast chamber. There it is recovered
four to eight wheels (Figure 4). If each wheel unit is and conveyed to an abrasive reclamation system, where
powered by a 30 hp motor, a four-wheel cleaning system contaminants are removed in an air-wash separator
has the capability to propel approximately 3,200 pounds of (Figure 5) and reclaimed abrasive is returned to a storage
abrasive per minute. An airblast cleaning operation would hopper. From there it is again fed to the wheels. Dust is
require forty-four 318-inch diameter nozzles and a 3,000 drawn from the machine into a dust collector, keeping ad-
hp air compressor to equal this abrasive capacity. jacent areas clean and dust-free.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * L 93 W 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 000345b 1 5 4 W
II. PRE-CONSTRUCTION (SHOP) CLEANING A thin-film primer can be applied in line with the blast
machine to minimize rustina durina fabrication. Opera-
A. PR E-FABR ICATI O N SYSTEMS
Systems designed to clean plate and structural
members prior to fabrication will generally include a load-
ing conveyor, possibly equipped with a drag chain loading
table; a centrifugal blast machine; and an exit conveyor,
which also may include a drag chain table for clean steel
storage. Depending on requirements of the individual fabri-
cator, the system also may include a paint spray booth and
a drying oven (Figure 6). Prefabrication systems normally
are equipped with roll conveyors.
Illustrations of channels before and after blast clean-
ing are shown in Figure 7. Parts, which because of size or
shape cannot be passed through the machine onto the
rolls, may be placed on racks or screens as shown in
Figure 8.
FIGURE 11
Post-Fabricating Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels); Rack
Loading; Drag Chain Work Car Conveyor.
FIGURE 10
Post-Fabricating Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels). Rack
Loading -
Gantry Crane Conveyor.
Aside from reduced cleaning time obtained with auto-
mated cleaning systems, there are several advantages of
cleaning steel prior to fabrication. They include:
1. Inspection of cleaned steel for defects revealed by
the blast.
2. More accurate layout for fabrication operations.
3. Faster steel cutting and burning.
4. Improved tool life (punches, shears, saws, etc.).
5. Improved weld quality. FIGURE 12
6. ~ l i or reduction
~ i of ~blast ~
cleaning
~ after
~ ~ ~
Post-Fabricating Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels); Roll Con-
veyor.
fabrication. Courtesy of Pangborn.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z - L 93 m 8627940 0003457 090 =
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 13A FIGURE 138

Post-Fabrication Descaling System (Roll Conveyor); Entry Con- Exit Conveyor-after blast cleaning.
veyor-prior to blast cleaning. Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
tions such as welding, burning and punching can be per- located where crane access is required for other opera-
formed without removing primer. Minimal touch-up is tions.
required before applying the final prime coat. Depending If most of the work involves bridge girders, a work car
on the type of primer, a drying oven may also be required. system may be necessary with an overhead crane. This
There are fast-drying primers available that do not require work may be extremely long and often will have a camber
a post cure at elevated temperatures, and, in lieu of a dry- or slight curve. A push-pull, drag chain arrangement with
ing oven, a flash-off tunnel at the paint booth exit may be variable speed drive provides power to work cars
required to exhaust volatile paint fumes. (Figure 11).
B. POST-FABRICATION SYSTEMS
A post-fabrication cleaning system (Figure 9) can
clean external surfaces of a wide variety of fabricated sec-
tions, including massive girders and trusses for highway,
power plant and industrial building construction.
Post-fabrication systems generally include:
a work conveyor of one of the following configura-
tions: bridge crane; gantry crane; work car; and
roll conveyor.
an eight-wheel cabinet to accommodate work to be
blast cleaned and a selected conveyor system.
optional movable wheels to eliminate work-piece
turnover.
optional air blast unit for touch-up.
In post-fabrication blast cleaning systems the blast
chamber design may have a slot in the roof for a monorail,
bridge crane or gantry crane conveyors (Figure IO), since
many fabricated members cannot easily be conveyed on FIGURE 14
Post-Fabrication Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels); adjustable
roll conveyors or work cars. Also, the machine generally is wheels to accommodate deep girders.

at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*Z.L 93 8627940 0003458 T 2 7 =
Ship Hull Bottom Cleaning System: Two Wheel Blast Head Units
in Foreground. (Official U.S. Navy Photograph)
Racks can be mounted on work cars for stacking and

hooking of miscellaneous structural members. The racks
can be pre-loaded so the shop can take maximum advan-
tage of the cleaning time available.
A roll conveyor is the most economical way of han-
dling structural steel. Use of a roll conveyor system (Figure
12) with an eight-wheel vertical cleaning machine offers a
fabricator economical handling and efficient cleaning. (ll-
lustrations of fabricated girders before and after blast Shii, Hull-Side Cleaning System (Two Wheel Unit; 48 inch Clean-
cleaning are shown in Figures 13A and 138.) A multi-bay ing'width). (Official U.S. Navy Photograph).
structural shop can use this system with the direction of
the blast cleaning system either perpendicular to or in-line c. SYSTEMS APPROACH TO EQUIPMENT
with the work flow by using drag chain tables for efficient SELECTION
work transfer to and from the conveyor at both sides of the
To achieve maximum savings from a centrifugal blast
machine. Steel that will not roll directly on the conveyor fabricating
because of shape, size, or the presence of gusset plates, cleaning and painting system, the
shop arrangement should be reviewed. Special
etc., can be placed in baskets or on racks that will support
tion should be given to the following areas:
work through the blast cleaning machine.
Shop layout and capability
The combination of overhead and roll conveyor
systems offers maximum flexibility to the shop that is
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
engaged primarily in fabrication of steel for industrial and
building applications.
Generally, in an eight-wheel vertical design machine,
five-to-six-foot high fabrications can be cleaned in a single
pass through the machine. Machine designs also are
available with moveable wheels to reduce handling of
larger fabrications. Rather than turn deeper girders over,
all eight wheels can be positioned upward, allowing the
girder to be passed back through the machine to clean the
remaining surface. All eight wheels must be moved to ob-
tain the same degree of cleaning as during the first pass.
Adjustment of wheels is illustrated in Figure 14 (also refer FIGURE 17
to Figure 9). Ship Deck Cleaning System (Two Wheel Unit; 48 inch Cleaning
Width). (Official U.S. Navy Photograph).
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER+Z.L 93 m 8627940 0003459 9 6 3 m
DUST AND nisms - presents an array of system combinations too

numerous to discuss in this chapter. It is emphasized that
work requirements must be thoroughly examined, and sub-
sequent selection of equipment be based on use of the
total system concept to obtain maximum efficiency and
economy.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 18
Portable Blast Cleaning System (Operational Schematic).
Present and projected scope of production

Cleaning and painting requirements
Pre-fabricating de-scaling system
Post-fabricating de-scaling system
Selection of the blast cleaning machine depends on
the configuration of the steel fabricated, cleaning require-
ments and shop layout. Most shops fabricate structural
steel in one bay and bridge girders in another. Some have
built separate shops due to the variation in methods of
fabrication. A pre-fabricating cleaning system generally is
located between the steel storage yard and the punch and
drill operations, whereas a post-fabricating cleaning sys- FIGURE 19
Portable Cleaning System - with Auxiliary Dust Collector. (Steel
tem is usually located in the painting and shipping area. In
Surface Parking Deck).
either case, it may be advisable to relocate the layout and
fabrication to achieve efficient work-flow through the 111. ON-SITE (PORTABLE) CLEANING
shop. Location of the blast cleaning system also may pose
Traditionally, airless centrifugal blast process has
a problem in older structural shops planned prior to the ad-
taken the form of “fixed place” equipment, with work to be
vent of centrifugal blast cleaning.
cleaned brought to the machine. Applying the centrifugal
A systems approach to the selection of the blast
wheel process to cleaning structures in place meant the
cleaning equipment and work handling components
traditional approach had to be reversed, ¡.e., it became
results in a highly efficient, low cost surface preparation
necessary to take the surface preparation process to the
operation. Fabricators may be tempted to select cen-
trifugal blast cleaning machines with a large number of work with a portable blast cleaning device.
Development of portable, centrifugal blast cleaning
wheel units with high horsepower to obtain fast cleaning
systems dates back to the early 1960’s, but commercial
speeds while neglecting thorough evaluation of work han-
application of such units first became reality in 1974.
dling and auxiliary systems. The result can be an ineffi-
Since then, several systems have been developed and
cient capacity to handle production capability of the blast
used for a wide variety of applications. For structural steel
cleaning machine. Cleaning costs can be reduced
cleaning, applications presently include ship decks, ship
markedly by matching the throughput capability of the
hull bottoms and sides, storage tank exteriors (top and
cleaning machine with existing, modified, or new work
shell) and the wet side of tank bottoms. Machines are
handling and other related systems.
used during construction and for maintenance painting
For either type of system, pre-fabrication or post-
operations.
fabrication cleaning, the evaluation of components -
Although many applications can be envisioned for
blast cleaning machine, number and arrangement of cen-
portable centrifugal blast cleaning systems, the real
trifugal blast wheels, conveyor and work-handling mecha-
impetus in the development of such systems was initiated
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.L 73 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 00034b0 685
power supply. For applications where great amounts of

blast residues are generated andlor where effluent dust
cannot be tolerated, the total system includes a supple-
mentary, large capacity dust collector (Figure 19).
Portable blast cleaning units, the type illustrated in
Figure 19, are used for the on-site blast cleaning of storage
tank tops (both floater and cone). Similar equipment is be-
ing developed to clean the inside bottoms of the tanks.
Modified versions of the basic blast machine also make it
possible to clean the external surface of the tank shell.
Smaller units, essentially hand-held, are being developed
for touch-up blast cleaning of small areas and cleaning
weld seams on horizontal and vertical surfaces.
Cleaning rates obtained with portable units are many
FIGURE 20 times greater than those produced by.airblast. Touch-up
Portable Cleaning System; Ship Deck Cleaning. (Official U.S:-
cleaning by airblast (or various types of powered hand
Navy Photograph)
tools) is required around narrow peripheral areas and pro-
in the early 1970’s, the result of increasing pressure from tuberances. Otherwise, the operation is environmentally
environmentalists and OSHA, and emphasis on the need clean and economical. Because it is essentially an
for more environmentally acceptable and economical al- automated process, it provides greater consistency and
ternatives to traditional, open airblasting. Most notably, uniformity of cleaning than airblasting does.
the United States Navy became increasingly aware of this
need because open airblasting of ship hulls and decks in
drydock created huge quantities of dust that settled
around the vessel and caused costly maintenance prob-
lems on board the ship and all over the shipyard. It also
posed a major health (air pollution) hazard which had to be
REFERENCES
eliminated.
1. B. Baldwin, “Methods of Dust-Free Abrasive Blast Cleaning.”
In 1974 and early 1975 portable systems custom de- Plant Engineering, pp. 116-125, Feb. 16, 1978.
signed to Navy specifications were put into production - 2. P.J. Bennett, “Current Occupational Safety, Health, and
Pollution Codes and Their Effect on Surface Preparation.”
first at the Norfolk U.S.Navy Shipyard for cleaning hull
Paper No. 46, pp. 1-9, 1973.
sides (Figure 16) and hull bottoms (Figure 15), and then at 3. T.R. Bullett, “Preparation and Protective Painting of Struc-
Long Beach U S . Navy Shipyard for cleaning hull sides. tural Steel.” Corrosion Prevention and Control, Vol. 18, pp.
8-12, 1971.
These systems now are used routinely in ship hull 4. “Centrifugal Wheel Blast Cleaning of Steel Plate, Shapes and
maintenance painting operations. Machines incorporate Fabrications,” NACE Publication 6G-174, Materials Perform-
one or two blast wheels and clean a swath approximately ance, June, 1974.
5. B. Cromwall, L. Thureson and V. Victor, “Centrifugal Blasting
28 and 48 inches wide, respectively. Similar but less costly of Steel: Cleaning and Coldworking.” Swedish Corrosion
and less complex systems are being developed for applica- Institute Bulletin, No. 67, 1971.
tion on commercial and military vessels. 6. “Impact Finishing: Synthetic Abrasives Erode the Natural
Markets.” lnd. Materials, No. 121, pp. 19-21,23, 25-27, 29, 31,
A mobile, self-propelled centrifugal blast cleaning Oct., 1977.
machine (Figures 17 and 20) for removal of heavy, anti-skid 7. A.W. Mallory, “Centrifugal Blasting for Surface Preparation,”
coatings from aircraft carrier decks was first put into serv- Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Technical Paper
MR79-764, 1979.
ice at Long Beach, California, in 1975. Like the hull bottom 8. A.W. Mallory, ‘Centrifugal Blast Cleaning of Surfaces for
and side cleaners, two blast wheels are used to clean a Painting,” Materials Performance, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 11-17,
48-inch path. Smaller and more maneuverable companion February, 1977.
9. National Association of Corrosion Engineers Committee
machines subsequently have been put into routine service. T6-6-13, ”Cleanliness and Anchor Pattern Available Through
Smaller units employ a single blast wheel and clean a Centrifugal Blast Cleaning of New Steel. Materials Protec-
swath 20 inches wide. fion, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 9-13, April, 1976.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
10. F.A. Scrima and A.W. Malldry, “Centrifugal Blasting for Sur-
In principle, the portable machines use the basic com- face Preparation, American Society for Materials, Conference
ponents required for stationary installation, ¡.e., the blast Specialized Cleaning, Finishing and Coatings Processes,
wheel, abrasive recovery and re-circulation, system venti- February, 1980.
lation, dust removal and collection and a “work conveyor”
(Figure 18).
In many applications, where small amounts of dust
are generated during blasting or where minor dust effluent
from the ventilationlcollector system is permissible, blast
cleaning units are completely self-contained except for

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 1 73 8627740 0003461 511
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
chapter: Jim Flaherty, Bill Hitzrot, Charlie Lewis, Joe Mazia,
Marshall McGee, Bill Pearson, and Bill Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
A. W. “DUKE” MALLORY
The late A.W. “Duke” Mallory
was a 1939 Aeronautical Engi-
neering graduate of Tri-State
College, Angola, Indiana. Duke
held various positions in Design
and Sales Engineering and Mar-
keting in the Landing Gear and
Nuclear Reactor Components
groups of the Bendix Corpora-
tion. In 1963 he joined Douglas
Aircraft where he held positions
of Design Engineer and Systems
Design Analyst in Hydraulics,
Landing Gear and Controls Sys-
tems Eñgineering groups.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In 1966 Duke joined the Materials Cleaning Systems Division,
Wheelabrator-Frye Inc., as a Project Engineer. He later was appoint-
ed Manager of Technical Development,Marketing Department, and
in 1974 assumed the additional position of Manager of Product Plan-
ning for the Division.
Duke actively represented Wheelabrator-Frye in the Steel Struc-
tures Painting Council, working on advisory committee activities in
steel surface preparationcleanliness and profile studies, and in simi-
lar activities of other industry associations, including the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers and the American Society for
Testing Materials.
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 31Questions or comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
at 303-397-2295.
CHAPTER 2.2
METALLIC ABRASIVES
by
Einar A. Borch
This chapter discusses the physical properties of tremely low abrasive flow rates in relation to total abrasive
metallic blast-cleaning abrasives and describes their ver- in the system, the grit rounding process takes much
satility in producing various required degrees of finish, longer.
profile and cleanliness on metal surfaces. Also reviewed
are types
.. of metallic abrasives and an analysis of the II. METHOD OF MANUFACTURE
mechanics of blast cleaning with these abrasives. Raw materials and alloys are melted and adjusted to
Purchasing abrasive that meets the prescribed meet required chemistry specifications for iron or steel.
chemical and physical specifications i s only one pre- Molten metal of the required temperature is removed from
requisite for achieving the required cleaning and finish. An the furnace and is channeled into streams, which then
equally important requirement is for the user to maintain drop onto jets of water under pressure, atomizing the
and operate the blast-cleaning system to produce a prop- molten metal into random sizes of shot that fall into a
erly balanced size distribution in the abrasive working mix. water-filled quenching pit. Atomization may also be ac-
This, i n turn, can assure effective, efficient cleaning and complished mechanically, or by air or gas jets.
uniform finish. The cast shot is removed from the quenching pit and
These factors should be considered in evaluating the heat treated. It is then screened into sizes in accordance
performance of a metallic abrasive used to achieve a with Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) specifications
specified finish: (Table 1). Grit is produced by crushing hardened shot i n
Time required to achieve the specified finish roll-type crushers or ball mills, after which it is screened in-
Abrasive consumption rate and its costs to SAE sizes and heat treated, as required.
Cost of wear, parts and maintenance of the
blast-cleaning equipment, including the effect of 111. HISTORY OF METALLIC ABRASIVES
down time for maintenance work.
Chilled iron shot was the first cast metallic abrasive
No one type, size, shape or hardness of metallic
developed, coming into use shortly after the turn of the
abrasive can fulfill all requirements of blast cleaning for all
century. It satisfied a vital need in the granite industry for
applications. Therefore, the user must be prepared to
an improved, faster-cutting medium to replace sand, which -
evaluate the above factors in selecting proper abrasive.
was being used for the gang-sawing and polishing of
Metallic abrasives are available in a wide variety of types,
granite blocks. Chilled cast iron abrasive cut much faster
shapes, hardnesses and sizes. It is possible to select a
than sand, and because it could be reclaimed and re-used,
metallic abrasive with the right combination of properties
resulted in dramatic reductions of cost per square foot of
to meet specified finish requirements.
sawed or polished surfaces.
Chilled iron shot and grit subsequently replaced sand
I. TYPES OF METALLIC ABRASIVES
as the medium in many air-blast applications equipment.
Three general types of metallic abrasives - cast steel Its use grew rapidly because one ton of chilled iron
shot and grit, malleable iron shot and grit and chilled cast abrasive did the work of 40-50tons of sand. Chilled iron
iron shot and grit - are available for surface preparation. abrasive, moreover, cleaned better and faster.
(Cut-steel wire shot is a fourth type, but represents less In the mid-I930’s, two events had major impact on the
than one percent of all metallic abrasives produced.) The growth of the metallic shot and grit industry: anti-silicosis
choice of one type over another is a matter of matching laws were imposed that prohibited the use of sand for
size, shape and hardness with the surface finish required blast cleaning inside industrial plants; and the centrifugal
and evaluating relative consumption rates and cost. (airless) blast-cleaning method was developed.
In addition to hardness, the rapidity with which grit Centrifugal blast cleaning, using chilled cast iron
rounds up depends upon the frequency that individual par- shot and grit, eliminated the silicosis hazard of sand. It
ticles are recycled. With the airless blast equipment, the also provided faster, more effective, and more economical
frequency of recycling is rapid. In air-blast, due to the ex- cleaning than with air-blast methods using non-metallic
abrasives. The use of metallic abrasives expanded rapidly.
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SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 2 9 3 m 8627940 0003463 3 9 4 m
TABLE 1
SAE SHOT & GRIT SIZE SPECIFICATIONS WITH SUGGESTED REMOVAL SIZES(')
CAST SHOT SPECIFICATIONS FOR SHOT PEENING OR BLAST CLEANING
Screen Opening Sizes and Screen Numbers with Maximum and Minimum Cumulative Percentages Allowed on Corresponding Screens
N BS Screen S I E Shot Number
Screen Standard
No. mm
Size
(in)
1 I
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S1320 5550 S460 S390 S330 S2ôO S230 5170

(3) (4)
4 4.75 (0.187) - - - - - - -
5 4.00 (0.157) - - - - - - -
6 3.35 (0.132) - - - - - - -
7 2.80 (0.111) - - - - - - -
8 2.36 (0.0937) - - -- - - -
10 2.00 (0.0787) Ail Pass - -- - - -
12 1.70 (0.0661) 5 % max Ail Pass -- - - -
14 1.40 (0.0555) - 5 % max All Pass - - - -
16 1.18 (0.0469) 85% rnin - 5 % max All Pass - - -

18 1.00 (0.0394) 96% m i n 85% m i n - 5 % max - -
20 0.850 (0.0331) - 96% min 85% min - All Pass - -
25 0.710 (0.0278) - - 96% min 85% mir 10% max - -
30 0.600 (0.0234) - - - 96% mir - Ail Pass -

35 0.500 (O 0197) - - - - - 10% max -
40 0.425 (0.0165) - - - - 35% min - Ali Pass
45 0.355 (0.0139) - - - - 37% min - 10% max
50 0.300 (0.01 17) - - - - -
80% min -
80 0.180 (0.007) - - - - - 90% min 80% min
120 0.125 (0.0049) - - - - - - 90% min
200 0.075 (0.0029) - - - - - - -
Jggestei
for Cleaning Structurai

0.0138 00117 0.0117 O0082 0.0070 0.0059
I0.0049 0.0029
CAST GRIT SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLAST CLEANING
NBS
Screen
1 Standard
mm
I Screen
Size
I Screen Opening Sizes and Screen Numbers with Minimum Cumulative Percentages Allowed on Corresponding Screens
CAE Grit Number
NO. (in) G10 G12 G14 G16 016 025 G40 GSO GE0 G120 6200 G325
(3) (4)
4 4.75 (0.187) - - - - - - - - - - - -
5 4.00 (0.157) - - - - - - - - - - - -
6 3.35 (0.132) - - - - - - - - - - - -
7 280 (0.111) AllPass - - - - - - - - - - -
8 2.36 (0.0937) - All Pass - - - - - - - - - -
10 2.00 (0.0787) 80% - Ail Pass - - - - - - - - -
12 1.70 (0.0661) 90% 80% - Ail Pass - - - - - - - -
14 1.40 (0.0555) - 90% 80% - All Pass - - - - - - -
16 1.18 (0.0469) - - 90% 75% -
All Pass - - - - - -
18 1.00 (O 0394) - - - 85% 75% - Ail Pass - - - - -
20 0.850 (0.0331) - - - - - - - - - - - -
25 0.710 (0.0278) - - - 85 % 70% - Ail Pass - - - -
-
-
30 0.600 (0.0234) - - - - - - - - - - -
35 0.500 (0.0197) - - - - - - - - - - - -
40 0.425 (0.0165) - - - - - 80% 70% - All Pass - - -
45 0.355 (0.0139) - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 0.300 (0.0117) - - - - - - 80% 65% -
All Pass - -
80 0.180 (0.007) - - - - - - - 75 % 65% - All Pass -
120 O 125 (0.0049) - - ~
- -
- - -
75% 60% - All Pass
200 0.075 (0.0029) - - - - - - - - - 70% 55% -
325 0.045 (0.0017) - - - - - - - - -

- 65% 20%
Suggested
Removal Sizes for 0.0232 0.0165 0.0165 0.0138 0.0117 0.0062 0.0059 0.0049 0.0029
Cleaning of
structural Steed2)
(1) Courtesy Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE J444a).
(3) Corresponds to I S 0 Recommendations.

(4) This is coarsest size in common use for blast cleaning structurai steel for painting
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERU2.2 93 m 8627940 00034b4 220
As the use of centrifugal blast cleaning increased, it Much longer useful life - as much as a 2:l advan-
was discovered that the combination of mass and velocity tage for steel abrasive of 45 Rockwell C hardness.
of the extremely hard, friable chilled cast iron resulted in
two serious problems: fast abrasive breakdown and resul- A. COMMON USES OF METALLIC
tant high consumption cost, and extensive and costly wear AB RASIV ES
on the blast-cleaning equipment. Metallic abrasives have several common uses:
These problems were minimized by development of to- 1. Surface cleaning and preparation of metal prod-
day’s superior metallic abrasive - steel shot and grit. The ucts prior to coating and painting of the surface
change came about, however, in stages over a period of (removal of mill scale, rust, old paint and other
years. contaminants, and generation of an anchor pat-
First, chilled iron shot and grit was subjected to a nor- tern to enhance coatings adherence).
malizing process. The resultant malleable iron abrasive 2. Surface cleaning of ferrous and non-ferrous
had hardness values about half that of chilled iron castings (removal of molding sand, and heat treat
abrasive, with economic benefits: malleable iron abrasive s ca Ie).
had up to double the life of chilled iron; and malleable iron 3. Surface cleaning of forgings, weldments and steel
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
very markedly reduced the wear on blast-cleaning equip mill products including slabs, billets, bars, plate,
ment. sheet and strip, pipe and rolled structural shapes
Malleable iron abrasives provided definite improve- (removal of mill scale, rust and other oxide accre-
ment i n the economics of blast-cleaning, but introduced t io ns).
new problems. Graphitic carbon, ordinarily present in the 4. Surface cleaning of heat-treated metal products
malleable iron abrasive, often caused carbon deposition (removal of oxide scale).
on the work or substrate being cleaned, creating problems 5. Surface preparation of fiberglass reinforced
in subsequent processing. Also, the use of malleable iron plastic products for bonding.
shot and grit, being of lower hardness than chilled iron, 6. Etching of hardened steel mill rolls.
resulted in measurable reduction in cleaning rates and 7. Shot peening to impart residual compressive
sometimes in the ability to produce specified surface stresses to improve fatigue properties of metal
finishes or anchor patterns. products, and to minimize intergranular and
stress corrosion cracking of alloyed metal prod-
IV. CURRENT PRACTICE ucts.
Recognition of those problems led to the development 8. Peen forming of aircraft wings.
of cast steel shot and grit. Today, approximately 85 per- 9. De-flashing of precision molded rubber products
cent of all metallic abrasives are cast steel, which has and some molded plastic (polymeric) parts.
these advantages over malleable iron: 10. Reduction of chemically bonded mold and core
Wider selection of hardness ranges, permitting the sand lumps for reclamation and re-use of foundry
user to tailor abrasive hardness to finish re- sand.
quirements.
Elimination of the graphitic carbon deposition prob-
lem.
TABLE 2
DESCRIPTION OF PROPERTIES
HARDNESS
ABRASIVES SHAPE SIZE SHOT GRIT
Cast Steel Shot or Grit Full range of SAE May be specified:

sizes (SAE J-444) commercially available cast steel abrasives
have mid-range hardnesses of approximately
35 Rc, 45 Rc, 55 Rc, 65 Rc.
Malleable Iron Shot or Grit Full range of SAE 1 range 1 range

sizes (SAE J-444) (28 RC - 40 RC) (28 RC - 40 Rc)
Chilled Cast Iron Shot or Grit Full range of SAE 1 range 1 range
sizes (SAE J-444) (57 RC - 68 Rc) (57 RC - 68 Rc)

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 2 93 m 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 O003465 Lb7 m
B. ADVANTAGES with respect to hardness, it must be noted that both of

these specifications were developed primarily for blast-
Compared to sand or other non-metallic abrasives,
cleaning iron and steel castings, where an anchor pattern
metallic abrasives are used differently and have certain
is seldom critical on the finished casting. For many other
advantages:
applications, and because of more critical finish re-
I . Longer useful life as compared to that of sand,
quirements, the cleaning of structural steel and other prod-
ranging from 50 times greater for chilled iron t o
ucts often requires abrasives of greater or lesser hardness
more than 200 times greater for tempered cast
steel. values than those specified by SAE J-827 and SFSA 20-66
(Rockwell C40-50).
2. Greater impact for given size particles, resulting
The cost-benefit trade-offs in a user’s selection of
in much faster and better cleaning. (Metallic
high versus low hardness in metallic abrasives requires
abrasives have a density of approximately 1-112to
2-112 times that of sand or other non-metallic evaluation of the finish, desired speed of cleaning,
abrasive durability and equipment wear. Only the user can
abrasives.)
make the proper choice based on fhe priority placed on
3. Versatility and adaptability. Cast steel offers a
wide range of options in size and hardness, in ad- each of these factors.
dition to the basic choice between round shot The generally accepted specification for malleable
iron abrasive is SFSA 21-68. The size and chemistry
and sharp, angular grit.
specification in SFSA 21-68 also applies to cast chilled
4. Much greater visibility while blasting. (Dusting of
iron.
non-metallic abrasives causes visibility problems
and can create environmental hazards.)
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5. Minimal embedment of abrasive particles. (Non-
V. MECHANICS OF BLAST CLEANING WITH
metallic abrasives, because they are so brittle and
METALLIC ABRASIVES
friable, have a different type of embedment than Abrasive blast cleaning is a battering or bombarding
metallics2.) of the work surface by continuing impact of abrasive par-
ticles propelled by compressed air through a nozzle, or by
C. CONSTRAINTS centrifugal force from an airless blast wheel.
For abrasive particles to affect a change in the work
Basic constraints that must be recognized in the use
surface, the stress exerted by the individual shot or grit
of metallic abrasives as a substitute for non-metallic
abrasives in airblast equipment are particle at the point of impact must exceed the strength of
1. The blast-cleaning operation must provide effec- the work surface itself. Four factors determine that stress:
Energy contained in the propelled abrasive particle.
tive reclamation and recycling to realize the
Area upon which that energy is expended, and the
durability advantage of the metallic abrasive
(abrasive leakage must be kept to the minimum by angle of impingement.
Strength and hardness of the work being cleaned.
proper maintenance of the blast-cleaning system).
Strength and hardness of the abrasive particle.
2. To achieve consistent production cleaning qual-
Energy contained in a single particle of abrasive is
ity, and optimum operating costs, careful atten-
tion must be given procedures for maintaining a generally related to the variables of particle mass and
stabilized work mix, or operating mix, in the velocity, as illustrated by the
system. equation for kinetic energy - MV2
3. Metallic abrasives must be protected in such a 2
manner that they are not exposed to moisture or
corrosive environments. (M = mass; V = velocity)
4. Overblast must be avoided to assure proper pro-
file for long-range performance of high-perform-
ance coatings.2 When selecting new blast-cleaning equipment for a
given application, a choice of velocity is available. Velocity
D. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
is governed by air pressure in airblast systems, or by the
(TABLE 2)
combination of wheel-peripheral speed, wheel diameter
There are two generally accepted specifications for (inside and outside) and shape and length of the wheel
cast steel shot and grit: blade in centrifugal (airless) blast cleaning.
1. Society of Automotive Engineers - SAE J-827; It is apparent from the above equation that change in
and velocity has the most significant effect on kinetic energy
2. Steel Founders’ Society of America - SFSA of the particle. However, with any given blast-cleaning
20-66. equipment and under a given set of operating conditions,
From the standpoint of chemistry and screening, the factor of velocity can, for all practical purposes, be
either of the above is suitable for specifying steel shot and considered constant. Thus, for an abrasive of given hard-
grit to be used in metalworking applications. However,
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 2 93 m Bb2799O 0003466 OT3
TABLE 3
EFFECT OF ABRASIVE SIZE O N IMPACT ENERGY AND COVERAGE
SA€ Approxima te Approximate Relative Effect

Shot
-~ Shot Pellets on Impact Energy
Size (1) Per Pound (2) (Based on Weight) (3)
S-390 65,000 110

S-330 110,000 60
s-280 210,000 40
S-230 360,000 20
S-I70 660,000 10
s-110 1,700,000 5
S-70 7,000,000 1
(1) Basic shot size designations.

(2) Based on the mid-size pellet of the purchased abrasive.
(3) The weight of a particle of S-70 shot is considered as the base of 1 - all other values are relative to that base, varying as
the cube of the diameter. The data shown cannot be translated directly as kinetic energy.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S-330(through 18-Mor 20-M) S.330 (through 20-M or 40-M)

(NOTE: Round particles are fractures that have been rounded
back into spheres.)
FIGURE 1
Fracture Failure (shot particles from work mix)
Courtesy: Ervin Industries, Inc.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 2 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 O003467 T 3 T
ness, the mass of the individual abrasive particle becomes proximately 110 times more impact energy than the
the significant variable in the energy exerted at impact on smallest mid-size pellets.
the work surface. Achieving the specified cleanliness and anchor pat-
Since the mass (in steel shot) varies as the cube of the tern requires close control of the factors of impact energy
diameter, it can be recognized that even slight changes in and the coverage on the work surface. Such control is at-
abrasive particle size can cause a major change in impact tained by maintaining an effective balance of the size
energy delivered. This, in turn, can account for pronounced distribution i n the work mix.
changes in the effectiveness of contaminant removal and The mode of delivery or system by which the abrasive
in the finish or anchor pattern produced. is propelled determines the abrasive flow rate and
In addition to the impact energy delivered to the work, coverage per unit of time, which, in turn, affects finish and
another critical factor in blast-cleaning effectiveness is cleaning rates. Abrasive flow rates of equipment to be pur-
coverage (a measure of impact distribution on the work chased are predetermined by choice of airblast pressure
surface by the many pellets contained in the abrasive work and nozzle configuration in airblast equipment or by
mix). Table 3 illustrates the dramatic differences in both choice of wheel diameter and width, rotational speed,
impact energy and coverage as particle size i s changed. blade (vane) design and drive-motor horsepower in cen-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A general rule is that i f there is a difference in t rifugal (ai rless) b Iast -cIeaning eq u ip ment.
diameter of 2:1, the relative impact energy is approximate- As noted in the chapter on abrasive air blast cleaning,
ly 8:l and the relative coverage (pellets per pound) is ap- a 1/4 in. airblast nozzle has abrasive flow rates of about
proximately 13. As Table 3 reveals, a work mix using S-390 eight pounds per minute, depending upon the air pressure
as the original size and retaining particles as small as new level. A 112 in. nozzle would have a flow rate of about 34
S-70 will have the coarsest mid-size pellets delivering ap- pounds per minute. Centrifugal blast-cleaning equipment
G-25 working mix (.0165") 40 mesh G-25 working mix (.0079") 80 mesh
FIGURE 2
Evolution of the working mix using steel grit: While all particles in
the working mix started as original size G-25 (upper left), they
eventually rounded up and diminished in size under repeated im-
pact, which imposes the two modes of abrasive failures. (approxi-
mately 1OX magnification)
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 . 2 93 = 8627940 0003468 97b
develops much higher flow rates, ranging from 165 pounds
with a 10 hp motor to as high as 2800 pounds per minute
with a 100 hp motor. As noted in the chapter on centrifugal
cleaning, this equipment for structural steel descaling
typically may have four 30 hp wheels, each throwing ap-
proximately 600 to 800 pounds per minute.
The mechanics of blast cleaning - how metallic
abrasives develop their tremendous cleaning power - can
be appreciated by thinking in terms of one 30 hp wheel
throwing from 600 to 800 times the numbers listed in Table
3 as pellets per pound for the various sizes at velocities
usually in excess of 240 feet per second. Harnessing that
cleaning power to best advantage depends on proper
abrasive selection (type, size and hardness) and constant
control over the developed work mix.
VI. MECHANICS OF METALLIC ABRASIVE

FA1LURE
Forces that work to develop the cleaning capability of
70-X
metallic abrasives also tend to reduce the size of the
abrasive particle and to cause its eventual breakdown to
dust. Two modes of abrasive breakdown are involved.
The first and predominant mode is fracture failure, the
inevitable result of an abrasive particle’s repeated impact
against the work being cleaned and against the wear parts
of the blast equipment itself. Such repeated impact
fatigues the abrasive until it fractures. Chilled iron grit
(55-67Rc) and full-hard (untempered) steel grit (66.68%)
fracture rapidly to sharp edged angular particles.
Tempered steel shot and grit and malleable iron shot and
grit also fracture, but much more slowly. Under continuing
impact the broken particles tend to be forged back into
smaller, near-round shape. The fracture and rounding proc-
ess continues until individual particles are so small that
they are pulled out of the system by the abrasive separator
(exhaust) system (Figures 1 and 2).
The second mode of abrasive failure is called “flak-
ing” (Figure 3). As the outer surface of the abrasive particle
is fatigued by repeated impact, microscopic flaking of the
surface occurs and, as impact continues, those flakes pop
off and are withdrawn through the separator system to the
dust collector.
Hardness aside, the relative rate of failure of the dif-
ferent types of abrasive varies in accordance with basic
chemistry and microstructure. Iron abrasives, due prin-
700-X
cipally to extremely high content of carbon, phosphorus
and sulfur, fracture and fail much more rapidly than steel FIGURE 3
abrasives. Flaking failure of shot particles from work mix
In the case of steel abrasives that meet SAE andlor
SFSA specifications for chemistry, microstructure and
physical characteristics, hardness and microstructure are
the critical factors with regard to fracture and flaking
failure. Generally speaking, the harder the abrasive, the ture failure is the dominant factor in the reduction of
faster its breakdown from fracture failure. The lower its abrasive particle size.
hardness, the more the abrasive resists and delays frac- Harder steel abrasives, especially grit, also cause
ture failure, and surface flaking of the abrasive becomes a greater wear on blast cleaning equipment. Every point of
contributing factor in its ultimate failure. However, frac- hardness higher than that needed to provide the required
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

38
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 2 93 m 8b2794O 00034b9 802 m
finish in the required time cycle contributes both to faster eventually are pulled out of the system by the separator
abrasive failure and more rapid deterioration of the blast mechanism. New abrasive must be added at regular inter-
equipment. (See “Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion vals at rates corresponding to loss of abrasive due to the
Paints,” Ref. 2.) attrition or breakdown rate andlor by losses of usable
From the standpoint of relative metallic abrasive con- abrasive via the separator system or carry-out with the
sumption (considering products that meet their respective work pieces.
SAEISFSA specifications), the following guidelines exist: The combination of new abrasive being added and the
Chilled c a s t iron abrasives have a gradual attrition and withdrawal of abrasive added earlier
breakdown rate as much as one third greater results in a mixture of sizes commonly called the work mix
than full hard (65 plus Rc) untempered steel grit. or “operating mix”.
Malleable iron abrasives have a breakdown Size distribution within the abrasive work mix is in-
rate of 50% t o 100% greater than steel abrasive fluenced by these factors:
in the 40-50 ß c hardness range. Type and quality of abrasive
Steel grit breaks down slightly faster than Original size
steel shot of the same size and hardness range. Original shape
However, the smaller the size grit involved, the Original hardness and density
greater the difference in breakdown compared to
Velocity of thrown abrasive
shot.
Similarly, increasing the hardness of steel Hardness of work being cleaned
shot or grit in a given operation increases the Angle of impingement
breakdown rate. Obviously, however, the more Adjustment of air-wash separator (to control
rapid breakdown of a harder steel abrasive abrasive size withdrawn from the system)
becomes academic if i t has been determined that Loss of usable abrasive due to carry-out with work
a lower hardness will not do the job. pieces
Manner in which abrasive additions are made.
VII. ABRASIVE WORK MIX Figures 4,5, and 6 illustrate size distribution of typical
As fracture and flaking failure continue, individual shotlgrit work mixes.
abrasive particles become smaller and smaller until they
330 280 230 170 110
S330 Work-Mix
FIGURE 4
S.330 work mix. Work mix should contain all of above sizes, and should be neither predominantly coarse nor predominantly fine. Coarse
particles provide optimum impact energy; smaller particles provide optimum coverage.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

39Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 2 9 3 8627940 0003470 5 2 4
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
G=25 G-40 Courtesy: Ervin Industries, Inc.
FIGURE 5
G-25 work mix (centrifugal blast unit). A G-25 work mix may also contain material as fine as G-80. G-25 work mix should contain all of the
above sizes and should be neither predominantly coarse nor predominantly fine. Coarse particles provide optimum impact energy;
smaller particles provide optimum coverage.
VIII. ABRASIVE WORK MIX VS. FINISH tal work in both laboratory and plant. Also see “Commen-
Control of the work mix size and maintaining a tary on Surface Preparation” in Volume 2 of the Steel
stabilized work mix are vital factors in maintaining a con- Structures Painting Manual. Each abrasive type, size and
sistent production rate and a quality finish. Representative shape has its own inherent impact life cycle, generally
samples of the work mix, which actually does the cleaning measured in pounds used per blasting hour. Theoretically,
and provides the finish (anchor pattern), should be sub- new abrasive should be added to the system every blasting
jected frequently to careful sieve analysis to be sure the hour in amounts equal to the rate of withdrawal, or loss,
work mix has its size distribution in balance, ¡.e., not from the system. In practice, however, making additions
predominantly coarse or fine. once a shift, or every eight hours, is acceptable. A con-
The larger pellets in the work mix impart the greatest tinuous automatic system of abrasive replenishment is
impact energy per pellet, cracking or fragmenting heavy the preferred and most reliable method of maintaining a
surface contaminant on the work being cleaned and im- uniform work mix in a production operation.
parting identations of maximum peak-to-valley values. Delay in making new abrasive additions tends to
Medium and smaller pellets in the work mix provide decrease the percentage of coarser sizes in the work-mix;
greater coverage for scouring and complete removal of the result will likely be poorer quality cleaning and reduc-
cracked or fragmented surface contaminant. Because of tion of anchor pattern depth. Conversely, adding a large
the decreased impact energy of the smaller abrasive par- quantity of new abrasive at one time increases the percen-
ticles, the peak-to-valleyvalue is decreased. Also, because tage of coarser sizes, resulting in a coarsening of surface
of the smaller size, greater number of impacts occur on a profile, and for a given through-put speed, insufficient
given area of the work piece and greater peak population coverage and poorer cleaning.
results. Maintaining a uniform and stabilized operating-mix
Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the effect of changing the also requires the abrasive particles removed from the blast
size distribution in the work mix on both profile height and machine to be of uniform size. To realize the greatest
peak distribution. Those are based upon SSPC experimen- economic benefits of using metallic abrasives, the particle
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 2 93 8627940 0003471 460 m
.0394” .0278“ .O165”

(18-M) (25-M) (40-M) (50-M)
FIGURE 6
S-330/Gm18*work mix (from centrifugal blast unit). Work mix should contain all of the above sizes, and should be neither predominantly
coarse nor predominantly fine. Coarse particles provide optimum impact energy; smaller particles provide optimum coverage.
‘55-60 RC
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TYPICAL EFFECT OF ABRASIVE SIZE ON PROFILE HEIGHT‘ TYPICAL EFFECTOF ABRASIVE SIZE ON PEAK COUNT“
Effect of 4 Degrees of Cleoning IS Summed Out Effect of 4 Degrees of Cleaning is Summed Out
GRIT
SHOT
T GRIT
SHOT
t4
I
E
1 I- Std Deviation
I - S t d Deviotion
E
2
1 O0
E
I
- L
Each Profile Measured Optically by Averaging 60 Moximum Eoch Profile Measured witha Surfacouiit and a Brush Surfindicalar
Peak- to-Valley Heights
FIGURE 7 FIGURE 8
From “Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints”, by Keane, Bruno, Weaver, 1976. (Ref. 2)

Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 41Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 2 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003472 3 T 7
size removed should be the smallest size that is effective X. ABRASIVE SELECTION
in the cleaning operation. Suggested removal sizes are Degree of cleanliness andlor profile are the main
shown in Table 1 for each of the basic SAE sizes of shot reasons for impact cleaning and must be given priority
and grit. Control of removal size requires careful attention over all other factors in abrasive selection. Obviously, con-
to adjustment of the separator system and of the air flow sideration must be given to the surface condition prior to
through the separator. blast cleaning and its relation to the desired finish.
IX. DEGREE OF CLEANING Abrasive selection depends on whether the surface has a
light oxide scale or is heavily pitted and rusted, or whether
Figures 9 and 10 are typical scanning electron photo- removal of paint or other coating is involved. The desired
micrographs, taken by the SSPC in its profile study. They finish after blast cleaning may include a combination of
show a comparison of degrees of cleaning of four sizes of degree of cleanliness, degree of roughness and type of
steel shot and three sizes of steel grit.
VARIOUS SHOT BLASTED SURFACES *

1OOX 60’VIEW
S 230 S280 S330 S390
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
NEAR-WH I
COMMERCIAL (SP 6)
.
FIGURE 9
‘Profile (h,J and density (NJ estimated visually from SEM From: “Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints”, by Keane,
stereo micrographs. Bruno and Weaver, 1976. (Ref. 2)
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 2 93 8b27940 0003473 233
surface texture. Size, shape and hardness of the abrasive Changing the angularity of the surface finish changes
particles in the work mix are the dominant factors in deter- the light reflectivity of the surface. The grit or etched finish
mining whether the desired finish will be attained. appears nearer the parent metal in color. Hard grit par-
Shot pellets tend to burnish the surface and may ticles, even when fractured, retain irregular or random
leave a burnished scale condition in the root of the surface shape and produce a surface etch with more angularity
indentation. Irregular pellet shapes in a grit mix, on the than a softer grit, which rounds up. Higher grit hardness,
other hand, tend to reduce the entrapped burnished scale however, leads to shorter impact life cycles and increased
condition and can affect the angularity of the surface pro- usage. It also affects abrasive size distribution in the
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
file. machine work mix; a harder grit work mix contains a lower
V A R I O U S G R I T BLASTED SURFACES *
1OOX 60” VIEW
GL25 GL40 . GL50
hnax - Approximately 4 mils
WHITE (SP 5)
NEAR-WHITE ( S P 10)
COMMERCIAL ( S P 6)
BRUSH-OFF (SP 7)
FIGURE 10
‘Profile (hmeX)and density (NJ estimated visually from SEM From: “Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion . dints”. bv Keane.
stereo micrographs. Bruno and Weaver, 1976. (Ref. 2)
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 2 93 8b27940 0003474 L 7 T
percentage of the coarser sizes and a higher percentage of )(l. CONCLUSION

smaller sizes.
Modern metallic abrasives, used in currently available
Under a given set of equipment operating conditions,
b l a s t - c l e a n i n g equipment, provide effective and
when using shot, variables in the profile attained usually
economical means of preparing steel surfaces for coating
relate directly and only to the size distribution in the work
applications. Available in a wide range of types, shapes
mix. However, when using grit, variables in the profile
and hardnesses to meet varying application needs, they of-
relate to abrasive hardness, size distribution, and particle
fer extended use-life and high impact per particle.
shape.
Optimum results can be obtained through an
Steel grit, tempered to under 65 Rockwell C, rounds up
understanding of theories relating to the mechanics of im-
under repeated impact; thus, the grit work mix is a mixture
pact cleaning and abrasive failure. Careful selection of
of new, angular grit, partially rounded particles and fully
shot or grit to satisfy surface finish specifications, along
rounded particles. It is obvious that with the use of such
with a disciplined program for controlling a proper balance
grit, frequent and regular addition of new abrasive is ab-
in the work mix will produce optimum results when blast
solutely essential to maintaining a consistent mix of parti-
cleaning with metallic abrasives.
cle size and shape.
REFERENCES BIOGRAPHY
1. ASM 6705-J, “Specialized Cleaning, Finishing, Coating
Process”. ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073. Einar A. Borch has been in the
2. John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F. metal abrasive industry for over
Weaver, “Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints”, Steel 50 years, being active in the var-
Structures Painting Council Report, Oct. 25, 1976. ious management phases of the
3. H.J. Plaster, Blast Cleaning and Allied Processes - Vols. I business, manufacturing, mar-
and II,Garden City Press Ltd., Letchworth, Hertfordshire, keting and research develop-
England SG6 1JS. ment. He is currently working as
4. C.A. Reams, “Modern Blast Cleaning and Ventilation”, Pen- a consultant for Ervin Industries.
ton Publishing, Cleveland, OH, 1939. He has been involved in commit-
5. William A. Rosenberger, “Impact Cleaning”, Penton tee work relating to development
Publishing, Cleveland, OH, 1939. of metal abrasive specifications
6. SAE J792a, “Manual on Blast Cleaning”. Handbook Supple- for various technical societies in-
ment 124, Society of Automotive Engineers, 400 Corn- cluding the Society of Automo-
tive Engineers, the Steel
monwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096, June, 1968.
Founders’ Society of America, the American Foundrymen’s Socie-
7. SAE J827, ”Cast Steel Shot”, Society of Automotive
ty, the Casting Industry Suppliers Association, and the Steel Struc-
Engineers, June, 1962.
8. SAE J444a, “Cast Shot and Grit Size Specifications for Peen- tures Painting Council. He is a former director of the Casting Industry
Suppliers Association, a past trustee of the Foundry Educational
ing and Cleaning”, Society of Automotive Engineering,
November 1976. Foundation and a past president of the Foundry Equipment Manufac-
9. SFSA 20-66, “Cast Steel Abrasives”, Steel Founders’ Society turer’s Association.
of America, Cast Metals Federation Bldg., 455 State, Des
Plaines, IL 60016, 1966.
10. SFSA 21-68, “Malleable Iron Abrasives”, Steel Founders
Society of America, 1968.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R l t 2 . 3 93 8627940 0003475 O06
September 1993 (Editorial Changes)
CHAPTER 2.3
NON-METALLIC ABRASIVES
by
H . William Hitzrot
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Non-metallic abrasives used for blast cleaning may be luster finish and is most commonly used to clean precision
classified as (1) naturally occurring, (2) by-product and (3) tools and castings.
manufactured abrasives. This chapter deals with these
types, their physical attributes and the choices among B. BY-PRODUCT ABRASIVES
them. Physical data are summarized in Table 1. This group constitutes the most rapidly growing source
of abrasive materials for cleaning steel structures. The
I. TYPES OF ABRASIVES relative low cost, availability in bulk, and low (less than
1%) free silica content make by-product abrasives well
A. NATURALLY OCCURRING ABRASIVES suited for blast cleaning large steel structures, both for
Naturally occurring sands and flint sand are probably new construction and maintenance cleaning. Conserva-
the most commonly used abrasives. Sands are a readily tion of materials and environmental concerns have given
available source of abrasive and have been used for the further impetus to converting by-products into commercial
blast cleaning of steel since the inception of this tech- abrasives. Chief among the by-product materials being
nique. Sand particles (Figure 1) range from sharply used as abrasives are slags from two sources: metal
angular to almost spherical, depending on the source. smelting slags (Figures 5 and 6) and electric power
Silica sands are an effective abrasive for blast cleaning generating (bottom ash) slags (Figure 7). Smelting and
new steel and for maintenance cleaning in non-critical boiler slags are generally glassy, homogeneous mixtures
areas. Since sands are often dusty, with a high degree of of various oxides, which give them uniform physical prop-
breakdown, they are not desirable for critical blast clean- erties important for abrasive applications. Slag abrasives
ing. In recent years silica sands have been replaced by have a sharply angular shape ideal for efficient blast
heavy mineral sands or other products that contain little or cleaning of new, corroded, or painted steel surfaces. They
no “free silica”. are available in the full range of abrasive sizes - coarse (8
Nonsilica sands may also be used for blast cleaning. sieve) to fine (100 sieve). Not all slags can be used as
These are generally termed “heavy mineral” sands and in- abrasives. They need to be tough, have a bulk density of 80
clude magnetite, staurolite, olivene rutile - either by to 100 Iblcu ft, and exhibit a minimum amount of
themselves or in various combinations. These sands are breakdown on impact in order to be effective abrasives.
tough and dense but generally of finer particle size than Agricultural shell products such as walnut shells
silica sand, with median size in the 70 to 100 rather than 20 (Figure 8) and peach pits offer a specialty by-product
to 40 sieve size range more typical of silica sands. An ex- abrasive. Tough but lightweight with a bulk density of
ample of a heavy mineral sand is shown in Figure 2. Heavy 42-47 Iblcu ft, agricultural shells are excellent for removing
mineral sands are effective for blast cleaning new steel, paint, fine scale, and other surface contaminants without
but are generally not recommended for maintenance ap- altering the metal substrate. These shell products are
plications.
Garnet (Figure 3) is a tough, angular abrasive suitable
for “specialty-type” blast cleaning of steel parts and
castings, ¡.e., cleaning in a closed system that permits
recycling the abrasive. Available in a range of sizes, it can
be recycled a number of times because of its toughness.
The high cost of garnet restricts its use to specialty clean-
ing applications that require only small quantities of
abrasive.
Zircon is another tough, angular abrasive (Figure 4).
Its fine size limits its use to specialty blasting for removal
of fine scale, leaving a smooth, matte finish. Like garnet, it
has higher density and greater hardness than silica sand
and is considerably more costly.
Novaculite, a very pure, siliceous rock, is ground to
fine sizes for specialty blast cleaning. It leaves a satin FIGURE 1
Silica Sand Abrasive (X8 - Magnification 8 diameters)

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*2.3 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 4 7 6 T42
available from 10 to 100 sieve. Corncobs (Figure 9) are

another agricultural product used for specialty cleaning to
remove surface contaminants, such as grease and dirt,
without destroying or altering the paint or metal substrate.
Corncobs are also available in a full range of sizes.
C. MANUFACTURED ABRASIVES
Non-metallic, manufactured abrasives are made from
raw material feed stock and can be produced for specific
abrasive properties, such as toughness, hardness, or
shape. Some examples are silicon carbide (Figure lo), a
tough angular abrasive for specialty etching; aluminum ox-
ides (Figure 11) for blast cleaning materials such as
stainless steel; and glass beads (Figure 12) for peening
and cleaning small, delicate parts.
FIGURE 2 Because they are produced for specialized cleaning
Heavy Mineral Sand Abrasive X8 needs, manufactured abrasives are 10 to 15 times more
costly than by-product slags and 30 to 40 times more ex-
pensive than sand. For this reason, manufactured
abrasives are not recommended for bulk cleaning jobs
where the abrasive cannot be recovered for reuse. The
tough, durable nature of most manufactured abrasives
makes them particularly adaptable to recycling as many
as 20 times. Consequently, net cost can be comparable to
that of the by-product abrasives.
II. CHOOSING THE RIGHT ABRASIVE

The variety of materials available make it necessary
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to know how to select the proper abrasive appropriate for a

given job. An abrasive has four parameters that determine
its performance: shape, hardness, density and size. It is
important to know how each of these parameters affects
surface preparation.
FIGURE 3 A. SHAPE (ANGULAR VERSUS ROUND)

Garnet Abrasive X8
Because of their scouring action, angular particles
are best suited for removal of soft friable surface con-
taminants such as paint, rust, and dirt. Figure 13 il-
lustrates the scouring action. Round particles are best
suited for removal of brittle Contaminants like millscale.
Round particles are also used to produce a peening action
when little or no change in surface configuration is permit-
ted.
B. HARDNESS (HARD VERSUS SOFT)

Hard or tough particles are best suited for blast
cleaning jobs where the primary objective is to remove
surface contaminants. Hard particles leave less residue on
the surface, minimize dusting, and, i f recycling is
employed, (see last column, Table l), provide the best
durability. Soft abrasives remove light contaminants
without disturbing the metal substrate or, in some cases,
the coating system. Soft abrasives, such as yvalnut shells
FIGURE 4 and corncobs, are used for cleaning valves or turbine rotor
Zircon Abrasive X8
blades and for removing grease from motors and dirt or
other deposits on paint films. They are also effective in

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*2.3 93 86279LIO 0003477 989
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cleaning industrial plants prior to repainting.
C. DENSITY (DENSE VERSUS LIGHT)

Generally, the denser the particle the more effective it
is as an abrasive. Since the kinetic energy of a particle is
equal to the mass times the square of the velocity, increas-
ing the mass increases the amount of work done by each
particle. The converse is also true.
D. SIZE (LARGE VERSUS SMALL)

Particle size is often overlooked as a parameter
affecting the performance of an abrasive. But marked im-
provement in cleaning can be realized by controlling the
size distribution of particles making up an abrasive. Clean-
ing rate is determined by the number of particle impacts
per unit of time. The more impacts, the faster the cleaning
Copper Slag Abrasive x8 FIGURE 5
rate. The limiting factor is that particles must be coarse
enough to remove the surface contaminants. The best
abrasive medium is one composed of a range of sizes
because coarse particles will remove the coarser con-
taminants while fine particles will scour out the residual
fine, friable corrosion products or old paint. For recycled
abrasives, it is extremely important that the range of parti-
cle sizes or operating mix be maintained by regular addi-
tions of new abrasives to replace fractured particles
removed from the blast cleaning system.
111. MATCHING THE ABRASIVE TO THE JOB

In addition to understanding the relation between
these parameters and abrasive performance, it is equally
important to be aware of the job conditions that influence
the selection of an abrasive.
A. TYPE OF SURFACE
FIGURE 6
The abrasive selected to do the most efficient clean- Nickel Slag Abrasive X8
ing will depend on whether the surface is rusted, scaled,
painted or produced in a foundry. Rusted steel requires an
angular abrasive to scour the corrosion product. Scaled
steel requires dense, spherical particles to pop off the ox-
ide scale. Painted surfaces require coarse, angular par-
ticles to bite into more resilient paint coatings. A foundry
casting requires a hard, high density particle to remove
fused sand and metal flashing.
B. SURFACE FINISH REQUIRED

The desired finish is a factor in selecting the abrasive.
For instance, i f the coating is to be removed without alter-
ing the substrate, a soft, angular particle, such as walnut
shells, may be used. Glass beads are suitable for removing
oxide films on rotor blades, plastic molds, and other in-
tricate parts where no dimensional change can be toler-
ated. At the other end of the spectrum, if a deep etch in the
metal substrate is required to enhance coating adhesion, a
FIGURE 7
coarse, hard, and angular abrasive such as copper slag is coal Fired, il^^ Bottom Ash slag X8
recommended.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 3 73 8627740 0003478 815 =
FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9
Walnut Shell Abrasive X8 Corncob Shell Abrasive X8
C. COATING SYSTEM by-product slags or replacing open blasting with en-

closed blasting. Enclosed blasting is commonly as-
Most manufacturers recommend a minimum surface
sociated with reclamation of the abrasive, which must
texture on the abrasive-cleaned surface for good coating
be a high quality, tough, durable material if it is to be
adhesion. The coating system will therefore also influence
recycled many times. Although the most commonly recy-
the choice of abrasive for surface preparation.
cled abrasives are the steel abrasives, manufactured and
naturally occurring abrasives that exhibit excellent
D. CLEANLINESS
durability should also be considered for recycling. The car-
Not all abrasives provide the same surface bide and alumina abrasives and naturally occurring
cleanliness. An abrasive effective for a commercial blast garnets and heavy mineral sands can be reused many
(SSPC-SP6) may not be able to provide a near-white (SSPC- times. If conditions such as job location make recycling
SP 10) or white-metal (SSPC-SP5 ) blast-cleaned surface. It impossible, copper slag is recommended because it pro-
is important to know whether an abrasive can meet the duces the least dust.
specified degree of cleanliness.
F. ABRASIVE EVALUATION TESTS
E. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS Finally, among the criteria for selection of abrasives
Environmental requirements affect the choice of are certain key physical and chemical properties of the
abrasive. The need to minimize dust or airborne free silica abrasives.
may require replacing cheaper sands with more costly
FIGURE 10 FIGURE 11
Silicon Carbide Abrasive X8 Aluminum Oxide Abrasive X8
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
48
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*2*3 93 8627940 0003479 751
1. Size consist is the size distribution of abrasive par-

ticles and is best determined by sieve analysis, outlined
in ASTM-D 451. A consistent range of abrasive particle
sizes must be maintained to produce a consistent surface
and cleaning rate.
2 Abrasive breakdown is a measure of a particle
breakdown after impact. The greater the particle
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
breakdown the poorer the cleaning rate. That is, if

most of the particle energy is dissipated in particle
breakdown, little energy is left for removal of surface
contaminants. Most manufacturers list a breakdown value,
and standard test procedures are being established by
California and the federal government. A proposed test
procedure is outlined in Table 2, and Figure 14 illustrates
the test equipment.
FIGURE 12
Glass Bead Abrasive X8
Direction of Travel
Twisting d u e to
offset center of
Gouging a t point of impact
FIGURE 13
Impact of Angular Abrasive Particle on Steel Surface
FIGURE 14
Sponge abrasive used for sponge jetting - no magnification.

Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 49 Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 3 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003480 473
3. Dust generation is the amount of dust generated by 5. The soluble chloride test is important, because
an abrasive on impact. Excessive dust can create chlorides in an abrasive will leave a chloride residue
visibility problems during blasting and cause en- on the blasted substrate that could be detrimental
vironmental problems at the job site. A measure of to the substrate and subsequent coating systems.
dust generation may be obtained during the Most chemical laboratories can routinely analyze
abrasive breakdown test described in Table 2. for soluble chlorides. If the abrasive source is near
4. The p H values of an abrasive should be nearly seawater, routine checking for soluble chlorides is a
neutral when the abrasive i s mixed with water. Most must.
suppliers note the pH on the technical data sheet 6. Analysis for free silica is generally provided by the
accompanying the abrasive. The pH value is easily manufacturer. The level of free silica should comply
checked and should be routinely monitored. An with governmental regulations.
abrasive with an acid pH would cause premature 7. Trace toxic contaminants should be reviewed prior
corrosion of steel and could cause coating failure. to use, and suppliers should provide a trace element
analysis for potentially toxic substances.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 1
PHYSICAL DATA ON NON-METALLIC ABRASIVES
Free Degree
Hardness Specific Bulk Slllca of
(Mohr Scale) Shape Gravlty Density Color wt Yo Dusting Reuse
Ibslcu ft
Naturally OccurringAbrasives
Sands
Silica 5 rounded 2-3 1 O0 white 90 + high poor
Heavy Mineral 5-7 rounded 3-4 128 variable (5 med good
Flint 6.5-7 angular 2-3 80 grey-white 90 + med good
Garnet 7.8 angular 4 145 pink nil med good
Zircon 7.5 cubic 4.5 184 white nil low good
Novaculite 4 angular 2.5 1O0 white 90 + low good
By-product Abrasives
Slags
Boiler 7 angular 2.8 80-90 black nil high poor
Copper 8 angular 3.3 100-120 black nil low good
Nickel 8 angular 2.7 84 green nil high poor
Walnut shells 3 cubic 1.3 44 brown nil low poor
Peach pits 3 cubic 1.3 44 brown nil low poor
ManufacturedAbrasives
Silicon carbide 9 angular 3.2 k 105 black nil low good
Aluminum oxide 8 blocky 4.0 * 120 brown nil low good
50
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SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 3 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003483 3 0 T =
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT BIOGRAPHY
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active A biographical sketch and photo of Bill Hitzrot appear at the
participation of the following in the review process for this end of Chapter 2.0.
chapter: Harlan Kline, A.W. Mallory, Joe Mazia, R.N. McCorrnick
and William Wallace.
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at 303-397-2295.
CHAPTER 2.4
ABRASIVE AIR BLAST CLEANING

by
P.J. Bennett
Abrasive air blast cleaning provides a method of sur- ¡.e., the compressor, air lines, abrasive blast machine,
face preparation that is rapid, proven, and well es- abrasive blast hose and nozzle. This cleaning method is
tablished. An understanding of air blast cleaning with the most productive of abrasive blast cleaning. The effi-
various abrasives is essential for a successful operation. ciency is largely dependent on actual nozzle pressure,
Proper surface preparation by this method provides a which should be 90-100 psi range. The pressure blast
foundation for the paint system, resulting in a clean sur- machine, or “pot”, varies in size, but must be under
face, uniform etch, and a long, economical coating pressure for an even flow of abrasives. Velocity of the
life. In abrasive air blast cleaning, surface preparation abrasive in the pressure method is greater than the
can be achieved on parts or weldments that are not abrasive velocity found in suction equipment (Figures 1, 2,
uniform in size or shape. Uniform or flat pieces may, 3, 4).
especially on new work, be cleaned more efficiently with
mechanical cleaning machines. B. SUCTION BLAST EQUIPMENT
This equipment utilizes the suction jet method of ob-
I. DESCRIPTION taining abrasive from the abrasive tank that is not under
Air blast equipment contains and meters abrasive into pressure. The jet of air blasts the abrasive against the sur-
a compressed air stream through conveying hoses and face after sucking abrasive from the container. Cleaning
nozzles to the work piece. In effect, the part being cleaned speed is approximately 113 slower than that of pressure
is eroded away by a mass of abrasive particles until a firm, blast cleaning with similar size air jets. Its use should be
clean surface results. Abrasive blast cleaning with a com- limited to touch-up or spot cleaning jobs, where high
pressed air source, air hose, abrasive blast machine, speed cleaning is not a factor (Figures 5 and 6).
abrasive hose, and nozzle imparts a velocity to the
abrasive particle that becomes a working force. Because C. VACUUM BLAST EQUIPMENT
of its effectiveness in cleaning metals, the process has In the vacuum blast cleaning method, air and abrasive
been widely accepted to remove mill scale, rust, paint and are captured in a rubber-hooded enclosure. They are drawn
other contaminants. by suction back to the blast unit where reusable abrasive
Various abrasives are used in the process, but the is separated from blast-cleaned surface contaminants,
most widely used abrasive is silica sand that has been recycled, and reused.
processed for a blasting abrasive. Respiratory protection This is considered a “dust free” abrasive blast clean-
must be given to the operator and workers in the blast
ing because it shields the blast surface area from flying
cleaning area because of .spent abrasive and the con-
particles and dust. It will not disturb adjacent machinery
tamination being removed from the surface. Selection of and workmen. Cleaning speed is limited because the sur-
the abrasive in this process becomes a major factor in face is not visible to the operator.
cleaning speed, surface etch and coating adhesion. The
There are two methods of vacuum blast cleaning. In
trend is to a finer size of abrasive because of increased the suction type the abrasive is siphoned from container to
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cleaning speed on new or lightly rusted steel; a coarser the blast head. The pressure type machine delivers sand
size of abrasive is used for more corroded steel or harder- under pressure through a blast hose to the surface. The
to-clean surfaces. Paint coating manufacturers have found
pressure method provides greater production. The process
a uniform etch with a cleaner surface much more effective
is limited to the use of reusable abrasives, such as
for coating adhesion than an overly smooth surface of
metallic, steel shot or steel grit, aluminum oxide or garnet.
similar cleanliness. It is important to maintain a proper In some cases, where moisture is a problem due to high
size of abrasive for air blast cleaning. humidity, a mixture of steel grit and aluminum oxide or
garnet is recommended because it keeps the metal
II. TYPES OF AIR BLAST EQUIPMENT abrasive from “lumping” or congealing due to moisture
A. PRESSURE TYPE (Figure 7).
In a pressure-type abrasive blast system the abrasive

machine is under the same pressure as the entire system,

52
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * 4 73 8627740 0003483 182 =
have a check list of each component to ensure peak perfor-
mance. Each component is discussed in detail.
A. AIRSUPPLY
Air supply provides energy for the entire operation
and is responsible for maintaining pressure and volume.
Volume requirement is determined by the orifice nozzle
size.
The nozzle size in Table 1 indicates air consumption in
cfm (cubic feet per minute) at 100 psi (pounds per square
inch) without abrasive going through the nozzle.
When determining the compressor size the next larger
size compressor available for the nozzle should be used. It
is also wise to consider other air requirements from the
compressor, such as for an air-fed hood (20 cfm) and air-
driven ventilating equipment (approximately 120 cfm). A
separate air source for air-fed hoods may be required,
unless a carbon monoxide detector is installed in the air
system. Insufficient air supply results in excess abrasive
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and slower cleaning rates.
B. AIR HOSE AND COUPLINGS

Recommended size of the air supply hose should be 3
or 4 times the nozzle orifice. On lines over 100 feet, four
times should be the minimum size. Often, the size hose
used requires a coupling installed on the inside diameter
of the air hose, which further restricts air flow. The I.D. of
the coupling should be considered along with hose size.
FIGURE 1 Another problem is the size of the air compressor manifold
Pressure blast machine. valve. It is common for air compressor manufacturers to
Courtesy of Clemco Industries. furnish compressors with 1-inch outlets and valves. These
should be removed and replaced with 1% ” or 2“ outlets to
111. ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS OF AIR BLAST
match the main air supply hose.
EQUIPMENT
To achieve efficient abrasive air blast cleaning,
specific attention must be given to each component of the c. ABRASIVE BLAST MACHINES
air blast equipment (Figure 8). The pressure machine is a non-fired pressure vessel,
Components are air SUPPlY, air hoSe and CoUPlings, built t o ASME code requirements for 125 psi working
abrasive blast machines, abrasive blast hose and pressures, sized to maintain an adequate volume of
couplings, nozzles, operator equipment, air-fed hoods and abrasive for the nozzle orifice.
control valves, and oil and moisture separators.
A manager of an abrasive air blast operation should
TABLE 1
AIR CONSUMPTION
NOZZLE C F M REQUIRED ABRASIVE CONSUMPTION

ORIFICE @ 100 PSI PER HOUR
3116 “ 60 CFM 260 Lbs.

1I4 ” 105 CFM 490 Lbs.
5116 “ 160 CFM 812 Lbs.
318 ” 232 CFM 1152 Lbs.
7116 “ 315 CFM 1584 Lbs.
112 ” 412 CFM 2024 Lbs.
518 ” 580 CFM 2518 Lbs.
314 ” 840 CFM 3174 Lbc.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 - 4 93 8627940 0003484 019 =
nozzle end. There, a short hose of smaller diameter should
be used for operators’ convenience and flexibility. Typical
Cover
(Optional) abrasive blast operations will be 100 ft. of 1 i/d-inch sand-
blast hose and 10 ft. of 1-inch hose (called a tail line or
--- Screen
whip hose) for a 3/,-inch orifice nozzle.
(Optional)
Hose construction is normally %-inch thick rubber
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tube with carbon black compounding for the dissipation of

static electricity generated by an abrasive flow through
tube. Dissipating static electricity prevents build up and
shock to operator.
The tube is covered by 2- or 4-ply wrapping to provide
strength for pressure requirements. Normal working
pressure should not exceed 125 psi.
A wear-resistant cover is applied over the ply to pro-
tect it against premature wear.
In some cases an additional static wire or two is
wrapped spirally around the tube between the ply to en-
sure drain of static electricity. In areas of volatile liquids
-Coded
Pressure this type of hose should be used. Parts that are abrasive
’ I Sand Valve
(Grit Valve not shown)
FIGURE 2
Diagram of pressure blast machine.
Courtesy of Clemco Industries.
It should have a sloping bottom for free flow of

abrasives and be constructed with an abrasive metering
valve to provide the correct abrasive-to-air mixture. The
pressure tank, with pressurizing and depressurizing
valves, becomes an abrasive blast machine, pressure type.
Figures 9-11 illustrate various size machines. Smaller
machines are adaptable to small nozzles and to smaller in-
accessible type work, whereas larger machines can ac-
commodate multiple large nozzle outlets for large flat
areas.
Suction machines are little more than small, non-
pressured containers with screens and a bottom outlet for
abrasive flow to a suction blast nozzle. Hose distance is
less than 25 feet where abrasive can be vacuumed to the
blast nozzle.
D. ABRASIVE BLAST HOSE AND COUPLINGS

Recommended size of the blast hose is important to
an air blast operation because of friction loss measured in
pressure drop of conveying abrasive. The recommended FIGURE 3
size is three to four times the nozzle size, except near the Two chamber continuous action pressure blast machine.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R w 2 . 4 93 8627740 0003485 T 5 5
POP-UPValve Seat Gasket - , --

.. e /' vide rapid speed of abrasive particles through the nozzle,
increasing cleaning rate compared to a straight bore noz-
zle of the same length.
Nozzles are a very important part of an air blast opera-
tion and should be inspected regularly for orifice size and
wear. Worn out and cracked nozzles result in increased
compressor wear, increased abrasive usage, and poor
nozzle pattern (Figure 12).
F. CONTROL VALVES
Pressure abrasive blast machines have an inlet, outlet
or depressurizing and choke valve and an abrasive meter-
ing valve. The abrasive inlet on air blast machines i s called
an air operating and sealing valve, but is not common to all
machines (Figure 2).
Valves mentioned are all manual because of safety re-
FIGURE 4 quirements, the need for fewer operating personnel and
Diagram of two chamber continuous action pressure blast the use of pneumatic valves controlled by operation. Two
machine.
blast cleaned should be grounded to prevent a spark that

could ignite flammable material. Proper grounding
prevents the spark and ensures safe working conditions.
Couplings used on blast hoses should always be ex-
terior and should be fitted to the hose in a snug, tight con-
dition. Small screws through the coupling into the cover
ply tube completes sure fastening of the coupling to the
hose. The advantage of exterior couplings is that they do
not contribute to friction loss.
Normal pressure drop of sandblast hose with 3/,-inch
orifice nozzle is 5 psi per 50 ft. length. Therefore, it is
important to use large hose as short as practical.
A word of caution: too large an abrasive hose (1-inch)
on small nozzles (y,,-inch) may result in uneven abrasive
flow.
E. NOZZLES
There are many types of blast nozzles, but construc-
tion material used in liners of nozzles determines the life
and cost. Liners are constructed of ceramic, cast iron,
tungsten carbide and boron carbide. Ceramic and cast iron
are short life nozzles. Carbide nozzles are long life.
Average life of tungsten nozzles is 200 hours. Ceramic and
cast iron are 2-4 hours. Boron carbide nozzles can main-
tain their size for 1500 hours i f properly handled to prevent
cracking of the brittle carbide material.
During construction of these nozzles a soft metal
(lead and aluminum) is used to absorb shock and protect
the liner. It is common to put a small, 4-6 inch piece of
rubber hose over these nozzles for added protection. A FIGURE 5
polyurethane cover is also used over liners, but they Suction blast equipment.
should be checked for threads wearing.
Nozzle shapes provide great advantages to nozzle
construction. Venturi style nozzles (large throat con-
verging to the orifice and then diverging to the outlet) pro-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*2*4 93 m 8627990 000398b 991 m
G. OIL AND MOISTURE SEPARATORS

The large consumption of compressed air in an
abrasive blast operation introduces the problem of
moisture (especially in high humidity areas) and oil mists
from the lubricating oils in compressors. This is especially
true in portable compressors. To combat this, an ade-
quately sized oillmoisture separator should be installed at
the blast machine (the most distant point from the com-
pressor) to eliminate 95% of the contaminants. Separators
are usually of the cyclone type with expansion chambers
and small micron filters. They require solvent cleaning to
remove oil and routine replacement of filters.
H. AIR SUPPLIED RESPIRATORSIHOODS

The protective helmet for abrasive blast cleaning
operations has several requirements to be effective. It
must be
Safe to user, furnishing respirable air to operator at
a low noise level and protecting operator from re-
bounding abrasive particles;
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 6
Suction blast cabinet.
Courtesy of Clsmco Industries.
of these manual valves, the inlet and outlet, can be re-

placed. When these valves are replaced, the air blast
machine becomes an automatic, one-man operated
machine, remote controlled by the blast operator. Further
advantage is obtained when an abrasive hopper is placed
above the blast machine. This method is well suited for
recycled abrasives in abrasive blast rooms or enclosed
systems (Figure 13).
The choke valve is seldom used, except for removing
clogged abrasive, paper or foreign particles that block flow
of abrasives. The choke valve is closed momentarily to
force all pressure through the machine, freeing a clogged
line. This usually takes 10 seconds.
The abrasive metering valve is the carburetor that pro-

vides proper abrasivelair mixture to the nozzle orifice. It is
very important that this valve be in good condition. Once it
is set, it does not require constant or continual change. FIGURE 7
Vacuum blast equipment.
Courtesy of Pauli 81 Griffin Company.
56
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 4 93 8627940 0003487 8 2 8 W
Points to Check
1. Large Compressor
2. Large Air Hose and Couplings
3. Portable High Production
Sandblast Machines
4. Large Size Sandblast Hose
with External Couplings
5. Large Orifice Venturi Nozzle
6. Remote Control Valves
7. Moisture Separators
8. High Nozzle Air Pressure
9. Proper Sandblasting Abrasive
10. Safety Air Fed Helmet
11. Training of Operators
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 8
Essential components of a successful sand blast operation.
Able to provide clear vision to operator; In a confined or congested area only air-fed helmets
Comfortable and not restrictive. should be used. They should have a charcoal filter with air
There are several types of abrasive blast hoods, in- regulator to filter air supply. The filter to the helmet hose
cluding air-fed and non-air-fed. The non-air-fed hood is should be a minimum of JS-inch I.D. and constructed to
satisfactory for light duty, non-continuous exterior work. convey compressed breathing air. Air-fed helmets should
They should not be used in confined or congested areas. A have NIOSH approval.
specifically designed NIOSH approved dust respirator
must be worn under the hood. IV. AIR BLAST ABRASIVES
Many abrasives are used in air blast operations. Each
has specific uses and provides a specific etch and surface
appearance. The coating usually has a specific adhesion
requirement, and a selection of the proper abrasive is most
important. Generally, an abrasive is classified according
to the following characteristics:
Size - Usually by U.S. Sieve Sizes (¡.e., 16 x 40
mesh) - (.0469” x ,0165” - 1.19mm x .42mm).
Shape - Irregular, round, sharp.
Hardness - Usually by Moh’s Hardness Scale of
the present element.
Color - Light or dark. Lighter abrasives reflect
light and restrict visibility. Dark abrasives absorb
light.
Chemical Components - Abrasives should not
contain undesirable components that would remain
on surface being cleaned.
Specific Gravity or Weight - Heavy abrasives
clean faster and impact much better while light-
weight abrasives are primarily used for polishing.
pH of Abrasive - A neutral pH within the range of
7.0 i 1 is desirable. Salt water washed abrasives
are not recommended.
Availability and Cost - Selection of abrasives
could result in a high cost of transportation to
using area. Quite often, freight costs exceed ab-
rasive cost.
FIGURE 9 Abrasives fall into five general categories:
Large (8 ton capacity) portable pressure blast machine.
Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd. Metallic - Steel, iron shot or grit.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 4 73 m 8627940 0003488 764 m
TABLE 2
ABRASIVE CHART
MAJOR SPECIFIC
ABRASI VE -
TYPE COMPONENT SHAPE HARDNESS GRAVITY
Steel Shot Metallic Iron Round Hard*' 7.2
Steel Grit Metallic Iron Angular Hard' 7.6
Iron Grit Metallic Iron Angular Hard 7.4
Alum. Oxide Oxide Alumina Angular Hard 3.8
Silicon Carbide Oxide Silicon Carbide Angular Hard 3.8
Garnet Oxide Iron-Silica Irregular Hard 4.0
Slag-Coal Conglomerate Iron-Alum Silica Irregular Hard 2.8
Slag-Copper Conglomerate Iron-Alum Silica Irregular Very Hard 3.3
SlagNickel Conglomerate Iron-Alum Silica Irregular Hard 3.2
Flint Silica Silica Sharp Medium 2.7
Sand Silica Silica Irregular Medium 2.7
Limestone Oxide Caco2 Irregular Soft 2.4
Magnesium Silicate Mineral Silicate Round Medium 3.2
Staurolite Mineral Silicate Round Hard 4.5
Walnut Shell Vegetable Cellulosic Irregular Soft 1.3
Zirconium Mineral Silica Round Hard 4.5
Corn Cob Grit Vegetable Cellulosic Irregular Soft 1.2
Sodium Chemical Sodium Bicarbonate Irregular Soft 1 .o
Glass Beads Oxide Silica Round Medium 2.7
Plastic Beads Organic Polymer Resin Round/lrregular SoftlMedium 1 .o
'Soft materials are < 4 on Moh's hardness scale; Medium 4 5 6; Hard 2 6
""Various Hardnesses Available
Oxides - Natural or manufactured.

Silicas - Sands, staurolite, zirconium, magnesium to increase life and rate of cleaning. Generally, the hard
silicate abrasives, 65 Rockwell C Hardness, are used for etching,
Vegetable - Cellulose type, walnut shells, corn cob but they break down rapidly. The softer abrasives, 30-40
grits. Rockwell C, are used for easier cleaning jobs. The softer
Slags or conglomerates, coal, nickel, copper grit will round-up after reuse. Average hardness of metal
Table 2 is a guide for abrasive selection. Metal etch- abrasives is 45-50 Rockwell C, which works satisfactorily
ing will remove mill scale, rust and other contaminants as an air blast abrasive.
from metal to produce a white metal surface condition
with an etch (anchor pattern) on the surface. Light clean- V. EFFICIENCY OF AIR BLAST OPERATIONS
ing removes only old paint and loose rust. It is generally As with any production job, efficiency results in good
used for maintenance or repainting. production rates and lower unit costs. This is especially
Tests for abrasives, derived by the NACE T-6G Com- true in abrasive air blast operations where a small drop in
mittee, using a certain volume of abrasive to blast clean a pressure rapidly increases consumption of abrasive and
steel plate at a constant pressure and distance, determine decreases cleaning rate. Figure 14 illustrates the irn-
the breakdown rate of the abrasive and the abrading or portance of good nozzle pressure. In a blast test of two
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
metal removal quality. minutes, differences in nozzle pressure were compared. At

Although this test is lengthy, it provides accurate in- 60 psi the rate of cleaning is 112 the rate at 100 psi and
formation on abrasives. Silica abrasives (sand) range from abrasive usage is more than double. This is especially im-
soft to hard and poor to good for metal removal. portant on interior work (inside of tanks) where abrasive
Field tests of abrasives by a qualified engineer should must be removed prior to painting. Pressures in excess of
consider 100 psi tire the operator, and little is gained working above
Size - Approximately 16 x 40 mesh (U.S. Sieve) these pressures.
(.0469" x .0165" x 1.19mm x .42mm).
Cleanliness - Fresh Water Washed. A. PROCEDURE
Contamination - (clay, iron, salt, etc.) that would re- To correctly set up an air blast the following pro-
main on surface cleaned. cedures should be followed. Assume the correct size of
Metallic abrasives present different problems. These nozzle, hose, machine and compressor.
abrasives are normally heat-treated to various hardnesses

58
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 . 4 93 = 8627740 0003489 b T O
Connect respirator and safety equipment and
check for operation.
Depressurize machine, add abrasives, start blast
cleaning operation, adjust abrasive metering valve
to allow proper flow of abrasive to nozzle. The cor-
rect abrasive flow will be a steady flow to nozzle.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Uneven flow or surging indicates too much
abrasive.
On completion of blast cleaning, the blast machine
should be emptied to prevent introduction of
moisture into abrasive.
Prior to painting the surface, dry air from nozzle
without abrasive should be used to blow down the
surface to remove spent abrasive dust. The surface
is now ready to be coated.
B. VARIABLES
Abrasives vary in their hardness and size. The
greatest variable is the operator. Some people can be
trained to perform satisfactorily, while others find this
work monotonous or otherwise unacceptable. It is best to
ensure operator comfort and safety.
As with all cleaning operations, differences in surface
condition, type of steel, corrosion, etc., affect the rate of
cleaning. On large cleaning jobs it is wise to mark off a
FIGURE 10
Large stationary pressure blast machine.
Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd.
Start compressor after the oil and water has been

checked and compressor has been located upwind
of blast operation.
Uncoil air and abrasive hoses and lay out in most
direct line to machine and work.
Locate abrasive blast machine as close to work as
possible to minimize abrasive hose use.
Connect air hose with safety connections and blow
out hose.
Connect blast machine to air supply hose ahci blow
out machine for any abrasive that may have been
left over from previous use.
Check all control valves on machine for correct
working order.
Partially open the moisture trap drain valve to drain
FIGURE 11
moisture. Install safety clips on abrasive hose. Portable bulk abrasive pressure blast machine.
Test complete unit without abrasives. Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd.

59
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R s 2 - 4 93 8627940 0003490 312
given area and run a cleaning test to achieve a more ac- Vi. PRODUCTION RATES OF CLEANING
curate cleaning rate. Table 3 illustrates open air blast cleaning rates and
Special consideration should be given to interior blast abrasive consumption On newly fabricated steel using a
cleaning. A wide variation in production rates exists on in-
J/,-inch orifice nozzle and 100 psi to a SSPC-SP 10 near-
terior cleaning, as much as 2:l (112 exterior cleaning rate), white condition.
because of visibility problems, ventilating problems, and
inaccessi bi Iity . These variables can be mi ni mized with
good lighting, ventilation and good scaffolding tech-
niques.
~~
TABLE 3
EXAMPLES OF C L E A N I N G R A T E S W I T H T Y P I C A L A B R A S I V E S
ABRASIVE PRO DUCT ION
ABRASIVE CONSUMPTION RATE COMMENTS
Silica Sand 16/40 2.6 Lbs./Sq. Ft. 4.75 Sq. Ft./Min. 1Y' Mil Etch
Mesh Dusty
'Garnet 36 Grit *3.6 Lbs./Sq. Ft. 3.55 Sq. Ft./Min. 1% Mil Etch - Very
little dust-reusable
*Aluminum Oxide *3.1 Lbs./Sq. Ft. 4.58 Sq. Ft./Min. 1 % Mil Etch - Very
36 Grit little dust-reusable
*G-40 Steel Grit '5.5 Lbs./Sq. Ft. 3.06 Sq. Ft./Min. 2'/2 Mil Etch-NO Düst
Grey Metal-Reusable
Crushed Flint 3.6 Lbs./Sq. Ft. 2.69 Sq. Ft./Min. 3 Mils - Reusable
12/30 Mesh
Staurolite 3.1 Lbs./Sq. Ft. 4.85 sq. Ft./Min. Mil Etch
501100 Mesh Smooth Surface
Coal Slag 3.2 Lbs./Sq. Ft. 3.83 Sq. Ft./Min. 2% Mil Etch
16/40 Mesh Reusable-Imbedding
Copper Slag 3.1 Lbs./St. Ft. 4.36 Sq. Ft./Min. 2 Mil Etch
16/40 Mesh Reusable-Imbedding
*These abrasives are normally reused.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CONVENTIONAL STYLE NOZZLE

B: ---sf High impact in center but diminishing
towards edge of pattern. Large fringe
-11 area. Requires more passes than Venturi
to cover surface. Force of air and abrasive
on fringe not being utilized.
f ' tun &celerates and develops

an outlet speeà twice that of
a straight barrel nozzle.
FIGURE 12
Nozzle styles. Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*2.4 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003493 2 5 9 =
A general comment on abrasive tests would include
the following:
Only open blast cleaning is represented.
Fine abrasives clean faster than coarse abrasives.
Fine abrasives produce less etch than coarse
abrasives.
Reuse of abrasives lowers cleaning costs.
Some abrasives imbed in mild steel.
Illustrated is recessed Flo-Flor with 3

recovery pans. While configurations of
Flo-Flor systems will vary, the com-
ponents o f each system will be the same
NOTE: Attention must be given to
a
. _- L -
drainage around recovery

system. Moisture entering the FIGURE 14
recovery area will cause serious
malfunction. Effect of nozzle pressure upon cleaning rate. Cleaning time is two
minutes.
Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd.
Air and sandblast hose - required for different

size nozzles. Proper coupling techniques.
Nozzle - proper size and care of (Figure 15).
Complete equipment - with air-fed helmet
(Figure 16), filter and pressure regulation. Care,
maintenance and assembly.
Proper grounding - of all equipment.
Abrasive - type and size.
A. SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
It is necessary to stress the safety aspects of air blast
cleaning. At the work place everyone should be advised of
health hazards of improper grounding, abrasive dust, con-
tamination, spent abrasive removal and known hazards of
working with high pressure equipment. Scaffolding is not
included in this section, but should not be overlooked.
FIGURE 13 Safe scaffolding is very important and can provide many
Abrasive recycle system for blast room. benefits.
Courtesy of Clemco Industries. Safety requirements should be in accordance with all
applicable federal, state, and local rules and requirements.
VII. TRAINING OF OPERATORS
They should also be in accord with instructions of the
A well trained sandblast operator can be a great paint manufacturer and of insurance underwriters. A
asset. There are training films and training literature checklist of necessary precautions would include but not
available from equipment manufacturers. It is easy to plan necessarily be limited to the following:
a training session. 1. Proper grounding techniques - With the use of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Specific topics that should be covered are anti-static abrasive blast hose, the static electrici-
Purpose of cleaning and degree of cleanliness re- ty cannot build up as it dissipates immediately;
quired for protective coating to achieve maximum however, precautions should be used when work-
economical life. ing with volatile, flammable materials. An example
Training and familiarization of actual working is petroleum storage tanks or similar containers.
pieces of equipment used in air blast cleaning Equipment and the piece that is abrasive blast
operat ion. cleaned should be grounded. Quite often, patches
Air Compressor - start, stop, pressure adjust- (or repairs) to the vessel, valves and gauges are in-
ment. sulated from the tank itself by gaskets or epoxy
Abrasive Blast Machine - start, stop, abrasive adhesives; therefore, it is very important that all
filling, abrasive mixture control, choking items be grounded and checked for ground poten-
machine to relieve moisture and inspection of tial. These pieces, when abrasive blast cleaned,
ASME code stamp. build up high static electricity potentials.
Operator Remote Controls - start, stop and In some extreme cases the nozzle and worker
emergency shut-down. Trouble-shooting of should be grounded to the part being abrasive
problems. blast cleaned.
at 303-397-2295.
FIGURE 15
Effect of nozzle size increases production rate from 96 to 180 to 252 cq. ft. per hr.
Courtesy of Ciemtex Ltd.
When weldments or small parts are being If no respiratory protective device is used, crys-
cleaned, it is not required to go into such detail talline silica abrasives can cause silicosis after sever-
when proper equipment and static dissipating al years of constant exposure. Therefore, extreme
abrasive hose are used. In the interest of safety, caution should be used with these abrasives. Use
these conditions must be checked before blast of a low silica substitute (less than 1% free silica)
cleaning. should be considered.
2. Breathing air - With oil-lubricated air compres- Although particles in excess of 10 microns are
sors, whether driven by electric or gasldiesel not readily breathable, the nuisance dust should be
engines, a proper charcoal filter, particulate filter avoided with respirators designed to guard against
o r a chemical cartridge filter should be used to s u p this dust. Metal abrasives, copper slag and coal slag
ply breathable air to air-fed blast hoods. In some abrasives do not contain free silica; however, they
cases a separate air source should be used. The air do break down and cause a dust that should be
supply should be monitored or sampled routinely avoided. ALL abrasives used in abrasive blast clean-
with a carbon monoxide detector to ensure safe air ing do break down and create a dust hazard. Work-
supply. ers involved in blast cleaning operations should be
The air-supplied helmet should have NIOSH provided with personal protective equipment.
approval for use as a Type CE abrasive blast air-fed Water blast cleaning minimizes dust levels.
helmet. The instructions on its use should be (Refer to Chapter 2.5.) Compressed air cooled after-
carefully followed and a maintenance system in- coolers also serve this purpose. They cause the com-
stalled. pressed air to expand, lowering the dewpoint and
3. Abrasive dust - Abrasive blast operations require eliminating moisture in the blast cleaning system. By
an understanding of the principles of industrial drying the air, the aftercooler reduces abrasive use
hygiene and personal protective equipment. Abra- and resulting dust considerably. (Refer to Section
sives, as provided for use in the abrasive blast in- IIIG)
dustry, do not pose a hazard because they are not 4. Contaminated Dust - This dust is often over-
themselves respirable. However, when they are used looked and can be more of a problem than abrasive
in the blast cleaning process, they create a fine dust. As abrasive and the contaminant dust com-
respirable dust. Inhalation of this dust may be harm- bine, it is wise to ensure that respiratory and skin
ful to the respiratory system. Therefore, it is impera- protection devices are adequate to protect
tive that the abrasive blast operator wear a National workers from such contaminants as old lead
Institute for Occupational Safety and HealthIMine paint, coal tar derivatives, and various metal oxide
Safety and Health Administration (NIOSHIMSHA) ap- decay.
proved type CE positive pressure air supplied blast
hood. Other workers in the area should also be sup-
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plied with respirators.

at 303-397-2295.
In a majority of air blast operations this area
of abrasive and contaminated dust is confined to a
200-foot radius from the nozzle. All workers in this
area should wear respirators designed to provide
safe, respirable air to required health standards.
5. Hazards of working with high pressure equipment
- Any type of pressure equipment must be de-
signed in accordance with ASME Code for working
pressure requirements and so labeled. Excess
pressures to overcome pressure drops on long
hose lines should be avoided to maintain safe
working conditions.
Pressure vessels should be inspected annual-
ly. Personnel should be completely familiar with
their use and operation.
Pressure vessels (abrasive blast machines are
non-fired pressure vessels) should be depressur-
ized prior to inspection, filling of abrasive, and
maintenance on controls. These vessels should
not be transported under pressure. Although
abrasive blast machines are provided with
pressure gauges, they are not reliable because of
fine, abrasive dust and harsh treatment received in
this type of work. Therefore, the vessel should be
fitted with a depressurizing valve (bleed-off valve)
near the abrasive opening to discharge pressure
prior to opening.
Safety procedures are generally furnished with air-
blast equipment. Safe maintenance painting practices
should include, but not be limited t o SSPC-PA Guide 3 “A
Guide to Safety in Paint Application”.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Wallace Cathcart. Howard Cheshier, Charles Fox, FIGURE 16
Charlie Lewis, A. W. Mallory, R. N. McCormick, Marshall McGee, Air-fed helmet with filter.
William Pearson. Robert Roth and William Wallace. Courtesy of Clemco Industries.
BIOGRAPHY
P.J. BENNETT
P.J. Bennett is a Registered
Professional Engineer with 38
years experience in the fields of
surface preparation and abra-
sive blast cleaning. He received
a Bachelor of Science in Civil
Engineeringfrom Texas A&M in
1950. He is a member of a num-
ber of professional organi-
zations.
REFERENCES
1. B. Baldwin, “Methods of Dust-FreeAbrasive Blast Cleaning”.
Plant Engineering, pps. 116-125, February 16, 1978.
2. P.J. Bennett, “Surface Preparation Abrasives”. Materials Pro-
tection, July 1964.
3. H.P. Bradley, “Tanks Can be Sandblasted Safely”. Petroleum
Refiner, January 1961.
4. N.D. Cosdorph; “Engineering Approach to Chemical Plant FIGURE 17
Coating”, Corrosion, 1960. By eliminating moisture in the blast cleaning system, com-
5. “Use of Abrasive Blast Equipment”. Clemco Industries.: pressed air aftercoolers reduce abrasive use and dust levels.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 5 93 m 8627940 0003494 T b B m September 1993 (Editorial Changes)
CHAPTER 2.5
WATER BLAST CLEANING

by
P. J. Bennett
Water blast cleaning (sometimes called hydro- The process has been used by industry to clean heat
blasting) uses water at high pressure, 10,000 or more psi, exchangers, boilers, flaking tar, clogged piping, rubber
and low volume, 2 to 15 gallons per minute, to prepare molds, concrete surfaces and latency from fresh concrete
metal for painting. This process removes loose, flaky rust prior to pour. It also is used in plant filter screens and con-
and mill scale. It has gained wide acceptance where dry taminated floor areas.’
abrasive blast cleaning dusts and contamination present a
hazard to personnel and machinery. II. LOW PRESSURE TYPES
Water blast cleaning does not replace abrasive blast Waterblast cleaning with water pressure. up to 2000
cleaning. Water alone cannot etch a metal surface. injec- psi is low pressure cleaning (Figure 2). As water pressure
tion of dry abrasive at the nozzle achieves a surface etch. increases, so does cleaning rate. Low pressure waterblast
Many applications prior to painting are enhanced by this cleaning uses the same equipment as large units, ¡.e.,
method with these major advantages: fast cleaning of engine, pump, hose and gun, but a smaller size and less
soiled surfaces, a neutral surface for application of paint water volume. The size of the cleaning job dictates the
coatings, and low cost. It is important to exercise caution equipment required. Low pressure cleaning is referred to as
when using high pressure forces, taking care to protect “Power Washing” and should be recognized in that service
personnel and equipment. requirement. Low pressure “Power Washers” are espe-
cially suited for removing oil and grease accumulations
I. DESCRIPTION AND USE when water is added to a detergent inhibitor. The volume
Hydroblast cleaning takes a clean, filtered water sup- of water, in gallons per minute, at this pressure also in-
ply into a power driven stainless steel pump and increases fluences the cleaning rate. The greater the volume, the
water pressure to as much as 10,000 psi. High pressure greater the force or cleaning rate.
water is conveyed through hoses to a hand-held gun with a
small diameter orifice nozzle (Figure 1). 111. HIGH PRESSURE
When abrasive is injected into the water stream, the High water pressure cleaning is most widely used
process becomes much more effective. This method (Figure 3). It provides higher pressures and volumes for
restricts dust and flying particles. When abrasive is used greater production cleaning rates. Pressures up to 10,000
to expose bare metal, a secondary washing procedure psi and volumes to 10 gpm provide maximum cleaning
must follow to remove spent slurry. This procedure in- rates and maximum endurance of the operators’ physical
cludes a rust inhibitor, which must be compatible with the ability. Pressures up to 20,000 psi have been used. The
painting system. most commonly used pressure for maintenance surface
Hydroblast cleaning offers the greatest advantage in preparation is 3000 to 6000 psi at 8-10 gpm water volume.
maintenance because of cleaning speed. With abrasive in- This pressure and volume provides an operator with a
jection, it can be used to clean irregular shapes, back-to- workable cleaning force and limits fatigue, resulting in
back angles, corroded valves, marine vessels with sea greater overall performance. High pressures require safety
water corrosion and similar hard-to-clean surfaces. It has a provisions for sure, sound footing for operators.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
wide range of applications, but does not solve all cleaning Ultra high pressure methods, which may use pressures
problems. It is not used to shop clean new weldments. above 40,000 psi, are more efficient but also more expensive.
Abrasive air blast cleaning can be used effectively and
economically on new steel construction, where inorganic
zinc primers are used as permanent primer. The hydroblast
*For further information on water blasting, see Recom-
method is not preferred, due to rust forming between the
mended Practices NACE RP-01-72: “Surface Preparation
drying period and coating application.
of Steel by Water Blasting” by L.L. Sline.

64
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 = 5 93 8627940 0003495 9 T 4 W
FIGURE 1
Typical Water Blast Equipment with Sand Injection.
Courtesy of Partek Corporation of Houston
IV. EQUIPMENT Abrasive is injected into the system after water is

pressured by means of a suction head to prevent pump
The basic waterblast unit consists of an engine driven
damage. It is usually injected at the blast gun before the
pump, inlet water filter, pressure gauge, hydraulic hose
nozzle. The high pressure jet induces abrasive from short
of burst pressure 3 times working pressure, gun and
distances (up to 25 feet) by vacuum. The preferred method
nozzle combination. The water gun should be a “fail-safe”
is to use a pressure abrasive blast machine to ensure even
dump gun, to relieve pressure should the operator release
and adequate flow for distances greater than 25 feet.
the trigger. Nozzles are usually circular orifices for con-
centrated round spray and tapered for flat or fan spray.
Long hose may be used (200 - 300 feet) without loss of
pressure. Air compressors are not required for hydro-
blasting.
V. INTRODUCTION OF ABRASIVES
Any type of abrasive commonly used with air blast
cleaning can be used in waterblast cleaning. Sand is the
most common abrasive. Injecting abrasive into water
eliminates dust that normally accompanies dry use of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
friable abrasives. Use of expensive abrasives i s limited

because spent abrasive becomes wet and contaminated.
In this condition it cannot be economically dried, screened
and recycled.
FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3
Low pressure water blast cleaning with sand injection. High pressure water blast cleaning with sand injection.
Courtesy of Acme Cleaning Equipment Company Courtesy of Tri-Tan Corporation
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 . 5 93 8b279LIO 000349b 830
TABLE 1
SOME WATERBLAST CLEANING RATES*
Sq. Ft. Per Hour
SURFACE Water Only -W 0-2000 PSI 3000 - 6000 PSI 10,000PSI

CONDITION Sand Injection - SI @ 5 GPM 6-8 GPM 10 GPM
Easy to clean, dusty

settlement, flaky flat W 150 350 500
surface, light oil or
grease SI 200 450 650
Average rusty surface W 75 200 250

--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
angles and piping SI 1O0 225 350
Heavily corroded surface W 20 75 125

rust scale, irregular
shape SI 25 1O0 175
NOTE: Hydroblast surface comparable to SSPC-SP 6 condition.

Abrasive cleaned surface comparable to SSPC-SP 10 condition.
*These rates not necessarily achieved under different surface conditions.
VI. PRODUCTION RATES

The speed of cleaning is dependent on highest VIII. COST COMPARISON
manageable working pressure and volume of water. Depend- Hydroblast cleaning cost can be nearly the same as
ing on surface condition, hydroblasting compares favorably dry abrasive blast cleaning. Equipment costs are approxi-
with dry or wet sandblasting. Table 1 is a guide to cleaning mately the same and production i s comparable. There is a
rates, based on the author’s experience. difference because of inhibitors and rinsing costs.
VII. INHIBITORS
Steel cleaned by waterblast or water pressure flashes
rust upon drying unless an inhibitor is in the spray solution
or applied immediately after blasting.
Inhibitors are generally injected at the blast nozzle,
similar to sand injection.
Inhibitors are generally sodium andlor potassium
dichromate or phosphate. They mix well with water and
retard corrosion until suitable paint is applied. The solu-
tions, upon drying, leave salts that can produce adhesion
problems for protective coatings. Hydroblast equipment
manufacturers market chemical solutions that are very
effective in retarding rust. The prime consideration should
be to determine i f the protective coating is compatible with
the inhibitor.
After hydroblast cleaning, the surface must be rinsed
of spent abrasives. It is necessary to use an inhibitor that
prevents rust formation after rinsing.
Inhibitors can retard rust up to seven days. This is par- FIGURE 4
ticularly useful in tank work. The entire surface can be
Gasoline driven trailer mount -
showing optional hose reel.
Courtesy of Tritan Corporation
cleaned prior to painting.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * 5 9 3 8627940 0003477 777
The blast gun should have automatic control to

release pressure when the operator releases the trigger. A
dump valve on the gun serves this purpose.
Everyone within 50 feet of the work area should be
warned of hazards associated with hydroblast cleaning
(including signs a,nd rope-Offs where necessary).
No electrical power should be in the work area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: James Flaherty, A. W. Mallory, Joe Mazia, Marshall
McGee, William Pearson, John Perchall and Bill Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
A biographiwl sketch and photo of Jim Bennett appear at
the end of Chapter 2.4.
FIGURE 5
Steel blasted to white finish (SSPC-SP 5) at 10,000 psi.
Courtesy of Partek Corporation
In maintenance painting, where job specifications

require only removal of all loose paint scale and flaky rust
and a thoroughly washed surface, the hydroblast method
is very economical, compared to hand or power tool clean-
ing. Hydroblast cleaning may also be preferred where
there are restrictions on äry abrasive blast cleaning.
IX. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Hydroblast cleaning uses high pressures. Extreme
caution should be exercised with the equipment.
Instruction and training of operators about correct
use and equipment operation is essential.
Surfaces, other than metal, can be damaged with high
pressure water and should be protected from effects of the
high pressure water blast.
The operator of a hydroblast unit must have sound,
safe footing. Extra caution should be taken on rigid scaf-
folding. Swinging stages and bosun chairs are not nor-
mally recommended for use with hydroblasting.
The operator should wear a rain suit, face shield, hear-
ing protection and gloves.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
67 Questions or comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER+Z.b 93 m a b 2 7 9 4 0 0003502 964
CHAPTER 2.6
HAND AND POWER TOOL CLEANING

by
Preston S. Hollister and R. Stanford Short
I. HAND CLEANING
Hand cleaning is one of the oldest processes for Scrapers may be of any convenient design. Figure 3
preparing surfaces prior to painting. Generally, it is used shows practical scrapers used by maintenance crews.
only when power operated equipment is not available, i f Scrapers should be made of tool steel, tempered and kept
the job is inaccessible to power tools or when the job is sharp to be effective. Some scrapers are made by sharpen-
small. ing the ends of 1-112 to 2-inch wide flat files or rasps and
Tools needed include wire brushes, non-woven fastening them to a handle. The handle may be up to 5 feet
long to increase the area that can be reached. Other chip-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
abrasive pads, scrapers, chisels, knives, chipping ham-

mers, and, in some instances, conventional coated ping and scraping tools made from old files or rasps have
abrasives. Specially shaped scrapers or knives are some- both ends sharpened. Several inches from one end, the file
times necessary. is bent at right angles.
In close areas tools must be shaped so they can enter Hand-chipping hammers are advisable in main-
areas to be cleaned. Further limitations are also found tenance work where rust scale has formed. A chipping
with hand tools when tight mill scale or rust must be re- hammer is about 4 to 6 inches long with two wedge-shaped
moved. These can be cracked on impact and removed with faces at either end of the head, one face perpendicular to
scrapers, abrasive paper or non-woven abrasive pads, a the line of the handle and the other at right angles to the
very slow and impractical method except for small areas. first face. Typical tools are illustrated in Figure 3.
There is danger that deep markings in the metal from im- Auxiliary equipment includes dust brushes, brooms,
pact tools will leave a burr on the metal surface that in- various sizes of putty knives and conventional painters’
terferes with coating systems performance. Generally, scrapers, coated abrasives, and safety equipment such as
both hand and power tool cleaning are employed for goggles and dust respirators.
economical cleaning.
Before hand cleaning, the surface should be ex- B. PROCEDURES
amined to determine the contaminants to be removed. Hand-cleaning operations vary depending on the job.
Work should follow the Steel Structures Painting Council Rust scale forms in layers. It is removed first, usually by
Surface Preparation Specification No. 2 “Hand Tool Clean- impact from hand chipping hammers, sledge hammers,
ing”. Solvent cleaning should precede hand cleaning when etc. Where rust scale has progressed to the point where
detrimental amounts of oil and grease or other soluble thickness of the metal has been diminished, extreme care
contaminants may be present. This procedure is specified in removing rust scale by impact prevents heavy sledges
in detail in SSPC-SP 1. from puncturing the metal. Deep marking of the surface
must be avoided. Burrs interfere with performance of the
A. HAND CLEANING TOOLS coating system. After rust scale, oil, grease and similar
Dried or caked soil and other such contaminants are contaminants are removed, all loose and non-adherent
generally removed with loose mill scale and rust by scrap- rust, loose mill scale and loose or non-adherent paint are
ing, brushing with non-woven abrasive pads, wire brushing removed by a suitable combination of scraping and non-
and hand chipping. It is important that any surface con- woven abrasive or wire brushing. The cleaning method
taminant, such as gobs of oil or grease, is not distributed depends on the surface. Loose, voluminous rust is easily
over the entire surface through cleaning operations. Some removed by scraping with thin, wide-blade scrapers and
tools used for hand cleaning are illustrated in Figure 1. then wire or non-woven abrasive brushing. Tightly ad-
Wire brushes may be of any practical shape and size. Two herent rust is generally removed with a heavy scraper.
general types are the oblong with a long handle and the Hand cleaning does not remove tight mill scale and all
block type. Bristles are of spring wire. Brushes should be traces of rust. Complete removal is extremely expensive
discarded when they are no longer effective because of and noneconomical, except for extremely small areas.
lost or badly bent bristles. Non-woven abrasives are used Rust, scale, oil, grease, etc., should be removed from the
in simple pad form or applied to a backup holder with surface before cleaning.
handle (Figure 2). They are conformable and can be cut to
fit various applicators.
6%
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.b 93 m 8b27940 0003503 B T O W
111. IMPACT CLEANING TOOLS

Impact cleaning tools are characterized by chipping
and scaling hammers. With these tools, a chisel is struck
by an internal piston and strikes the work surface.
Chisels can be adapted for scraping and chipping.
This type of tool is useful when heavy deposits of rust
scale, mill scale, thick old paint, weld flux, slag and other
brittle products must be removed from metal. Typical tools
are shown in Figure 4. Chisels have different shapes and
are made of various materials.
A needle scaler is a scaling hammer with a bundle of
steel needles housed and positioned forward of the strik-
ing piston. The piston strikes all needles simultaneously,
propelling them individually against the work surface. This
FIGURE 1
Tools used in hand cleaning operations. An oblong type of wire
brush is shown to the right of goggles and gloves; wide blade
hand scraper; hand chipping hammer; long-handled, wide blade
scraper; hammer and chisel used for removing rust scale.
Hand-cleaning painted surfaces removes all loose

non-adherent paint in addition to any rust or scale. If paint
is thick, edges of the old paint should be feathered to im-
prove the quality of the paint job. After cleaning, the sur-
face is brushed, swept, dusted and blown off with com-
pressed air to remove all loose matter.
II. POWER TOOL CLEANING

Use of portable power tools - pneumatic and electric P L I N T E R S RUST CHISEL PAINTERS' SCRAPER
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
- is common for cleaning operations. Through careful

selection and use of the great variety of power tools and
accessories, many cleaning operations can be accom-
plished rapidly and produce satisfactory surface condi-
tions with reasonable labor costs and good paint life.
Power tools used for surface cleaning fall into three
basic families:
Impact cleaning tools FIGURE 3
Rotary cleaning tools Shop drawings of typical hand tools.
Rotary impact cleaning tools
Tools in each family have unique characteristics that type of tool adapts to irregular surfaces. Needle scalers
make them adaptable to different cleaning operations and are illustrated in Figure 5. They are most effective on brit-
requirements. tle and loose surface contaminants.
Piston scalers are similar to scaling hammers, but the
piston is also the chisel. This minimizes the axial dimen-
sion and permits use in operations with limited access.
This type of tool is available in single and multiple piston
types. Some makes can be mounted in groups for cleaning
large surface areas.
Cleaning surfaces with scaling and chipping ham-
mers is comparatively slow. When considerable rust scale
or heavy paint formation must be removed, it may be the
best and most economical method.
Impact cleaning tools are available with various
handle and throttle styles. They should be selected for
FIGURE 2 specific operations with consideration for operator safety,
Non-woven abrasive pad attached to plastic backup holder. convenience and preference. This minimizes fatigue and
Courtesy of 3M Company. improves operator productivity.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 6 73 8b27740 0003504 737
Non-woven abrasives and rotary wire brushes can be

used to remove old paint, light mill scale, rust, weld flux,
slag and dirt deposits. Wire brushes (Figure 6) can be com-
posed of differently shaped and sized wire bristles.
Bristles may be crimped or knotted. Non-woven abrasive
products (Figure 7) can be composed of various grades of
abrasive and densities. Wire brushes and non-woven
abrasives come in cup and radial (wheel) form. Non-woven
abrasives also are available in disc form. Selection of style
and type of bristle or non-woven abrasive composition
should be based on trials. Surface condition affects the ef-
ficiency of cleaning. Non-woven abrasives are particularly
FIGURE 4
A selection of various chipping hammers and the chisels they
use. Courtesy of ARO Corporation.
Great care must be exercised in using tools because

of the tendency to excessively cut into the surface, remov-
ing sound metal and leaving sharp burrs where the paint
will fail prematurely. The cutting action of sharp chisels is
valuable for shaping sharp edges to a rounded or less
sharp surface so paint does not pull away. It also removes
imperfections from the surface. These tools may be used
to remove tight mill scale and surface rusting, but they are
not the most practical or economical tools because they
gouge metal, which must be smoothed to do a thorough FIGURE 6
Types of brushes used with power tools. On the left is shown a
job. Tools must be sharp or they may drive rust and scale
wheel type of stiff wire brush; in the center and on the right are
into the surface. shown cup types of wire brushes of knotted construction; on the
lower right is a wire brush with a crinkled wire construction. On
IV. ROTARY CLEANING TOOLS the lower left is a wire brush used for cleaning corners, etc.; in use
it is held in an adaptor illustrated in the lower center.
Rotary power tools do most hand-cleaning jobs
rapidly. Rotary power tools and the cleaning media that fit advantageous in removing coatings because of lowered
them are discussed. susceptibility to loading, as compared to coated
abrasives.
A. CLEANING MEDIA Coated abrasives are used in several converted forms
There are three basic types of cleaning media for (Figure 8). Discs and flap wheels are used to remove loose
rotary power tools: non-woven abrasives, wire brushes and mill scale, old paint, etc. similar to wire brush applications,
coated abrasives. As subsequently described, these media but can remove base metal. Loading from old paints may
can be used on two basic types of tools. make such applications uneconomical for discs.
B. TOOLS
Tools for the three above media are divided into two
basic types: straight, or in-line machines (Figure 9), and
vertical or right angle machines (Figures 10, 11).
The straight or in-line machine style is used with
radial wire brushes, coated abrasive flap wheels and non-
woven abrasive wheels. The vertical machine style is
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
suited for cup wire brushes, coated abrasive discs, non-

woven abrasive discs, cup wheels and wheels. The type of
machine varies with job conditions. It is advisable to have
both types on hand and generally both are used on field
jobs.
Operator fatigue is an important factor in power tool
cleaning. An operator’s preference should be considered
FIGURE 5 in selecting a machine. In some cases, where much over-
Typical needle scalers. head work is to be done, small lightweight machines may
Courtesy of ARO Corporation.
be used. Machines may be operated by pneumatic or elec-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . b 73 8b27740 0003505 673
Non-woven abrasive wheels are recommended where

base metal should not be removed but where wire brushes
are not aggressive enough. Non-woven abrasive wheels
wear at a controlled rate. Fresh working abrasive provides
a constant rate of surface cleaning with minimal loading.
Non-woven abrasive wheels are useful in removing light
mill scale. In many applications, non-woven abrasives are
a quicker and more effective alternative to wire brushes or
coated abrasives.
In power wire brushing it is possible to cut through
some mill scale by using the toe of a very stiff brush and
bearing down hard. It is impractical to remove tight mill
scale by power wire brushing. Generally, removal of only
loose mill scale and rust is required. Too high a speed must
not be used with rotary wire brushes and the brush must
not be kept on one spot for too long. Detrimental bur-
nishing of the surface may occur. Under such cir-
cumstances the surface is smooth and develops a pol-
ished, glossy appearance that provides a poor anchor for
paint. It is clear that doing too much surface work is
detrimental. Rotary wire brushes are particularly notorious
FIGURE 7 for spreading oil and grease over the surface. Oily or
Non-woven abrasive products are available (from right to left) in greasy surfaces must be cleaned with solvent before
disc, wheel and cup wheel forms. power brushing. Coated abrasive and non-woven abrasive
Courtesy of 3M Company. products are also vulnerable to oily or greasy surfaces.
tric motors. Lightweight machines operated by high fre- Solvent cleaning, prior to power cleaning, is recom-
quency current are available. mended.
The machine should be compatible with the size and Coated abrasives are particularly useful for applica-
speed rating of the cleaning media and should produce tion where metal removal is either desired or acceptable,
enough power to perform the operation efficiently. Most such as weld grinding. Tight mill scale cannot be removed
air powered machines contain governors to limit the free with such media, but loose scale can be.
operating speed. Governors respond to tool load resulting
from thrust applied to the work surface and supply more V. ROTARY IMPACT TOOLS
air to the motor, increasing power output and maintaining Rotary impact tools operate on the same basic princi-
its rated speed while under load. Electrically driven ple as other impact tools, through cutting or chipping
machines operate at a fixed speed. action, but rotary tools use a centrifugal principle where
cutters or hammers are rotated at high speed and thrown
against the surface.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 8
Coated abrasives disc (left) or coated abrasive flap wheels (right)
are used for surface preparation.
Courtesy of 3M Company.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z . h 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003506 50T
failure due to insufficient paint coverage. If these tools are

used to remove all mill scale and rust from the surface, it is
very likely that the surface will be too rough for satis-
factory painting unless a very thick coating, such as cold-
applied mastic, is applied.
VI. TOOL SAFETY

Safety is a very important consideration when using
tools. It includes proper use and maintenance of tools, and
protection from air-borne contaminants.
Prescribed safety practices are published by various
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 11
A non-woven abrasive cup wheel in use on a vertical power tool.
Courtesy of 3M Company.
organizations, including the American National Standards

Institute, the National Safety Council, the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration and the Environmental
Protection Agency. Some publications are referenced at
the end of this section to help users identify them, and in-
clude recommended operating procedures.
Safety practices include the following considerations.
Tool users and other people in the area should wear eye
FIGURE 10 protection to guard against flying particles. Different
Three air-powered vertical or right-angle power tools. types and requirements are prescribed in ANSI Z 87.1. Ear
Courtesy of ARO Corporation. protection should be considered when impact tools are

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z - b 93 8627740 0003507 446 D
Coated and non-woven abrasives should be run at or

below manufacturer’s rated maximum operating speed.
Non-woven abrasive wheels should be operated in the
proper direction of rotation. The wheel or disc should be
put on the tool and tightened securely while the tool is dis-
connected from the power supply. Guards should be used.
Protective clothing should be considered. Proper air
pressure to pneumatic tools is important. Proper rpm
should be checked with a tachometer on all tools before
use.
Rotary impact tools also should be operated at or
FIGURE 12
below manufacturer’s rated maximum operating speed.
Top left are four types of cutters or stars. Next is a heavy-duty
Proper guards should be used on such tools. When using
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
rotary peening flap. Pictured below the row is a rotary hammer.

Courtesy of Desco Manufacturing Co. “Heavy Duty Roto Peen,” it is important to have flaps
loaded for direction of rotation as recommended. These
used. Particular attention should be paid when using media should be tightened securely and run only when
several tools simultaneously in close proximity. contacting an appropriate work surface.
Hand tools should be properly selected for the pur- Respirators should be used i f contaminants in the
pose and properly maintained. Hammers should be proper- breathing zone exceed applicable threshold limits. This is
ly heat-treated and striking faces maintained to eliminate of particular importance when cleaning paints containing
“mushrooming” and flying fragments. Chisels must be lead, chromate or coal tar products.
maintained on the striking and cutting ends. All sharp- Since the cleaning operations can produce sparks,
edged tools deserve respect and proper consideration. care must be exercised when cleaning in the area of com-
Electrical tools should be run in dry environments. bustibles and volatile vapors. When such conditions can-
They should be grounded or double insulated. Power cords not be avoided, only special non-sparking tools should be
should be kept in good repair. used.
Impact tools should be operated only when the chisel For more complete information on the subject of
or scaling tool is in position and in contact with the safety, refer to the following:
workpiece. Tools should not be used i f ejection of an ac- “Standard for Safety of Portable Electric Tools”,
cessory might endanger personnel. C33.49. American National Standards Institute, 1 1
Rotary wire brushes should be run at or below manu- West 42nd St., 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036-8002.
facturer’s rated maximum operating speed. Gloves and (Also UL45, Underwriters Laboratory).
leather aprons are additional safeguards to avoid injury “Safety Requirements for the Design, Care, and Use
from loose wires. Recommended guards should always be of Power Driven Brushing Tools”, 8165.1, American
used. National Standards Institute.
“Standard for Occupational and Educational Eye and
FIGURE 13
This electric tool (right) used a flap loading of heavy duty rcitary
peening (left) to remove mill scale from carbon steel.
Courtesy of 3M Company and Desco Manufacturing Company.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * b 93 8627940 0003508 382
Face Protection”, 287.1. American National Stan-

R . Stanford Short retired as
dards Institute. Manager of Engineering Stan-
“Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Opera- dards and Services at the Aro
Corporation, Bryan, Ohio. He
tions’’, seventh edition, National Safety Council, 1121 received a B.S.M.E. from Michi-
Spring Lake Drive, Itasca, IL 60143-3201. gan State College (University)in
Also, various Occupational Safety and Health 1950 and had been associated
with The Aro Corporation and
As2;ociation regulations may be applicable. Reguiations the pneumatic tool industry from
1953to 1983. Mr. Short was en-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
are available from the Occupational Safety and Health Ad-

miriistration, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC. gaged in the design, research
and development of air tools and
systems for 17 years. He holds
numerous Datentsfor air tool in-
ventions, has conducted numerous seminars, and has had papers
published on various facets of pneumatic tools and their use.
In addition to having served the Compressed Air and Gas In-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT stitute (CAGI) as its representative to the European Committee of
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active Manufacturers of Compressors, Vacuum Pumps and Pneumatic
participation of the following in the review process for this Tools (PNEUROP), he was chairman of the CAGI Pneumatic Tool
chapter: Dick Anderson, Duane Bloemke, William Mathay, Duke Engineering and Safety Committees. Mr. Short was also a mem-
Mallory, Ben Nieters, Bob Roth, and Bill Wallace. ber of various committees of the American National Standards In-
stitute, PNEUROP and the International Organization for
Standardization.
His professional affiliations have included membership in the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Society
for Testing and Materials, the American Society for Metals and the
U.S. Metric Association.
BIOGRAPHIES
Preston Hollistergraduated
from the University of Illinois at
Champaign-Urbana in Decern-
ber, 1979 with a B.S. in chemi- SUGGESTED READING
cal engineering. He worked as a
technical service engineer with V.M. Gin, “3M Brand Heavy Duty Roto Peen Flap Wheel Coating
Minnesota Mining and Manufac- Removal System”, BS&CP Division, St. Paul, MN, 1977.
turing Company, Building Serv- V.M. Gin, “Mill Scale. Removal with 3M Brand Heavy Duty Roto
ice and Cleaning Products Peen Flap Wheel”, BS&CP Division, St. Paul, MN, 1976.
Division, where he specializedin
non-woven abrasive productsfor P.S. Hollister, “Surface Preparation Procedure for Repairs of
industrial applications. He ac- Nuclear Grade Coatings on Steel and Concrete”, BS&CP Division,
tively represented3M not only in St. Paul, MN, 1980.
the SSPC but on ASTM‘s D33
committee on Protective Coating and Lining Work for PowerGenera-
tion Facilities and the Utilities Nuclear Coatings Work Committee.

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SSPC CHAPTERr2.7 93 m Bb279LlO 0003509 219 m September 1993 (Editorial Changes)
CHAPTER 2.7
FIELD SURFACE PREPARATION COSTS

bY
Robert B. Roth
The cost for surface preparation of carbon steel face condition (mill scale, previous coating, degree of rust,
substrates varies with the degree of cleaning specified, the and deleterious material), and accessibility (on shop floor,
cleaning method and the efficiency of the organization per- part of existing structure and adjacent hazards).
forming the work. Designated surface preparation must be
companioned with the selected protective coating
systems, and the inherent, desired or designed perform-
111. SSPC SPECIFICATIONS
ance. Direct costs include labor, taxes and insurances, The following sections assume identical conditions of
materials, supervision, scaffolding, equipment and inspec- field work, supervision, crew experience, environment and
tion. Indirect charges cover items such as engineering in- new, mill scale-covered steel with light surface rusting.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
put, overhead, cost of capital, administration of the work,
depreciation and cost of down time. The total cost is the A. SSPC-SP 1 SOLVENT CLEANING
sum of direct and indirect amounts. For mildly contaminated steel substrates, an effective
This chapter presents general guidelines for the in- solvent cleaning at the rate of 500 square feet per work-
dividual who has to select cleaning methods, design hour can be expected. Material use is approximately one
specifications and establish budgets for painting and gallon per hour. Use the cost of one gallon per hour,
coating work. It also deals with the standards available and recognizing this quantity is conservative, to cover expend-
relative cost factors. ables, such as rags, mops, gloves, etc.
I. DISCUSSION B. SSPC-SP 2 HAND TOOL CLEANING

The individual concerned with surface preparation It is reasonable to expect hand tool cleaning rates in
must research the assignment and select a degree of sur- the range of 250 to 300 square feet per work hour. Tool
face cleanliness and a coating system based on the criteria allowance costs at the equivalent rate of four units
demanded by the type of service or exposures presented. (scrapers or wire brushes, etc.) per person per day is ade-
Costs are escalating and warranties are essential. quate.
Unauthorized or capricious deviations can lead to failures;
replacement or correction can be very expensive. C. SSPC-SP 3 POWER TOOL CLEANING
To assure successful performance of the selected pro-
It is not reasonable to expect a worker to use conven-
tective paint or coating system and to enjoy the guarantees
tional heavy, vibrating power tools or equipment con-
available, recommendations of the paint or coating
tinuously for an eight hour day. Experience shows that
manufacturers must be followed. Specific circumstances
three to four productive hours per day can be expected.
may require variances, but variances must be authorized, in
Power tools have other pitfalls: power wire brushes can
writing, by the manufacturer. Inspection and documenta-
polish or burnish the substrate; chipping hammers and
tion are necessary for each phase of the job for the warran-
power chisels can gouge the surface; and power sanders
ty to be valid.
clean only the high areas leaving some areas untouched.
It is reasonable to assume a cleaning rate of 100
square feet per hour in an eight hour shift or 400 square
II. SURFACE PREPARATION feet per person per day for power tool cleaning. It is also
There are nine formal surface preparation specifications reasonable to expect a minimum of two items such as wire
as covered by SSPC specifications. Each specification is discs, cup brushes, sanding inserts, or chisels and varnox
designed to define a degree of surface cleanliness and tip sets to be replaced per person per eight hour day.
eliminate misunderstandingsbetween vendor and purchaser.
Cost of surface preparation should be based on work- EXAMPLE: Assume 5000 square feet of steel plate, to be
hours per square foot of surface area to be cleaned, based cleaned per SSPC SP 1,2 and 3. Experience in-
on job records. The individual responsible for preparing the dicates that 50% of surface requires solvent
cost estimate or proposal for the work must recognize the cleaning, 80% hand tool cleaning and 20%
type and degree of cleaning, type of cleaning equipment, power tool cleaning due to some tight scale,
steel configuration (plates, shapes, fabrications, etc.), sur- etc.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 7 73 m 6627740 00035LO T30 m
Your estimate would allow: F. SSPC-SP 11 POWER TOOL CLEANING TO

SSPC-SP 1 Solvent BARE METAL
Cleaning 5 person hours This method uses power-tool driven abrasives to
SSPC-SP 2 Hand Tool produce a bare metal surface. It is used when a roughened,
Cleaning 14-16 person hours clean, bare metal surface is required, but where abrasive
SSPC-SP 3 Power Tool blasting is not feasible or permissible. It differs from SSPC-SP
Cleaning 10 person hours 3, Power Tool Cleaning, in that SSPC-SP 3 requires only the
removal of loosely adherent materials, while SSPC-SP 11 re-
Allow for expendables of “material” in the same pro-
quires producing or retaining a surface profile.
port ion.
The equipment required for this method is relatively in-
D. BLAST CLEANING (SSPC-SP 5,6,7, and 10) expensive, though slightly more expensive than traditional
Most modern field practices use abrasive blast clean- power tools. It is quite effective at removing paint, tight rust
ing as a method of preparation, conforming to one of the and mill scale from flat surfaces when used in conjunction
above specifications. with solvent cleaning. It is significantly less effective at remov-
Sandblast cleaning can be the least expensive method ing these materials from irregular, hard-to-reach surfaces.
of field surface preparation, especially i f sophisticated The quality of the prepared surface for painting is suitable
equipment is used. When estimating for basic blast clean- for most coating systems, with a minimum one mil surface
ing costs, consider three persons working an eight hour profile. However, productivity is low.
shift as a “crew day”. Two nozzles would be working leav- The technique generates more dust and debris than
ing one person to handle hoses, move gear and to relieve SSPC-SP 3. Dust levels can be reduced by using the tools
occasionally the other nozzle operators. inside a vacuum-equippedcontainment which surrounds only
Table I presents cleaning rate data obtained by blast the tool.
cleaning lightly rusted steel plate with a synthetic abrasive
of medium hardness (30 to 40 mesh) using a #6 nozzle ( J / ” IV. WATER BLASTI NG
diameter) operating at a nozzle pressure of approximately
Costs vary widely with conditions but a cleaning rate
80 psi.
of approximately.3500 square feet per eight hour day (two
These production rates allow for the stoppages and in-
person crew) using waterblast cleaning on lightly rusted
efficiencies inherent in all such operations.
steel plate can be expected.
Variables such as nozzle diameter, dead-man or
Abrasive blast cleaning of a surface that has already
automatic shut off and adjustments influence the rates on
been hydrocleaned can be accomplished at a one-third
the “guide chart”, Table I.
greater production rate than that shown in Table I. Often
the solvent cleaning step can be eliminated from the
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E. SSPC-SP 8 PICKLING
specifications.
Pickling employs large “dip” vats and large cranes or
handling equipment and is a shop or fixed-facility opera-
tion. Costs are elusive, particularly since each shop V. COST REVIEW
employs a proprietary process and keeps divergent cost When making an estimate of surface preparation cost,
records involving equipment depreciation, discounted consider these factors:
cash flow and related economic factors. In modern in- 1. Labor (a) Rate classification
dustry, pickling has been decreasing in volume practice. (b) Mechanics and Helpers
Expect lower cleaning rates when blast cleaning a pickled (c) Field Supervision
substrate. Depending on the pickling process used, field (d)Specialists (Riggers and equipment
sandblasting rates can be reduced by as much as 50 to 60 operating personnel and so forth)
percent.
TABLE 1
Cleaning Rate Data
Average Cleaning Abrasive

Blast Cleaning Rate Per Three Used Per Relative
Specified Person Crew Day Crew Day costs
SSPC-SP 7 Brush Off 5200 sq. ft. 7,000 Ibs. 1
SSPC-SP 6 Commercial 2500 sq. ft. 8,000 I bs. 2+
SSPC-SP 10 Near White 1500 sq. ft. 12,500 Ibs. 3 ‘/2
SSPC-SP 5 White Metal 1000 sq. ft. 10,000 Ibs. 5+
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 - 7 93 8627940 0 0 0 3 5 1 1 9 7 7
2. Labor (a) Health, Pension, Welfare, Vacation, VI. SUMMARY

Fringes etc.
A successful protective coating operation starts with
(b)Travel pay, i f applicable
proper surface preparation. Assuming personnel are
(c) Collective bargai ni ng addit ives
trained, qualified and properly instructed, paint failures are
3. Labor Burden (a) Payroll Taxes usually the result of faulty surface preparation rather than
(b) Payroll Insurances deficiencies in the coating material. In following the cost
(c) Bonding Costs projection guidelines presented, it is important t o compen-
4. Material (a) Abrasive Media sate for the specifics of each situation since no two
(b) Solvents, thinners and diluents assignments are ever exactly the same. Experience and
(c) Expendable supplies good record keeping is necessary to enhance your
(d)Sales or Use Tax on the foregoing estimating procedures.
(e) Delivery costs on above
5. Equipment (a) Standard Blue Book or A.E.D. sources ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Rental (b) Fuels, Lubricants The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
(c) Transportation and handling costs participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Wally Cathcart, Jim Flaherty, Lowell Hartman,Joe Mazia,
(d) Use taxes on above Jack Oechsle, William Pearson, Steve Pinney, Bill Wallace.
6. Site of Shop (a) Permanent personnel - Project
Organization Managing and Administrative
(b) Site of Shop Plant
(c) Storage or Warehousing BIOGRAPHY
7. Overhead (Often expressed as a percentage of cost, Robert B. Roth is Past Presi-
items 1 through 6) dent of Oliver B. Cannon and
Son, Inc. Following graduation
8. Profit (Often expressed as a percentage of cost from Yale University, Mr. Roth
plus overhead, items 1 through 7 above) joined Oliver B. Cannon in 1948,
advancing to Executive Vice
An excellent aid in determining the cost of operating a President in 1956 and President
blast cleaning crew in the field may be found in the current in 1972, a position he held until
Estimating Guide of the PDCA (Painting and Decorating his retirement in 1987. Mr. Roth
was a member of the American
--
Contractors of America). Society of Civil Engineers, Na-
tional Association of Corrosion
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Engineers, American Nuclear
Society, the Utilities Nuclear
Coatings Work Committee, and the American National Standards
Institute Coatings committee. Mr. Roth is the author of the Paint-
ing Section in “Plant Engineers Handbook” and of numerous arti-
cles on protective coatings in professional journals.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERs2.8 9 3 m 86279YO 00035112 803 m
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CHAPTER 2.8
OTHER METHODS AND FACTORS IN

SURFACE PREPARATION
by
Bernard R. Appleman and John D. Keane
I. INTRODUCTION of silica sand abrasives may cause a debilitating lung

disorder known as silicosis. Silicosis is caused by
Most painting and corrosion scientists consider sur-
breathing minute dust particles. OSHA is considering
face preparation to be the key factor in coating perform-
establishing a standard for worker exposure to silica and
ance and protection. The more commonly used techniques
other abrasive dusts, which could greatly restrict the type
such as abrasive blasting, water blasting, hand and power
and quantity of abrasives used for blast cleaning(*).
tool cleaning, chemical cleaning and pickling are covered
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
in separate chapters. This chapter describes the many new
established limits on the total permissible concentration
approaches to surface preparation of structural steel that
of suspended particulates in air(3).Proposed revisions by
have developed from the need t o protect worker health and
EPA would impose restrictions primarily on particulates
the environment. Several of these proposed new tech-
with a diameter of less than 10 microns.
niques also offer the prospect of improving the quality,
safety or cost of many surface preparation operations. The dust produced from sand blasting is also objec-
tionable because of visu’al pollution. Although no Federal
Open air sandblasting is being restricted in certain
standards are in effect, many states and municipalities use
locales because the paint and dust pollute the air and
the Ringelmann scale(4).This scale indicates the propor-
water. In addition the Occupational Safety and Health Ad-
tion of light obscured by the particulates. A rating of 2 on
ministration (OSHA) is concerned about protecting
the Ringelmann scale, for example, corresponds to a
workers against silicosis and other respiratory diseases. In
reduction of 40% in visibility.
cleaning an existing structure, it may be necessary to
Environmental and occupational health officials have
recover and dispose of old paint particles, particularly
been very concerned about the composition of the old
those containing lead or chromium compounds.
paint being removed from structural steel, some of which
The selection of the method of surface preparation
contains toxic lead and chromium compounds. Sand blast-
depends on a variety of complex factors such as location
ing of paint containing lead will frequently produce air-
and criticality of structure, availability of funds, existence
borne concentrations of lead greater than the maximum
and enforcement of regulations, and the experience and in-
permissible by the EPA. In addition, the paint particles are
genuity of owner and contractor.
deposited on roadways, waterways, and adjacent ground.
Several of the alternative methods are variations, im-
The extent to which these particles pose a health hazard
provements, and modifications on existing techniques,
has not been determined. The National Ambient Air Quality
such as water blasting or abrasive blasting. Others are
Standard (NAAQS) for lead is 1.5 micrograms per cubic
based on non-mechanical forces such as xenon lamps,
meter (pglm’), averaged over a 90-day period(5).
lasers, ultrasonic waves or plasma streams. Both of these
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
categories are covered in this chapter(’). This chapter also
has established standards for air-borne concentrations of
describes some of the specialized equipment and
lead and chromium to protect the worker i n the
engineering approaches attempted by government agen-
w o r k p l a ~ e ( ~There
> ~ ) . is little hard data available on the
cies and industry to recover the abrasive dusts and paints.
levels of these compounds to which a sand blaster would
Other chapters describe the latest advances in blast clean-
be exposed.
ing, power tool cleaning, and chemical cleaning.
Another potential problem associated with abrasive
blasting of paint containing lead is the disposal of spent
II. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH FACTORS abrasive. Lead is one of the toxic substances covered
Environmental and health problems associated with by EPA’s Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
abrasive blast cleaning have been among the major factors regulations on solid waste disposaW. The 1980 Federal
i n the search for new methods. In this section we will Regulations require the use of the Toxicity Characteristic
describe briefly the specific hazards and the type of regula- Leaching Procedure (TCLP) to determine the concentration
tion being considered. of leachable lead. If the concentration of lead is greater than
Health officials have expressed concern that the use 5 milligrams per liter, the material is classified as hazardous

78
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SSPC CHAPTER*Z.B 73 m 8627740 0003533 74T m
~~
TABLE 1: MATERIALS REGULATED

Area of Concern Regulatory Agency Material Regulated Permitted Limits
Worker Health Federal: OSHA Silica (Respirable) 100 pglm3 (8 hr. average)
Worker Health Federal: OSHA Nuisance Dust 5 mglm3 (8 hr. average)
(Respirable Fraction)
Worker Health Federal: OSHA Lead (Total) 50 pg/m3 (8 hr. average)
(Construction and
General Industry)
Worker Health Federal: OSHA Chromium (Respirable) 50 pglrn3 (8 hr. average)
Clean Air Federal: EPA Lead (in air) 1.5 pglm3 (90 day average)
Clean Air Federal: EPA Suspended Particulates 150 pg/ms (24 hr. average)
Solid Waste Federal: EPA Leachable Lead & 5 mg/L
Chromium
Clean Water EPA, States, Fish & Lead Residues “zero discharge” in
Game, Coast Guard some locales
waste. A similar standard exists for hexavalent chro- against the surface to be cleaned by means of com-
mium. The used abrasives (often several hundred tons) pressed air as in dry sand blasting. A separate hose
would then require disposal in a more costly and often delivers the water to the nozzle. In the water curtain
difficult to find toxic waste disposal site. Recent blast version, the water forms a ring around the sand
cleaning of some bridges in Massachusetts has resulted in nozzle. In this method sand and water emerge from
lead concentrations of up to 60mg/liter(g). separate orifices. There is little loss of abrasive
In summary, conventional sand blasting and other velocity leaving the nozzle; cleaning rates are much
paint removal methods may produce the detrimental ef- the same as with dry blasting(ID).
fects listed above (Table 1). 2. Water Blasting with Sand Injection
Let us consider the prospects for alleviating the above The abrasive is injected or aspirated into the water
conditions and satisfying the regulations. It is useful to stream at the nozzle. It must necessarily be in-
divide the technology into those methods which alleviate troduced after the water is pressurized to avoid
the air pollution problem and those which alleviate the pump damage. Figure 1 shows a typical abrasive in-
dust and paint fallout into water, roadways, etc. As will be jection unit.
discussed, the new techniques have had reasonable suc- Many types of abrasives can be used in wet blast
cess in reducing the air pollution hazards associated with cleaning, the most widely used being sand. The type and
abrasive blasting. The problem of preventing dust and size of abrasive is directly related to the rate of cleaning
paint from being deposited into the ground and water is and the surface roughness. Particles too small or too large
much more difficult and costly. for the type of surface being cleaned can slow production.
Systems have been developed wherein the operator
111. VARIATIONS ON WET AND WATER may selectively blast with or without abrasive injection. In
BLASTING this way a surface can be cleaned of biofouling or other
The chapter on water blast cleaning describes the use contaminants by water alone without disturbing the intact
of high-pressure water (up to 10,000 psi) to prepare metal paint. Corroded areas, however, can be cleaned to white
for painting. Water-blasting alone, even at high pressure, metal only by injecting the abrasive into the water stream.
will not remove tight, intact paint and heavy rust buildup
from structural steel at acceptable production rates. Wet
blasting (the use of water along with abrasives), on the
other hand, can provide highly satisfactory results for
these. There are several different types of equipment and
approaches available; the effectiveness and the cost de-
pend strongly on the particular system selected. The main
systems described include wet abrasive blasting, sand in-
jection, and air-water-sand.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A. CONVENTIONAL WET METHODS

1. Sand Blasting with Water
FIGURE 1
This technique incorporates water into a conven- A typical sand injection blast unit.
tional abrasive air blast unit. The sand is projected Courtesy of Partek Corporatlon
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 8 93 8627940 0003534 686 =
per hour. Each of the quantities - air, sand, and
water - is independently adjustable so that the
system can be used without sand at low pressure
merely to wash down the
A U.S. version involves a somewhat similar
unit which operates at about 1000 pounds per
square inch water pressure with sand injection.
Unlike the English system, this one entails remote
control via micro switches of a seven-ton dry blast
pot by the operator at the nozzle rather than by
verbal communications with an operator. Also,
unlike the English method, it involves a con-
siderable amount of sand, which sometimes has a
tendency to stick to the work as a slurry. This slurry
is then allowed to dry and is washed off with an
auxiliary nozzle at perhaps 1000 to 1500 square
feet per h ~ u r ( ~ ~ ) ( F i g u3a
r eand
s 3b).
4. Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate blasting is one of a group of
wet blasting and waterjetting systems that employ
water-soluble abrasives. Like most wet blast sys-
FIGURE 2 tems, they produce less dust than dry blasting. Res-
Typical marine use of the hydraulic equipment with sand injec- idue can be sent to a wastewater facility, rather than
tion.
Courtesy of WOMA Corporation disposed of as hazardous waste, if paint chips, espe-
cially those containing lead, can be separated from
the wastewater. The technique does not damage a
The overall performance of water blasting with or substrate although it is very effective in scrubbing
without abrasives depends on the abrasive, inhibitor, a surface.
operational technique, surface condition and degree of Sodium bicarbonate blasting has been shown
cleani ng required. to remove epoxies and urethanes, oil, grease and
Several federal and state agencies have evaluated the loose rust. It will not remove tight rust or mill scale,
performance of moderate to high pressure hydraulic clean- and does not impart a profile, so it is best suited for
ing systems. In one evaluation, most of the systems failed maintenance painting. Adhesion of various coatings
to meet the performance requirements because of being after use of the system is still being evaluated. While
underpowered (operated at 500-1200 psi using conven- sodium blast cleaning is more expensive than other
tional pumps) or because of inability to meter the sand methods, the decreased costs of waste disposal
without clogging. The most successful unit used pres- when paint chips are separated must also be taken
sures of about 2000 psi with two or more nozzles operated into account.
at the manifold(”)(Figure 2).
3. Air- Water-Sand
Some recently developed processes utilize a com-
B. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF WATER AND
bination of air, sand, and water to provide a highly
WET BLASTING
versatile and efficient means of preparing surfaces. 1. Water Volume
A British version of the air-water-sand method in- The volume of water varies considerably among the
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cludes a large volume of air (300 to 400 cubic feet techniques discussed. The sand injection methods
per minute) into which one to two gallons of water rely on water as the primary medium; typical flow
per minute can be entrained with or without acorro- rates are 5 to 15 gallons per minute (gpm). The
sion inhibitor. Sand or other abrasives may be water curtain entails only the small amount of
added at 200 to 400 pounds per hour, and the mix- water necessary to contain the dust. The air-water-
ture is delivered through an open-ended, cone- sand process typically uses 1-2 gpm.
shaped, wide-mouthed nozzle (0.5 to 1 inch in 2. Sand Volume
diameter) at pressures which can be varied from 15 The sand injection method uses considerably less
to 100 psi. In various trials the speed of cleaning sand than dry blasting or water curtain. The air-
has been estimated to be from 50 to 200 square feet water-sand processes provide a greater degree of
per hour depending on the surface, with reported control of the abrasive and consume still smaller
removal of single coats of paint leaving the primer quantities of sand, with the British version using
coat intact at rates as high as 300 to 450 square feet the least.

80
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERUZ.8 93 m 8627940 0003535 512 m
Most of the examples reviewed have been

directed at producing blast-cleaned surfaces (e.g.
SSPC-SP 6 or SP 10). For situations in which it is
necessary to remove only loose rust or paint, the
use of high pressure water alone or low pressure
with sand might well provide higher rates and
superior surfaces than either dry blasting or con-
ventional hand and power tool cleaning.
6. Flash Rustingllnhibitor
Flash rusting can occur within minutes after
FIGURE 3 blasting with water (Figure 4). To prevent oxidation
Cleaning underside of European bridge with air-water-sand unit. or flash rusting, a suitable inhibitor is usually in-
Coauthor observed separate sections which were cleaned to jected into the blast hose or applied after blasting.
white metal (passing potassium ferrocyanide test) and others in-
volving spot removal of individual coats. It is important to use a rust inhibitor with a strong
Courtesy of KUE, Ltd. enough solution to retard rust after the final rinsing
of the contaminants and spent abrasives has been
3. Water Nozzle Thrust completed. Inhibitors include soluble chromates,
Conventional high pressure and sand injection phosphates, nitrates, and molybdates(i4).Certain in-
units develop pressures up to 10,000 psi and hibitors, when dry, leave salts that could produce
thrusts of 50 pounds, which can be a significant adhesion problems for protective coatings.
safety hazard, particularly when operated from a Therefore, the inhibitor must be compatible with
scaffold or other location of precarious footing. the paint system to be applied. Inhibitors must also
The sand injection unit may be operated at lower meet EPA requirements and be non-pollutants.
pressure (2000-3500 psi) for removing loose paint It is often preferable to apply the inhibitor solu-
and rust. tion after water blast, thereby minimizing operator
The water curtain and air-water-sand units nor- exposure, saving inhibitor, reducing problems of
mally operate at 1000-2000 psi, thereby con- liquid pollution, and often running scant risk of ex-
siderably reducing the safety hazard. For these cessive flash rust. The air drying feature of the air-
operations, the major safety consideration is water-sand method is highly beneficial in minimiz-
pressure used to propel the sand, which is normally ing flash rusting.
at about 1000 psi. The reduced nozzle thrust ob- 7 . Production Rate
ta¡ ned with the ai r-water-sand un its also produces The production rate for achieving a specific surface
less operator fatigue. For several of the high condition (e.g. near-white metal blast, SSPC-SP 10)
pressure-high thrust units (both with and without depends on the type of system chosen, the par-
abrasive) the operator could work only for one or ticular unit, the proficiency of the operators and the
two hours at a time. original condition of the surface.
4. Dust The air-water-sand u n i t s are t h e m o s t
The dust created by dry blasting can be controlled sophisticated system concepts and would probably
through the use of either a water injected system or be most competitive with conventional dry sand
a water curtain. blasting for a full-scale field operation. The sand-
5. Costs
It is difficult to compare wet abrasive cleaning
costs with other surface preparation methods.
Equipment and labor costs, surface conditions, and
production rates all vary and have not been well
documented. Compared to hand tool cleaning, the
higher equipment costs of wet abrasive blasting
are more than compensated in lower labor rate
costs per square foot, a cleaner surface, and higher
production rates. The total cost of wet abrasive
blasting is in almost all cases higher than dry sand
blasting. Observed rates vary from 125 to 200% of
the latter.
For the air-water-sand approach, the equip-
ment costs are high compared to other methods;
economics dictates that its use be limited to large FIGURE 4
scale appl ¡cations. Flash rusting of water-blasted steel rail.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.B 93 m 8b27940 00035Lb 459 m
injection method has been documented as produc-

ing from 50 to 125% of the cleaning rate of dry
blasting; most users concede that dry blasting is
faster than a comparably-sized wet blast cleaning
technique. The water curtain method should have
little effect on the production rate, although some
ad hoc or home built modifications have displayed
considerably reduced rates.
Because of the lack of extensive field ex-
perience by the users and manufacturers, these
techniques are expected to have a higher rate of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
malfunction and down time than conventional dry
sand blast and high-pressure water units.
C. NOVEL USES OF WATER

1. Controlled Cavitation Water Jetting
Under certain conditions of rapid water flow,
numerous low pressure “cavities” or bubbles are
formed. The collapse (implosions) of these bubbles
is accompanied by the release of large amounts of
energy. The formation, transport, and collapse of FIGURE 5
Controlled cavitation blasting of galvanized steel.
the bubbles is known as cavitation(ls1.Cavitation is Courtesy of SEACO, Incorporated
well known as a destructive phenomenon which
results in metal loss on or near propellers, pumps,
etc. From efforts at countering these effects, on developing units which produce less than 50
researchers developed the technology to control pounds of operator thrust. As with conventional
and direct the forces of cavitation. The technique high-pressure water jetting, operator fatigue is a
has been successfully utilized in boiler tube clean- limiting factor. The goal is to provide hand-held
ing, rock drilling, and i n removing underwater foul- devices for complex structures and inaccessible
ing from ship The technique of controlled areas. Researchers anticipate that rates for produc-
cavitation also offers the possibility of certain ad- ing a clean, paintable surface (¡.e. removing loose
vantages for surface preparation of structural steel. paint, dirt, and loose rust) will range from 50-200
For a given water pressure and flow rate, square feet per hour. These are based on the use of
cavitation develops higher forces at the point of im- current technology nozzles. Additional research is
pact than conventional high pressure water directed at advancing the technology to achieve the
blasting. Thus, it could provide greater efficiency more difficult task of removing hard rust and intact
and higher production rates where abrasive paint, and producing a surface profile at rates ap-
blasting is restricted. Cavitation blasting does not proaching those above (Le. 100 sq. ft.lhr.).
introduce any solid abrasive onto the substrate. In addition t o the hand-held units, efforts are
The prospects for recovering the old paint or sur- planned to develop high production units which
face debris are therefore enhanced due to the much would include features such as multi-nozzle arrays
smaller volume of solids compared to conventional and automatic translation and thrust support. A fur-
sand blasting or wet abrasive blasting discussed ther objective of the sponsors is to devise a means
earlier. The energy and water requirements for confor recovering the paint and rust removed from the
trolled cavitation blasting are similar to those for surface using suction, vacuum or other auxiliary to
conventional high pressure water blasting (Figure the cavitation system. The U.S. Air Force is in-
5). vestigating the use of cavitation to remove paint
The efficiency and productivity of cavitation from aluminum. The technique’s ability to control
jetting depend on the operating pressure and flow the depth of erosion could allow removal of the t o p
rate, design of nozzle, size of orifice, standoff coat alone, leaving the primer intact and avoiding
distance and angle of impingement. The applica- damage to the aluminum substrate.
tion of this technique to surface preparation is still 2. Automated Water Blasting
i n the early development stage. Current research ef- Highway officials from Texas have developed a
forts focus on a number of different areas pertain- water jet cleaning system which does not require
ing to surface preparation, as well as related areas an operator at the nozzle. The high pressure jet noz-
such as steel cutting and concrete rehabilitation. A zle is attached to a rig clamped onto the bridge
government-sponsored program is concentrating beam and remotely controlled by an operator on the

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z . B 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003537 395 M
obstacles seem .to preclude its widespread use at

this time. First, Ithe cloud produced by the steam
obscures the operator’s view of the work. Secondly,
steam, because of its high temperature and release
of energy upon condensation, poses special safety
problems. Third, i n this era of energy con-
sciousness, steamisand blasting is one of the most
energy intensive methods of surface preparation.
IV. OTHER ABRASIVES AND MATERIALS

Conventional and new metallic and non-metallic
abrasives are discussed in separate chapters. In this sec-
tion we consider several novel types of abrasives that have
been proposed because of some special feature.
A. CARBON DIOXIDE PELLETS

Preliminary work has indicated that it may be possible
to use carbon dioxide pellets as a blast cleaning medium in
those areas where clean-up of spent abrasive is a
problemW No reports or accounts could be obtained,
however, of successful use on structural steel under con-
trolled conditions comparable with those in shop or ship-
building. At the various meetings sponsored by the SSPC
to discuss new surface preparation methods, verbal
FIGURE 6 reports were presented indicating a series of problems
Automated robot high-pressure water jet blasting. which appear to render this method impractical for struc-
Courtesy of Texas Department of Highways and Public tural steel applications: the pellets were not effective in
Transportation
removing mill scale; visibility problems were presented by
fogging at the nozzle; pellet-forming equipment was
ground (Figure 6). The operator can translate the reported to be prohibitively expensive and difficult to main-
nozzle along the beam and change the angle tain; problems were foreseen in ventilation and condensa-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sideways and up-down to allow access to over 90% tion of water. Attempts to arrange a demonstration by the
of the surface area. The developers are working to inventor were unsuccessful.
increase this percent and the unit’s overall versatil-
ity. The unit offers several important advantages.
B. HIGH VELOCITY ICE PARTICLES
The safety is greatly improved because the This approach has been reportede01to be effective in
operator does not direct the nozzle or support the removing fouling and paint from ships. The process is
thrust. The thrust, which may be as high as 100
pounds, could cause the operator to lose his
balance on a scaffold or to blast himself or a co-
worker. In addition, with a hand-held unit, the
operator becomes greatly fatigued in a few hours,
which severely limits his productivity. The
automated device should produce a more uniformly
cleaned surface and permit more precise calcula-
tions of rates and costs. Some of the problems ex-
perienced are lack of maneuverability, cost and
time for maintaining equipment, and the need for
modifications t o allow use on different types of
structures.
3. SteamISand Blast
A technique which uses steam to propel the
abrasive has been developed by the JapaneseW
The use of steam instead of water results in a
shorter drying time and a significant decrease in
FIGURE 7
the amount of rust formation in comparison with Xenon flash lamp for surface preparation.
other wet blast methods. However, three major Courtesy of Maxwell Laboratories

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * 8 73 m 8627940 00035LB 221 m
claimed to be more efficient than metallic shot in removing D. OTHER ABRASIVES

biofouling but less efficient in removing paint. It is prob-
SSPC work indicates that although zinc is the most ef-
ably impractical for use on new steel. Because of its
fective inhibitive substance to date which can be applied in
pollution-free characteristics, the use of ice may eventually
blast cleaning equipment, it is not the only one. In early
assume a larger role in cleaning, particularly in the refur-
work a wide variety of other inhibitive materials were in-
bishing of hulls.
vestigated but were found to be less desirable because of
the complicated particle-coating process, handling dif-
C. ZINC SHOT BLASTING ficulties, toxicity, safety, shorter protection period, or
Zinc shot blasting (zincing) is a modification of the nor- necessity of removal before coating.
mal blast cleaning procedure in which metallic zinc par- Recently, however, one process has been offered
ticles are substituted for all or part of the shot, grit, or which uses zinc-coated abrasive and has been used in
sand. The result is a thin discontinuous deposit of metallic blast cleaning below water.
zinc left on the nascent, freshly-cleaned steel surface Subsequent to publication of the SSPC work, a
du ring blast i ngIz2). modification was investigated elsewhere using a stearic
This deposit is only about 0.05 mils (1.3 microns) thick acid “inhibitor” which gave temporary protection but had
but is sufficient to prevent rusting during the days, weeks, to be removed from the surface before painting(25).
or months required for fabrication and construction. Since Attempts have been made to combine inhibitive
zinc metal is ”sacrificial” to steel, the coating need not be phosphating treatment with blast cleaning(26). Although the
continuous in order to protect the steel completely. These SSPC has explored several alternative inhibitive materials
islands of zinc are so thin that they do not affect cutting, to be used in solid, liquid, or vapor form during blast clean-
welding, or painting. To date the method, originated by the ing, additional work would be necessary in order to deter-
SSPCI22A) has been proven in both laboratory and pilot mine whether or not any of these have promise.
plant, but not yet demonstrated on a full scale. Common practice for cleaning previously painted
The zinc deposit can be achieved through either a one- process equipment near machinery in industrial plants has
step or two-step operation, but the two-step process ap- been to use vegetable grit such as corn cobs, walnut
pears to be the more practical. It consists of blast cleaning shells, cherry pits, etc. Flintstone is also used.
with steel (or sand) particles, followed by a separate blast-
ing with zinc particles (usually in the same equipment se- E. BACTERIAL CLEANING
quence). Alternatively, both the cleaning and the zinc The Japanese127) have been experimenting with
deposition can be carried out together in a single stage biological methods of cleaning steel. Scale and rust stains
operation. Both the one- and two-stage processes have are removed by dipping or spraying the article with a solu-
been demonstrated by the SSPC and cooperators with tion containing a bacterium (thiobacillus ferrooxidans WU-
both nozzles and centrifugal wheel blast cleaning equip- 66-B or thiobacillus thiooxidans WU-79-A) plus an inorganic
ment. Only a small portion of the zinc is transferred to the salt (iron sulfate or ammonium sulfate) plus glucose. This
clean steel by each particle impact. The zinc particles are, process has been shown to be environmentally acceptable.
of course, recycled just as the steel shot and grit are It is felt that this method might be applicable for those
recycled. During the recycling, zinc dust fines are removed
just as steel dust is removed in the shotlgrit blast cleaning
operation.
The zinc deposit has been shown by SSPC to be com-
patible with conventional coatings, and actually to
lengthen their protective life. Preliminary cost estimates
indicate substantial savings in materials, time and man-
power compared with conventional pre-fabrication
primers. Additional work, however, would be necessary to
demonstrate whether or not the new process, or avariation
thereof, is applicable to a production construction or paint-
ing operation.
SSPC work has been reported in 1963-73 and subse-
quently. One variation of the SSPC process, reported in
1976 and developed in Denmarkcz31,is to the use of zinc-
coated abrasives. Another variation uses sand coated with
zinc dust. One investigator has achieved protection up to
four months with the two-stage zinc blasting process in
which conventional blast cleaning is used to remove rust
FIGURE 8
and mill scale followed by blasting with zinc powder(24). Navy hull cleaner.
NASA approved a variation of the process in 1973(22c). Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings a4

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 - 8 73 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003539 3bA
cleaning conditions where citric acid is now being

evaluated. However, much developmental work needs to be
done to make biological cleaning competitive or practical,
especially for large surfaces.
F. EXPLOSIVES
The detonation of an explosive charge has been used
to project abrasive particles such as sand or metal powder
onto the surface to be cleaned(*@.Although this method
shows some potential for cleaning the interior of pipes or
other confined areas, its impact on the blast cleaning trade
will most likely remain insignificant.
G. CRYOGENIC COATING REMOVAL

A new technique uses liquid nitrogen ( - 196" C ) for
cryogenic removal of organic coatings. The stream of liq-
uid nitrogen sprayed onto the substrate embrittles the
coating; it is then easily removed with recyclable plastic
pellets. Additional engineering efforts are under way to im-
prove the versatility and portability of the equipment(21).
V. THERMAL AND HIGH ENERGY METHODS

A. LAMPS
There are a number of techniques which do not use
FIGURE 9
any water or abrasives; instead they rely on some form of Vacuum blast unit.
radiation to remove paint and prepare steel for painting. Courtesy of Pauli 81Griffin
One such technique, under investigation by several
government agencies, involves high intensity xenon light
sources (Figure 7). These produce temperatures of the trol afforded, the technique can allow precise, select
order of 3000 F (1700" C)(29). removal of outer layers of materials without disturbing the
A recently developed proprietary system, known as inner substrate or paint layer. Additional work is planned to
FLASHBLASTTM, has shown great promise for removing develop and evaluate full-scale systems and to determine
thin layers of paint from a surface(30). the practicality and production rate for field applications.
This system emits very intense, ultra-short pulses of
light with sufficient energy to vaporize or chemically 6 . LASERS
alter most non-metal substances. Due to the short duration
Preliminary tests have shown that scale or other
of the pulses, the effect is restricted to a layer approx-
adhering deposits can be removed, at least from small
imately 0.001 " in thickness, with little or no effect on the
specimens, when they are subjected to thermal shock or
underlying material.
chemical decomposition using a laser beam(31).When
A typical FLASHBLASTTM system consists of a power
rusted steel was exposed to laser beams of several
supply and control module and of one or more flashlamp
kilowatts, the hydrated oxides were changed to a dense,
heads from which the light pulses are emitted. The power
hard scale of magnetite (Fe,O,), which could then be
supply provides intense electric discharges which are car-
removed. It may prove practicable to carry out such opera-
ried through flexible cables to the heads where they give
tions in a reducing atmosphere to produce a readily
rise to the emission of short, intense pulses of light from
removable layer of metallic iron. Although already applied
Xenon flashlamps. The weight of the flashlamp heads is
to sculpture restoration, laser cleaning i s not believed like-
only a few pounds, and the flexible cables can be as long as
ly to have an impact on the cleaning of structural steel in
100 feet, permitting work on fairly large surfaces or objects
the foreseeable future because of requirements of energy
without moving the heavy power supply module. The
input and equipment development.
flashlamp heads must be in near contact with the surfaces
under treatment since the intensityof the light drops rapid-
ly with increasing distance from the lamps.
C. ULTRASONIC CLEANING
Applications which have been studied experimentally Ultrasonic cleaning is in widespread use in speeding
so far include removing thin paint layers from metal and the solvent cleaning of small parts, etc. Although it has
underlying paint layers. Because of the high degree of con- been proposed for cleaning of larger structural steel, no
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*ZmB 93 = 8b27940 0003520 9 8 T
unit larger than about 75 gallons capacity has been conventional sand blasting. The five-foot long handle,
reported(32). necessitated by the intense heat and fumes, limits its use
i n confined areas and contributes to operator fatigue.
D. FLAME CLEANING Clearly, the safety problems related to fire, noise, and ven-
The heat energy of a direct flame of heated gas has tilation must be considered.
also been used for steel cleaning. Although currently limited in its use on steel struc-
Surface preparation specification, SSPC-SP 4-64, tures, this hot gas unit has the potential to solve special-
"Flame Cleaning of New Steel" described a process for ized surface preparation problems. For example, the com-
dehydrating and removing of rust, loose mill scale, and bined operation of first vaporizing or charring the old paint
some tight mill scale by passing a flame over the surface. with the hot gas blaster followed by conventional sand
The surface is theh wire brushed to remove all loose blasting may, in some instances, prove beneficial. Field
materials. (SP 4-64 has been dropped from the new edition work must be done to test this approach.
of Volume 2.)
This technique can be hazardous or detrimental when VI. SPONGE JETTING
used on previously painted surfaces. In addition, because Sponge jetting is a recent surface preparation technique
of poor cost effectiveness and limited use, the SSPC has which uses compressed air and pieces of polyurethane
dropped this specification. sponge. The sponges are effective in removing oil and grease
from pumps and motors. They may be impregnated with
E. PLASMA - HOT GAS abrasive for more aggressive cleaning. The impregnated
A combustion unit that uses a mixture of liquid pro- sponges are effective in removing paint, tight rust and mill
pane and compressed air to produce a blast of hot gas has scale from both flat and irregularlhard to reach surfaces. The
been used extensively to remove road markings'33).The method can achieve SSPC-SP 5,6,7and 10 when used in
high temperature, 3000" F (1700" C), is sufficient to conjunction with solvent cleaning. The equipment is fairly ex-
vaporize many organic paint films or at least to char them pensive.
to the point where the high-velocity air blast can blow the Productivity is low - from 1/4 to 1/2 that of open blast
surface clean. Treatment of a paint film with the hot air cleaning. However, the technique produces much less dust
blaster makes any remaining paint easier to remove by and debris than open blasting. Despite the apparent lack of
conventional sand blasting. dust, both containment and personal protective equipment
Use of this unit in the surface preparation of previous- for workers are required.
ly painted steel structures is not widespread. However, it
shows considerable promise in those situations where a VII. COLLECTING ABRASIVES AND
heavy vinyl or thermoplastic coating is to be removed, PAINT RESIDUES
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
since the abrasive has a tendency to bounce off rather than
fracture a thick flexible coating. A. ABRASIVE RECYCLING
In preliminary field tests some problems were found In order to eliminate water and ground contamination,
with this Red lead primer is not completely it is sometimes necessary to recover the spent abrasives
removed by the hot air blaster and must be removed by and paint residues.
Several techniques have been developed based on
recycling of the abrasives. The abrasives must be metallic
shot or grit or a recyclable non-metallic such as alumina or
garnet. It is also necessary t o filter off the paint residues
and degraded abrasive to maintain a constant abrasive
particle size distribution.
1. Portable Automatic Centrifugal Blasting
Centrifugal (airless) blast cleaning machines have
assumed an ever increasing percentage of the steel
fabricating blast cleaning requirements. They pro-
vide rapid, uniform, automatic cleaning and greatly
reduce the need to dispose of spent abrasives. The
equipment is cumbersome and expensive, but for
shop application the technique is extremely cost
effect ive.
The technique has also been applied to field
preparation. The suitability and effectiveness in the
FIGURE 10 field depend on factors such as the size of the
Vacuum blasting of bridge beam. operation, the configuration and accessibility of
Courtesy of Massachusetts Pori Authority
the structure, and the necessity for collecting the

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z = B 73 8627740 0003523 83b H
residues and abrasives. It has been most suitable

for use on large accessible areas such as ship hulls
and decks and storage tanks.
Contractors for the US Navy have designed
large, mobile cleaning heads which can clean a
swath up to 48 inches wide(35).These are mounted
on a boom connected t o a large truck. Because of
the 80 foot reach, this unit can clean most of the
ship’s hull from dockside (Figure 8). Additional
photographs and examples are given in another
chapter.
The portable centrifugal units are extremely ef-
fective in eliminating the environmental hazards
and in producing highly uniform blast-cleaned sur-
faces. The large units used by the Navy and in-
dustry have limited mobility and reach. They require
large amounts of energy and support equipment. In
return, they can often provide higher production
rates, and reduced labor and abrasive costs in com-
‘parison to conventional air abrasive blasting. A FIGURE 11
Enclosed blasting cages and residue collection system.
more complete discussion of the principles and ap- Courtesy of Massachusetts Port Authority
plications is given in the chapter “Centrifugal and canvas housing that the blaster worked in; it rolled on
Blast Cleaning.” wheels along the handrail. Flexible tubing at the bottom of
2. Portable Air Blasting with Vacuum Recovery the enclosure let the spent abrasive drop to a floating barge
This technique has been widely used for pre- on the river
erection surface preparation in fabricating shops Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport) modified the
and certain field facilities, particularly nuclear above arrangement in several ways(38).They provided
plants. Its application to existing field structures is mechanical suction to exhaust the dust fumes from the
limited by the capacity and reach of the recovery enclosure to improve visibility and air quality inside the
system. Like the centrifugal cleaning units, the booth. The tubing was connected to a dumpster equipped
portable recovery units have difficulty in cleaning with a venturi water scrubber to separate the fine particles
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
irregular surf ace feat ures. and emit them as sludge. Massport also substituted metal
There are several different types of vacuum sheathing for the enclosure sides to provide better wear
recovery machines available. These include port- (Figure 11).
able units with single-chamber collection tanks; Massport reported that the above enclosure system
portable units with automatic discharge tanks, and for the longitudinal girders and handrails captured 80‘to 85
mobile truck units with single chamber collection percent of airborne dust and lead paint particles in addition
tanks. These machines differ in their degree of port- t o virtually all the blasting grit. The shroud has also been
ability, labor and utility support required, hose used for paint spraying under high wind conditions.
sizes and costs (Figure 9). A discussion of the
relative merits of each as used for surface prepara- C. TARPAULINS AND OTHER DEVICES
tion of tanks is given in an SSPC report done for
Various approaches have been used to collect and
the Maritime Administration(?
contain dust and paint. Several highway agencies have
There are also available recovery units which
used heavy tarpaulins to prevent the dust from blowing or
rely on suction to collect the abrasives(37).These
drifting into populated or recreational areas. The success
suction (alternately called siphon) units sometimes
has been varied. For large structures the tarpaulins are
have difficulty recovering the heaviest abrasives.
often torn down by strong winds, as they create a sail ef-
Their production rate is much less than the pump
fect. However, the use of tarpaulins does greatly facilitate
actuated vacuum units described above. They are
the collection of sand from roadways.
used primarily for small areas or touch-up work
In order to prevent old paint containing lead from con-
(Figure 10).
taminating waterways, the California Department of Trans-
portation has stationed barges beneath the bridge. Tar-
B. BLASTING CAGES paulins and plastic sheets are used to funnel the particles
Another approach to containing dust and paint in- onto the barge. This technique has proven satisfactory in
volves the useof movable enclosures around the blaster. In many instances; some of the problems are that a signifi-
an early version, a California contractor built an enclosure cant amount of sand or paint particles may still be dropped
that covered the handrail assembly and longitudinal in the water, the barge may sink or spill the residue, and
girders. It consisted of a rigid frame around scaffolding the costs are appreciable.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z . 8 93 8627940 0003522 7 5 2
The Iowa Department of Transportation requires the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

use of covers or drapes to collect paint wastes if they con- Much of the material in this report benefits from a survey
made by the SSPC for the U S . Maritime Administration through
tain lead. The provisions also require contractors to collect the Avondale Shipyard.
floating paint wastes. The scum that forms in the water The authors and editors also gratefully acknowledge the ac-
must be contained by straw dams or flóating boom tive participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Einar A. Borch, Theodore Dowd, Preston S. Hollister, A.
devices. The State does allow alternate approaches when W. Mallory, Joseph Mazia, Marshall McGee, William Pearson,
recovering and collecting are not possible because of William J. Wallace, Jr., and Raymond Weaver.
bridge location and BIOGRAPHY
Portraits and biographical sketches of Dr. Appleman and Mr.
Keane appear at the end of the Foreword.
VIII. SUMMARY
In this chapter we have described a variety of methods
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
which have had varying degrees of success. The future of
many of these methods depends largely on the regulatory
authorities. Almost all of the newer techniques are more
costly and less productive than sandblasting. In locales
where sandblasting will continue to be permitted, it will
probably remain the most cost-effective way to clean struc-
tural steel.
For situations in which the major problems are those
of air contamination, e.g. dust or lead paint particles, the
use of some form of wet-blasting technique appears to be
the best choice at present. Several of these water methods
are highly sophisticated and are able to reduce the air-
borne particulate levels by 80-90 percent.
In certain locales, such as near sensitive machinery, in
densely populated areas, or over sensitive waterways, it
may be necessary to eliminate any particles from con-
taminating the environment. For these conditions, it would
be necessary to use the less productive, most costly
techniques such as vacuum blasting or closed cages. Even
these, however, are not sufficiently developed to be ap-
plicable to most of the structural conditions encountered.
To improve these techniques would require substantial
commitment by users, equipment manufacturera, and con-
tractors. Thus, it is essential that the regulatory agencies
provide clear guidelines and policies for the standards
governing air and water quality, worker health and safety,
and other requirements.
The overall regulatory picture, however, is likely to re-
main complex. Several of the federal standards are not yet
finalized; others are being considered for revision. State
and local regulations vary enormously from one jurisdic-
tion to another. California, for example, frequently imposes
the earliest and most severe restrictions. There is a wide
variation i n the awareness and enforcement of existing
federal and state regulations. It is therefore not likely that
any set of uniformly applied regulations would be adopted
in the foreseeable future.
There are factors other than actual or anticipated
regulations which influence the development of surface
cleaning techniques. These include the cost and supply of
abrasives, the efficiency and cleaning rate of new equip-
ment, the availability and cost of power and water, im-
proved worker safety and comfort, and the requirements of
varied coating materials. Thus, there is a continuing need
to develop and evaluate new procedures and techniques
for surface preparation of steel.

88
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.A 73 Ab27740 0003523 699 W
REFERENCES 228. Anonymous, “Shotblasted Zinc Primer Weatherproofs

1. John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F. Steel” Iron Age, August 1, 1963.
Weaver, “Survey of Existing and Promising New Methods of 22c. U S . Patent 3,754,976 Babecki-Haehner to NASA.
Surface Preparation”. (Report prepared by Steel Structures 23. B. BenderChristensen, “An Investigation of a Combined
Painting Council for US. Maritime administration through Blasting and Coating Technique: A Patented Process”.
the Avondale Shipyard). Hemple Marine Paints, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1976.
2. OSHA, “Standard for Abrasive Blasting”. See Proposed AN- 24. J.E. Sandford, “Zinc Coating Blasted on Steel”. Iron Age,
SI Standard A10.29, “American National Standard Practice August 1, 197’3.
for Construction Abrasive Blasting” October, 1980. 25. I. Geld, L. Deutsch, and F.J. D’Oria, “A Comparison of In-
3. Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Register, Volume hibitive Abrasive Blasting Techniques”. Materiais Perforrn-
36, Number 84, April 30, 1981, National Primary and Secon- ance, August, 1968.
dary Ambient Air Quality Standards and Revisions of 26. G. Wallis, “Phosphatizing - A New Approach”. Industrial
November 25,1981, July 1, 1976, December 1,1976, October Finishing and Surface Coatings, Vol. 27, No. 326, pps. 5-6,
5, 1978, February 8, 1979. 1975.
4. US. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines Informational 27. S. Usami, and H. Kozu, “Microbial Surface Treatment of
Circular 8333. Ringlemann Smoke Chart, May 1967. Metals”. Ger. Offen, 2,409,649 (September 19, 1974) and
5. Environmental Protection Agency, “National Ambient Air Japan Appl. 23,749 (March 1, 1973).
Quality Standard for Lead”. Title 40, CFR Section 50.12, Ap- 28. P. Barrillom, “Preservation of Materials in the Marine En-
pendix G (sets limits of 1.5 micrograms of lead per cubic vironment - Analysis of Replies to the inquiry on Methods-
meter averaged over 90 days)” of Surface Preparation in Shipyards”, 1964.
6. OSHA, “Final Standard for Occupational Exposure to Lead”. 29. Anonymous, “Bright Ideas - Xenon Lamp’s Intense Flash
Federal Register Vol. 43, No. 220 (Section 1910.1025, Table Burns Off Steel Truss Rust”. Engineering News Record, pp.
2-2, amended to limit exposure to lead to 50 micrograms per 11, May 31, 1979.
cubic meter averaged over 8 hours), November 14, 1978. 30. Maxwell Laboratories, Inc., “Surface Preparation by
7. OSHA, “Title 29 - Labor”. (29CFR1910.1000, Sub-part Z, Flashblasting”. Technical Literature, San Diego, CA.
Table 2-2 sets ceiling of 100 micrograms of chromic acid and 31. J.W. Hill, M.J. Lee, and I.J. Spalding, “Surface Treatments
chromates per cubic meter.) by Laser”. Optics and Laser TechnÖlogy, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp.
8. Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), Federal 267-268, 1974.
Register, May 19, 1980, pages 33127-33132, and amend- 32. Branson Cleaning Equipment Company, “Ultrasonic Clean-
ments. ing and Vapor”, Parrot Drive, Shelton, CT 06484, 1980.
9. L. Stevens, Massachusetts Department of Public Works and 33. Prismo Universal Corporation, ”Hot Compressed Air (HCA)
M. Tobey, “Massachusetts Port Authority, Private Com- Equipment, Parsippany, NJ 07054.
munications, 1981. 34. A. Beitelman, US. Army Construction Engineering and
1o. A. Ticker, and S. Rodgers, “Abatement of Pollution Caused Research Laboratories, Champaign, IL, private communica-
by Abrasive Blasting: Status in Naval Shipyards”. NSRDC tion.
Report No. 4549, 79 pps., 1975. 35. F.A. Boyle, “New Methods of Surface Preparation by the
lla. U S . Coast Guard, (Code G-EOE), Washington DC, District; US. Navy”. Paper presented 1978 Federal Highway Ad-
Fifth Coast Guard District, Miami, FL; and Seventh Coast ministration Research Review Conference, College Park,
Guard District, Portsmouth, VA; private communication. Maryland, October 3-5, 1978.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
llb. Federal Highway Administration, “Evaluation of Commercial 36. National Shipbuilding Research Program, Procedure Hand-
Blast Cleaning” Systems”. Report N-FHWA TS 81-xxx, book: Surface Preparation and Painting of Tanks and Closed
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC 20590. Areas, 1981, Cooperative cost shared efforts by Maritime
12. KUE Engineering Ltd., “KUE: System 9-18”, Polymers, Paint Administration, Avondale Shipyards (J. Peart, R&D Program
and Colour Journal, (Great Britain), pp. 202, March 9, 1977. Manager) and Complete Abrasive Blasting Systems, Inc.,
13. Equipment Technology, Inc., 5620 New Peachtree Road, (J. A. Geis, Project Manager).
Chamblee, GA, Private Communication. 37. B. Baldwin, “Methods of Dust-Free Abrasive Blast
14. Steel Structures Painting Council, Volume 2 “Systems and Cleaning”. Plant Engineering, pps. 116-125, February 15,
Specifications”, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 1978.
15213-3728, 1991 Printin 38. M. Tobey, “Painting of Mystic River (Tobin) Bridge”. Paper
15. V.E. Johnson, Jr., R.E. fohl, and A.F. Conn, “Tunneling, presented 1980 Federal Highway Administration Research
Fracturing, Drilling, and Mining with High Speed Water Jets Review Conference, December 10-11, 1980.
Utilizing Cavitation Damage”. First International Symposium 39. Iowa Department of Transportation, “Special Provisions for
on Jet Cutting Technology, Coventry, England, 1973, Paper Repainting Bridges (Environmental Protection)”. SP-240,
A 3 and Supplement. Ames, IA, March 27, 1979.
16. Federal Highway Administration Reports FHWA RD-82-001
and FHWA RD-82-002, “Development of System for Con-
trolled Cavitation Blasting for Surface Preparation of Struc-
turai Steel”.
17. T. Appling, Texas Department of Highways and Public
Transportation, Private Communication, 1980.
18. M. Hosoda, N. Saiki, and J. Nakamura, “Sand Blasting with
High-pressure Steam”. Japanese Patent 7533,121, Dai Nip-
pon Tokyo Company, Ltd.
19. C. Fong, “Pollution-Free Blasting”. National Paint and
Coatings Association 16th Annual Maine Coatings Con-
ference, 7 pps. 1976.
20. C.J. Sandwith, and T. Briewick, “High Velocity Ice Particles
for Cleaning Ship Hulls - A Feasibility Study”. 4th Interna-
tional Congress of Marine Corrosion and Fouling, May,
1976.
21. T.W. Burke, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., Allentown,
Pennsylvania, 18105, Private Communications, 1981.
22. J.D. Keane, “Zinc Shot Blasting of Structural Steel”. SSPC
Report, April 1964.
22A. J.H. McAuliffe, “Zinc Shot Blasting of Structural Steel”.
Scientific Australian, March 1964.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 9 93 8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003524 525
CHAPTER 2.9
CHEMICAL CLEANING
by
Melvin H. Sandler and Samuel Spring
The importance of surface preparation to the durabil- bination of solvent followed by the alkaline
ity of any coating system has been emphasized throughout cleaner.
this manual. Without proper surface preparation the finest 3. Soils Containing Solids
coating applied with the greatest of skill will fall short of Examples: mud, carbonized oils, corrosion prod-
its maximum performance or may even fail miserably. A ucts. These soils are usually the most difficult to
coating can perform its function only so long as it remains remove and may require a combination of solvent,
intact and firmly bonded to the substrate. alkaline pressure spray and scrubbing, and in the
An adequately prepared surface not only provides a case of corrosion products, acid pickling.
good anchor for the coating, but also ensures a surface Aged or impacted soils are generally the most dif-
free of corrosion products and contaminants that might ficult. In the cleaning process both the soil and the
shorten the life of the film by spreading along the coating residues of cleaners, which may subsequently contribute
substrate interface and destroying adhesion, or by actually to further corrosion or adversely affect coating perform-
breaking through the coating. ance, must be removed.
Thus, the initial step in any finishing operation is
cleaning the surface. This chapter describes chemical II. TYPES OF CHEMICAL CLEANERS
cleaning materials and methods. Other chapters of this
manual cover mechanical surface cleaning. A. SOLVENTS
Petroleum solvents such as kerosene, VM & P
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
naphtha, mineral spirits, or chlorinated solvents such as tri-
While a perfect level of cleanliness may not always be clorethylene or l , l , l -trichloroethene are used to dissolve
possible to attain, especially under field conditions, every and remove soil. Petroleum solvents may be used in hand,
effort should be made to reach the maximum level of soak, or spray cleaning and are efficient in removing oils
cleanliness under the specific operating conditions. and greases. Chlorinated solvents are generally used in
During manufacture, fabrication, and service, surfaces vapor degreasing units but may also be used at ambient
become soiled. They pick up some foreign matter as cor- temperatures by immersion or spray. They are effective in
rosion products that must be removed before final finishes
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
removing heavy oils, greases, and waxes. Chlorinated

or refinishes can be applied. The removal of these con- solvents should be inhibited against hydrolysis to prevent
taminating substances is covered under the term “clean- the formation of hydrochloric acid that may occur in the
ing”. presence of water. This acidity can etch the metal. The sol-
There are countless contaminants (soils) to be re- vent cleaners offer the advantage of leaving the part dry
moved, but in general they may be categorized as: after cleaning and eliminating the need for additional
1. Oily Soils rinsing.
Examples: hydraulic oil, lubricating oil, light oil, Regulations restricting the use of organic solvents
oil-based rust preventatives, etc. When present as havelbecome so stringent in recent years as to discourage
thin films or small residues, and when very their use. Thus, for other than small area cleaning the most
viscous in nature, these soils may be removed by commonly used cleaners are water-based, either alkaline
alkaline cleaners. On more stubborn areas solvent or acidic.
cleaners may be needed because the longer a soil
ages the more difficult it is to remove. B. ALKALI
2. Semi-Solid Soils Alkaline cleaners are composed of highly alkaline
Examples: viscous oils, greases, heavy rust salts such as sodium hydroxide, silicates, and carbonates
preventatives, etc. These soils are usually re- along with surfactants, sequestering agents, inhibitors,
moved with heavy duty alkaline cleaners or a com- wetting agents andlor soaps. They function by wetting,

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*2.9 93 m ôb27740 0003525 461
breathed in high vapor concentrations.

There is no single method of cleanin that will roper-
ly condition all surfaces prior to preservation. The choice
of cleaning method will depend upon the type of structure
as well as other factors. Parts cleaned after assembly or in
the field can require quite different methods from parts
processed in a factory. If parts being reconditioned are to
be cleaned prior to repainting, paint and rust must be
removed in addition to other soils. Moreover, large parts
may require procedures that differ from small parts.
However, the principles governing cleaning are similar. In
general, cleaners are more effective at higher temperatures
and at higher concentrations. It is desirable to have ap-
plication under conditions of high turbulence or force to
dislodge the soil loosened by the action of the chemicals.
This is true both of organic- and water-based systems,
but temperature is less important for organic solvents.
However, temperatures and turbulence may be prohibited
for organic solvents since this would generate toxic
fumes.
When cleaning with the alkaline or acidic materials,
regardless of the cleaning method used, every effort
should be made to thoroughly rinse the surfaces, not only
to minimize the amount of soil remaining, but also to
remove residues of the cleaning materials that may
FIGURE 1
Steam cleaning of large or assembled structures. The steam adversely affect subsequent coating performance by pro-
cleaner may be directly fired or use plant steam as in the above viding electrolyte for the action of galvanic cells when
photograph. When the distance from the gun is small, the moisture penetrates the paint film.
temperatures are close to 2OOOF so high melting soils can be
removed more readily. At more normally used distances of the Another consideration is the ionic content of the rinse
gun from the surface, the temperature may be 160° to 180'F but a water. In addition to the calcium, magnesium, iron, etc.
larger area is covered. The cleaning operation is under considera- associated with hard water, water in some parts of the
ble control by the operator in terms of the time of exposure of the
soil to the detergent spray and the distance from the gun. country also contains salts such as sodium chloride and
sodium sulfate that are potent electrolytes in the corrosion
process.
emulsifying, dispersing and solubilizing the soils. They are
Cleaning procedures can be divided into those used in
generally used at elevated temperatures.
the manufacturing process (factories), and those used in
the field for cleaning large, assembled units. This discus-
C. ACIDS sion will be limited to on-site cleaning of assembled or
Acid cleaners are usually composed of fairly strong large structures. Table I lists U.S. government chemical
acids with small quantities of surfactants, water miscible clean ing specif ¡cations.
solvents and organic wetting and emulsifying agents. Acid
cleaners remove a soil by chemical attack and by dissolv- A. SOLVENT WIPE
ing the reaction products. They are used primarily to
Wiping with solvent followed by a second wipe with
remove corrosion products.
clear solvent or by removal of excess solvent with a clean
D. DETERGENTS cloth can be effective depending on the soil. Mineral spirits
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and stoddard solvent are relatively convenient and inex-

Detergent cleaners are composed of buffering salts, pensive to use. The quality of cleaning obtained depends
sequestering agents, dispersants, inhibitors, wetting largely upon the severity of the soiling and the expertise
agents andlor soaps. They function by wetting, emulsify- of the operator. Good, well supervised workers using
ing, dispersing and solubilizing the soil. They are generally clear solvent and clean wiping rags can do a reasonably
used at temperature ranging from 150°F (SSOC) to boiling. good job. Some soils may require more effective solvents
such as xylene or chlorinated solvents other than those
111. CLEANING mentioned above. Solvent cleaning is most effective for
WARNING - In the use of any cleaning method, ap- removal of oils and greases from limited areas of struc-
propriate safety precautions must be taken to protect per- tures and for occasional cleaning prior to painting. Where
sonnel from materials and conditions which may present the complete structure is to be cleaned, other methods are
fire hazards, cause skin irritation, or have toxic effect when more practical.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERl(2.9 9 3 W 862'7940 0003526 3 T B W
TABLE 1
S o m e U.S. Government Specifications for Chemical Cleaning*
S D e c i f i c a t i o n No. Title Material Application Purpose
P-c-111 Carbon Removing Monoethanolamine Soak For use in softening

Compound and removing carbon gum
& other contaminants.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
MIL-STD 338 Cleaning and Alkaline base Immersion Cleaning aluminum prior to
Treatment of painting.
Aluminum Parts
P-C-436 Cleaning Compound, Hot alkaline Immersion Hot soak tank cleaning
Alkali phosphate solutions of ferrous & non-ferrous
materials.
P-c-437 Cleaning Compound, Alkaline phosphate For use in steam cleaning

High Pressure & non-phosphate machines for cleaning
(Steam) Cleaner various ferrous & non-
ferrous surfaces.
TT-C-490 Cleaning & P r e Solvent, Alkaline, Immersion, Cleaning methods are

treatment of emulsion & spray or intended for cleaning,
Ferrous Surfaces phosphoric acid brush rust removing, descaling
for Organic or surface etching
Coatings
MIL-(2-10578 Corrosion Removing Phosphoric-acid base; Immersion. Rust remover.

and Metal 6 types spray or
Conditioning brush
Compound
MIL-C-11090 Cleaning Compound, Esters and Soak, brush For use in removing oils,
Degreasing & organic salts or spray greases, asphalt, tars
Depreservi ng & rust preventive com-
Solvent pounds from metallic &
painted surfaces.
MI L-H-13528 Acid, Hydrochloric, Hydrochloric Soak For use in removing

Inhibited, Rust- acid heavy rust deposits from
Removing steel surfaces.
MI L-C-14460 Corrosion Removing Sodium hydroxide Electrolytic Rust removal from bare and
Compound base or immersion painted iron and steel.
MIL-C-22542 Cleaning Compound, Optional High pressure Painted and unpainted

High Pressure steam cleaning aircraft surfaces.
Cleaner, Liquid machines, coil
type
MI L-C-38334 Corrosion Removing Phosphoric acid Spray or For removing corrosion

Compound, Prepaint, wash from aircraft aluminum
for Aircraft- surfaces.
Aluminum Surfaces
MIL-C-43616 Cleaning Opt ional Spray, brush Intended for cleaning

Compounds, Aircraft or foam painted and unpainted
Surfaces aircraft surface.
MIL-'2-46156 Corrosion Removing Sodium hydroxide Immersion At elevated temperatures,
Compound base will remove rust, paint,
scale, grease, dirt,
asphalt & carbon.
MI L-C-81302 Cleaning Compound, Trichloro- Spraying, For use in cleaning
Solvent trifluorethane flushing, space vehicle components,
vapor precision assem bl ¡es,
degreasing, oxygen assemblies &
ultrasonics electronic equipment.
MIL-C-87936 Cleaning Optional; water Painted aircraft surfaces.

Compounds, Aircraft dilutable
Surfaces
* T h e following specifications have b e e n removed from this table to reflect current practice: MIL-C-25769,
MIL-C-27251, MIL-C-81533, MIL-S-10561, MIL-T-7003
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 . 9 93 D 8627940 0003527 234 D
TABLE 2 - TYPES OF BRUSH MATERIAL

USED IN CLEANING
(1) NATURAL FIBERS
TAMPICO FIBER - Good durability and water resistance, soft
to medium stiffness
PATENT FIBER - Select grade of tampico, stiffer and more
durable than tampico
PAYMYRA FIBER - Lower cost, stiffer, reasonably durable
PALMETTO FIBER - Very good durability and water resistance
(2) ANIMAL BRISTLES

HORSEHAIR - Soft to slightly stiff, good durability,
fair water resistance.
BOAR BRISTLE - Excellent durability and very good water
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
resistance, soft to slightly stiff
(3) PLASTIC BRISTLES

NYLON - Very good durability, wide selection,
resistance to alkaline cleaners but not to
solvent, excellent water resistance
ACRYLIC PLASTICS - Excellent durability and resistance to
chemicals
(4) WIRE BRUSHES

CARBON STEEL - Very stiff, tends to rust, high cutting
action, heat resistant
BRASS - Very stiff, durable
STAINLESS STEEL - Very stiff, durable, expensive, non-corroding
B. STEAM CLEANING
A high pressure jet of steam, with or without clean-
ing compound, is used to clean ferrous, non-ferrous
and painted surfaces. Steam removes grease, oil, and dirt
by a combination of detergent action, water, heat and im-
pact. Alkali cleaners used in steam cleaning will attack
aluminum and zinc alloys, unless specifically inhibited
against such action. They should be used selectively over
painted surfaces to assure no damage to the paint i f
removal is not desired.
The equipment required is a pressure jet steam
cleaner (Figures 1 and 2). A separate solution tank or drum
may be required for preparation of the cleaning compound.
One type of steam cleaner stores the concentrated clean-
ing solution and mixes it with water at a constant rate to
produce a uniform cleaning solution through a heating unit
in which it is partially vaporized and put under pressure.
‘i\ The hot solution and steam are forced through the nozzles
_
.
c ._ onto the surfaces to be cleaned. The same equipment can
FIGURE 2 be used for cleaning with dry steam or with cold water
Functional perspective of an oil-fired steam cleaner.
Courtesy Allied Kelite under high pressure. This type of steam cleaner may be
Div. Richardson Corp. Chicago either portable or stationary.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 7 73 W 8627740 0003528 170
Another type of portable pressure jet steam cleaner,

sometimes called a hydro steam unit, requires an outside
steam source. The cleaning solution is mixed and stored in
a container or tank that is not part of the steam cleaner. No
water is mixed with the solution in the steam cleaner, so
the solution is made up at a lower concentration than that
used for the other type of cleaner. The solution and steam
are mixed in the cleaner and discharged through the nozzle
of a steam cleaning gun. The same equipment can be used
for cleaning with dry steam.
In the steam cleaning procedure a stream of steam,
with or without cleaning compound, is directed under
pressure through a cleaning gun or guns against the sur-
face to be cleaned. The pressure should be adjusted so
that the area can be cleaned without requiring repeated or
prolonged spraying. The cleaning guns may be furnished
with interchangeable nozzles. A round one is used for most
cleaning. Flat nozzles are used for flat surfaces. Dry steam
a. Courtesy Oxford Chemicals may be used as the final step to aid drying. The material
Div. Consolidated Foods Corp. and surface finish of the surfaces determines whether dry-
ing is necessary after steam cleaning.
FIGURES 3A and 3B
Portable units that can be hooked into plant hot or cold water line C. HIGH PRESSURE-HOT DETERGENT
for convenient cleaning, for spraying high pressure detergent
solution. The machines (Figures 3A and 3B) used to provide
these sprays utilize pumps that develop pressures of 500
to 1000 psi. Volumes of detergent solution will vary with
f
the larger machines (Figure 4), delivering 3-5gallons per
minute. The cleaning procedure is basically the same as in
steam cleaning with the detergent spray directed under
high pressure through a cleaning gun against the surface
to be cleaned. As with solvent and steam cleaning, the skill
of the operator determines in large part how effective the
procedure will be. There is an inexpensive unit that uses
water line pressure for dispensing the detergent. The
detergent solution is metered into the water line before
spraying. In order to obtain reasonably good cleaning, the
detergent solution is used at considerably higher concen-
tration, usually 1 to 2 ounces per gallon.
D. FOAM CLEANING
Foamed detergent solutions are popular for cleaning
food processing plants and automotive equipment such as
trucks (Figures 6 and 7). They are also used to acid clean
the inside of towers under conditions in which the tower is
actually filled with foam, obviating the necessity for filling
it with liquid. The foam is normally used t o cling to vertical
surfaces long enough for detergency to take place. Some-
times a gel is sprayed onto the surfaces to achieve even
longer contact time. In general the foam is neutral SD that
a limited residue may not adversely affect paint if rinsing
is not complete.
b. Courtesy Olympic Mfg. Co. In this process foam is generated by mixing a high
Div. Consolidated Foods Corp. foaming surfactant, often containing foam stabilizer and
detergent builder, with water and compressed air. Varia-
tions in foam cleaning (Figures 5A, 58 and 5C)include (A)
the small unit that has a tube to pick up foaming concen-
trate from a drum, (6) the unit that pumps diluted foaming
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

94
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 = 9 93 8627940 0003529 O07 m
agent and detergent from a drum and (C) a self-contained

unit in which foaming agent and detergent concentrate is
mixed with water and air prior to spraying. These units are
quite mobile, enabling the operator to reach areas difficult
to clean.
E. BRUSH CLEANING
Brushes and sponges are useful for cleaning. They
can remove stubborn soils and spot clean highly soiled
areas to complement other methods of cleaning. Fiber,
wire or plastic brushes may be used depending upon the
type of cleaning required. Table 2 lists the various types of
FIGURE 4 brush materials. Sponges are also available in a variety of
High pressure spray machines in which the hot detergent solution forms and compositions, including some with abrasive sur-
is made up in a reservoir rather than being injected into hot steam.
This provides a more predictable concentration of detergent and faces attached to one side.
permits the spraying of a high volume solution of known
detergent concentration.
Courtesy, Oxford Chemicals IV. HANDLING THE CLEAN SURFACE
Div. Consolidated Foods Corp.
Cleaned surfaces should be further processed with a
A
,R
I INLET prepaint treatment or painted as soon as possible after
cleaning to prevent rusting or recoiling from the at-
mosphere.
z
FOAM OUTLET
FIGURES 5A, 5 8 and 5C

Cleaning by the use of foam.
Foam is generated by mixing a high foaming surfactant, often
containing foam stabilizer and detergent builder, with water and
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
compressed air. Variations in foam cleaning units include (A) the
small unit with a tube that picks up foaming concentrate from
a drum, (B) the unit that pumps diluted foaming agent and
detergent from a drum, and (C) a self-contained unit in which
foaming agent and detergent concentrate are mixed with water
and air prior to spraying.
Courtesy DEMA Engineering Co.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 7 73 8627740 0003530 829
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 6
Use of portable foamer.
Courtesy Oxford Chemical Division,
Consolidated Foods Corp.
V. CLEANING PREVIOUSLY PAINTED SUR-

FACES
If the painted surface has not been broken, it may be
possible to paint with little or no chemical cleaning.
However, if the surface has been exposed for any period of
time, it has undoubtedly accumulated some atmospheric
contaminants, as well as corrosion that must be removed FIGURE 7
before repainting. Any of the chemicals and cleaning Portable Foamer.
methods mentioned previously may be used. Care must be Courtesy Oxford Chemical Division,
Consolidated Foods Corp.
taken, however, to insure that the chemical and cleaning
procedures used do not attack the sound paint.
VI. DISPOSAL OF CHEMICAL WASTES

Chemical cleaning materials should be disposed of
without violating of local, state, or Federal pollution
regulations.

96
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SSPC CHAPTER*2.9 93 8627940 0003533 765
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active Dr. Samuel Spring re-
participation of the following in the review process for this ceived his B.S. from City Col-
chapter: P.J. Bennett, J. Carroll, James Davis, Ted Dowd, Arnold lege of New York in 1936, his
Eickhoff, Aaron Greenberg, Mark Kuchner, Robert McCormick, C. A.M. from Columbia University
Munger, William Pearson, William Wallace. in 1938 and his Ph.D. from Tem-
ple University in 1952. He was
an instructor at City College of
New York from 1936-1939; a
chemist at Frankford Arsenal
from 1940-1947; a group leader
BIOGRAPHY at Pennwalt Corporation from
Melvin H. Sandler has been 1947-1956: laboratorv director
involved in research and devel- at Kelite ’Corporation, 1956-1963; technical director at Oxford
opment and technical services Chemicals, 1963-1970; technical director at Chemtrust Industries
on chemical coatings, metal 1970-1973 and technical director at Gibson Chemicals, Ltd.
preparation prior to painting, (Australia) 1973-1977. He has been President, Southeast
and corrosion control for over Laboratories, Inc. and a consultant from 1977 until the present.
35 years. During his service as
a chemist and Division Chief at
the former U.S. Army Coating
and Chemical Laboratory, Aber- REFERENCES
deen Proving Ground, MD, he S . Spring, Industrial Cleaning, Prism Press, 1974.
was responsible for the devel-
opment of coatings for the S. Spring, Preparafion of Metais for Painting, Reinhold Publishing
preservation of Army material. Corporation.
Mr. Sandler is the author of more than 50 technical publications Departments of the U S . Army, Navy, Air Force Technical Manual
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and 20 military specifications dealing with coatings and corrosion No. 5-618, NAVFAC MO 110, AFM 85-3, “Paints and Protective
and has served as a consultant to government and industry. In Coatings”, January 15, 1969.
1976 he joined Lenmar, inc., an industrial finishes manufacturer, U.S. Air Force Technical Manual No. T.O. 1-1-1, “Cleaning of
with responsibility for new product development and other Aerospace Equipment”, Change 9 - March 15, 1976.
coat i ngs con su It ing servi ces.

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SSPC CHAPTERm3-L 93 = 8627940 0 0 0 3 5 3 2 hTL
CHAPTER 3.1
SPECIAL PRE-PAINT TREATMENTS:

PHOSPHATING
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by
Samuel Spring
Most paints will adhere reasonably well to clean steel, then expose the part or panel to an atmosphere of salt
especially if the surface has been abraded and surface ox- spray, ¡.e., a fog of water droplets containing salt, after
ides removed. The pickling and etching action of acids which the distance of corrosion from the scribe line is
also improves adhesion. Pickling removes oxides and measured (ASTM-B 117).
etches by selective solution of the steel, producing a larger
surface area for contact with the paint. A more i. NATURE OF THE PHOSPHATE COATINGS
sophisticated method of surface preparation is to apply a
The zinc phosphate coating is formed by crystalliza-
chemical deposit or coating, normally phosphate, that
tion onto the surface by chemical reaction, but is integral
holds paint because it is compatible with paint com-
with the surface rather than deposited on the surface. The
ponents and often provides an extended or porous surface
continuous structure consists of the steel substrate, a thin
for retaining more paint.
layer of adherent iron oxide, then a mixed oxide-phosphate
Phosphate coatings are transformations of metal sur-
(iron andlor zinc), and finally a crystalline zinc phosphate.
faces into new surfaces having non-metallic, and non-
There are no sharply defined interfaces between the
conductive properties. They are widely used in the
layers. When paint is applied to this adherent surface, it is
manufacture of metal products for four principal reasons:
held almost as tightly as though it were in good contact
1. To precondition surfaces to receive and retain with clean steel itself. In addition, the surface area in con-
paint, and to protect surfaces against under-paint tact is greatly increased, and a high quality surface treat-
corrosion; ment i s obtained. Thus, there i s a substantial barrier to at-
2. To prepare surfaces for bonding with plastic mospheric moisture and considerable resistance to chip-
coat ings; ping, cracking, and underpaint corrosion; and often a
3. To precondition surface for metal forming opera- heavier paint film can be held in position in a single
tions, such as cold extrusion, and for breaking in coating. Small crystals of limited porosity in such coatings
friction-bearing surfaces, by providing a base for provide the best performance.
drawing compounds and lubricants; and Iron phosphate coatings have been referred to as
4. To improve corrosion resistance by providing a “non-crystalline” conversion coatings, but “micro-
good base for waxes and rust-preventive oils. crystalline” would probably be more appropriate. The
By far the most widespread use of phosphate coatings is coating is a mixture of adherent iron oxide and iron
to prolong the useful life of paint finishes. phosphate with minor quantities of other components
Phosphate coatings in commercial use are crystalline from the bath occluded in the crystals. It is considerably
zinc phosphate and microcrystalline (sometimes called thinner than zinc phosphate and essentially non-porous.
amorphous) iron phosphate. In addition, a coating forms The thinner deposit allows more flexibility with paints that
from phosphoric acid treatment (occasionally modified by are intrinsically less flexible but more enduring.
the addition of other chemicals to accelerate reaction with Treatment with phosphoric acid does not provide
the steel). The types of phosphate cleaning of steel are much coating, but sometimes good results are achieved
outlined in Table 1. with certain highly impervious and inert paint systems.
Crystalline zinc phosphate coatings, properly applied, Prolonged treatment with phosphoric acid removes oxides
provide the highest level of quality, especially in outdoor and sometimes provides a light etch that is beneficial to
exposure or conditions where there is the possibility of adhesion. Residues from phosphoric acid treatment are
breaking the paint film by mechanical action, as by impact, less detrimental than those from sulfuric or hydrochloric
cutting or abrasion. They prevent or reduce the spread of (muriatic) acids.
corrosion from the exposed area. This is also true for good Phosphate coatings function in the following ways:
iron phosphate coatings. As a matter of fact, the most 1. They put the surface in a non-alkaline condition:
used method of evaluating the quality of these coatings is alkaline residues undermine paint finishes and thus pro-
to cut a line through the paint film to the metal below and mote corrosion;
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - L 9 3 E 8627740 0003533 538
TABLE 1
TYPES OF PHOSPHATE CLEANING OF STEEL
Characteristics
Spray
3 or 4 stage Simple and effective.
Non-crystalline phosphatelcleaning
5 or 6 stage Non-crystalline phosphate Good quality. Consider for
with separate cleaning steel appliances.
5 or 6 stage Top quality. Expensive on
zinc DhosDhate low volume lines.
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Immersion
Zinc phosphate Excel lent.
Non-crystalI ¡ne phosphate Satisfactory for non-critical work.
Alkali clean - preferably with Minimum performance; cheap.
acidic rinse
Acid DiCkle Minimum performance on rusted steel
Vapour degreaser Minimum performance; expensive but no
drv-of f. reauired.
Manual
Wipe-on wipe-off phosphoric acid Adequate performance i f done
clean carefully.
Steam clean and phosphate Adequate to good performance i f
operated carefully.
Solvent clean Minimum performance.
Mechanical Abrasion Good to excellent performance
i f done properly.
2. They impose relative uniformity in surface texture sive and for average performance not difficult to maintain.
and improved uniformity of post treatments such as paint; The type of equipment and procedure depends on the
3. They increase the surface area upon which the number of parts to be processed and the size and shape of
systems of attractive forces causing adhesion can act; the parts. A schematic of phosphate process operations is
4. They create capillaries and micro-cavities to (a) presented in Table 2 to assist in making such decisions.
provide mechanical interlocking of coatings with surfaces, This schematic applies essentially to factory application
and (b) to hold drawing compounds, retain break-in oils, in the manufacture of such items as cabinets, appliances,
and improve rust resistance; and automotive units, either as subassemblies or com-
5. They cushion metals against scoring and scratch- pletely fabricated units. Components of other types of
ing; structures, however, are sometimes handled similarly, in-
6. They insulate metals against electrochemical cor- cluding those treated and primed in a factory, then
rosion; assembled in the field. Field application of phosphate
7. They prevent reaction between the oils in paint and coatings is sometimes done by manually operated steam
sensitive metals; and cleaning or by machines using hot solutions at high
8. They inhibit the spread of corrosion from a dam- pressures (see section on cleaning). Table 3 lists U.S.
aged area to a sound area adjoining it. government specifications for phosphating steel surfaces.
II. SELECTION OF THE TYPE OF A. ZINC PHOSPHATING

PHOSPHATING In this method the steel is treated with a chemical
Cost is an important factor in selecting a phosphating solution prepared by diluting a proprietary concentrate to
system. Generally, iron phosphate systems are inexpen- the 2 to 4% level. Immersion baths are more concentrated

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - L 93 8627740 0003534 474
TABLE 2
PHOSPHATE PROCESS OPERATIONS
Size
Large: (e.g., an assembled bus or large tank assembly)
Manual
Substantial: (e.g., automobiles or large cabinet assemblies)

Very low output (1 unit per hour)
Manual
Low output (4 unitslhour)
Manual - for low capital costs
Conveyorized spray - only i f high quality requirement justifies the high capital
and running costs.
Line speed 4 ftlmin minimum even i f loading i s very light.
Single chamber - multi spray - intermediate costs and performance
Moderate to high output (over 12 unitslhour)
Conveyorized spray
Moderate (e.g. domestic dishwasher or small filing cabinet)

Very low output (4 unitslhour or less)
Manual - i f high quality is a minor factor
Immersion
Conveyorized spray - line speed 3 ftlmin minimum
Conveyorized immersion - for lower line speeds or for maximum quality on
internal sections
Small: (e.g., bench appliances, lawn mower housings)

Very low output (10 unitslhour or less)
Manual - i f quality is a minor factor
Immersion
Low output (around 40 unitslhour)
Immersion
Conveyorized spray - line speed 3 ftlmin preferred but with careful design may
go lower in some cases
Tipping basket or conveyorized immersion - for maximum quality on internal
sections
than spray baths and are usually operated at higher with the formation of the coating.
temperature, 150-170°F in comparison to 100 to 1 4 5 ° F for A considerable amount of expertise is required to set
spray baths. To obtain good coatings an accelerator is up a good system, but once this is done, controls can be
added as the system is applied. performed by operators trained for the job.
The essential components of a phosphating bath are Mild carbon steel equipment is usually adequate
a zinc salt, a phosphate from partially neutralized although stainless steel headers, risers, and nozzles are
phosphoric acid, nitric acid and an oxidant, usually preferred in spray systems. When spraying, ingenuity may
sodium nitrite (accelerator), added in small quantities con- be required to position the work so that the spray impinges
tinuously or intermittently. Zinc phosphate is precipitated on all critical surfaces.
in crystalline form on the metal as the acidity is reduced by Sludge formed during the process consists primarily
reaction with the steel, while hydrogen gas formed at the of ferric phosphate. Provision is made to allow this sludge
same time is oxidized by the nitrite to water. This last ac- to settle by having heat sources along the side of the
tion avoids formation of a gas layer that would interfere tanks, and by having constricted areas in which sludge
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Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 1O0

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - 1 93 m 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003535 300 m
TABLE 3
Some Government Specifications
on Phosphating Steel Surfaces
U S . Gov't. Spec. No. Title TY Pe Requirements Application
TT-C-490 Cleaning Methods and Phosphate Paint adhesion, Base for organic
Pretreatment of Ferrous sait spray coatings.
Surfaces for Organic
Coatings
MIL-S-5002 Surface Treatments Phosphate Salt spray Paint base. corrosion

and Inorganic protection
Coatings for Metal
Surfaces of Weapon
Systems
MIL-C-13924 Coating, Oxide, Oxide Oxalic acid spot Corrosion resistance

Black, for Ferrous test and salt spray for moving parts.
Metals -96 hr. min.
DOD-P-16232 Phosphate Coatings, Manganese Salt spray - Corrosion protection

Heavy Manganese and phosphate, 1.5-48 hrs. resistant to alkaline
Zinc Base (for Ferrous zinc environments, and
Met a Is) phosphate prevention of galling.
MIL-C-46487 Cleaning: Preparation Iron Salt spray - Epoxy - used with

and Organic Coating of phosphate 24 hrs. phenolic varnish
Steel Cartridge Cases
may settle. This will reduce re-dispersion as the bath is Maintaining the acidity within specified pH ranges is
used. crucial. Ordinarily, this is done by adding proprietary salts,
The zinc phosphate system is usually applied in a five- but occasionally phosphoric acid is used in addition. Con-
stage process as follows: centrations normally range from '12 O/O t o 2%. Best results
1. Clean - alkaline cleaner are obtained at 120 to 150°F under spray application.
2. Rinse There is more variation in quality of end result with these
3. Zinc phosphate systems than with zinc phosphate, due, in part, to the
4. Rinse widespread custom of cleaning and phosphating in the
5. Passivating final rinse same spray system. Often variations in performance are
An intermediate stage may be interspersed between determined more by cleaning than phosphating. Better
stages 2 and 3 for the purpose of improving the crystal size quality is usually achieved in the lines where cleaning is
of the zinc phosphate by use of a colloidal titanium salt. done prior to phosphating, but most work is processed by
Cleaners containing titanium may also affect the grain dual-purpose chemicals to achieve the objectives of clean-
refining function. There will be further discussion below of ing and chemical conversion. Maintaining two stages of
the final rinse, which applies both to zinc and iron cleaninglphosphating yields superior quality, but this is
phosphate. not done frequently enough i n industrial practice. When it
is used, it is preferable to have the first spray stage at
B. IRON PHOSPHATE PROCESSES higher pH and the second at lower pH. More often, a three
Most iron phosphate coatings are produced by spray. stage system is employed: (1) Cleaner-phosphater (2) Rinse
In contrast with zinc phosphate, there are few processes (3) Passivating Rinse.
which operate successfully using immersion.
Generally a salt of phosphoric or pyrophosphoric acid C. OTHER TYPES OF PHOSPHATING
is used at pH of 3 to 5.5 in conjunction with relatively small 1. Low Temperature phosphating
quantities of various activators. There are many types of There are now available many iron and zinc
activators used with these baths. "Activators" (a term phosphate materials which may be applied by
used loosely here) may be, for example, sodium motyb- spray or immersion at, or close to, room
date, tannic acid, organic nitro compounds, hydrox- temperature, 60 "-120 "F (16 "-49OC). These mate-
ylamine, and metal ions such as magnesium, zinc, and rials make possible considerable savings in
manganese. heating costs through reduced fuel use. The prin-
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SSPC CHAPTERJ3-II 9 3 8627740 O003536 247
cipal advantages of low temperature processing The awkwardness of supplying good rinsing or
are: passivating rinses in the field is a severe limitation to ob-
a. dollar savings - less fuel taining high quality paint adhesion, especially resistance
b. shorter start-up time - because of smaller to underpaint corrosion. Quite frequently, this limitation i s
temperature differential compensated for by the application of inhibitive or
c. better working conditions sacrificial primers or quite heavy films of paint to reduce
d. less wear on equipment permeability to moisture and water vapor.
e. less sludge However, field phosphating by the procedures just
described does provide a substantial improvement in
2. Solvent Phosphating
coatings performance, Field phosphatizing has been suc-
The more widely used phosphating processes,
cessful with benefit to farm and construction machinery,
such as those which have been discussed up to
and to a lesser extent with ships, tanks, bridges, and other
this point, are water-based. There is also a system
structures.
using trichloroethylene as the base for cleaning,
Another type of treatment, sometimes incorrectly
phosphating, and subsequent finishing.
referred to as “phosphating” involves treatment with
This method involves three stages and re-
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phosphoric acid as contrasted with other mineral acids

quires special equipment:
such as sulfuric or hydrochloric (muriatic) acids.
a.vapor degreasing i n a boiling bath of
This treatment may utilize hot concentrated
trichloroethylene at 188 “F;
phosphoric acid to remove mill scale or heavy rust or
b.phosphating by either spray or dip in the
rather dilute phosphoric acid to modify light to heavy rust
organic acid phosphates;
to improve paint performance. It may also be applied to
c. c o a t i n g w i t h an organic f i n i s h using
reasonably clean and unrusted steel to form a light
trichloroethylene as the solvent.
phosphate coating, or at least a surface receptive to paint.
Most paints can tolerate mildly acidic residues better
111. FIELD PHOSPHATING than alkaline residues from cleaners, or indeed the iron ox-
Zinc phosphate and iron phosphate coatings of ide of rusted steel which also has an alkaline reaction.
highest quality are normally applied in the factory to items Under ideal conditions there is just enough rust to react
such as automobiles, refrigerators, washing machines, with the amount of phosphoric acid applied, so that the
cabinets, assembled units and also to components that result is an almost neutral system. Of course, loose rust
are subsequently asembled. However, a reasonably good which flakes off cannot be improved very much by such
job, certainly one superior to no phosphate coating, can be treatments.
achieved in the field by spraying a mildly acidic phosphate There is also limited use of phosphates of zinc or
solution onto the metal surface. The same iron phosphate other metals containing phosphoric acid with other ingre-
chemicals used in factories are often employed. This may dients, including thickeners (some being thixotropic
be done with steam cleaning machines or machines agents) to reduce run-off. If done properly, this provides
originally designed to spray hot detergent solution for considerable improvement, especially i f applied by brush,
cleaning under field conditions. Some machines spray which enhances penetration and removal of loose rust.
detergent solution from one section and phosphating solu- This type of treatment probably has been used to a greater
tion from another. These are available in a variety of extent in Europe than in the U.S. Naval jelly is a popular
designs and are treated in the chapter on cleaning. American product.
A considerable problem with phosphating in the field At any rate, pickling with phosphoric acid offers an
is the questionable adequacy of rinsing away the residues iron surface with less tendency to rust and improved paint
from the sprayed solution and the difficulties in supplying adhesion, and reduces paint failure under outdoor weather
a passivating final rinse of chromic acid or acid chromate exposure. It is occasionally applied to abraded surfaces
salts. There is also the problem of disposal of run-off with good results, especially if there is some rusting due to
chemicals. a delay i n painting after blasting.
The section on cleaning pointed out that the presence
of salts or electrolyte under a paint film can be very harm-
ful in causing blistering and underpaint corrosion upon ex-
IV. PASSIVATING RINSES
posure to highly humid conditions. While this is true of Occasionally, the importance of an appropriate final
residues from alkaline detergents or hard water salts, it rinse is neglected. We have emphasized the detrimental ef-
is also true of the chemicals of phosphating solutions fect of electrolytic residues that prompt galvanic corro-
that have not reacted with the metal. sion. A final rinse containing chromic acid can minimize
When a final chromic acid rinse is used, residues from such corrosion. The chromate insolubilizes some of the
phosphating solutions are insolubilized, or the tiny fraction heavy metal ions and oxidizes steel which was not proper-
of the surface that has not reacted to form a tight adherent ly coated. A passive state is obtained and soluble residues
coating is passivated (¡.e. converted to an adherent oxide are then flushed away.
by the chromate). One common difficulty with chromic acid rinses is

at 303-397-2295.
lack of adequate control of composition and concentra- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
tion. The desired concentration is so low (e.g., 2 to 4 oz/lOO The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
gal) that small amounts of contaminant can reduce too chapter: Jim Bennett, James Davis, Ted Dowd, Larry Drake, Ar-
much of the chromate to the chromic condition. Excessive nold Eickhoff, H. Kline, Mark Kuchner, Howard Lasser, M.F.
concentration, on the other hand, can result in blistering Maher, Jim Maurer, Joe Mazia, Robert McCormick, Lou Nowacki,
William Pearson. Melvin Sandler and William Wallace.
under highly humid conditions.
The rinse sometimes is used after excessive con-
tamination by electrolyte salts. Disposal regulations are
another diffjculty: the amount of chromate that can be in-
troduced into the effluent is extremely small, for practical
purposes, almost nil. This has resulted in the use of non-
BIOGRAPHY
chromated final rinses, often merely very dilute phosphoric
A biographical sketch and portrait of Dr. Spring may be found
acid or de-ionized water, which are of limited value. Some at the end of Chapter 2.9.
chromium-free rinses are almost as effective as the
chromic acid type when used with zinc phosphate
coatings. Some of these also contain ions which have
limited acceptance in effluent. These can be adequate for REFERENCES
some purposes but are less safe to use than the chromic 1. M.F. Maher and A.M. Pradel, “Phosphate Coatings”, Metal
finishing Guidebook, pp. 674-687, 1981.
acid rinse, and require very close control. The low concen-
2. Samuel Spring, Preparation of Metals for Painting, Reinhold
tration of chromium in the chromic acid rinse makes it Publishing Co., New York, 1965.
feasible to treat this effluent without high cost. 3. Samuel Spring and K. Woods, “Phosphatizing with Non-
Crystalline Coatings”, Metal finishing, Volume 78, No. 9, p.
31, 1980.
V. COMPARING IRON AND ZINC PHOSPHATE 4. K. Woods and Samuel Spring, “Selection of a Paint Pretreat-
TREATMENTS ment System”, Mefal finishing, Volume 78, No. 6, p. 17, 1980.
5. K. Woods, and Samuel Spring, “Zinc Phosphating”, Metal
Maher and Pradel’ point out that both the iron finishing, Vol. 77, No. 3, p. 24 and No. 4, p. 56, 1979.
phosphate process and the zinc phosphate process have 6. K. Woods and Samuel Spring, “Chromating as a Prepaint
Treatment System”, Metal Finishing, Vol. 79, No. 6, 1981.
inherent advantages for particular applications. A clear
economic advantage of the iron phosphate method is that
it usually requires few processing stages, because clean-
ing and phosphating can generally be accomplished in one
step. This means that the pre-cleaning and rinsing
associated with other processes are not required. Another
economic advantage of the iron phosphating process is
that the special acid-proof equipment frequently associ-
ated with other processes is not required. Thus, the
initial capital investment for the iron phosphate process
is usually considerably lower. On the other hand, because
of its crystalline structure and more absorptive character-
istics, the zinc phosphate coating process generally
permits the application of heavier paint finishes with
potentially longer life expectancy.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 . 2 93 8627740 0003538 OLT
CHAPTER 3.2
PICKLING STEEL SURFACES

by
D. W. Christofferson
I. INTRODUCTION black coating. This is designated by various names, such

as oxide, magnetic oxide, scale, mill scale, roll scale, forg-
Pickling is the immersion of objects in dilute acids. ing scale, annealing scale, etc.
Pickling in metal working industries is a process in which Scale is brittle, expands less than the iron from which
metals are immersed in acid solutions to remove oxides or it is formed and cracks on cooling. It is not uniform in com-
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scales. Many excellent references are available1-16. position. The lack of uniformity is the difference i n the
The primary reference is the second edition of the amount of oxygen in various parts of the scale film il-
Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume i on Chemical lustrated in Figure l .
Surface Preparation by F.P. Spruance, Jr., then Chief, The outer layer is richest in oxygen. It may approx-
Research and Development Section, American Chemical imate the formula Fe,O,, containing about 30% oxygen by
Paint Company. Most of the basic technical data on pick- weight. Beneath the outer layer is a material generally con-
ling is valid and included in this chapter with appropriate stituting the bulk of the scale and nearly corresponding to
changes. Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Prepa- the formula Fe,O,, with about 28% oxygen. Next to the
ration Specification No. 8 covers several pickling processes. metal the oxide may approximate the formula Feo, which
Various acids used in commercial pickling are contains about 22% oxygen. Beneath this may be a layer
sulfuric, hydrochloric or muriatic, nitric, hydrofluoric, of mixed oxide and metal of still lower oxygen content.
phosphoric and mixtures of these. In the United States, The outer layer of scale is almost insoluble in sulfuric
sulfuric acid, because of its low cost, high boiling point, acid but slightly soluble in muriatic acid. The under layer
availability and general suitability, is used extensively in or layers are more soluble and the metal itself quite s o h -
pickling simple and low carbon steels. They represent the ble.
bulk of tonnage pickled. Increased use of reclamation and When pickling steel in sulfuric acid the diluted acid
regeneration of acids has made hydrochloric acid pickling penetrates through cracks in the outer scale layer and
prominent for most low-carbon steels. Without acid dissolves some scale beneath and works through to the
regeneration and reclamation some batch plant opera- metal or the scale layers rich in metal and low in oxygeni6.
tions are being curtailed due to the high cost of disposing These dissolve rapidly, evolving hydrogen between the
of waste pickle liquors. Disposal problems result from en- scale and metal. It is this hydrogen evolution that is
vi ronmental reguIat ions. responsible for removal of scale that is blown off in flakes
Hydrochloric or muriatic acid alone or in combination of varying size.
with sulfuric, nitric and hydrofluoric acid is used to If all the scale were blown off at one time and the
brighten stainless and some alloy steels. The use of metal immediately removed from the pickling solution,
hydrochloric acid with some grades of stainless steel, there would be little preventable acid attack on the metal
especially 300 and 400 series, can increase the suscep- and little need for an inhibitor. This, however, does not oc-
tibility to pitting and stress corrosion cracking and must cur. Scale is removed from parts of the surface quickly.
be used with caution. This chapter primarily concerns The uninhibited acid attacks and pits these exposed areas
structural grade low carbon steels. before scale is removed from other areas. Also, when pick-
Pickling is usually done by immersing work into pickle ling with acids, the mill scale may be removed sooner than
baths in tanks. The same principles apply if the pickle rust, which often exists on some local areas. When
solution is sprayed or flowed over the work or if the work is muriatic acid is used, the action is much the same as that
pulled through baths of acid as i n the continuous pickling of sulfuric acid, except all the scales are more soluble and
of strip steel. some can be dissolved as well as blown off by the
Acids suitable for pickling should remove only scale hydrogen evolutioni6.
from base metal, but a substantial amount may be wasted Acids remove surface deposits other than mill scale.
dissolving the metal itself. Waste can be prevented with Rust is most generally encountered. Rust is a hydrated ox-
suitable inhibitors. ide of iron. It is more soluble in sulfuric, muriatic and
For the rolling process steel is heated below the phosphoric acids than are mill scales; therefore, rust
melting point, usually i n open furnaces i n which oxygen coatings are removed by being dissolved rather than being
from the furnace atmosphere combines with hot metal to blown off.
form oxides of iron and alloying elements. On cooling, Rust, unlike scale, continues to develop cyclically and
these oxides set as a hard, brittle, adherent and usually i f it were not removed along with chemicals that caused it,

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SSPC C H A P T E R a 3 . 2 93 8627740 0003539 T5b
,-fRACKS I N SCALE 7 B. TREATING PICKLED METAL

1. Cold Rinsing
When metal is removed from the pickle bath, a
thin film of pickling acid and salts, resulting from
reaction of acid with metal, clings to it. The acid
and salts, with the exception of some produced
from phosphoric acid, actually stimulate rust for-
mation and must be completely removed before
FIGURE 1
they dry. An ample supply of clean water must be
Mili scale is composed of several layers: A. Fe,O, B. Fe,O, C. F e 0 available for rinsing, which may be accomplished
D. F e 0 +
Fe. by any convenient means. Steel, wood, or con-
Courtesy of Amchem Products, Inc.
crete tanks provided with a skimming trough to
take care of an ample overflow of water are
generally used, although water can be applied
it would continue to form indefinitely even under coatings liberally with a hose.
of paint, oil, etc. Sand or shot blasting is more convenient Pickled work should be rinsed promptly, par-
for rust and scale removal from large assembled struc- ticularly i f the acid is hot. If the film dries, it is dif-
tures such as ship hulls, bridge plates, gas holders, etc., ficult to rinse away residues that can cause trou-
that are too large and often too thickly encrusted with pit- ble in many of the following operations.
ted rust to be pickled. On smaller assemblies weldments
2. Final (Hot) Rinsing - Neutralizing
are normally abrasive blasted or mechanically cleaned to
When pickling acid and iron salts are removed or
remove welding scale prior to the pickling.
diluted, metal must be suitably treated in prepara-
tion for operations that follow. Treatment
II. PICKLING PROCESS prevents steel from rusting and prepares it for
The pickling process is divided into three steps: painting. Weak alkali solutions, such as '/i to
Cleaning and preparation of metal ounce per gallon of sodium carbonate or trisodi-
Pickling um phosphate, are used in a boiling rinse follow-
Treating the pickled metal. ing a cold rinse, previously described. The alka-
Cleaning, preparation and treating will be discussed line surface does not rust rapidly, but it i f is to be
briefly before considering pickling in more detail. Surface stored indefinitely or exposed to weather, it
treatments and pre-treatments are more fully discussed in should be oiled. Alkali cleaning solutions are
Chapter 3. A wide variation exists in successful pro- suitable for application of oil but are not suited for
cedures; only a few will be discussed. application of paint. Also, there are other
treatments that can be used to prevent rusting.
A. CLEANING AND PREPARATION OF METAL 3. Preparing Metal for Painting
PRIOR TO PICKLING Most paints do not adhere well and blister in a
Cleaning removes from metal any material that would humid atmosphere if applied to an alkaline or
prevent pickling acid from contacting the surface and neutral surface. For best painting results the sur-
removing scale. The coating most frequently encountered face pH should be slightly acid. Best results occur
is oil. when the surface has a pH between 3 and 5. There
Oils can be removed with oil solvents, most of which are exceptions when using special paints, such as
are volatile and leave a thin film. Solvents can be applied inorganic zincs, which normally are applied to
by any convenient means and wiped off with clean rags. neutral surfaces. In pickling processes for in-
The metal can be degreased by immersion in solvents or organic zinc applications, no further treatment is
solvent vapors. The latter method leaves metal free of oil normally used after the hot water rinse.
but not from particles or smut held on the surface by oil For most paints, other than inorganic zincs, it
film. is important that proper acid be used to produce
Alkali cleaning is relatively inexpensive and should be the proper pH. Phosphoric or chromic acids, or
provided when cleaning prior to pickling. This is required mixtures, produce best results. Muriatic or
more or less regularly to remove oils, greases, cutting or sulfuric acids should not be used because their
forming compounds, etc. Other contaminants that should residues stimulate rust under paint.
be removed prior to pickling are heavy rust and paint, It is desirable to further clean and treat pick-
which, on new steel, mainly involves shop and mill marks. led and rinsed steel in a phosphoric acid solution
Heavy rust that might prolong pickling can be re- prior to painting. Good results can be obtained by
moved by scraping, wire brushing or abrasive blast clean- adding approximately 0.25% by weight of concen-
ing. Paint and other types of marking can normally be trated phosphoric acid to the hot rinse bath, con-
removed mechanically or with solvents. tained in a steel tank, and maintaining this rinse
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 . 2 73 8627740 0003540 778
at a pH of 3 to 5 by addition of acid as small resist them and that should be used to construct steam
quantities are needed. coils for heating.
The cleanliness of the boiling rinse is impor- A pickle tank suitably lined and constructed should be
tant, since it is here that a satisfactorily cleaned equipped with a large bottom drain for rapid emptying and
surface can be spoiled for painting. For best easy cleaning, heating coils or other source of heat, water
results the bath should be discarded daily and the for diluting acid and for washing the empty tank, and provi-
tank cleaned before making a new bath. This is sions for introducing acid into the bath.
not practical for large scale structural pickling Water should never be added to strong acids. Even
operations, and good painting results can be ob- when properly adding concentrated sulfuric acid to water,
tained by merely maintaining a water rinse enough heat generates to boil and blow the acid about.
temperature at 140°F (60°C) or higher and paint- Workers should stay as far as possible from acid when it
ing promptly while steel is warm and dry. mixes with water in the pickle bath. In small installations
steel chutes or pipes should be provided over or through
111. ACID PICKLING which the acid i s poured. In large installations the acid
Sulfuric, muriatic, phosphoric, nitric and hydrofluoric should be transferred through a steel or lead pipe from the
acids are used for pickling ferrous metals. Sulfuric acid is storage or measuring tank to the pickle tank.
used most extensively for structural steel, although It is advisable to have a tank for measuring the acid
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
hydrochloric and phosphoric acids are also used for struc- added to each pickle tank. For concentrated sulfuric acid
tural and other steels. the storage tank may be safely constructed of mild steel,
Typical sulfuric acid pickling for low carbon structural since it i s not attacked. However, other acids in concen-
steels may not be suitable for some high strength con- trated form will attack mild steel. The acid storage tanks
structional alloy and heattreated alloy steels. Some higher must use material or linings suitable for the acid involved.
carbon and alloy steels burn in acid very easily, making Pickle houses are usually filled with steam, and in
surface smut more of a problem. One method to help spite of the ability of inhibitors to reduce acid fumes, some
solve this is to add rock salt to the sulfuric acid bath. Navy escapes into the air, It is desirable to provide adequate
specifications call for the bath to contain 1.5% sodium ventilation. Warm air and exhaust ducts located over or
chloride. Test work is in order before pickling special near the tanks are helpful i n clearing the atmosphere of
steels for which prior experience or test data is not fumes and acid mists. Also, structural steel within an
available, since steel composition also affects the time re- enclosed pickle house should be properly coated with an
quired for picklinglB. acid-resistant coating system.
Tanks constructed of mild steel plate or wood can be
used for both cold and hot rinse, but ordinary steel, un-
lined, cannot be used to contain any of the acid solutions IV. OPERATION OF THE PICKLE BATH -
used in pickling. Wood tanks can be used temporarily to WITH ADDED DETAILS ON SULFURIC ACID
contain sulfuric, muriatic, hydrofluoric or phosphoric
acids, but more permanent equipment, steel tanks lined
A. ACID
with materials that resist the acids, should be used to con- Concentrated sulfuric acid neither attacks steel nor
tain them. removes scale. It must be diluted with water before it can
Table I includes acids and lining materials that be used. The rate of attack of sulfuric acid solutions at
TABLE I
Acids and lining materials that resist them
Acid Resis-
Stainless tant masonry Wood
Lead Rubber Steel (Brick) Vemporary)
Sulfuric X X ... X X
Muriatic ... X ... X X
Phosphoric X X X X X
Hydrofluoric X X ... ... X
Nitric ... ... ... X ...
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 3 . 2 9 3 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003543 bo4 M
B. TEMPERATURE
While the activity of the acid solution within the usual
pickling range is proportional to its strength, the activity of
a pickle bath is markedly affected by its temperature, as is
shown in Figure 4 for sulfuric acid.
-
C. IRON SALTS
. A fresh pickle bath at a fixed temperature continues
to remove scale from steel at the same rate; however,
pickle baths do not stay fresh. Small amounts of scale and
large amounts of metal that dissolve in the acid form iron
salts, such as iron sulfate (copperas), in solution. The
presence of iron salts in the bath has a significant effect
on pickling. As salts build up, removal of scale is delayed,
making the bath act as though the amount of acid in it had
been reduced.
With sulfuric acid pickling the effect of varying
amounts of sulfate in the bath is shown in Figure 5. As a
result of the retarding action of iron sulfate, or salts from
other pickling acids, the pickle baths should be discarded
before they become saturated.
D. TIME
Time is an important factor in scale removal. Some
time is required for acid to penetrate the scale and blow it
off, and even more time is needed to undermine "rolled-in
-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
scale" or scale embedded in pits. Enough time must be
.PUURIG allowed to remove scale completely.
FIGURE 2
Rate of attack of sulfuric acid on mild steel. E. AGITATION
Courtesy of Arnchem Products, Inc.
Baths of fixed characteristics pickle faster i f agitated
than if still. This is clear when it is realized that the acid in
contact with any part of the surface picks up more and
120°F (49°C) on mild steel i s illustrated in Figure 2. more iron salts, such as the sulfates with sulfuric acid
Even at a temperature of 120°F (49"C), concentrated pickling, and loses strength quickly, as shown in Figure 5.
acid does not attack steel. Not until it is diluted with an The faster fresh acid is brought to the surface and salt
equal volume of water is there any appreciable action. The contaminated acid is dispersed throughout the solution
activity of acid increases with its strength until it reaches away from the metal, the faster the pickling.
40% concentration. With further increase in strength, the Agitation also washes off scale particles loosened
attack decreases rapidly. from metal to expose fresh areas to the acid's action. This
Sulfuric acid pickle baths are usually operated within same effect is accomplished by mechanical means as, for
the range of 2% to 15% by volume of 66" Baume sulfuric example, with brushes.
or its equivalent strength of other commercial grades of Agitation in pickle baths may be produced
this acid, and not at higher strengths approaching that of mechanically by moving the work through the pickling
maximum activity. The greater the viscosity of the bath, solution, as in the continuous and semi-continuous pick-
the higher the dragout losses. The waste of acid in the ling of coiled strip steel, or with a pickling machine of the
spent bath prevents efficient use of acid at high concentra- type illustrated in Figure 6.
tions. Agitation may also be created by moving the solution
Figure 3 shows the relationship between acid attack past work that is stationary in the tank. The plunger
and strength of 20" Be muriatic acid. Muriatic acid is pickler, in which the pickle bath is caused to surge up and
hydrogen chloride gas dissolved in water. The 20" Be com- down by a large plunger, washes over the surface, changes
mercial grade contains only about 31 O/O hydrochloric acid the solution rapidly and removes loose scale.
by weight. Undiluted 20" Be muriatic acid attacks steel The most common type of agitation is produced by
more rapidly than stronger solutions and, as in the case of the steam used to heat the pickle bath. This may either be
sulfuric acid, the attack in operating ranges is proportional discharged through holes in the lead pipe near the bottom
to the acid's strength. of the tank or through an injector nozzle, causing violent
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 * 2 93 W 8627940 0003542 540
usual method is to keep acid strength constant and to in-

crease temperature to offset the slowing action of the ac-
-,.I RATE OF ATTACK OF HYDROCHLORIC / \ cumulating iron sulfate.
ACID AT VARIOUS
ON MILD STEEL When a pickle bath has dissolved about 2% pounds of
TEMPERATURE 120°FAHR iron sulfate per gallon, its scale removing property is ap-
preciably reduced (Figure 5). It is at or near this point
I
1
that most picklers discontinue adding acid, so that which
I 1 remains can be consumed as completely as possible in
I .
useful pickling and so a minimum amount is left to be
discarded. To offset weakening acid and accumulating fer-
i rous sulfate, bath temperature is gradually raised, even-

tually to the boiling point, and the bath is used as long as it
pickles in a reasonable time. It is then discarded. In this
i--
---I
way acid strengths can be reduced markedly but continue
to be used; thus, substantial savings in acid can be made.
The literature further discusses the influence of these
i I
I
IL
O
40-- factors.
c
œ
Y
>
F. ANALYZING PICKLE BATHS
--'?
30---
-I
Acid strength cannot be determined by taste, a
w
œ method used by picklers years ago or by hydrometer, the
20 -
reading of which i s affected by both the acid and iron salts
in solution. Methods regularly used in the laboratory can
be used to titrate pickle baths for both acid and iron. It is
IO common in steel mills to install such apparatus near the
FIGURE 3
Rate of attack of hydrochloric or muriatic acid on mild steel.
Courtesy of Amchem Products, Inc.
40 60
EQUIVALENT PERCENT OF 2C
4
3600
I I A I RATE OF ATTACK O F SULPHURIC

ACID 5% BY VOLUME 66.d ON
MILD STEEL AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
circulation of the bath through a nozzle usually located at

one end of the pickle tub. Agitation can be further in-
creased by injecting compressed air through appropriate
fittings.
Violent agitation and heat is provided by a submerged
combustion heater, i n which heat from burning gas is
transmitted to the pickle baths through walls of a pipe-like
combustion chamber located at the bottom of the pickle
tank, and from which the products of combustion, along
with compressed air, are discharged into the solution.
From consideration of the effects of acid concentra-
tion, bath temperature, agitation, and the retarding action
of iron salts, a reasonable method for operating the bath
becomes apparent. For example, a fresh sulfuric acid bath
contains no iron sulfate and can be operated at relatively
low temperatures with an amount of acid ranging from 2 to
15% by volume, as may be necessary to complete the
pickling in the time allotted. As iron sulfate accumulates
and slows pickling, the action can be speeded either by in-
creasing the strength or the temperature of the bath.
Both methods are used; however, since increases in FIGURE 4
temperature in most installations require the use of more Effect of temperature on the rate of attack of sulfuric acid on mild
steam, the agitation of the bath is also increased. The steel.
Courtesy of Anchem Products, Inc.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R s 3 - 2 93 m 8627940 0003543 487
Equipment required:
1 - 5 ml. pipette 1 - burette stand
1 - 1 ml. pipette 2 - 250 ml. glass beakers
2 - 25 ml. burettes 2 - stirring rods
1 - 5 ml. measuring cylinder 1 - glass indicator bottle
Reagents required:
1.0 normal sodium hydroxide solution
0.1 normal potassium permanganate solution
methyl orange - 1 gm./liter of H,O
c.p. sulfuric acid, concentrated
G. DETERMINING PERCENTAGE OF ACID

Measure a 5 ml. sample of the pickling solution
with a 5 ml. pipette and transfer it to a clean 250
m I. beaker.
Add about 100 ml (half a beaker) of clean,
fresh tap or city water and 2 or 3 drops of in-
dicator solution (methyl orange).
Fill a burette exactly to the zero mark with 1.0
a
Y II ~SULPHPITECONCE~TRCIO~
I;TWHICH
BATHS ARE USUALLY DISCARDED
normal sodium hydroxide.
W
CY BO I l 1 I Stir the test sample constantly with a stirring
a S~LPHATE CONCENTR'ATIONS A; WHICH rod and slowly run in 1.0 normal sodium hy-
2 ADDITIONS OFACID ARE USUALLY
W
o DISCONTINUE0 droxide until the red color has changed to
K I I
290 yellow. Stop adding this titrating solution at
the moment the color of the test sample
becomes pure yellow.
IOOL
Record the reading taken on the graduated
burette. This is the number of mls. of 1.0 normal
sodium hydroxide used.
1. Calculation
The number of mls. of 1.0 normal sodium hydrox-
ide used, multiplied by the appropriate factors
pickle or measuring tanks and to have titrations made at shown in Table 2 below, gives the desired quantity
regular intervals, usually by the pickle foreman, who sees of 66" or 60" Be sulfuric acid or 20" or 18" Be
to i t that acid is added i n measured and recorded quan- muriatic acid.
tities to maintain the proper strength. 2. Determining iron Content
Measure a 1 ml. sample of the pickling solution
TABLE 2
ICOL TABLE
66O Be 60° Be
Sulfuric Su If uric
Percent by Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.573 0.740
Grams per 100 m l . .................... 1 .O53 1.263
Poundspergal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.771 10.525
20° Be 1 8 O Be
Muriatic Muriatic
Percent by Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.999 2.288

Grams per 100 ml ..................... 2.319 2.612
Poundspergal ....................... 19.353 21.796
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 1 o9Questions or comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*3.2 93 m 8b27940 0003544 313
with the 1 ml. pipette and transfer it to a clean Waste of acid and metal is prevented by inhibiting pickling
250 ml. beaker. acids. The effects of suitable inhibitors have been
Add about 100 mls. (half a beaker) of fresh, tabulated and p ~ b l i s h e das
, ~ well as methods of use and
clean water. Measure 5 mls. of concentrated advantages2.
sulfuric by means of the 5 ml. measuring In a typical pickling operation, when one pound of iron
cylinder and pour it slowly with constant stir- is saved, about 2% pounds of 60” Be suifuric acid is also
ring into the beaker. saved, and nearly 7 cubic feet less hydrogen is evolved.
Fill a burette exactly to the zero mark with 0.1 Saving 10 or more pounds of metal per ton is common with
normal potassium permanganate. a suitable inhibitor.
Stir the test sample continuously with a stirring A minimum amount of acid, ranging from 1% to 10%
rod and slowly run in the permanganate solu- by volume, is discarded with each spent bath. The less fre-
tion until the color changes to a faint pink, quently the bath is discarded or the greater the tonnage
which persists at least fifteen seconds. Stop pickled before the bath must be discarded, the less acid is
adding solution when pink is obtained. lost per ton pickled.
Record the reading taken on the graduated Dissolving less metal means less smut develops. A
burette. This is the number of mls. of 0.1 normal part of this is due to carbon particles that are left loose on
potassium permanganate used. the surface when iron dissolves. Other ingredients in steel
3. Calculation are similarly exposed and dissolved i n the pickling acid
The number of ml of 0.1 normal potassium per- and subsequently plated out as a discoloration on metal
manganate used, multiplied by 0.0465, equals the surfaces. The effect is minimized by use of a suitable in-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
pounds of iron (Fe) per gallon of pickling solution. hibitor, which makes it possible to pickle alloy and simple
Pounds of iron (Fe) per gallon, multiplied by 12, steels in the same bath with less smutting. Where harmful
equals grams of iron (Fe) per 100 ml of pickling smut is formed on a steel surface, it must be removed
solution. before any coating is applied. This is best accomplished
4. Records by washing or rinsing. Brushing and solvent wiping or
With facilities to analyze the bath, pickling can be mechanical means of supplemental cleaning can be used
efficient. Complete records are essential. A sim- as required.
ple procedure for recording strength and temper- The susceptibility of steels of different analyses and
ature of the pickle bath, its iron content, when and heat treatments to acid attack varies. A practice suitable
how much acid is added, the number of tons pick- for pickling one lot of steel in an uninhibited bath might
led, etc., is to plot the data at regular intervals on result in overpickling and ruining another. This condition is
a chart. corrected by use of a suitable inhibitor that prevents over-
These records show consumption of acid per pickling under normal and even under abnormal condi-
ton. Other pertinent data can be calculated. The tions.
graph indicates whether the bath has been
discarded with too much acid or before enough
iron has been dissolved. Records like this show
the effect of different pickling procedures over
periods of time.
Other records help in cost accounting or
comparing one practice with another. An example
is comparing the effect of an inhibitor throughout
the life of a pickle bath. Data and calculation
sheets provide for calculation of the “necessary
cost” per ton, or preferably, per 1000 square feet.
When this figure is compared for two or more pick-
ling practices, advantages can be seen.
V. INHIBITORS
Analysis and record keeping of tonnage, acid con-
sumption, etc. make it possible to prevent careless waste.
Pickling in uninhibited acid is a wasteful process because
to remove scale it is necessary that acid dissolve some of
the underlying metalt8. Uninhibited acid does not stop
dissolving metal after scale comes off. The result is that FIGURE 6
Pickling machine in use for the pickling of mild steel. Acid tank is
parts of the steel are usually badly over-pickled before on the left, while the rinse tank is on the right.
all scale is removed. This wastes good metal and acid. Courtesy of Arnchern Products, Inc.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 3 . 2 93 8627940 0003545 25T
A. EFFECT OF HYDROGEN ON THE METAL VI. PICKLING PROCEDURES

When metal dissolves i n acid, a definite volume of
hydrogen is produced. The hydrogen gas, when evolved, A. SULFURIC ACID PICKLING
consists of single atoms, (nascent or atomic hydrogen) Details of sulfuric acid pickling are covered in general
which quickly combine in groups of two to become discussions and further discussed under “Sulfuric-Phos-
“molecular” or “atmospheric hydrogen”. It is apparently phoric Acid Pickling,’’ a process utilizing sulfuric acid pick-
atomic hydrogen, absorbed or dissolved in steel, that af- ling for scale and rust removal and phosphoric acid solu-
fects its flexibility and ductility. This i s “hydrogen embrit- tion for final treatment. Here i s the brief procedure:
tlement” or “acid embrittlement”. Blisters on sheets or Preclean metal as detailed in the general
plate during pickling and galvanizing are from the same discussion on “Cleaning and Preparation of the
cause. How and why hydrogen is absorbed into the metal Metal Prior to Pickling.”
is theory; but it is absorbed, and many demonstrations Pickling in a solution of sulfuric acid with suffi-
prove that hydrogen passes quickly and entirely through cient inhibitor minimizes attack on the base
sheet steel. metal. Common pickling solutions contain 5 to
It may be surprising that a seemingly innocuous gas 10 per cent by weight sulfuric acid at a
can have harmful effects on dense, tough steel. The situa- minimum solution temperature of 140°F (60°C).
tion exists as proven by the rejections of galvanized and Rinse adequately in clean hot water above
other sheets, the breaking of both sheets and wire in draw- 140°F (60°C).
ing, the excessive wear on dies, the embrittling and
breakage of spring steels, etc. These flaws continue in B. PHOSPHORIC ACID PICKLING
spite of elaborate precautions taken in the steel mills to In some respects, pickling with phosphoric acid is
prevent them. preferable to sulfuric-acid pickling. The number of dipping
Many years of experience with a wide variety of steel and rinse tanks can be fewer than in a sulfuric acid pick-
plate structures and laboratory tests indicates that com- ling system, where rinsing must be more complete.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
mercial pickling of low carbon structural steel, in accord- Phosphoric acid is not as corrosive as sulfuric acid under
ance with procedures set forth by SSPC-SP 8, does not pre- normal conditions, so less expensive construction and
sent an embrittlement problem. Normal combinations of less maintenance is required. There are no obnoxious or
acid strengths, bath temperatures and times are not con- corrosive acid fumes objectionable t o operating person-
ducive to this type of problem. nel. Inhibitors are recommended to prevent overpickling,
For stainless and other special steels, more con- though the need is not as great as with sulfuric acid pick-
sideration of brittleness and appropriate pickling pro- ling.
cedures and inhibitor use is needed. Phosphoric acid pickling generally utilizes a solution
of 10-50% phosphoric acid in water. Frequently, the proc-
B. EFFECT OF HYDROGEN IN THE ess also includes chromates, solvents, or detergents to
PICKLE BATH assist in removing mill scale, grease and oil. Phosphoric
Atomic hydrogen that does not enter steel combines acid first dissolves rust and mill scale and then forms a
to form molecular hydrogen outside the pickled surface to coating of iron phosphate on the surface. Various commer-
cause other objectionable effects. Bubbles of molecular cial phosphate coating processes use a solution with a
hydrogen that form at the metal surfaceduring pickling are lower free acid content, capable of producing a much
extremely light. They rise rapidly through a poorly inhibited heavier phosphate coating. With these solutions prior
bath. As they reach the surface, they break violently and pickling with sulfuric acid is usually required.
throw a pickling spray acid contaminating the air with suf- In England and Europe, phosphoric acid pickling has
focating fumes that can affect the health of workers and been used for years in batch pickling operations for proc-
rapidly corrode any metal work and masonry in the pickling essing structural steel. A typical process involves a first
room. bath of 10 to 20% by wt. phosphoric acid followed by a
To old picklers this bubbling indicated the bath “was water rinse bath and finally a 1 to 2% phosphoric acid
working” and fumes were looked upon as a necessary evil. bath. One of the earlier established processes utilized ap-
Inhibitors minimize acid fumes by reducing hydrogen proximately 10% phosphoric acid at 85” C. This was
that causes them. Foam-producing grades of inhibitors, in followed by immersion i n a 2% phosphoric acid solution at
addition to eliminating acid spray, prevent the escape of 85°C. The intermediate water rinse bath was omitted.
steam and loss of heat from the bath’s surface. While the The simpler version of phosphoric acid pickling i s to
almost complete absence of bubbles i n an inhibitor-con- pickle steel in a 10 to 25% by wt. phosphoric acid solution
trolled pickle bath led many old picklers to think the bath at a temperature of about 180°F (82°C) and then rinse with
was not working as fast as it should, such a bath may ac- heated fresh water above 140°F (60°C). Test work in-
tually pickle faster than one less inhibited. dicates the procedure produces excellent results for paint-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 . 2 73 = 8627940 0003546 196
ing. Painting results are generally poor if the water rinse is ml of distilled water.
omitted and paint is applied directly to phosphate residues Add 0.18 normal potassium permanganate
from the pickling. For instance, Ihn steel panels were from titration burette, with stirring, to solution
precleaned of all oil and grease and then pickled by immer- in the 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask until the solu-
sion in 185°F baths of 13% and 23.5% by wt. phosphoric tion first turns a permanent pink color. Record
acid. While still hot, the panels were coated by dipping in a number of ml of permanganate solution used.
proprietary zinc-dust phenolic primer. The dry film was ap- Calculation: Each ml of permanganate solu-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
proximately 2 mils. After drying for 9 days the panels were tion used is equivalent to 0.08 Ib./gal. iron in the
immersed in distilled water. General blistering was evident phosphoric acid bath. If 3.0 ml were required to
within 17 hours and was more extensive with the 23.5% obtain the pink color then 3.0 x 0.08 Ib./gal. =
phosphoric acid panels. In contrast, panels pickled 0.24 Ib./gal. iron in pickle bath. A titration requir-
through the same procedures, but with a water rinse after ing 12 ml of permanganate solution would
pickling, showed no blisters after 10 months. Similar con- equal an iron concentration of 1 Ib./gal.
trasts were obtained with a red-lead alkyd primer in a
humidity exposure. D. SULFURIC-PHOSPHORIC ACID PICKLING
Shop and lab test results by Hudson & Waring found
that pickling times using phosphoric are greater than with Originally called the Footner process in England and
su Ifuric acid13. now used in this country for steel plate, it is an efficient,
Phosphoric acid pickling has not been used as exten- economical means of removing mill scale from steel5. It
sively as sulfuric because the acid i s much more expen- also provides a clean, dry surface with an iron phosphate
sive, but there are now processes that make phosphoric coating that improves the bond between paint and steel.
acid pickling more cost-competitive with sulfuric acid pick- The process consists of immersing material in baths of
ling. One successful process depends on continuous sulfuric acid, rinse water, and phosphoric acid. Normally, a
purification and reclaiming of the phosphoric acid pickling coat of priming paint is applied immediately after drying to
solution by means of an ion exchange unit, which converts all surfaces that require painting. Sulfuric-phosphoric acid
iron phosphate to phosphoric acid. The zeolite cation ex- pickling is particularly effective in removing mill scale
change resin is regenerated by sulfuric acid. Details are from carbon steel plate, angles, channels, and other
explained by Paulson and Gilwood7. shapes produced by rolling. It is also used to provide a
clean surface for priming coats of paint on pipe.
C. IRON CONTROL IN PHOSPHORIC E. MATERIALS, SULFURIC ACID BATHS

ACID BATHS
The initial concentration of sulfuric acid is 5 % to 10%
Iron is dissolved in phosphoric acid baths during steel by weight. In the original Footner process the bath was
processing, and the iron build-up in the phosphoric acid
bath can lead to slowing the pickling rate, or cause dif-
ficult rinsing. The latter is evidenced often by a brown
discoloration of the surface when the work emerges from
the water rinse following the phosphoric acid stage.
Normally, when iron build-up in phosphoric acid baths
is excessive, the phosphoric acid bath is either drained
and a new bath charged or the contaminated bath is
overflowed and partially made fresh. The following factors
determine the amount of iron that can be tolerated in a
phosphoric acid bath: strength of the bath; type of scale,
rust, etc., to be removed; time available for phosphoric
acid treatment; type and cleanliness of rinsing available.
Certain phosphoric acid pickling baths must be
discarded when iron concentrations reach 0.3 pounds of
iron per gallon, whereas others can be operated until the
iron builds up to 1.0 pound per gallon, depending upon
variables mentioned above.
DETERMINATION OF IRON I N PHOSPHORIC

ACID BATHS:
Take 1 ml phosphoric acid bath sample
measured accurately with pipette and add to
125 ml. Erlenmeyer flask. FIGURE 7
Add 1 ml of 50% C.P. sulfuric acid and about 25 Immersing steel plates in sulfuric acid pickling tank.

112
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SSPC C H A P T E R a 3 - 2 93 8627940 0003547 O22
FIGURE 8
Pickling set up for sulfuric-phosphate pickling. Sulfuric acid tank is on the right, rinse tank in the middle, and phosphate tank on the left. A
pickled plate is being withdrawn from the sulfuric acid bath.
maintained at about 140-149°F (60-65°C). Now a acid and operate closer to the 1YO concentration by occa-
temperature in the range of 160 to 170°F (71-76°C)is com- sional additions of phosphoric acid. It is not necessary to
mon. Normal pickling times to remove all scale and rust is hold immersion time to a minimum of three minutes. Suc-
approximately 15 to 20 minutes, but varies with scale and cessful results can be obtained with immersion of approxi-
thickness of plate. If bath conditions are the same, pick- mately one minute. Though results are successful within
ling time for heavy plate, such as 1 '' to 1?h", may be 30 to all mentioned ranges, the lower phosphoric concentration
40 minutes. Further additions of sulfuric acid should be and shorter immersion tends to produce thinner and less
made when pickling time increases appreciably. The bath porous phosphate coatings. This type of coating is an ex-
should be discarded when accumulation of sediment and cellent base for most paints, even though the thicker
the concentration of iron in the solution interferes with phosphate film might be more rust inhibitive by itself.
pickling and causes the plate to come out dirty. This condi- Either way, the film of iron phosphate prevents surface
tion of the bath corresponds to a specific gravity of about rusting in a sheltered exposure, such as a fabrication
1.18-1.20 with an iron content of about 6%. After lifting shop, for an extended period of time, even though primer is
from the acid bath, steel should be allowed to drain into normally applied while the steel is warm.
the acid bath for 15 to 30 seconds before immersion in To prepare this bath the necessary amount of iron in
clear water rinse. the form of steel drillings, steel wool, etc., should be
dissolved in 8-10% phosphoric acid heated to 176°F (80°C)
and then diluted with water to the required concentration.
F. CLEAR WATER RINSE
The dilute phosphoric acid bath may be used over a
The normal temperature is 140-149°F (60-65°C)but ex- number of runs provided that the pickled material when
cellent results are obtained without heating. The plate and taken from the bath is clean and free from loose deposits.
other work being treated should be dipped in this rinse
before passing to the final bath. There should be a very
small flow of water through the rinse bath to prevent total
H. METHODS
acidity, as determined by titration with phenolphthalein, The sulfuric-phosphoric pickling process can be sum-
from exceeding 0.1 gram of sulfuric acid per 100 mi. It is marized as follows:
possible to determine the necessary flow of water after us- Immersing steel in hot sulfuric acid until the
ing the process a short time. mill scale and rust are removed (Figure 7).
Dipping steel in clear water to rinse off residual
sulfates.
G. DILUTE PHOSPHORIC ACID BATH immersing steel in hot phosphoric acid with
In the original Footner Process this bath was main- small amounts of iron added. A coating of iron
tained at a temperature of about 180°F (52"C), with plates phosphate is deposited on the steel surface.
immersed at least 3 to 5 minutes. The bath was originally After drying, painting with priming paint while
charged and maintained at approximately 2% free the steel is warm and placing it in racks to dry.
phosphoric acid and 0.3-0.5% of iron. It is now common This eliminates any danger of the surface
and important to maintain the high temperature and to becoming moist or dirty before paint is applied
charge the bath in the range of 1 to 1.5% free phosphoric and improves considerably coating adhesion.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - 2 73 W 8627740 0003548 T b 7 W
Equipment for this pickling process is similar to that All paint systems are not detailed other than t o say
normally used in industrial acid pickling. Three baths, all they were various manufacturer’s proprietary systems, as
of which can be steam heated, are required and their well as several of the standard systems from AWWA-
dimensions are determined by the size of plate to be pick- D102-64. These included vinyl, epoxy, chlorinated rubber,
led. Plants are now in operation where plate measuring ap- phenolic, asphalt and coal tar epoxy systems. Ratings
proximately 8 feet by 40 feet are pickled without difficulty were tabulated from the three exposure zones; ¡.e. the
(Figure 8). Typical structures where steel is processed in vapor zone above the high water level, the fluctuation zone
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this manner include oil and chemical storage tanks, and below the fluctuation zone or continuous immersion.
floating roofs, water storage tanks, standpipes, elevated The results, especially as related to surface preparation,
tanks, steel pipes, and other miscellaneous structures. were:
The most successful lining material for sulfuric acid 1. Above Fluctuation Zone
descaling baths and the dilute phosphoric acid baths is All systems were rated the same on both pickled
rubber, which is cheaper than lead in first cost and in cer- and blasted panels with 22 out of the 23 systems
tain instances gives longer service. A wood framework is rated good. The one failed system primarly in-
fitted inside the baths to prevent mechanical damage to volved intercoat adhesion.
the lining. The waterwashing bath requires no lining. With 2. Fluctuation Zone
a single installation of three baths, it is possible to pickle The overall system results were not as good, but
500 tons of average tank plate per week. 20 of 23 systems showed essentially equal results
over pickling and the SP-10 blasting. Of the three
I. CONTROL systems showing a difference related to surface
The control necessary is simple and rapidly becomes preparation, two systems involved multiple coats
routine. A full strength concentration of sulfuric acid in the of zinc-rich chlorinated rubber and the remaining
descaling bath is not usually maintained in acid-pickling one was an amine-epoxy. Only eight systems were
work, although there is no objection to the concentration rated good on both pickled and blasted panels
being increased up to 10%. In fact, the higher concentra- while eight others suffered intercoat failures on
tion tends to produce a cleaner plate in less time, but both types of panels. One zinc dust-phenolic
careful time control may be required to prevent pitting. The failed to metal over both surface preparations.
iron content of the dilute phosphoric acid bath almost con- The remaining three systems showed miscellane-
trols itself, since the bath makes up considerably from the ous degrees of failure without notable difference
live steam used for heating, and as the amount of iron go- in surface preparation.
ing into the solution is small, the concentration never ex- Results with paint systems were far more attributable
ceeds the maximum specified. The amount of sulfuric acid to the coating system characteristics than to the pickling
carried over into the dilute bath is, of course, small and vs. blasting surface preparation.
need not be considered at all. Traces of sulfuric acid in this
3. Continuous Immersion Zone
bath do not seem to affect the efficiency of the iron
Only one amine-epoxy showed a better result over
phosphate film on the pickled plate. Technical phosphoric
the blasted panel. Even the two zinc-rich
acid can be used, which contains the usual small amounts
chlorinated rubber systems with inferior results
of impurities.
for pickling in the fluctuation zone showed equal
It is desirable to add a suitable inhibitor to the sulfuric
and good results in the immersion zone. In this
acid bath to reduce the attack of the acid on good metal.
zone, 11 systems showed good results with eight
others suffering intercoat failures. The remaining
J. PAINT PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS - four systems had miscellaneous failure without
PICKLED AND BLAST CLEANED SURFACES - significance to surface preparation.
Pickling has been used for years as an alternate to
blasting for certain exposures, including inside and out- K. ELECTROLYTIC PICKLING
side surfaces of water storage tanks. Though field results Electrolytic pickling of iron and steel is used to avoid
have been very good, it is always worthwhile to verify them difficulties encountered in still pickling. The removal of
by tests. Many tests have been run. In one, involving 23 dif- rust is comparatively easy with still pickling methods, but
ferent water-immersion paint systems applied to 4 ” x 10” removal of the black magnetic oxide of iron, Fe,O,, which
x panels of A283, Grade C steel, each system was ap- is slowly soluble in sulfuric acid, is difficult without the
plied to a panel prepared in commercial baths for the use of electrolytic methods.
3-bath Sulfuric-Phosphoric Acid Pickling Process. Also, Electrolytic pickling is usually much more rapid than
each system was applied to panels prepared in a commer- still pickling because of greater evolution of hydrogen dur-
cial shop by blasting with Ottawa Flintshot Silica Sand to ing electrolytic pickling, which agitates the pickling solu-
SSPC-SP 10, Near-White. The panels were immersed in tion, reduces scale, and tends to pry off scale from the sur-
November, 1966, and formal observations were last re- face of the steel. In acid consumption, however, there is Iit-
ported after 44 months, in July, 1970. tle difference between electrolytic pickling and inhibited-

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 . 2 93 Ab27940 0003549 9T5
acid pickling. Absorption of hydrogen, which may lead to Results are expected to be about the same as for the
embrittlement, occurs in both electrolytic and still pick- sulfuric-phosphoric process, especially i f the phosphoric
ling. The effects of absorbed hydrogen can be removed by bath conditions are the same.
baking the work material for about one hour at 300°F or a
shorter time at higher temperature. A number of processes C. PICKLING FOR INORGANIC ZINC PAINT
are availableBbut are not used for structural steel. AND GALVANIZING
When pickling as surface preparation for inorganic
VII. MISCELLANEOUS ACID PICKLING
zinc paint, it is common to use sulfuric acid pickling plus
PROCESSES hot water rinsing, as per SSPC-SP 8. Most operations use
an inhibited sulfuric acid bath of 5% to 6 % by weight at
A. SULFURIC - SODIUM DICHROMATE/
160" to 170°F (71-76°C). The minimum water rinse
PHOSPHORIC ACID
temperature of 140°F (60%) is a necessity to insure rapid
This process is essentially set forth in SSPC-SP8, and drying of the plate. This is more important than when a
even though some variation in concentration of various third high temperature inhibitive bath is used. This type of
materials may be used, the main item of difference from pickling and priming is widely and successfully used on a
the sulfuric-phosphoric process is the addition of sodium variety of tanks, refinery vessels, and other miscellaneous
dichromate to the final passivating bath. The U.S.Navy structures, primarily for atmospheric exposure.
has often required this process for shipyard steel. The Pickling also is used successfully to prepare the sur-
sodium dichromate-phosphoric acid bath produces more face for coating systems to be used in immersion service.
complex surface deposits, believed to be chromium In one water immersion test, pickling and SSPC-SP 10
phosphate and chromite phosphite complexes, than does blasting were used on panels testing four inorganic zinc
the phosphoric acid-iron phosphate solution. However, topcoat systems. After 44 months of immersion, there was
without attempting to judge the overall merits of the two no failure of the three different inorganic-zinc primers over
types of surface films for the wide variety of paints and ex- pickled or blast cleaned surfaces. However, most systems
posures involved, it can be said that the use of the sodium suffered failure between the epoxy and vinyl top coats and
dichromate in the solution presents problems of operation the zinc primer.
and added cost. The sodium dichromate solution tends to The recommendations and pickling processes used in
give excess powdery deposits, especially i f the temper- surface preparation for painting are not normally directly
ature is allowed to be a little low. Also, with excess applicable as surface preparation for hot-dip galvanizing
precipitation, it is necessary to drain, clean and refill the and should not be specified for such. The galvanizing shop
bath in a matter of days as compared to months for the should be consulted for pickling or other surface prepara-
more common sulfuric-phosphoric process. tion recommendations. Normally, pickling is accom-
plished in the galvanizer's shop.
B. HYDROCHLORIC ACID PICKLING
In accordance with SSPC-SP 8, hot or cold solutions
of hydrochloric acid as well as sulfuric and phosphoric
acid are used along with a heated water rinse. Hydrochloric ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
acid pickling lines at steel mills were commonly used in The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
the past, and such lines are thoroughly discussed in chapter: Jim Bennett, Larry Drake, A.W. Mallory, Jim Maurer, C.
reference article^'^^'^. But more recently, several of these Munger, William Pearson, G. Satterfield, William Wallace.
pickling processes have been closed due to E.P.A. restric-
tions.
For pickling structural steel it is not certain how much
hydrochloric acid pickling is being done, but there are in-
stallations in the US. and overseas where immersion bath BIOGRAPHY
processes are used, as well as spraying processes. One D.W. Christofferson was a
continuous employee of Chica-
process involves from four to six hours immersion or one go Bridge & Iron after graduation
to two hours spraying of an inhibited solution of 28% with a Bachelor of Science
minimum hydrochloric acid at ambient temperature. This Degree in Civil Engineeringfrom
the University of Wyoming in
is followed by an ambient water rinse by spray and a final 1942. He has worked on all
neutralization by bathing in a 2% solution of phosphate aspects of surface preparation
soda at 53% minimum and ammonium phosphate at 10% and protective coatings used in
the steel plate fabrication indus-
minimum plus water and other additives. try. Mr Christofferson IS a
Another plant operation has involved pickling in 10 to Registered Professional En-
25% HCI at 120°F (49°C) for 30 minutes or less plus a gineer in the State of Illinois and
a NACE Accredited Corrosion Specialist. He is also a Certified
heated water rinse and a final immersion in 1.5 to 2% Nuclear Safety Related Engineer
phosphoric acid at 175 to 180°F (80-82°C) for 5 minutes.
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SSPC CHAPTERU3.2 93 8b27940 0003550 bL7
A member of the SSPC Research Committee since 1958, Mr. 6. Walter R. Meyer, ”The Electrolytic Pickling of Iron and Steel,
Christofferson has been active on various other technical com- Metals Handbook, 1948.
mittees such as AWWA D102, NFPA #22, NACE T-6 Committees, 7. C.F. Paulson, and M.E. Gilwood, “New Process Slashes Cost
ANSI N101.2, ASTM D01.43, and ASTM D33. He is the author of a of Phosphoric Acid Pickling”, American Chemical Paint Co.
number of papers on corrosion, shop surface preparation and 8. John A. Gurklis, and L.D. McGraw, “Pickling and Descaling
painting, and maintenance and painting of steel water storage Stainless Steels and High Temperature Alloys”, Metal Prog-
tanks. ress, June 1963.
9. John M. Griffith, “Chemical Cleaning Needn’t Cause Corro-
sion”, The Oil & Gas Journal, March 4, 1963.
10. Fred H. McCurdy, Jr. and Charles L. McGranahan, “Recent
Advances In Pickling Technique with Hydrochloric Acid Com-
pound” Iron & Steel Engineer, September 1965.
REFERENCES 11. British Steel Corporation Report No. EX/9/73/47 “Evaluation
1. F.P. Spruance, Jr., “Chemical Surface Preparation”, Chapter of Scalamil Descaling Solution”, November 23, 1973.
Three, Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 1, 1963. 12. “Sulfuric Acid Batch Pickling Process Promises No Waste,
2. American Chemical Paint Company, Bulletin No. 13, “Effi- No Pollution.” Magazine of Metals Producing, August 1966.
cient Pickling with ‘Rodine’ ”, September, 1952. 13. R.M. Hudson, and C.J. Warning, ”Removing Hot-Mill Scale
3. J.M. Camp, and C.B. Francis, The Making, Shaping and with Phosphoric Acid”. Metal Finishing, November 1977.
Treating of Steel, Sixth Edition. 14. “Pickler’s Pickle - Sulfuric or Hydrochloric”, - Steel, June
4. G.G. Eldredge, and J.C. Warner, “Inhibitors and Passivators”, 20, 1966.
Corrosion Handbook, The Electrochemical Society, Inc., New 15. R.O. Bailey - “Inhibited Pickling in Production” Steel Proc-
York, New York. essing, April 1954.
5. H.B. Footner, ”A Modern Method of Pickling Steel,” Fifth 16. R.M. Hudson, and Cid. Warning, “Factors Influencing The
Report of the Corrosion Committee, Special Report No. 21, Pickling Rate of Hot-Rolled Low Carbon Steel in Sulfuric and
The Iron and Steel Institute, London, S.W.l. Hydrochloric Acids”, Metal Finishing, June 1980.
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SSPC CHAPTER*4.3 93 8627940 0 0 0 3 5 5 3 5 5 3 September 1993 (Editorial Changes)
CHAPTER 4.1
PAINT MATERIALS
Sidney 8. Levinson and Saul Spindel
I. INTRODUCTION B. METHOD OF CURE

Knowledge of the many types of paints available to Paint binders vary in their method of curing or drying.
coat structural steel is useful in understanding the capa- Knowledge of various ways paint binders cure is helpful in
bilities and limitations of these products. Such knowledge understanding comparisons among binders discussed in
facilitates making the best choice for a coating system to this chapter.
meet painting requirements and service. There are reasons
for the variety of paint systems offered that become ap- 1. Oxidation
parent with insight into their basic composition. The infor- Oxidation is a method of curing solvent-thinned
mation presented in this chapter helps explain which paint paint film. Oxidation, or absorption of oxygen from
or paint system is best for the particular combination of the air followed by polymerization, is called air dry-
conditions present or anticipated, ¡.e., the condition of the ing. Many alkyd resins, for example, dry by oxida-
steel, painting conditions, coating properties desired, and tion.
the environment to be withstood by the applied finish, as 2. Solvent Evaporation
well as the total cost for material and application. The binder is dissolved in a mixtureof solvents. (See
Solvents.) When applied, the solvent evaporates,
leaving a dry film that does not undergo further
II. PAINT INGREDIENTS change. However, the coating can generally be
Paints are composed primarily of pigments dispersed softened or dissolved with strong solvents or
in a film-former, or binder, which is either dissolved in solvents similar to that in which it was dissolved
solvent or emulsified in water to make paint fluid enough originally. Coatings that dry by solvent evaporation
to apply by brush, roller or spray. After application of the are called lacquers. Vinyl or chlorinated rubber
paint in a relatively thin film, the solvent or water evaporates coatings are examples. Since drying depends
and the remaining film dries or cures to form a tough, only on solvent evaporation, lacquer coatings can be
adherent coating. If no pigment is used, the coating i s clear applied at relatively low temperatures.
as, for example, a varnish on wood surfaces. Coatings for 3. Chemical Reaction
use on structural steel are pigmented either with anti- The paint is supplied in two packages or two com-
corrosive pigments to produce primers or with opaque, ponents: a base and a hardener. When mixed, the
colored pigments to produce various colored topcoats. two react to form a final coating. Since the reaction
continues whether the mixed paint is in the con-
A. PIGMENTS tainer or applied, the paint has a limited pot life
(useful life), usually a working day or less. Epoxy-
Here is a list of several reasons for adding pigments.
polyamides are typical of this type of coating. On the
1. Opaque pigments are added to enable the paint film other hand, since two-component paints do not rely
to obscure the surface painted. These materials are on oxidation to cure, some formulations can be
available in various colors. applied in relatively thick coats.
2. Metallic pigments are added to produce metallic 4. Coalescence
finishes. Aluminum and zinc are by far the most Latex binders are made of synthetic colloidal latex
common metallic pigments. polymer particles dispersed in water. Often called
3. Anti-corrosive pigments are used in primers to pre- emulsions, they are actually colloidal dispersions or
vent or inhibit steel corrosion. They may also be suspensions. When the paint is applied, latex
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added to intermediate and even finish coats to particles begin to press together or coalesce, as the
enhance corrosion resistance. water evaporates. A coalescing solvent in the paint
4. Extender pigments, which are not opaque, are added softens the particles and causes them to form a con-
to reduce gloss (to produce semigloss or flat tinuous film. Latex coatings tend to allow movement
finishes), to aid intercoat adhesion properties, to in- of water vapor through the coating, although after
crease viscosity and to decrease cost. (See chapter the film has coalesced they are essentially resistant
on pigments.) to water. Consequently, latex paints can be used on

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SSPC C H A P T E R t 4 . 1 93 m 8b27940 0003552 4 9 T m
damp (not wet) surfaces. On the other hand, latex (See Chemical Reaction.) The epoxy is generally
pains will generally not coalesce well at tempera- combined with either of two types of hardeners:
tures under 50°F or at either very low or very high polyamine or polyamide. Epoxy-polyamine blends
relative humidity. Instead, they will produce un- are more resistant to chemicals and solvents and are
desirable, d iscont i n uous, non-adherent, non- often used for lining tanks. Epoxy-polyamides ex-
resistant films. hibit longer pot life, superior flexibility and durabili-
ty, and have adequate chemical resistance under
most conditions. Furthermore, they enable packag-
C. PAINT BINDERS
ing of the epoxy and hardener in separate, equal
The paint binder is the major ingredient in the paint and size packages. Epoxy-polyamide paints are the
determines the major performance characteristics of the most popular of all epoxy binders for use on struc-
coating. The binder is the “cement” or “adhesive” that binds tural steel. When exposed to weathering, they
pigment and provides adhesion to the surface, ¡.e., steel or chalk quickly, but retain their excellent chemical
previous coat of paint. The more commonly used paint resistance properties. SSPC-Paint 22 is a typical
binders are discussed below. They are listed in alphabetical specif icat ion.
order. 6. EpoxyCoal Tar
I. Alkyd Epoxy binders are often combined with coal tar
Alkyd binders of coatings used on structural steel where color is not important, since the color of the
are vegetable oil-modified phthalate resins that air resultant coating is generally brown or black. Epoxy-
dry by oxidation. coal tar paints are almost as corrosion and chemical
Alkyd finishes are of the general purpose type, (not solvent) resistant as epoxy-polyamide paints,
are economical and available in a wide range of but are less expensive. They are often used on
colors and gloss levels, from high gloss to flat submerged surfaces where color is of no impor-
finishes. They are relatively easy to apply and can, tance. Epoxy-coal tar finishes have high build, but
if necessary, be used on surfaces that have been tend to lose flexibility as they age, so substrates
only moderately cleaned, e.g., SSPC-SP 3. Alkyd must be relatively rigid. Typical specifications are
finishes have excellent durability in rural en- SSPC-Paint 16 and SSPC-Painting System 11.01.
vironments, but are only fair in marine or corrosive 7 . Inorganic
environments. Typical specifications are SSPC- Inorganic binders are used with zinc dust in zinc-rich
Paints 101 and 104 as well as the SSPC-Painting paint where galvanic protection of steel is desired.
Systems 2.00 and 2.05. Common inorganic binders are silicates, either
2. Epoxy lithium, sodium, potassium, ethyl alkyl, or quater-
Epoxy binders are available in three types: epoxy nary ammonium.* Zinc-rich paints contain a relative
ester, epoxy lacquer resin and two component ly high concentration of zinc dust, 75% minimum by
epoxy. weight of total solids, which provides intimate con-
3. Epoxy Ester tact between the steel and zinc dust when the coat-
These are vegetable oil-modified epoxy resins. ing cures. Inorganic (silicate) zinc-rich paints must
Consequently, they are similar to alkyds except be applied to blast-cleaned surfaces, at least
they are more expensive and produce films that are SSPC-SP 6, to obtain proper adhesion. They are
harder and somewhat more alkali resistant. reviewed in depth by Munger in a separate chapter.
Generally, they have less gloss retention when ex- (See Chapter 4.2) When properly used, they produce
posed. Epoxy esters are sometimes used where extremely hard, abrasion resistant films that are very
slightly more alkali resistance than provided by resistant to corrosive environments. SSPC-Paint 20
alkyds is desired, but at a lower cost than two- and SSPC-Painting Systems 12.00-12.01 deal with
component epoxies. both organic and inorganic zinc rich. A typical specifi-
4. Epoxy Lacquer cation for zinc-rich primer is SSPC-Paint 29.
Very high molecular weight epoxies can be for- 8. Latex
mulated as lacquer-type binders by solution in a Latex paints are based on “emulsions” (actually col-
mixture of strong solvents. (See Solvents.) They are loidal dispersions) of very high molecular weight,
sometimes used in organic zinc-rich primers such as acrylic, polyvinyl acetate, ethylene vinyl
because they dry quickly at low temperatures and acetate, acrylonitrile or styrene butadiene and their
can be recoated with topcoats, such as two-com- copolymers. They are relatively easy to apply and dry
ponent epoxy paints. The two-component epoxies by coalescence of the latex particles to form tough,
contain strong solvents that will soften the primer durable coatings. Latex paints have little odor, are
slightly and improve intercoat adhesion. non-flammable, and generally meet air pollution
5. Two-Component Epoxy ‘Ethyl silicates are not true inorganics but are generally included in
Epoxy resins of this type cure by chemical reaction. this group.
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SSPC CHAPTER*4.L 93 m 86279YO 0003553 326 m
regulations. They are economical and somewhat lacquers, which are highly chemical (not solvent)
more durable than oil paints (see Oil Paints) in rural resist ant.
environments, exhibiting less chalking and much b. They can be combined with alkyd resins to speed
better color retention. Latex paints are relatively drying of the alkyd resins and increase their
porous and allow moisture vapor through the film chemical resistance and durability.
and thus can be used on damp (not wet) surfaces. On Typical specifications are SSPC-Paints 17, 18,
the other hand, latex paints will not coalesce proper- and 19 and SSPC-Painting Systems 15.00-15.01.
ly when applied at temperatures below 50°F or at 13. Silicone
either very low or very high relative humidity and re- Silicone resins are available in two forms for use on
quire careful surface preparation on chalked, glossy structural steel: pure silicone resin and silicone-
or dirty surfaces, since they do not contain solvents modified alkyd resins.
that will readily wet or soften these surfaces. SSPC- a . Silicone Resin Pure silicone resins are expen-
Paints 23 and 24 and SSPC-Painting System 18.01 sive, but extremely durable, and resistant to
and 24 are concerned with latex paints. high temperatures, especially when pigmented
9. Oil with aluminum. They can be added to styrene-
Vegetable oils (especially linseed oil) are the oldest butadiene resins or polyacrylates to reduce
paint binders with the longest history of perform- cost but are still very good heat-resistant
ance. Oil-based paints dry by oxidation, but more aluminum paints.
slowly than other binders. They wet the surface b. Silicone Alkyd Alkyd resins produced with some
better than any other binder discussed and therefore silicone resin result in silicone-modified alkyds,
need less careful surface preparation. Oil-based which have improved durability, especially in
paints are easy to apply and are adequate for rural marine environments, as well as improved heat
environments. They are not recommended in cor- resistance. Typical specifications include SSPC-
rosive environments. Typical specifications are Paint 21 and SSPC-Painting System 16.01.
SSPC-Paint 1 and the SSPC-Painting System 1.00 14. Urethane
series. Urethane or polyurethane binders are available in
10. Phenolic three types:
Phenolic resin binders are varnishes made by proc- a. Oil-Modified Urethane These also are called
essing vegetable oils (usually linseed or tung, also uralkyds, since they are similar to alkyds in proc-
known as chinawood) with phenolic resins. They essing, method of cure (oxidation) and use. How-
make excellent aluminum-pigmented paints and ever, they produce coatings that are harder and
have resistance in humid environments and to im- more resistant to abrasion than alkyds. Unfor-
mersion in fresh water. On the other hand, phenolic tunately, although uralkyds have excellent
coatings are relatively dark (except in aluminum durability as clear finishes, pigmented uralkyd
paints), and they tend to darken further during ex- coatings are not durable enough to be used on
posure. Phenolic coatings are very hard and need exposed structural steel.
care to ensure proper intercoat adhesion. Typical b. Moisture-Cured Urethane These urethanes react
specifications are SSPC-Paint 5 and SSPC-Paint- uniquely with air moisture to cure. They produce
ing Systems Guide 3.00. the hardest, toughest coatings available in one
11. Rubber-Base package. Pigmentation is extremely difficult
There are two major commercial types of rubber- because of their moisture sensitivity, so they
base binders: styrene or vinyl toluene copolymers are used primarily as clear finishes. They can
and chlorinated rubber. Styrene-butadiene (SIB), be pigmented, provided moisture-free materials
vinyl toluene-butadiene (VTIB) and styrene-acrylate are used and proper precautions are taken during
(SIA) are similar in characteristics. They are used in manufacture and use.
lacquers that dry rapidly by solvent evaporation to c. Two-Component Urethane Urethanes can also be
form coatings resistant to water and mild chemicals. reacted with products such as polyols, poly-
Therefore, they can be used in humid and wet ethers, polyesters or acrylics to produce extreme-
areas. Styrene-butadiene can be combined with ly hard, resistant and durable coatings. These are
silicone resins (see Silicone Resins) to produce binders of major interest for use as topcoats on
heat resistant aluminum paints. The limited flex- structural steel exposed in marine or corrosive
ibility of these copolymers restricts their use on environments.
exposed structural steel. d .Aromatic YS Aliphatic Urethane - Urethane
12. Chlorinated Rubber polymers can be made from isocyanates, which
Chlorinated rubber resins can be used in two are either aromatic or aliphatic. Aliphatic
ways: urethanes are preferred for exterior use, despite
a. They can be plasticized to form fast drying their high cost, because of their outstanding
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - L 93 8627940 0003554 262
durability, color and gloss retention. Pigmented structural steel have been summarized in Tables 1-4 to
aromatic urethanes are extremely hard, tough, facilitate comparison of their characteristics, outstanding
and chemical resistant, but chalk rapidly when ex- properties and limitations. It must be kept in mind that these
posed to sunlight. SSPC-PaintingSystem 17.00 is tables compare the binders used alone in top quality for-
a guide to urethane painting systems. mulations. It is possible that blends or formulation modifica-
15. Vinyl tions can change the characteristics and performance of
Vinyl binders are available in three types. any of the binders resulting in a different performance
a . PVB - Polyvinyl butyral resins are the binders level than the generic binders. Where blends are used,
used in wash primers. When combined with average the data given for each binder in the blend. Com-
basic zinc chromate pigment and phosphoric mon binders described in the tables include alkyds; epoxy
acid, they improve adhesion of the paint system (epoxy-polyamide - two component); acrylic latex; linseed
tremendously. This can be critical for some oil; phenolic varnish; chlorinated rubber; urethane
vinyl paint systems, which have excellent (aliphatic two-component); and vinyl (polyvinyl chloridel
resistance and durability but may be sensitive acetate copolymer). Inorganic silicate binders are not in-
t o surface conditions with respect to adhesion. cluded because these materials are used only in zinc-rich
Wash primers are also used as metal treat- paints, as discussed in the chapter on that subject.
ments for galvanized steel and aluminum.
b . Polyvinyl Chloride and Polyvinyl Acetate - E. SOLVENTS
Vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate resins pro- The third major ingredient in paints is the solvent. Paint
duce lacquers that dry rapidly by solvent binders are polymerized to accelerate drying or curing and
evaporation t o form extremely durable coatings to produce as tough acoating as possible. When pigment is
for use in marine or corrosive environments. added, the viscosity of the mixture is increased sharply to a
They generally are not brushed, due to rapid dry- point that would make the product incapable of application.
ing, but can be sprayed. They are low in solids, Therefore, the major functions of solvents are to
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
so multiple coats are usually necessary and sur- dissolve (or disperse, in the case of latex) the pigment/
face preparation is critical (see polyvinyl butyral binder and to make its viscosity low enough to enable
resins). One spray coat of vinyl may yield only application by brush, roller or spray.
one mil of dry film thickness. However, because Solvents, with the exception of water, can also be
vinyls release solvents so rapidly, as many as chosen andlor blended to produce the desired rate of
4-6 coats may be applied in a 24-hour period. evaporation during application. For example, brush or roller
Vinyls are extremely resistant (except to applications require relatively slow solvent evaporation,
strong solvents), durable in most environments while spraying is improved with fast solvent evaporation.
and can also be used for lining tanks for water im- Slower evaporating solvents improve applications and level-
mersion service. Low-solids, high-polymer vinyls ing during hot weather. Table 5 compares the major sol-
are covered in SSPC-Paints8, 9, and 106, as well vents used in paints and lacquers. Note that some of these
as in SSPC-Painting Systems 4.00 through 4.05. solvents are also used for cleaning before painting, or
c. Vinyl-Alkyd - A compromise, which is effective cleanup after painting. This data is presented under the
for most environments, is to combine hydroxyl- fol lowing head i ngs:
modified vinyl and alkyd resins. Surface prepara- Evaporation Time - Relative time to evaporate the
tion requirements are slightly less critical than same amount of solvent. The lower the number, the faster
for vinyl binders. Brush application can be easier, the evaporation rate.
total solids are higher, and exterior durability is Flash - Flash Point in O F (Tag Closed Cup).
excellent. However, they are not recommended TLV - Threshold Limit Values in parts per Million
for highly corrosive environments. (ppm). This is an 8-hour day with no ill effects.
D. COMPARISON OF PAINT BINDERS

Properties of the most popular binders for use on

120
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SSPC C H A P T E R x 4 . L 93 = 8b27940 0003555 l T 9
TABLE 1
APPLICATION PROPERTIES
Alkyd 2-Can Acrylic Linseed Chlorinated Aliphatic
Aliphatic Latex Oil Phenolic Rubber Urethane Vinyl
EPOXY
or
Solvents Aromatic Lacquer Water Al i phat ic Aromatic Aromatic Lacquer Lacquer
Min. Surface Preparation* SP 3 SP 6 SP 6 SP 2 SP 6 SP 6 *** SP 6
Stability During Use EX F EX EX EX EX F EX
Brushability G F EX VG G F G P
Method of Cure Oxid. Chem. Coal. Oxid. Oxid. Evap. Chem. Evap.
Speed of Cure
50 OF-90OF* * G EX F EX EX EX
35 OF-50OF* NR NR P G G G
Film Build per Coat VG F G G VG G
Use in Primers EX F EX G G G
Use on Damp Surfaces G VG P P G G
*SSPC Surface Preparation Specifications
"Painting should not be done above 90°F or below 34°F
'Usually used in topcoats
TABLE 2
APPEARANCE PROPERTIES
2-Can Acrylic Linseed Chlorinated Aliphatic
Alkyd Epoxy Latex Oil Phenolic Rubber Urethane Vinyl
Use as Clear Finish
(Varnish) VG F P NR VG NR EX NR
Use in Ready Mixed
Aluminum Paint G F NR F EX F F G
Pale Color VG G EX G P VG EX EX
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Ability to Produce High

Gloss EX EX F G EX VG EX F
TABLE 3
PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES
Alkyd Epoxy Latex Oil Phenolic Rubber Urethane Vinyl
Hardness G VG F P VG VG EX G
Adhesion G EX F VG G VG VG F
FlexibiIity G G EX VG F VG VG EX
Resistance To -
A brasion VG F P G VG EX VG
Water EX F P EX EX VG EX
Strong Solvents EX F P G P EX P
Acid VG F P EX EX EX EX
Alkali EX G P G EX VG EX
Heat - 200°F G F F G NR G NR
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LI-L 9 3 W 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003556 035
TABLE 4
DURABILITY
Alkyd EPOXY Latex Oil Phenolic Rubber Urethane Vinyl
Moisture Permeability Mod Low High Mod Low Low Low Low
Normal Exposure VG VG VG G VG EX EX EX
Marine Exposure F EX F F G EX EX EX
Corrosive Exposure F EX F NR G VG EX EX
Color Retention G P VG F P G EX VG
Gloss Retention G P EX P G G EX VG
Chalk Resistance G P VG P G G EX VG
CODES SOLVENTS ABBREVIATIONS

EX - Excellent Aliphatic - Mineral spirits Oxid. - Oxidative polymerization or oxidation
VG - Very Good Aromatic - Xylene, toluene, etc. Chem. - Chemical reaction (two component)
G - Good Lacquer - Aromatic plus ketone, ester, or Coal. - Coalescence (latex)
F - Fair ether solvents (See Solvents) Evap. - Solvent evaporation (lacquer)
P - Poor Min. - Minimum
NR - Not Recommended
111. TYPES OF PAINT C. INTERMEDIATE COAT

Following are the most common types of paints used When a coat of paint is applied, it is likely there will be
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
on structural steel. missed spots (holidays) and pinholes. Consequently, it is

best to apply multiple coats. Since the primer and topcoat
perform different functions, and both may have the above
A. METAL TREATMENT defects, it usually is best to apply three coats. Further-
Wash primer is discussed under vinyl. It is some- more, for best results on exposed structural steel, the total
times considered a metal treatment (or “etch” primer) rather minimum dry film thickness (dft) should be 5-6 mils. Three
than a primer, since it is applied at very low film thickness coats usually are needed to achieve the desired conventional
(0.3-0.5 mils) and is used primarily over galvanized steel or to total dry film thickness.
improve adhesion of paints, such as vinyls, which are sen- The intermediate coat may be primer or topcoat. It
sitive to surface conditions and surface preparation. Use of should be tinted slightly so its color can be discerned both
this product is designated as SSPC-Paint 27. Metal treat- during application and topcoating.
ments do not replace anti-corrosion primers.
D. TOPCOAT
B. ANTI-CORROSION PRIMER
The topcoat provides color and protects the primer
Anti-corrosion primers prevent or inhibit corrosion or from the environment so the primer can perform its func-
rusting of steel if moisture gets to the steel surfaces tion without being degraded.
through missed spots, breaks or pinholes i n the coating.
To be effective, primers must be in direct contact with E. PAINTING SYSTEMS
steel, except when used over wash primer, which contains
The paint system is the combination of surface prepara-
an anti-corrosive pigment (basic zinc chromate).* Primers,
tion, primer, intermediate coat and topcoat. However, it may
with the exception of zinc-containing paints, are not for-
have more or less than 3 coats to achieve the desired
mulated to be exposed to the environment, but require a
thickness. For most painting systems, increased film
topcoat for protection. Furthermore, they are rarely
thickness decreases permeability and improves perform-
colored, other than the color produced by the anti-corrosive
ance and durability.
pigment. This may be grey, yellow, orange, white, red or
In repainting, the painting system consists of surface
shades thereof, depending on the pigment used.
preparation followed by application of the touch-up primer
Zinc-rich primers are durable and can be used without
plus the topcoat (see SSPC-PA 4). Details of the painting
a topcoat in normal environments where there is no danger
system are described in Volume 2 of the SSPC Manual.
of reaction with very acidic or very alkaline chemicals. In
the latter exposure, they must be topcoated. SSPC-PS Guide
*Chromate pigments are toxic substances. Follow all applica-
8 provides more information on choosing topcoats for zinc-
ble health, safety and environmental requirements in
rich primers.
applying, handling or disposing of these materials.

122
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SSPC CHAPTERm4.L 93 8627940 0003557 T7L
REFERENCES
1. “Paints and Protective Coatings,” Army TM 5-618, NAVFAC
TABLE 5 MO-110, Air Force AFM 85-3, U S . Government Printing Office,
PAINT SOLVENTS Washington, D.C. 1969.
2. A.G. Roberts, “Organic Coatings, Properties, Selection and
Use”, Building Science Series 7, National Bureau of Stan-
Evap.* Flash T L V * *
dards, US. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
Time (OF) (ppm) 3. A. Banov, Paints and Coatings Handbook, Structures
Publishing Co., Farmington, Michigan. 1973.
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons (Petroleum Solvents)
4. Paint/Coatings Dictionary, Federation of Societies for Coat-
VM&P Naphtha 20 50 300 ing Technology, Blue Bell, PA 1978.
Mineral Spirits 1O0
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Stronger than Aliphatics) 5. S.B. Levinson, “Solvents,” American Paint Journal, July 19,
1O0 1966.
Toluol (Toluene) 20 45
6. ”Handbook of Organic Industrial Solvents,” Technical Guide
Xylol (Xylene) 35 85 1O0
No. 6, American Mutual Insurance Alliance, (now Alliance of
American Insurers), Schaumburg, IL.
Esters (Lacquer Solvents)
Ethyl Acetate 8 40 400 7. “TLVs Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and
250 Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment,” American
Isopropyl Acetate 10 50
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati,
Butyl Acetate-N 30 90 150 OH. 1991.
Amyl Acetate 50 1O0 1O0
8. “Raw Material Index,” National Paint and Coatings Association,
Washington, D.C., 1979.
Ketones (Lacquer Solvents)
4 5 750 9. S.B. Levinson, “Painting”, Facilities and Plant Engineering
Acetone
Handbook, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y.
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) 8 30 200
10. “Fire-Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids,” National Fire
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone Protection Association, Boston, Mass.
(MIBK) 20 65 50
11. Federation Series on Coating Technology, Federation of
Methyl Isoamyl Ketone Societies for Coatings Technology, Blue Bell, PA.
(MIAK) 70 115 50
Diacetone alcohol 200 145 50
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Glycol Ethers (in Lacquers and Latex)*** The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active par-
EGMEE 1O0 104 5 ticipation of the following in the review process for this chapter: AI
EGMEEA 66 124 5 Beitelman, Alex Chasen, Lawrence E. Drake, Arnold Eickhoff, Dave
Eskra, J. R. Garland, Dan Gelfer, Joseph F. Guobis, W. A. Haldeman,
EGMBE 500 141 25
L. Hartman, Leondard Haynie, Joseph Mazia, Marshall McGee, John
Alcohols Montle, C. G. Munger, Dan Nemunaitis, John Perchall, W. Richter,
Melvin Sandler, L. M. Sherman, V. J. Todd, Duane Werkman and
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol) 20 60 O00

Rufus F. Wint.
Isopropyl Alcohol
(Isopropanol) 25 65 400
Butyl Alcohol (Butanol) 70 105 50
Amyl Alcohol 1O0 115 1O0
Water 100 None Safe

Nitroparaffin
2-Nitropropane 30 1O0 10
Chlorinated Solvents
l,l,l-trichloroethane 5 None 350
Methylene chloride 2 None 50
‘Evaooration Time. Ether = 1 Industrial Consulting Laboratories, AdcO Chemical Company,
* *American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists Garland Company, D.H. Litter Company, David Litter Laboratories
(1991) and DIL Laboratories.
* * “EGMEE - Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether His professional associations include: the Association of Con-
EGMEEA - Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate sulting Chemists and Chemical Engineers, the Federation of Soci-
EGMBE - Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether eties for Coatings Technology, the American Society for Testing and
Materials, the American Chemical Society, the National Associa-
tion of Corrosion Engineers, the Scientific Committee of the National
Paint and Coatings Association, the Washington Paint Technical
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERa4.L 93 8627940 0003558 908
Group, the Commercial Development Association and Steel Struc-

tures Painting Council. He is a former president of the New York
Society for Coatings Technology and received their highest award,
the TaVaC. He was recently made an honorary member of ASTM
Committee D1 (Paint and Related Coatings and Materials) and was
elected its chairman.
During these years he has held office as President of the New
York Society for Coatings Technology, and as Chairman of Com-
mittee D-1 (Paintings and Coatings) of the American Society for Test-
ing and Materiais (ASTM)for three consecutiveterms, the maximum
allowed.
At present, he is an honorary member of the New York Society
for Coatings Technology, as well as both ASTM and its Committee
D-1, and he is a 50-year member of the American Chemical Socie-
ty, the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, and the
National Paint and Coatings Association.
BIOGRAPHY
Saul Spindel, a graduate of
Brooklyn College, has over 40
years of plant and laboratory
experience in production, formu-
lation, testing and customer
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service for the development and

application of trade sales, main-
tenance, marine and in-plant
industrial coatings. He is a cer-
tified Corrosion Specialist and a
licensed Professional Engineer
in corrosion. He has presented
numerous talks and has au-
thored a variety of articles on
paint technology as well as hundreds of private reports.
As president of DIL Laboratories, Spindel has been engaged in
a variety of operations in the coatings industry involving testing, for-
mulation, technical service, surveys, field inspection, legal as-
sistance, expert testimony, preparation of specifications and
manuals and laboratory personnel training.
Spindel, who has served as chairman of the Corrosion Commit-
tee, the Technical Advisory Committee and the Planning Commit-
tee of the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, is also
a member of a number of coatings and sealant organizations. He
is especially active in the American Society for Testing and Materi-
als, the National Paint and Coatings Organization and the New York
Society for Coatings Technology, of which he is a past president.
He has received the Award of Merit from ASTM, making him a Fel-
low of that organization.

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SSPC C H A P T E R + 4 = 2 93 m 8b27940 0003572 288 m
CHAPTER 4.2
ZINGRICH PRIMERS
by
Charles G.Munger
Since the invention of steel, it has been a primary this time. By using very resistant synthetic resins, such as
structural material used for all critical structures in chlorinated rubber, to start and incorporating high-loading
modern society. There are many reasons for this - of zinc into the vehicle, the organic zinc-rich products were
strength, workability, adaptability. It may be rolled, cast or born. They provided protection to steel surfaces that was
welded into any conceivable shape and, when properly pro- not available by other coating means except through the
tected, will last for centuries. Bridges, ships, skyscrapers, galvanizing processes. Only very alkali-resistant resins
towers, tanks, pipelines, railroads, automobiles, and off- could be used effectively for zinc-rich coatings, and as the
shore drilling equipment are examples of the multiple uses epoxy resins entered the coatings field after World War Il,
of steel which contribute to the well-being of humanity. the expansion of zinc-rich coatings was rapid and con-
The key words are “properly protected”. Without protec- tinuous.
tion, steel structures tend to revert to their natural state of In Australia, Victor Charles Nightingall, an engineer,
iron, ¡.e., iron oxide or rust. spent several years studying ways a chemical compound
could be made with high durability and long-lasting corro-
sion protection. His basic idea, which was unique, was
I. HISTORICAL that if he could make a coating that would closely simulate
From earliest time, keeping steel in its usable form chemical characteristics of willemite or zinc silicate, he
was the goal of all who used it, and there have been would be able to accomplish the goal. He studied the ore
thousands of materials used on steel surfaces in an effort and came up with a mixture of zinc and sodium silicate
to resist change from usable metal to its non-usable oxide. which, when applied to clean steel surfaces and heated to
Of all of the materials tried for steel protection, zinc has 250°F or above, would form a hard, adherent, corrosion-
been the most successful. The first record of its use dates resistant coating. This was the state of the art up to 1950,
back to 1840 when a French engineer, Sorel, patented a even though millions of square feet of the zinc silicate
process for coating steel with zinc to prevent rusting. The coating had been applied on above-ground structures in
simplest process to provide protection using zinc was dip- Australia up to that time. All of it, however, was stoved or
ping a piece of steel in molten zinc and providing a com- baked to bring about, as he states it, “the rapid silication
plete layer of zinc over the steel surface. This procedure of sil ica-zi nc iron.”
gave birth to the galvanizing industry, which has been a The procedure used to coat steel in the late ~ O ’ S us-
,
growing one ever since. ing the zinc silicate, was to pickle steel free of all mill
There are increasing references to zinc in coatings in scale and all other contaminants. Following pickling, the
the early 19OO’s, and the use of zinc increased until, at the steel surface was scrubbed with fiber brushes to remove
present time in the United States, 150 million tons of zinc the black pickling deposit and washed with dilute sodium
are used annually. hydroxide to remove sulfuric acid. Finally, it was rinsed
A large percentage of this is for protection of iron and with dilute phosphoric acid to prevent rust forming on the
steel either as galvanizing or in zinc-rich coatings. Most of steel pipe before the coating could be applied. As soon as
this expansion has come since the 1920’s and ~ O ’ S and, it the surface was prepared, the coating was mixed by weigh-
wasn’t until the 1930’s that anyone gave a great deal of ing about 10 pounds of sodium silicate and a small amount
scientific thought to making a long-lasting, corrosion- of sodium bicarbonate into a bucket.
resistant coating from zinc dust. The movement started in Twenty pounds of zinc dust and about three pounds of
two different places, and the concept of zinc-rich coating red lead followed. The whole mix was stirred vigorously
was as different in each place as the places were far apart. with a stick. There was no premanufacturing of inorganic
The English started with the idea of using zinc dust in zinc coating at that time. It was made and used within a
organic vehicles to provide a zinc-rich coating while a com- few minutes, since it was rather reactive and left for any
pletely different concept was started in Australia, where period of time would solidify in the bucket. After mixing
the inorganic zinc-rich materials were conceived. The idea the coating, painters applied it to the steel surface with
of incorporating zinc dust into an organic vehicle coin- large 6 in. brushes. The coating was worked well into the
cided with the time that the more sophisticated synthetic surface to eliminate holidays and, surprisingly, a relatively
resins became available. These more resistant materials even coat of zinc silicate was obtained. The aim was to ap-
were needed since zinc reacted readily with most of the ply approximately one ounce of zinc per square foot. This
oleoresinous products that were used for coatings prior t o was determined by the amount of zinc used in the coating
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 2 93 m 8627940 0 0 0 3 5 7 3 114 =
and applied to the steel surface. The water-base coatings developed by the U.S. Navy and Union Carbide during the
dried within a few minutes and then the coated steel was war, as both a cure for the zinc coatings and a primer for
moved into either a large stoving area, where the tempera- organic coatings to follow. Such an attempt was made on
ture was brought up to 200-300°F or, i f the coating was ap- a very badly corroded naphtha tank at one of the refineries
plied to the pipe exterior, the pipe was moved in front of on the U.S. east coast. While not perfect, the coating did
large burners that blew flame, hot air and combustion stand up and prevent corrosion for many years under a
1
products into the pipe at one end and out the other. As very difficult industrial atmosphere.
soon as steel was brought up to temperature, the coating Many attempts were made to use various salt solu-
was dry, very hard, and very metallic. tions. These primarily were fairly concentrated water or
! The first well documented field test of this product alcohol solutions of magnesium chloride, zinc chloride,
was i n 1942, on a section of steel pipe in the Woronora aluminum chloride, some soluble phosphates, etc. One
pipeline, which was part of the water system for the city of manufacturer recommended washing with sea water.
Sydney. The line ran above ground, close to the bay and a These trials had some basis i n fact, as this over-simplified
few feet from some large oyster beds. The pipe was in- chemical diagram suggests.
spected in 1950 and it was in perfect condition. It still ex-
ists.
The Morgan Whyalla line, which is thefamous250-mile
2 Zn + 2NaCI + 3H,O - ZnOZnCI, + 2NaOH + 2H,
pipeline in inorganic zinc silicate history, was negotiated The zinc oxy chloride, or basic zinc chloride, is prac-
tically insoluble. This compound, complexed with zinc
in 1941-42 and completed in 1944. The negotiations in-
cluded a 20-year guarantee on coating performance. This hydroxide or zinc carbonate, which would surely be part of
was done with little more than the Woronora pipe section the reaction products, could provide sufficient insolubility
to the silicate matrix to hold it until the zinc silicate reac-
to go on. Victor Nightingall passed away in 1948, long
before the guarantee was up, and before he could see the tions could take place. Actually, none of these procedures
revolution in coating technology that his ideas created. worked satisfactorily, except under very limited and con-
His work was carried on by another engineer with the same trol led conditions.
drive and single-minded approach, M. G. McKenzie, whose Finally, it was determined that a solution of dibutyla-
leadership in the inorganic field helped create the mine phosphate, applied after the zinc silicate coating had
worldwide use of zinc coatings. Woronora pipe and dried, insolubilized the zinc silicate coating enough so the
Morgan Whyalla pipeline were the beginning of an era for resulting product had all of the good characteristics of the
inorganic zinc coatings. stoved inorganic zinc as originally conceived by Victor
Presently, the heat curing or stoving process has been Nightingall. This was the post-cure inorganic zinc coating
used on some 3,000 miles of above-ground pipeline. The that started the revolution in coating steel structures in
process is still being used in Australia today, and heat cur- most areas of difficult corrosion, high humidity, and par-
ing provides a very fast method of in-plant coating with ticularly in marine atmospheres. Hundreds of ships were
water base inorganic zinc products. coated with this material, along with offshore platforms,
The result of McKenzie’s convinction, that a zinc coat- wellhead structures, onshore installations of all types in-
ing was a permanent one, was entirely borne out by the cluding tanks, heater treaters, bridges, pipe racks,
guarantee period, which passed in 1965. In 1970, the South bulkheads, refineries, and chemical plants. Once the post-
Australia government duplicated the original Morgan cured inorganic zinc demonstrated the efficiency of this
Whyalla line, using the same exterior coating. A section of coating procedure, research was instituted by many U.S.
the original line at Whyalla was inspected firsthand in companies. Many materials were tried, including sodium
1972. The pipe was in perfect condition and showed no silicate, with many sodium oxide to silica ratios. Using
evidence of rusting, chalking or any change from the long sodium silicates with higher silica ratios helped eliminate
exposure to the atmosphere. This particular area was adja- white deposits that formed on the coating surface during
cent to Spencer Gulf and a steel plant. It had both a mild cure. Potassium silicate provided a somewhat faster cure
marine atmosphere and an industrial atmosphere to pro- and eliminated much of the white deposit. Lithium silicate
vide corrosive conditions. Even the field welds, which were produced a faster cure and harder product. Lithium silicate
touched up and allowed to dry, showed no corrosion. was the base for one of the more successful commercial
inorganic zinc silicate coatings. Quarternary ammonium
silicate, while tried very early in the various research pro-
II. AMBIENT CURING grams, was proven effective only in more recent formula-
It was recognized early that for this material to be en- tions. Ammonium silicate systems are not as hard as
tirely effective the stoving or baking step had to be elimi- some of the zinc silicates and do not possess the glass-
nated. The early research set out to find a way that the like properties of alkaline metal silicates. Colloidal silica,
coating could be formed without heat and yet obtain all of silica colloids in solvent, and silica gels were all tried
the excellent characteristics of the zinc silicate. Manyat- alone and in combination with other silicates. Basic in-
tempts were made to cure the coating with various salt organic materials such as phosphates, titantates, borates,
solutions. One attempt was to use a wash primer zinc oxychlorides, and similar materials were also formed
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U 4 - 2 9 3 m A b 2 7 9 4 0 0003574 050 m
into coatings with somewhat fewer properties. Some were with many materials listed above. Acid-hydrolyzed ethyl
also added to silicate vehicles in an effort to provide im- silicate combined with powdered zinc was one of the
proved coating characteristics. earliest, and one of the first successful self-curing zinc
During this time many other inorganic materials were silicate products. The alkali hydrolysis product of the ethyl
being tried, such as ethyl silicates, cellosolve silicates, silicate was used to produce effective zinc coatings. (See
and similar organic silicates, alone and in combination Table 1 for some interesting combinations of silicates -
- ~~
TABLE I
Typical Examples of V a r i o u s Z i n c - R i c h P a i n t F o r m u l a t i o n s
Weight
Ratio
pigment-
Type* Vehicle Pigment vehicle
Water Based Inorganic Zinc-Rich Paints

IA Post-cured
A 3.2 ratio sodium silicate; 22% 30,; Zinc dust + red lead 2.8
sod ium dichromate
B 3.2 ratio sodium silicate; 24% SO,; Zinc dust 3.2
potassium dichromate
IB Self-cure potassium silicate
A 2.9 ratio potassium silicate; 14% SiO,; Zinc dust 2.9
manganese dioxide; sodium
dichromate
B 2.4 ratio potassium silicate; 9.25% SiO,; Zinc dust 2.0
acrylic emulsion
C 2.8 ratio potassium silicate; 18% SO,; Zinc dust + red lead 2.8
quaternary ammonium hydroxide;
soluble amine; carbon black
D 3.2 ratio potassium silicate; 15% 30,; Zinc dust 2.5
quaternary ammonium hydroxide;
soluble amine; carbon black
Self-cure Iithi um si Iicate Lithium-sodium silicate; 19% 90,; sodium Zinc dust + iron oxide 3.3
dichromate
Self-cure silica sol Silica sol; 32% SiO,; soluble amine; Zinc dust + red lead 4.1
potassium dichromate; carbon black
Self cure-quaternary
ammonium silicate
A Quaternary ammonium silicate; 32% SiO, Zinc dust 2.5
B Quaternary ammonium silicate; sodium Zinc dust 2.5
silicate; 20% SiO,
Solvent Based Inorganic Zinc-Rich Paints
IC Self-cure
A Partly hydrolyzed ethyl silicate; 10% SiO,; Zinc dust 2.2
clay fillers
B Partly hydrolyzed ethyl silicate; 22% SiO, Zinc dust 3.4
C Basic hydrolyzed ethyl silicate; 15% SiO,; Zinc dust + iron oxide 2.4
clay fillers
D Polyol-Alkyl Silicate; 20% SiO, Zinc dust 2.2
'As per SSPC-Paint 20 - Zinc-Rich Paint

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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Y - Z 73 m 8627740 0003575 T97 m
some have proven to be most practical and successful.) taken place, environmental reactions such as those
Following development of self-curing ethyl silicate zinc described previously take over and chemical curing of the
coatings was a great amount of research to produce self- coating begins. At this point the coating may be hard and
curing coatings from all other silicate materials. Research abrasion resistant, or somewhat soft with little abrasion
has progressed to the point where there are a number of resistance. In either state, it is uncured and may be sen-
single package zinc silicate products on the market that sitive to water. In every case, regardless of the environ-
are not only fully combined into a single package, but are ment, the original reactions of either the water-base or the
self-curing, as well. A number of these have proven to be organic base silicates are essentially the same.
excellent products, particularly when overcoating with The initial reaction is for water and CO, from the air
organic coatings is a requirement. (H,O + CO,-H,CO,) to ionize some zinc on the surface of
Progress has been made in the last thirty years from zinc particles. The slightly acidic water helps to hydrolyze
the original product, which was made by mixing the indi- organic silicates to silicic acid and to hydrate water solu-
vidual ingredients just prior to application, to the point ble silicates to form silicic acid. The ionized zinc then
where the finished product in a single package may be reacts with silicic acid groups on the silicate molecules in
used essentially like paint. the silicate gel structure. This insolubilizes the coating
These products have caused a coating revolution. and provides its initial properties. At this time there is also
Some, in a single coat, provide protection in severe at- some reaction of the silicate vehicle with the iron surface
mospheres that is better than a galvanized surface. to form a chemical bond. Iron ions are formed reacting
Others, when overcoated, increase the life of the organic with the silicate vehicle at the iron surface in the same way
topcoats several times. that zinc does.
Most coatings at this point are somewhat porous,
111. MECHANISMS largely because of the compacting quality of spherical
Inorganic zinc coatings, including those formed from zinc particles. This can be seen in scanning electron
sodium silicate, potassium silicate, lithium silicate, col- microscope photographs, and substantiated from a prac-
loidal silica, the various organic silicates and even galva- tical standpoint. In many cases where inorganic zinc
nizing, are reactive materials from the time they are ap- coatings have been overcoated with organic coatings,
plied. Inorganic zinc coatings, including galvanized metal, within a short time after application bubbling of the
are in a state of constant change. This change depends on organic coating takes place. This is due to penetration of
their exposure - marine, industrial or rural. It is a slow, organic solvents into the zinc coating creating a vapor
continuing process until the zinc is practically consumed pressure that causes bubbling of material applied over the
in protecting the steel it is applied to, or inactivated by an zinc coating. Inorganic zinc coatings which are post-cured
accumulation of zinc salts on the coating surface. have much less porosity due to the immediate formation of
Some of these typical zinc reactions are: zinc phosphate on and within the pores of the coating. This
makes for a high density, relatively pore-free coating.
Zn (metal) + H,O - Zn" + 2e- Removal of the curing agent is necessary prior to top-
coating.
This is the normal corrosion reaction for zinc. The reactions described are taking place during for-
mation of the coating. From this point on, the reactions
Zn + 2H,O + -, Zn (OH), + H, will be those that take place over a long period of time and
ones characteristic of the environment in 'which zinc
Zn + H,O + CO, -,Zn CO, + H, coatings are placed. Humidity and condensation of
moisture on inorganic surfaces plus carbon dioxide con-
2 Zn + 2NaCI + 3H,O -, ZnOZnCI, + 2NaOH + 2H, tinue to create a very mild acid condition that results in
continued hydrolysis of the vehicle and ionization of zinc.
Galvanized surfaces or pure zinc react with carbon
Zinc ions diffuse deeper and deeper into the gel structure
dioxide and oxygen in air to form zinc carbonate or zinc ox-
until there is a zinc silicate cement or matrix formed
ide on the surface almost as soon as it comes out of the
around each of the zinc particles binding the coating
galvanizing bath. The original bright zinc surface, after a
together and to the steel surface. This zinc silicate cement
few days in weather, turns dull gray, and, at times, will ac-
is hard, insoluble, durable, and rock-like in character
cumulate a substantial quantity of white salts on the sur-
(Figure 1).
face. The inorganic zinc coatings are somewhat more com-
Since zinc coating is porous, ionization of zinc on the
plex. They are composed of powdered metallic zinc mixed
surface of zinc particles can occur any place within the
into a reactive silicate solution. The first reaction is the
coating. In so doing, it provides electrons that protect the
concentration of silicate zinc mixture by evaporation of
underlying steel from corrosion (Figure 4). If water and CO,
most of the solvent. The solvent can either be water, in the
are present, zinc hydroxide and zinc carbonate also are
case of water-base products, or organic solvents, in the
present.
case of the organic silicates, leaving a non-reacted deposit
of a silicate gel and zinc powder. Once initial drying has
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 2 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 5 7 b 923
accounts for zinc silicate coatings gradually becoming

Coating Surface 2 i n c D i s c o n t i n u o u s Surface
silicate a harder, more dense, and more adherent. This process con-
tinues for many months and years, and with the formation
inc P a r t i c l e of every zinc ion, electrons are released, which protect the
But iron substrate from corrosion. This is a very important
Sand Blasted
Surface react ion, since it increases the effectiveness, du rab¡Iity
I n t e r f a c e Between and chemical resistance of the inorganic zinc coating with
C
_ n a t i.n na nnd-
I n t e r f a c e of S t e e l a n d C o a t i n g : C h e m i c a l Steel
-
age.
Bond One very important characteristic of inorganic zinc
coatings is the electrical conductivity of the matrix.
FIGURE 1
Inorganic zinc coating Because of this, electrons formed by ionization of zinc at
any point within the coating can migrate to the steel
These reaction products, zinc carbonate and zinc substrate and provide cathodic protection to any steel
hydroxide, are more voluminous than the zinc silicate. area that may be exposed. Particle-to-particle contact of
They can form within the pores of the coating as well as the zinc pigment is not required for conductivity in inor-
on the surfaces. This fills the pores and seals the surface ganic zinc coatings, since i t is in a conductive, organic,
to create a very hard, abrasion-resistant metallic film. This zinc-rich matrix.
Na
1
N a O/Si02
2
@ 1/3.0 R a t i o - Na-O- I I I
on OH JH
Na Na
I
+ Fe++ 1
7 TH PH
9 YH Y
Na-O-Si-O-Si-O-Si-OH + Pb++-)Na-O-Si-O-Si-O-Si-OH - -
++ I I I
dHh OH + Zn
tFe TPb ? OH
I
++ Zn -Si4
I
Fe++ from S t e e l S u b s t r a t e I I I
Pb++ from Red Lead Additive O 0 0
P
Zn from Zinc Dust
S i l i c a t e polymer complexed
w i t h I r o n , Lead and Zinc.
I
Na-O-Si-O-Si-O-Si-OH
I
O
1
I
(!€I
I
¿H r --%
SC
O
t
Q
Ammonium, Potassium and
Lithium S i l i c a t e r e a c t i o n s
s u b s t a n t i a l l y same a s f o r
sodium
Na
-
-di-o-
I
OH
- N
:i-o-di-
OI
Zn kn c
I
N
Witn e x c e s s Zn++ f.ion z i n c d c s t , s i l i c a t e polymer
From A i r
‘ia and Water c o n t i n u e s to grow a d eventual’:; s a t u r a t e s with
Na-O-Si-
P + H2C03 +OH-
H”
i- + Na CO
2 3
zinc.
White d e p o s i t on c o a t i n g s u r f a c e -
removed by weather.
Sodium i n polymer removed by r e a c t i o n w i t h CO2 from a i r
Excess Zn
++ reacts w i t h CO and H O t o form i n s o l u b l e z i n c
2 2
carbonate
Zn ++ + 20H + H2CO3+ZnCO3 + 2H2Q
FIGURE 2
Chemical Reactions within a Zinc Silicate Coating - Water Base
(SSPC-Paint 20, Type IA or 16).
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 2 93 W 8627940 0003577 4bT W
The chemistry of these inorganic coatings is very

complex. The effectiveness of the end product depends on
the skill of the formulator and his addition of minor ingre-
dients that insolubilize the matrix around the zinc par-
ticles. It is believed that all of the truly inorganic zinc
coatings ultimately have matrices composed of heavy
metal silicates. The primary heavy metal is zinc derived
from ions dissolved from zinc particles mixed into silicate
solution, either water or solvent based. Minor quantities of
many heavy metals may be reacted into the silicate matrix
FIGURE 3 - lead, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, barium, iron, etc.
Zinc reaction within a porous inorganic coating Immediate insolubility in water is the goal, with the con-
O 0
CH + acid I
HsO*-+Et-O-Si-O-Si-O-Et
I + E t OH
2 3 I I
CH3CH2 It It Ethyl S i l i c a t e Polymer
I
Tetra Ethyl S i l i c a t e +
$ H O and CO
2 2
from humid a i r
QH 0"
Some o t h e r organic silicates
may be added t o o r s u b s t i t u t e d ++
f o r ethyl s i l i c a t e with similar + Zn
end results. ( S i l i c a t e Zinc Polymer. 1 OH
in
I
4PH
HO-Si-O-Si-OH
I 1
OH , OH
F i n a l Ethyl S i l i c a t e Zinc Polymer

s i m i l a r t o Sodium Silicate Zinc
Polymer.
FIGURE 4 N
Chemical reactions within an ethyl silicate zinc coating.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 2 93 = 8b2794O 0003578 7Tb
tinued long-time reaction of zinc finalizing the insolubility. under this wide span of atmospheric conditions. It is not
Figures 2 and 4 indicate the possible reactions that effective in freezing conditions or in very high humidity
take place within the coating to form the insoluble when water will not evaporate from the system within a
matrix. No other common metal powders react to form an short period of time - a matter of a few minutes to one or
insoluble silicate polymer in the same way. Unsuccessful two hours. After that length of time zinc tends to separate
efforts have been made to use both metallic aluminum and in the vehicle, making a poor coating with little resistance.
mag nec ium. It is also difficult to use where rain showers are frequent,
since the coating must be cured with the curing solution
before additional water contacts the coating. A rain
IV. ORGANIC ZINC RICH shower on a Type 1-A coating prior to application of the
Organic zinc-rich primers, in contrast to the inorganic curing agent will break up the silicate gel film - and the
zinc-rich products, involve very little chemistry in forma- coating becomes useless. Post-cured inorganic zinc
tion. These products are simple mixtures of zinc dust or coatings are most effective when used alone, without top-
metallic zinc pigment into the organic vehicle. Zinc is the coats, since removal of the curing agent residue is essen-
primary pigment in these organic zinc-rich coatings, with tial when topcoats are to be applied.
very little addition of other pigmentation. There are two re- Type 1-B Inorganic self-curing vehicles, which are
quirements essential for effective operation of organic water reducible, include water soluble alkali metal
zinc-rich coatings: silicates, quaternary ammonium silicates, phosphates and
1. Zinc in the vehicle, in order to provide the cathodic modifications thereof. These coatings cure by crystalliza-
protection required by zinc-rich coatings, must be tion after evaporation of water from the coating.
in particle-to-particle contact or contain a conduc- Several water-based silicates are included in this
tive filler, such as iron phosphide, to make an elec- category - and many are most effective when applied dur-
trically conductive path through the organic ing warm, dry conditions. In this case, the water
matrix. Without this particleto-particle contact, evaporates rapidly from the coating, leaving a hard
zinc in the coating essentially would be inert and metallic coating, which becomes insoluble to water in a
surrounded by the organic vehicle, which would not short time. Then it continues to cure to full hardness and
allow the zinc to go into solution and provide the adhesion by the above chemical reactions. Some forma-
cathodic protection. tions require more humidity for a complete cure than
2. The second important consideration in organic others. Again, these materials are not effective under cold,
zinc-rich primers is that the vehicle or carrier of highly humid conditions, since water will not evaporate
zinc pigment be alkali resistant. This is important from the film within a reasonable period of time.
since zinc, particularly under chloride environ- Type 1.C Inorganic self-curing vehicles, which are sol-
ments, reacts to form a strong alkali that would vent reducible, include titanates, organic silicates, and
adversely effect any alkali-sensitive resin or binder. polymeric modifications of these silicates. These systems
The primary organic resins used to make organic primarily are dependent on moisture in the atmosphere to
zinc-rich primers are chlorinated rubbers, phenoxy complete hydrolysis, forming the polysilicate.
resins, or catalyzed epoxy resins. While there are a This category covers many different formulations,
number of other materials that can be used, these most of which are based on an ethyl silicate vehicle. There
are the principal ones applied to steel structures. are a number of other organic silicates used or combined
with ethyl silicate to provide specific coating characteris-
V. SSPC CLASSIFICATION tics. Because of variation in properties and application
The specification for SSPC-Paint 20 includes the characteristics this class of inorganic primer is used wide-
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types of zinc-rich primers common at this time. There are ly throughout industry as a base for high performance
two basic types, Type 1 - Inorganic zinc-rich; and, Type 2 coatings. There are too many variations to outline the
- Organic zinc-rich. Description of the various zinc-rich specific properties of each product in this chapter. Never-
paints available are outlined in the above specifications as theless, they all primarily follow the same chemical reac-
follows: tions shown previously (Figure 4) to form the final
Type 1-A Inorganic post-curing vehicles, which are coating. The majority work best, application wise, under
water soluble, include alkali metal silicates, phosphates cool, reasonably humid conditions. Moisture from the air
and modifications thereof, which must be subsequently is required for a complete cure and many formulations will
cured by application of heat or a solution of a curing com- not cure well or completely under hot, dry conditions.
pound. Since they are solvent based materials, many are more
Type 1-A has a very broad area of application. It is a subject t o overspray under warm, windy conditions than
water-based material, and wherever water will evaporate water base products (1-6).
from the coating, this product can be used. It may be ap- There are two specific types of solvent base inor-
plied under cool or warm and dry conditions. Because of ganics (1-C) that are variations from the standard two-
the post-curing agent it will form an effective coating package products.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 2 9 3 W 862’7940 O003579 632 m
The first is the single-package inorganic. This product and practical coverage, percent of zinc in the dry film, type
combines the ingredients of the coating including zinc into of binder and scope of duration of actual field applications
a single package, ready for application directly from the or field tests of the several materials considered. If there
container. The product characteristics are similar to the are requirements for high-performance coating, the best is
two-package material, as are the basic chemical reactions none too good. Since material cost is only a small part of
that forms the films. The main advantage of this product is the completed coating job, only the best material, not the
simplicity in handling a single container that only requires cheapest, should be selected. The information above can
stirring prior to use; one container to handle during trans- be a good basis for comparing various zinc-rich coatings
portation and storage; and one container for painters to offered for a project.
work with on the job. Most single-package products are Each type of zinc-rich primer has specific areas of use
used in areas where topcoats are to be applied. where it is most effective. The above information allows
The second is the modified inorganic zinc primer. the corrosion engineer and applicator to select material
Here the solvent base ( I C ) inorganic is modified by the ad- most effective for particular requirements.
dition of a compatible organic resin, usually a vinyl butyral,
which is soluble in alcohol solvents. The product charac- VI. PRE-CONSTRUCTION PRIMERS
teristics are a compromise between completely inorganic
One additional type of zinc-rich primer should be men-
zinc coating and organic zinc-rich primers, with some of
tioned: the preconstruction primer. It may be either 1-B or
the good properties of each appearing in the modified
product. Any deficiency would be due to the life of the or-
I-Ctype. It is formulated to be applied as a very thin
material, approximately one mil in thickness, and is usual-
ganic resin incorporated into the system. Advantages
ly applied to steel prior to fabrication. In many shipyards
claimed for this material are improved application proper-
the preconstruction primer is applied to all plate as it
ties, a smooth film, easy and rapid overcoating, adhesion
comes into the yard. There it goes through an automatic
to most clean steel surfaces and good repair properties for
blast-cleaning operation followed immediately by applica-
previously zinc primed and overcoated surfaces. This prod-
tion of inorganic preconstruction zinc-rich primer. These
uct usually is used where topcoats are to be applied.
materials are applied under controlled conditions and
Type 2 organic vehicles include phenoxies, catalyzed have proven very effective in providing a corrosion-free sur-
epoxies, urethanes, chlorinated rubbers, styrenes, sili- face during construction. They may be over-coated directly
cones, vinyls and other suitable resinous binders. The with organic topcoats or recoated with additional zinc-rich
organic vehicles covered by this specification may be primers, depending on coating requirements. Steel with
chemically cured or may dry by solvent evaporation. preconstruction primers applied must be capable of being
Under certain conditions heat may be used to facilitate cut with manual and automatic gas torches and welded by
or accelerate hardening. manual and automatic welding equipment, without any
There is good reason for the number of different types loss in cutting speed or weld strength. Recently,
of zinc-rich primers. The basic use of the material - as preconstruction primers have been formulated with an iron
well as the conditions under which it is applied - dictates phosphide additive that improves the weldability and
what types of formulations should be used. resulting weld. As much as 40% iron phosphide, based on
Type 2 primers can be applied under most conditions total pigment content, has been added without apparent
where an organic vehicle applies effectively; however, they changes in the corrosion-resistant characteristics of the
also are subject to the basic problems inherent in organic primer.
vehicles, such as weathering, undercutting, release of
adhesion from water absorpfion, blistering and so forth. VII. COMPARISON WITH GALVANIZING
One good use of organic-based zinc-rich coatings is as a
Zinc-rich primers have often been compared directly
repair primer for inorganic zinc primers and galvanized sur-
with galvanizing. There are many similarities; however,
faces that have been topcoated and have been damaged
there are also many differences.
during use. By using organic zinc-rich primer, the zinc base
Galvanizing can be considered an inorganic zinc
coating is maintained over the bare steel area while the
primer and, in many ways, it will do the same things an in-
organic vehicle is compatible with the organic topcoats,
organic zinc-rich coating will. Both galvanized and in-
allowing it to be feathered out over the edge of the existing
organic zinc coatings are chemically bonded. Galvanizing
organic material.
is an amalgamation or mutual absorption at the iron-zinc
With the many different formulations of both in-
boundary, while the inorganic zinc matrix forms a
organic and organic zinc-rich primers - some with high
chemical compound of iron and silica at the interface of
zinc loadings and others with a minimum, some with ad-
the coating and metal. Both types of coating provide pro-
ditives and others without - some precautions should be
tection to the steel surface by cathodic protection, so
taken in selecting a product. The best insurance i s to use a
there are many similarities. The inorganic zinc-rich coating
material with an extensive background of good perform-
has, however, some basic differences:
ance for similar use. Without this, it is suggested informa-
tion be obtained on the total solids content, theoretical
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at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*4.2 93 8627940 0003580 354
Zinc in the coating is not continuous. It is made up the coating, forming a permanent chemical bond.
of zinc particles, surrounded by and reactive with This is an important property, since it prevents the
an inert zinc silicate matrix. This matrix is very inert undercutting of coating by corrosion.
and, except for strong acids or alkalies, is inert to With this bond, an inorganic zinc-rich primer can
most environmental conditions where coatings form a base coating that does not undercut or allow
would be used. underfilm corrosion. This property cannot be
Because of the formation of the coating by zinc par- overemphasized. The majority of organic coating
ticles in an inert matrix, the coating controls reac- failure under severe corrosion conditions is by
tivity and conductivity. This has been proven by ac- underfilm corrosion, starting at small breaks in the
tual measurements where zinc was coupled with coating. This property of the inorganic zinc base
iron, and the inorganic zinc silicate coating was coat multiplies the effective life of an organic top-
coupled with iron. The actual potential of the two coat. This has been shown by test and field ex-
coating materials was essentially equivalent. How- perience.
ever, the current flow or amperage between the gal- One of the most important characteristics of in-
vanized surface and iron was practically double the organic zinc coatings is that they do not shrink
current flow between the inorganic zinc silicate while drying or curing, like organic coatings do.
coated panel and the steel panel. The zinc on the Once applied, the inorganic material follows the
galvanized surface went into solution much more configuration of the surface. This is due to the
rapidly than the zinc held within the matrix of the in- method by which the film is formed and is a major
organic silicate coating. advantage in overcoating rough, pitted, corroded
As surprising as it may seem, many of the inorganic surfaces or rough welds.
zinc silicate coatings end up much harder, and Inorganic zinc materials are relatively unaffected by
more abrasion resistant than the metallic zinc in temperatures above the melting point of zinc. Used
galvanizing. as a primer and topcoated with silicone base top-
These points generally indicate a longer life span for coats, the combination has provided protection
inorganic zinc silicate coatings, compared to galvanized even at temperatures of 1000°F.
steel. This has proven true in tests, and in certain full-scale High speed production welding cannot be accom-
exposures where the two materials were used side by side. plished with a full thickness of zinc rich. Porous
Type II, the organic zinc-rich primer, should not be com- welds may result. Nevertheless, Battelle Memorial
pared directly with galvanizing because of the organic Institute and several foreign laboratories have con-
nature of the binder. firmed that inorganic zinc coated steel may be
welded without any reduction in strength of the
VIII. CHARACTERISTICS - INORGANIC steel joint. This is because the zinc silicate matrix
(TYPE I) reacts with the welding flux and prevents zinc oc-
The outstanding characteristics of inorganic zinc-rich clusions in the weld.
primers are: Inorganic zinc coatings are unaffected by organic
Cathodic protection is provided by inorganic zinc- solvents, even the very high strength ones, such as
rich coatings. The inorganic matrix is conductive ketones, chlorinated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydro-
and allows zinc to go into solution in a controlled carbons, etc. They are also unaffected by gasoline,
manner, making it anodic to steel and able to diesel oil, lube oil, jet fuel and many similar refined
cathodically protect any breaks that occur in the products. This being the case, they may be used
coating. Eventually, any minor holidays, pinholes, alone or in the connection with topcoats for con-
scratches or scars heal by formation of zinc reac- tinuous exposure to such chemicals.
tion products, such as zinc hydroxide arid zinc car- The very strong rock-like film and chemical adhe-
bonate. sion of inorganic zinc coatings form a base with
It is unaffected by weather, sunlight, ultraviolet outstanding friction characteristics, and therefore
radiation, rain, dew, bacteria, fungus or may be used as a coating for faying surfaces (the
temperature. Since it is unaffected by weather- friction interface between structural steel sections)
oriented factors, the coating does not chalk or on buildings, bridges, towers, tanks, etc. A com-
change with time. The inorganic zinc film remains parison of the coefficient of friction for various sur-
intact with essentially the same thickness, even faces highlights this outstanding property. The
after many years of exposure. higher the friction coefficient, the less the chance
of joint slippage.
The inorganic binder chemically reacts with the
underlying steel surface in a similar way to its reac-
tion with the surface of the zinc particles. This reac-
tion occurs at the interface between the steel and
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 2 93 8627940 0003583 290 H
Coefficient of It is often claimed that the organic zinc-rich primers

Surface Conditions Friction are less subject to critical surface preparation than in-
organic zinc materials. This may be true for initial applica-
Solvent-based inorganic coating 0.52
tion, since they would be less subject to problems from
Rusted and wirebrushed surfaces 0.51
organic contamination. On the other hand, eliminating the
Post-cured inorganic zinc 0.48
organic contamination factor, light rust coloration on the
Rusted surfaces 0.48
steel surface may be more easily tolerated by an inorganic
Water-based zinc coatings 0.47
zinc coating than by an organic based material. This is due
Sandblasted surfaces 0.47
to the possibility of the inorganic thoroughly wetting the
Mill scale surfaces 0.30
oxide and reacting with it.
Galvanized surfaces 0.25
Organic zinc-rich primers, depending on their formula-
Rust-preventative paint 0.1 1
tion, are more compatible with oleoresinous topcoats than
Red lead paint 0.06
are inorganic zinc coatings.
Any coefficient of friction less than a sandblasted sur-

face (.47) usually is not acceptable for steel construction.
X. SOME LIMITATIONS
Inorganic zinc coatings are unaffected by gamma Much has been discussed about application of zinc-
rays or neutron bombardment. These coatings have rich products to steel surfaces. In many ways it is a con-
troversial subject. However, much depends on the severity
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
been exposed to atomic radiation up to and beyond

1 x 10IDR,without any change in properties. of the exposure and the type of metal (corroded, new, mill
scale) to which the coating is applied. There have been
The basic surface formed by inorganic zinc
many claims about advantages of organic zinc-rich from a
coatings is very hard, metallic and abrasion resis-
surface preparation standpoint compared to inorganic
tant. This is an important property as a base coat,
zinc-rich. Many claims have been self-serving with little
since even though the topcoat may be abraded
basis i n fact. As with all high-performance coatings, the
away, the inorganic zinc base remains and prevents
very best possible surface preparation should be used and,
serious corrosion. This has proven extremely impor-
irrespective of the coating, the better the surface prepara-
tant on ship hulls above the water line where abra-
tion, the better the coating performance will be. There are,
sion due to docking can cause severe coating
however, differences in adhesion characteristics of
damage.
organic and inorganic zinc-rich materials. The primary dif-
Compared to metallic zinc, the chemical resistance ference is i n the ability of organic zinc-rich to be applied
of inorganic zinc coatings is excellent. This has over some organic material, such as old coatings, paint or
been proven in test and by use in industrial areas slight oil contamination. On the other hand, the inorganic
where acidic fumes or fallout have caused rapid zinc-rich materials will not tolerate organic materials and
galvanized failure. This is due to the inorganic will immediately check, crack and chip off organic sur-
matrix surrounding zinc particles. Inorganic base faces.
coats have excellent resistance to undercutting Inorganic zinc coatings should never be applied over
when overcoated with chemical resistant organic old paint. There are different adhesion characteristics
coatings and subject to very corrosive industrial among various inorganic zinc-rich products. There are
atmospheres. some, such as lithium base materials, which require the
IX. CHARACTERISTICS - ORGANIC (TYPE Il) best surface preparation and substantial surface profile to
provide maximum adhesion. On the other hand, the
The outstanding characteristic of organic zinc-rich original Australian formulation was applied over pickled
primers is their compatibility with organic and steel sur- surfaces, which were thoroughly clean but did not have the
faces. This is extremely important in coating repair and advantage of the surface profile of a blast-cleaned sur-
may be important during original construction, where face. Also, some Type l - B and C materials can be applied
many types of surfaces are involved and all require ex- to pickled surfaces.
cellent corrosion protection. Type 1 materials cover the whole gamut of surface
Organic zinc-rich coatings provide cathodic protec- preparation and each has proven to work well over sur-
tion, providing the formulation maintains particle-to-par- faces they are specifically adapted to. All work well over
ticle zinc contact. SSPC-SP 5 (White Metal Blast) and SSPC-SP 10 (Near
With an organic binder, the application of organic White) types of surface preparation. For preparation less
zinc-rich coatings covers a very wide range of application than this, that is, SSPC-SP 6 (Commercial Blast) or SSPC-
conditions. Organic binders may be very fast- or slow- SP 8 (Pickled) surfaces, the manufacturer’s literature
drying and curing conditions can vary widely, depending should be consulted for each product and each type of sur-
on requirements of application. face.
A binder in an organic zinc-rich primer may be chem- Organic zinc-rich primers also have specific limita-
ical-resistant, depending on the binder and its use require- tions. As previously mentioned, organic-based materials
ments. will tolerate some organic material on the surface. Organic
134
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERm4.2 93 m 6627940 0003582 127 m
zinc-rich coatings may be applied over SSPC-SP 6 vides. The SSPC Zinc-Rich Committee has also had panels
(Commercial Blast) providing the application is to new under test at both the 80’and 800’ lot since 1963 (18 years).
steel or a non-corroded previously coated surface. Also, as
previously noted, organic zinc-rich may be used for spot B. FIRST FIELD TESTS
repair to provide a zinc-based coating directly over bare Some early applications were in the marine field and
steel and yet provide a tie between the old and new organic the Gulf Coast, where its high temperatures and humidity
coating. Organic zinc-rich primers are subject to the dif- provided a need for new protective coating. Applications
ficulties of any organic material applied directly over steel were primarily in the oil industry, onshore and offshore.
surfaces. This means they are subject to undercutting, Well heads and Christmas trees were some of the first t o
blistering and similar adhesion problems not normally en- receive the coating. These were pieces of equipment that
countered with the inorganic zinc-rich primers. were subject to severe corrosion and small enough to
make good tests. Heater-treaters were field tested. These
XI. CASE HISTORIES were somewhat larger in size and followed by other equip-
It is not intended that detailed application instruc- ment on the offshore production platforms.
tions and surface preparation methods be outlined here.
This is well covered by most manufacturers’ literature for C. PORTABLE OFFSHORE DRILLING RIGS
specific products and, in general, in Steel Structure Paint- One of the early applications was the first Mr. Gus.
ing Council PS 12.00, “Guide to Zinc-Rich Coating Sys- This was a large, portable offshore drilling platform
tems” and SSPC Paint System 12.01, “One Coat Zinc-Rich responsible for many offshore wells in the Gulf of Mexico.
Coating System”. A later and possibly more spectacular drilling structure
The uses of zinc-rich coatings are almost too was the “Monopod” installed at Cook Inlet, Alaska, where
numerous to detail: they cover almost any use of steel tides are very high and ice in the winter continually flows
structure where high-performance coatings are required. past and against the structure. This platform was coated
These products have been applied to objects as small as with inorganic zinc from the mean low tide line up. The
nuts and bolts and to the interior and exterior of the largest largest semi-submersible drilling rig in the world, the
ships in the world. They have been used in the waterworks ODECO Ranger, was coated with inorganic Type l-C. It
industry, sewage industry, on pulp and paper plants, was recently built in Japan for use in the North Sea.
chemical plants, refineries, atomic energy facilities,
geothermal energy plants, pipes, tanks, stacks and an in- D. PRODUCTION PLATFORMS
finite variety of other onshore steel surfaces. Offshore, or
in the marine industry, zinc-rich materials are standard Offshore petroleum production platforms are an area
primer for all surfaces subject to severe seawater corro- where corrosion protection is imperative. The corrosive
sion. Zinc-rich primer has been applied on floating equip- conditions for such structures are most severe and many
ment and stationary marine structures in tropical rivers in hundreds of stationary drilling and production structures
South America, barges in the fjords of Alaska, in Japan, have been coated with inorganic zinc, from highly humid
Korea, Singapore, Western Australia, the East Coast of tropical areas of Indonesia, Singapore and the Persian
Australia, New Zealand and many areas in Europe and the Gulf to the United States Gulf Coast and Mexico, extend-
Middle East. Many icebreakers in the U.S.S.R. are coated ing into the Arctic areas of Alaska and the North Sea. The
with inorganic zinc primers. These materials are a inorganic coatings applied alone, ¡.e., Type l - A or 1-B or
worldwide answer to severe marine coating problems. overcoated Type l - C for additional protection and for safe-
Some specific applications that indicate the versatility of ty coloration, are providing maximum protection for these
zinc-rich products follow. essential pieces of equipment.
A. EARLY TESTS E. BRIDGES

Some of the earliest tests of inorganic zinc coatings Bridges, like offshore structures, are extremely
in the U.S. (early 1950’s) were located on the 80-foot lot of vulnerable to corrosion, perhaps more so since many
the International Nickel Company’s testing area at Kure bridge structures are formed from structural steel shapes,
Beach, North Carolina. Some of the original panels were with all of the corners, edges, crevices and surfaces
there with the inorganic coating still fully protecting after defects that are inherent in such shapes. One of the
23 years. The first test panels were heat cured and of earliest bridges of this type to be coated was a drawbridge
essentially the same composition as Australian material across a tidal river in Florida. This bridge was coated in
of the. same period. A second test set also exposed 23 1956, with the open grill work being the most difficult part
years is one of the first trials of a non-baked or stoved in- of the structure to protect. It was well protected after 15
organic coating. The 80-foot lot at Kure Beach is recog- years by a single coat of Type l - A inorganic zinc coating.
nized as one of the most corrosive of the marine test areas. One of the new bridges in Australia i s a very in-
Twenty-three years under these conditions illustrates the teresting structure. It is the Batman Bridge with a main
outstanding resistance that one coat of inorganic zinc pro- span of 675 feet across the Whirlpool Reach on the Tamar
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERaY.2 93 = 8627940 0003583 O b 3 =
River i n Tasmania. A massive 320 ft. high back-anchored previously heavily corroded surface has provided this pro-
cabled A-frame tower leans out at an angle of 20 degrees tection.
and supports a 3,000 ton clear span of 45 ft. long deck
trusses. Each leg on the A-frame comprises eighteen, 15 ft. H. VERY LARGE CARGO CARRIERS (VLCC’s)
high sections, one 18 ft. section and a top section 23 ft. The six Universe class tankers, 320,000 tons each,
high. All tower sections, some weighing up to 32 tons are a good example of ships constructed i n Japan pro-
each, were connected on the site by high tensile, friction tected both on the interior and exterior with inorganic
grip bolts. The 3 mil inorganic coating Type l - A was ap- zinc. These ships were first coated with an inorganic
plied to all steel surfaces on this bridge, and the faying preconstruction Type l - B primer, and in the most critical
surfaces of the individual members were provided the op- areas, with a full.coat of inorganic zinc Type l-A. The total
timum coefficient of friction by use of an inorganic zinc footage coated with inorganic zinc in these six vessels
coating. was over 18 million square feet. Almost 10 years of service
The bridge across Golden Gate in San Francisco is shows no corrosion on the exterior, except at severely
probably the world’s most famous bridge. It is subject to abraded areas.
as corrosive an environment as any existing bridge. There The new medium-size crude carriers built for Alaska
are only thirty days or so a year when the sky is clear and crude transportation on the Pacific Coast are coated with
the temperature above 60°F. The bridge is exposed to ex- Type l - C inorganic zinc primer.
treme atmospheric conditions of the salt and fog. It is con- The touch-up and repair areas on the VLCC’s were ex-
stantly wet and damp. The bridge is also designed to move. tensive. All spots where the final coatings had been ap-
It sways as much as 24% feet and may rise and fall as plied were coated with Type 2 organic zinc-rich primers.
much as twelve feet, due to winds and temperature They are epoxy-based and applied by either brush or air
changes. The inorganic zinc coating Type 1-B was first ap- spray.
plied in 1962. It is not only protecting the metal of the Many Japanese and European shipyards use Type 2
bridge and providing safe passage for 80,000 cars a day zinc-rich primers for preconstruction primers.
across its 8,940 ft. span, but it is providing longer life for
the reddish-orange topcoat, the historical color of this I. ATOMIC POWER PLANTS
bridge.
Inorganic zinc is unaffected by radioactivity or radia-
Since 1961 the SSPC has cooperated with the
tion. This being the case, inorganic zinc coatings Type l - C
management in evaluating several series of coatings,
are used to protect steel in the containment shells at most
not only 22 zinc-rich systems but also other generic
nuclear power plants that have been or are being con-
types such as vinyls, epoxies, coal-tar epoxies, chlorinated
structed. This is the structure containing the atomic reac-
rubbers, alkyds and urethanes.
tor, subject to high levels of radiation. From hundreds of
tests and years of actual exposures it is expected that the
F. REFINERIES
inorganic zinc will protect the containment vessels for
Cooling tower piping is a problem area in most their entire design life, 40 years.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
refineries because of the heat and continual wetting and
drying of the surface. It was one of the applications where
J. MORGAN-WHYALLA PIPE LINE
inorganic zinc coatings first proved effective. Another
refinery and chemical exposure difficult to maintain is No discussion of zinc-rich coatings is complete
pipe racks. There are hundreds of miles of pipe racks in the without mention of the earliest large application of any
US., many that have been fully protected since erection zinc-rich product in the world. This was Morgan-Whyalla
with zinc-rich primers. Pipe Line, which was originally constructed between 1940
and 1945, to transport water 240 miles across South
G. INTERIOR TANKER TANKS Australia. The pipe was coated with a very crude product in
a crude manner. Nevertheless, a 1972 inspection by the
There have been many and varied uses of inorganic
author, after it had been in service for 30 years, found it in
zinc coatings in the marine field. One major use has been
practically the same condition as when inspected in 1950.
lining the interior of tanker tanks, primarily those
Little, if any, corrosion was evident anywhere except for
transporting refined fuel. One of the oldest documented
isolated pinpoints of rust showing in some brush marks in
applications of inorganic zinc coatings is to the No. 1
the coating. A second line has now been installed with the
center tank in the UTAH STANDARD. This was applied in
same type of l - A coating, also stoved. During the 35 years
1954 to a previously heavily corroded tank surface. The
the line has been in service, almost complete protection
tank was inspected i n 1965, after 11 years, and with the ex-
has been maintained in the face of sandstorms, grassfires,
ception of holidays or missed areas in the original applica-
marine exposures, normal weathering, and almost every
tion, there was no rust or loss of metal. It is still in service
severe condition conceivable.
today, without repair, and is in very nearly original condi-
tion after more than 20 years of continuous use in refined
oil products. One coat of inorganic zinc Type l - A over a

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 2 93 = 8627940 0003584 TTT
Inorganic zinc coatings have c o m e a long w a y s i n c e 7. Norbert B. Intorp. “Enhanced Zinc-Rich Primers”. Paper #114,
originally conceived b y Victor Nightingall in Australia and N.A.C.E. Corrosion 80.
the organic zinc-rich primers about t h e same time in 8. “Zinc Silicate Coatings - 40 Years Experience,” Journal of
Protective Coatings and Linings, March 85, p. 34-44.
England. Their use n o w can be expressed in acres rather 9. R. Mallet, Brit Association Advancement Science 10, 221-388,
than square feet, and they have proved effective in hun- 1840.
dreds o f areas of severe corrosion. Their continued use w i l l 10. Dr. Ignatius Metil, “Recent Developments In Inorganic Zinc
Coatings,” Modern Paint & Coatings, December 1979.
provide longer l i f e a n d l e s s maintenance for both n e w a n d 1 1 . C. G. Munger, Report of the Inspection of Di-Met Products
e x i s t i n g structures in t h e foreseeable future. Used in Australia, November 17, 1949 - December 20, 1949.
Amercoat Corporation file.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
12. C. G. Munger, Background Notes on Dimetcote No. 2, October
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active 1950. Amercoat Corporation file.
participation of the following in the review process for this 13. C. G. Munger, “Solvent Service Corrosion in Tanker Ships.” ln-
chapter: Alex Chasan, Dan Gelfer, Tom Ginsberg, Joseph Guobis, dustrial & Engineering Chemistry, July 1957.
Dr. C. M. Hendry, Norbert B. Intorp, Sid Levinson, Walter 14. C. G. Munger, Review of Zinc Dust Coatings - presented at
McMahon, Igriatius Metil, Walt Pregmon, and David Sealander. Washington Paint Technical Group at annual symposium,
Washington, D.C., May 12, 1964.
BIOGRAPHY 15. C. G. Munger. “A Revolution in Industrial and Marine
C.G. Munger - consultant Coating,” May 22, 1967, Seventh Annual Symposium,
Washington Paint Technical Group.
in coatings and corrosion - has
been engaged in corrosion control 16. C. G. Munger, ”Inorganic Zinc Coatings”, published in the
activities for more than fifty years. proceedings of II Simposio Sul-Americano de Corrosao
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
He pioneered in the development Metalica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1971.

17. C. G. Munger, “Marine Corrosion Prevention With Inorganic
of plastic and synthetic resin
materials for combating corrosion Coatings”, May 1972.
18. C. G. Munger, Coatings for Nuclear Plants, N.A.C.E. Western
of steel and concrete surfaces, as
well as inorganic coatings for ma- Regional Conference, October, 1974.
19. C. G. Munger, “Petroleum Industry Use of Zinc-Rich
rine and industrial structures.
Previously, he was Vice President, Coatings”, National Zinc-Rich Coatings Conference, Zinc In-
International of Ameron, Monterey stitute. 1974.
20. C. G. Munger, “Inorganic Zinc Coatings - Past, Present and
Park, California, and President of
Ameron Corrosion Control Divi- Future.” N.A.C.E. 1975, Toronto.
21. C. G. Munger, “Dimetcoat #3 Story”, Ameron- Publication,
sion. He has been affiliated with Ameron since 1935. Mr. Munger is Past
President of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, of which 1975.
22. C. G. Munger, “Inorganic Zinc Coating Protection of Marine
he has been a member for over forty years, and a member of the Los
Angeles Section since its organization. He received the 1968 Frank New- Structures”, Fourth International Congress of Marine Corro-
man Speller Award during the NACE conference held in March 1969, sion & Fouling, Antibes, France, 1976.
one of the two highest awards presented annually by NACE for outstand- 23. C. G. Munger, “Environment - Its Influenceon InorganicZinc
ing contributions to the science and technology of corrosion. He is a Coatings”, N.A.C.E., 1976.
member of the Steel Structures Painting Council and received their John 24. C. G. Munger, “Environmental Impact on Inorganic Zinc
D. Keane Award of Merit in 1986. In 1993 he was elected as a NACE Coatings”, A.C.S. Division of Environmental Chemistry, San
Fellow in recognition of distinguished contributions to the field of corro- Francisco, 1976.
25. Munse, Walter H., Static and Fatigue Tests of Bolted Connec-
sion and its prevention.
Mr. Munger is a Fellow of the American Institute of Chemists and tions Coated with Dimetcote, Report, March 10, 1961.
a member of the American Chemical Society and the federation of So- 26. N.A.C.E. Tech. Committee T-6H, “Hot Dip Galvanizing as a
cieties for Paint Technology. He is also a registered professional chem- Protective Coating in Atmospheric Corrosion.”
27. “Organic and Inorganic Zinc Filled Coatings for Atmospheric
ical engineer, as well as a Registered Corrosion Engineer in the State
of California. He holds a BA in chemistry from Pomona College, Service.” N.A.C.E. publication 68173.
Claremont, California, and did graduate research work for two years 28. D. I. Netting, H. H. Weldes, M. R. Derolf, “Aqueous Quar-
on resin formulation and polymerization at Claremont College. ternary Ammonium Silicate Vehicles for High Performance
Zinc-Rich Primers and High Temperature Resistant Paints”,
He is the author of the book Corrosion Protectionby ProtectiveCoat-
International Marine Corrosion Conference, 1976.
ings and co-editor of the NACE Corrosion Engineers Reference Book. 29. New Jersey Zinc Company, “Zinc Dust Metal Protective
He has also authored over 100 technical articles on coatings, corrosion,
Coatings”.
and corrosion control, and has received several patents on corrosion 30. Victor Nightingall, Aust. Patent 113,946.
control materials and methods. 31. Victor Nightingall, U.S.Patent 2,462,763, February 22, 1949.
32. Victor Nightingall, British Patent 505,710, May, 1939.
REFERENCES 33. Victor Nightingall, U.S. Patent 2,440,969, May, 1948.
34. Victor Nightingall, Di-Metalization for the Prevention of the
1. Dean M. Berger, “Current Technology Review - Zinc-Rich
Corrosion of Iron, Steel & Concrete. Melbourne, Australia,
Coatings”, Modern Paint and Coatings, June 1975.
1940.
2. D.M. Berger - Gilbert Associates, Inc., Zinc Rich Coatings
35. H. E. Patee and R. E. Monroe. Battelle Memorial Institute, Co-
Technology, Septem ber 1974. Lumbus, Ohio, “Research report on effect of Dimetcote
3. Walter W. Cranmer, “Modern Coatings for Tankership Com-
Coatings on Weldability of Selected Steels”, April 19, 1967.
partments,” Annual Tanker Conference, American Petroleum 36. Pourbaix, Marcel, “Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in
Institute, 1957. Aqueous Solutions”, Chapter IV, Section 51.1, N.A.C.E., 1974.
4. J.F. Delahunt and N. Nakachi, Journalof Protective Coatings 37. E. G. Rochow, Chapter XV, “Chemistry of Silica”, Comprehen-
and Linings, “Long-Term Economic Protection with one Coat sive Inorganic Chemistry, Pergamon Press.
of Inorganic Zinc-Rich,” February 89, p. 48-53. 38. A. H. Roebuck, “Inorganic Zinc Coatings - Some Disad-
5. Daniel H. Gelfer, “Rapid Topcoating of Inorganic Zinc-Rich vantages & Remedies”, N.A.C.E. Corrosion, 1980.
Primers - A Case for Improved Productivity”. Presented at 39. Steel Structures Painting Council, “Topcoats for Zinc-rich Coat-
N.A.C.E. Corrosion 80.
ings,” Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, 1987.
6. D. H. Gelfer, “Comparison of Self-curing and Post-Cured In- SSPC 87-06.
organic Zinc Coatings as Permanent Primers for Steel.” 40. O.P. Velsboe, “Organic Zinc Coatings”, presented at the In-
Materials Protection, Vol. 3, No. 3, p. 54, March 1964. ternational Ship Painting and Corrosion Conference and Ex-
hibition, May 1974.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 3 93 = 8b27940 0003585 936
CHAPTER 4.3
CORROSION INHIBITIVE PIGMENTS

AND
HOW THEY FUNCTION
bY
Arnold J. Eickhoff
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Metal corrodes because of one or more environmental By cathodic protection - e.g. zinc rich
factors and gradually disappears or disintegrates through coatings. In this instance, the metal, in form of
physical and chemical processes. Corrosion is essentially zinc dust in the paint film, is the anode and
the formation of a more stable compound of metal. Most sacrificially corrodes to protect steel from
pure metals are unstable and tend to return to original rusting.
form. By mechanical protection, ¡.e. by the use of
Undoubtedly, corrosion plagued early Egyptians, thick (10 to 20 mils) relatively impervious films.
Hebrews and Greeks. There is evidence that an iron tool These films have extremely low moisture vapor
was found inside the great pyramid of Khufu at Gizeh, and oxygen transmission.
dated about 3100 B.C. In the Book of Judges of the Old Appleby and Mayne4 reported on the degradation
Testament, iron is mentioned in connection with construc- products of four red lead paints formulated with linseed
tion of chariots. Homer’s Iliad, written about 1200 B.C., oil, oiticica oil, alkyd resin, and tung oil. The degradation
also contains a reference to iron. A broken axle on a products were identified by vapor phase chromatography.
chariot in 2000 B.C. was as embarrassing as a corroded Mayne and Ramshaws showed azelaic acid was the prin-
water tank in the twentieth century. cipal degradation product of linseed oil fatty acids.
An early reference to protecting iron or steel against Extending this to the other three vehicles (¡.e. linseed oil,
corrosion is i n the writings of Pliny the Elder’, written alkyd resins, tung oil) suggests that their metal protective
about 1900 years ago. He describes how iron workers used properties may be evaluated by their ability to form lead
bituminous materials for varnishing iron. White lead and soaps of azelaic acid. Based on inhibitive properties,
fatty acid pitch also is mentioned for use as a protective linseed oil was best, followed by oiticica oil and finally
coating. alkyd resin. Tung oil had the poorest inhibitive properties.
One method to prevent corrosion is to incorporate in- The relative amounts of degradation products were 11.9 for
hibitive pigments in the protective coating applied to linseed oil, 8.9 for oiticica oil, 3.5 for alkyd resin, and 1.1 for
metallic substrates. Their purpose is to impart corrosion tung oil. Partial immersion tests of mild steel coupons con-
inhibitive properties to the organic or inorganic binders or firmed the analyses of the aqueous extracts. To obtain op-
vehicle portions of the primer coatings. timum substrate protection the protective coatings system
Many investigators consider only the pigment, and must be carefully evaluated considering many factors,
not the vehicle, when they attempt to evaluate a corrosion such as
inhibitive pigment. environment;
0 physical chemistry of pigment-vehicle combina-
tion in different environments;

I. SUGGESTED INHIBITIVE MECHANISMS 0 chemical reactions that may occur between
pigment and the vehicle while paint is in the
reported in 1954 that water was “non-
container before it is used;
corrosive after contact with paints prepared by grinding
0 electrochemical reactions that occur at the
basic pigments in linseed oil.” Immersion tests showed
anodic and cathodic areas or interface between
lead and calcium soaps of formic acid were corrosive.
the dry paint film and the steel substrate;
Lead and calcium soaps of azelaic and pelargonic acids
electrochemical reactions that take place when
were inhibitive.
coated steel substrate is exposed to high
The corrosion of steel is retarded by several
humidity or condensed moisture (dew);
mechanisms:
electrochemical reactions that take place when
By anodic inhibitors such as red lead, zinc the coated steel substrate is exposed to salt
yellow, strontium chromate, etc. spray (fog) e.g. in a marine or chemical environ-
By cathodic inhibitors or cathodic polarization ment; and

138
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 3 93 8627940 0003586 8 7 2
electrochemical reactions that take place when protection. Usually these paints rely on thick films (10 to 20
coated steel substrate is immersed in fresh mils) and freedom from pinholes to protect the substrate.
water. Chemical inhibitive films are useful because they are
Misleading information can be derived from salt spray not as sensitive as the mechanical film to undercutting
(fog) or salt water immersion tests, when steel panels are when small breaks or pores are present. Also, moisture
coated with films that are not alkali resistant. U.R. Evans permeability does not have to be as low to ensure useful
pointed out that sodium hydroxide can soften oil-modified film life. The pigments in inhibitive paints act as a source
films and lead to their disintegration and a type of film of a passivating agent.
failure not encountered in a salt-free environment. Fan-
cutt6 and Hudson tested 127 paint systems on steel im- II. EFFECT OF PIGMENT VOLUME
mersed in sea water. They confirmed Evan's views. CONCENTRATION
Mayne' reported that panels coated with polystyrene
and immersed in sea water for 46 days showed rust Pigment volume concentration (PVC) and critical pig-
nodules at the anodes and liquid filled blisters at the ment volume concentration (CPVC) of anticorrosive
cathode areas. Liquid in these cathodic areas was 1.1 to primers are very important. PVC is the ratio of pigment
1.3 normal sodium hydroxide. Mayne expressed it i n sim- volume to the volume of nonvolatile material, ¡.e. pigment
ple chemical equations: and binder present in the coating. It is usually expressed
as a percentage. CPVC is that level of pigmentation in dry
4Fe" + 8CI- -+4FeCI, + 8e- (anodic reaction)
paint, where just sufficient binder is present to fill the
The 8 electrons are consumed by reacting with water and
voids between the pigment particles. CPVC is especially
oxygen to form sodium hydroxide viz:
significant in flat paints.
8e- 20, + 8Na' + 4H20+8NaOH (cathodic reaction) + Various film properties are greatly affected by varia-
When products at the anodic and cathodic areas com-
tions in PVC. Asbeck and Van Loo9 showed how for-
bine in the presence of excess oxygen, the final product is
mulating can affect the parameters of permeability,
rust or Fe,O,.H,O.
rusting and blistering. These authors showed there is a
4FeCI, + 8NaOH + 0,-2Fe,O;H,O + 8NaCI + 2H20 minimum of rusting and blistering when PVC is slightly
With the indicated reformation of sodium chloride,
less than CPVC. Eickhoff'O also demonstrated this with a
and in the presence of moisture (water), the overall reac-
series of epoxy-polyamide primers applied to cold rolled
tion is repeated.
steel panels and exposed at tide range. The PVCs varied
The above reactions8 describe the corrosion process
from 17.5% to 42.0%. The 42% PVC primers were very
i f salt (sodium chloride) is present. If only oxygen and
blister- and corrosion-resistant.
water are present (no corrosive salts) the electrochemical
The evaluation of an experimental anticorrosive pig-
dorrosion of iron (formation of rust) is as follows:
ment can be very misleading, even erroneous, i f the primer
4Fe "+4Fe++ + 8e- (anodic reaction) formulator merely substitutes the experimental pigment
20, + 4H,O + 8e-80H- (cathodic reaction) for a pigment of proven performance on an equal volume
By combining these two reactions we obtain: basis.
4Fe" + 20, + 4H2O-4Fe(OH), (yellow rust) PVC and CPVC are extremely important when for-
In the presence of excess oxygen, red rust forms. mulating anticorrosive primers and subsequently inter-
4Fe(OH), + 0,-+2Fe,O;H,O + 2H,O preting their behavior in various environments.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
This reaction shows that water is a by-product of cor-

rosion. Once corrosion has started, it is self perpetuating,
as long as oxygen can penetrate the paint film. Thus, low
111. LIFE EXPECTANCY OF A PAINT FILM
oxygen and moisture permeabilities are very important How long will a paint film protect a steel substrate? A
film properties - especially if a steel surface must depend discussion of corrosion inhibitive pigments is not com-
only on mechanical or barrier protection. plete without mention of four important variables:
Paints prevent corrosion by various mechanisms: Environment;
Mechanical protection or thick films; Surface preparation;
Chemical inhibition; and 0 Composition of the pigment and vehicle; and
Galvanic or cathodic protection. 0 Dry film thickness of the paint.

Mechanical protection is simple: the paint film acts The Protective Coatings Sub-Committee of the British Iron
as a waterproof coating or an electrical insulator between and Steel Research Association11published some very in-
the anodic and cathodic areas. If the surface to be pro- teresting results. Steel specimens were primed with two
tected is not completely covered with a film free of pores, coats of red lead-linseed oil and topcoated with two coats
corrosion may not only continue at the exposed sections of iron oxide-linseed oil. The panels were exposed in an in-
of the steel, but also accelerate due to concentrated dustrial atmosphere (Sheffield, England). Other studies of
anodic attack. a similar nature have been reported by Liebman',.
Paints specially prepared for application in strong
acid and alkali environments provide effective mechanical
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER84.3 73 8627940 0003587 707
mineral spirits and used to replace raw linseed oil.

Effect of Surface Preparation on Paint Life Sometimes Fed. Spec. TT-P-86, Type 1 red lead primer
had excellent viscosity stability and sometimes it would
gel in 24 hours. Sometimes if the gelled paint aged 7 to 15
Relative
days it would de-gel, revert to its original viscosity, and be
Surface Preparation Durability
suitable for use.
Sand blasted 10.3 years After extensive laboratory studies18 it was learned
Pickled 9.6 years that when the oil polymerizing temperature was 625 to
Intact Mill Scale 8.3 years 650°F (330-343"C), the red lead paint gelled. If the
Weathered & Hand Cleaned 2.3 years polymerizing temperature was 575 to 585 "F (302-307OC),
package-stable red lead primers were easily obtained. The
acid number of polymerized oil was not a controlling fac-
tor. The only conclusion was that the nature of the linseed
The effect of surface preparation on paint life, as oil polymer formed at the higher temperature was the of-
shown above, is self-evident.
fending factor.
A study of the chemical reactions of a pigment-
IV. POLARIZATION vehicle combination that occurs in a closed container is
Polarization has been described in technical literature discussed by Eickhoff, et. al.''.
for ears'^,'^,^^. In corrosion prevention its usage is be- It describes the effects of varying the true red lead
coming more common. Following is a very preliminary dis- (Pb,O,) content of the pigment, time, temperature,
cussion of polarization. A more detailed discussion ap- moisture, and solubility of the reaction products in the
pears in references 16 and 17. vehicle. The study concluded that red lead pigments con-
Moisture or water makes iron or steel corrode. taining 92% or more Pb30, do not react with alkyd resin
Hydrogen ions from the water or moisture corrode steel vehicles to form lead phthalate.
and one product is hydrogen gas. Hydrogen, as bubbles,
collects on the cathodic areas of steel and acts as a B. SITE TWO: REACTION IN THE FILM
blanket to reduce corrosion. This is called polarization. What reactions occur between pigment and the non-
If it occurs on the cathode, it is called cathodic volatile portion of the vehicle after paint is spread in a thin
polarization. Practically all water or moisture has some film? It is common knowledge that when a mixture of raw
dissolved oxygen. Oxygen combines with the covering of linseed oil and metallic driers is spread in a thin film and
hydrogen; the covering is destroyed; more water is formed allowed to dry, a wide variety of organic acids are formed.
and polarization starts again. The result is that corrosion These include formic, acetic, propionic, ketoxy, etc. It is
continues unabated. In this case oxygen in the air acts as easy to understand how basic pigments in oxidizing oil-
a depolarizer. It is for this reason that water or moisture modified, alkyd resins can readily affect dry film properties
with a high oxygen concentration is more corrosive. of paint.
An example of paint film that becomes hard and brit-
V. CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN PAINTS tle when aged is a zinc chromate primer, made according
to Federal Specification TT-P-645. If a similar primer is
A can of liquid paint is a chemical factory. This ap-
made with the zinc chromate replaced by an equal volume
plies to the same paint when it is spread over an area in a
of basic lead silicochromate, the dry paint film is tougher
thin film that changes from liquid to solid film. There are
and more flexible than zinc chromate pigmented film. This
two reaction sites between the pigment and nonvolatile
is an example of a factor that should be considered when
portion of the vehicle.
the formulator selects a pigment-vehicle combination for a
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
given purpose. Other factors to consider include drying

A. SITE ONE: REACTIONS IN THE PAINT CAN time, color retention, and chalk resistance.
What reactions occur between the pigment and the Metallic soaps formed in the dry paint film from dif-
nonvolatile portion of the vehicle while paint is in the can? ferent basic pigments impart different physical properties
Regardless of the chemical reactions, they have an impor- to the dry paint film. These physical properties influence
tant bearing on liquid properties (viscosity, drying time, hardness, toughness, flexibility, and adherence of paint to
etc.) of paint in the can and the physical properties (hard- the steel substrate.
ness, flexibility, adhesion, weather resistance) of paint O'Neill and Brettz0studied reactions in paint films be-
when it is spread over an area in a thin film and allowed to tween the paint and the atmosphere, between the paint
dry. and the substrate, and between the medium (binder or
During World War II everyone was in a hurry. Due to vehicle) and the pigment.
shortages of materials, someone developed a product They showed red lead and zinc oxide are appreciably
calted "linseed replacement oil." The linseed oil was heat- reactive in the dry film; iron oxide and calcium carbonate
polymerized. It was then blended with raw linseed oil and very much less so; and anatase titanium dioxide showed
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*4.3 93 W 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003588 b 4 5 W
no detectable reactivity. They also reported on the percent The initial reaction takes place in a water slurry of litharge
metal in films of linseed oil dried on different metal and chromic acid.
substrates. Lead, copper, cadmium and zinc substrates
have an appreciable effect on the percent metal in the H2 0
various films. Iron was considerably less and aluminum 2Pb0 + CrO-PbO'PbCrO,
none. If the percent metal in the dried linseed oil film was
relatively high, the drying time was shortened. In a rotary kiln unreacted lead monoxide (PbO) reacts with
the monobasic lead chromate to form tetrabasic lead
VI. SOME COMMON INHIBITIVE PIGMENTS chromate.
Characteristics of common inhibitive pigments are 3Pb0 + Pb0.PbCr0,+4Pb0.PbCr04

discussed in alphabetical sequence (see Table 1.)
Temperature is increased and the tetrabasic lead
A. BARIUM METABORATE chromate reacts with silica to form monobasic lead
Commerciallyz1,this pigment is known as modified chromate and tri-basic lead silicate.
barium metaborate. The theoretical chemical formula is:
BaB,O,. HzO. 4(4Pb0.PbCr04) + 3Si02+4(Pb0.PbCr0,) +
3(3Pb0. PbSiO,)
Physical Properties
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.24-3.35 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orange
Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .27.5 Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..4.10
Refractive Inäex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.55-1.60 Pounds per solid gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .34.1
Oil Absorption .................... . 1 0 to 18
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Av. Particle Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.8 micrometres
Color.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
.White
Specific Surface Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.3 mz/cm3
Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Anodic
In 1874 Benedikt2* prepared barium metaborate
(BaO.B,O,) by fusing sodium borate and barium chloride. Both active ingredients contribute to the corrosion in-
Levin and McMurdieZ3reviewed these early studies and hibitive mechanism of basic lead silicochromate. These
confirmed the findings of Benedikt. active ingredients are monobasic lead chromate and gam-
The modified barium metaboratez4 is prepared by ma tribasic lead silicate. Mechanical mixtures of these
coating barium metaborate with silica. According to two compounds plus silica have some corrosion inhibitive
Buckman, et. the corrosion inhibitive properties of
properties, but they do not have as effective inhibitive
modified barium metaborate are due to alkalinity and the properties as the product made by calcination. Tribasic
metaborate ion which passivates the anode in essentially lead silicate has definite anticorrosive properties when for-
the same manner as the chromate ion.
mulated with drying oils or oleoresinous vehicles. When
formulated alone in an oleoresinous vehicle, the tribasic
B. BASIC LEAD SILICO-CHROMATE*'* *
lead silicate pigment i s very reactive and has a very brief
This pigmentz5 is a chemical complex that results package stability.
from mixing litharge, chromic acid and silica in a water It is not fully understood why the kiln-formed tribasic
slurry2'. The filtered product is furnaced at about 600°C and lead silicate in combination with monobasic lead
ground to a size suitable for use in paints. The resultant chromate is a package-stable product in many paint
product is a mixture of two chemical compounds - vehicles. It also is more effective as an anticorrosive pig-
monobasic lead chromate and gamma tri-basic lead ment than either monobasic lead chromate or basic lead
silicate - on a silica core. X-ray and chemical analyses silicate alone or a mechanical mixture of monobasic lead
show basic lead silico-chromate pigment has the following chromate and tribasic lead silicate.
typical composition: The kiln product, monobasic lead chromate-tribasic
lead silicate, is stable with a wide variety of coating
vehicles. This indicates the material is highly complexed.
Gamma Tri-basic Lead Silicate . . . . . . . . . .25% Microscopic examination of the milled pigment reveals
Monobasic Lead Chromate . . . . . . . . . . . ..29% that practically all of the silica core surface is covered with
Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46% a very thin coating of basic lead chromate.
_- This pigment has relatively low hiding power. For this
reason small amounts of red iron oxide (5 to 10% by
weight) are ideal for improving the hiding power. Low
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERm4.3 93 D 8627940 0003589 581 W
TABLE 1
TYPICAL PIGMENT COMPOSITIONS
Loss on Mean Part. Sp. Oil

Ca0 P,O. B,O* sio. Ba0 lanition Size Microns Gravity Absorption SrO ZnO
Calcium
Dhosohosilicate 44.9 9.0 - 41 .O - 4.6 5 2.9 67.5 - -
Calcium 44.9 - 10.1 38.9 - 5.6 7 2.6 34.7 - -
boro. 44.9 - 10.1 38.9 - 5.6 5 2.6 34.7 - -
silicates 43.5 - 17.4 33.0 - 5.6 7 2.6 32.0 - -
Calcium barium
DhosDhosilicate 37.1 6.1 - 39.8 13.2 3.8 5 2.96 54.5 - -
Calcium strontium
DhosDhosilicate 37.2 7.8 - 39.7 - 3.9 5 2.86 69 11.4 -
Zinc
DhOSDhOSiliCatB 46.5 8.9 - 46.5 - 4.6 7 2.6 55 - 10.2
hiding power also facilitates use of this pigment i n pastel The suggested mechanism of corrosion inhibition is
primers and topcoats. that of anodic passivation. Extracts of lead suboxide are
A commercial grade of this pigment is described in depositedz8on the anode and insulate the anodic areas
ASTM Specification D-1648. from the cathodic areas, thus preventing under-film corro-
sion. Lead suboxide functions as an anticorrosive pigment
by reacting with the oxidation products of the vehicle. For
C. BASIC BOROSILICATE AND BASIC example, with linseed oils or oxidizing alkyds, lead soaps
PHOSPHOSILICATE COMPOSITE PIGMENTS are formed in the presence of water or water vapor,
These essentially white or colorless pigments'27)are hydrolyze, concentrate on the steel substrate and are ad-
silicate composites of basic phosphates of calcium, sorbed .on the metal surface. This results in anodic
barium, magnesium, or zinc. Calcium phosphate, calcium passivation. Mayne and RamshawZ9discuss in detail the
borate and silicates are recognized corrosion inhibitors. formation of lead soaps in paint films applied to Steel Sur-
Complexing these crystalline pigments and changing faces. Even with the high metallic content of lead in the
them to amorphous pigments improves their anticorrosive lead suboxide pigment, it does not function as a cathodic
propert ¡es. inhibitor similar to zinc dust.
These pigments function as anodic and cathodic
depressants. However, the cathodic protection is the more E. MOLYBDATE PIGMENTS
pronounced. These pigments form metallic soaps with oil
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
or oil-modified alkyds. The hydrolytic products resulting This class of pigments is commercially available in
from the hydrolysis of the metallic soaps inhibit corrosion. two types of compounds. The molybdated zinc oxide pig-
Corrosion is inhibited by direct and indirect func- ment is used for oleoresinous-organic solvent types of an-
tionality, soap formation, acting on the barrier coat and ticorrosive primers. The basic calcium zinc molybdate is
function improvement in adhesion. suggested for use in latex and other water-borne anticor-
Boron and phosphosilicate pigments include the rosive primers.
calcium, zinc, barium, and strontium types. Most of them X-ray diffraction indicate that a series of
are relatively insoluble in water. Their specific gravities relatively pure pigments can be produced ranging from 1:l
and tinting strengths are low. Because they are white or to 1O:l molar ratio of ZnO to MOO,. The molybdated zinc
colorless, they permit a wide selection of tint and color. oxide pigment has the general formula (ZnO), (Moo,),,
where y is greater than x.
The basic calcium zinc molybdate is specifically for
D. LEAD SUBOXIDE**
water-borne and latex metal protective primers3'. The
Lead suboxide is a gray amorphous pigment manufac- molybdates inhibit corrosion by anodic passivation. The
tured from agitated molten pig lead in an electric furnace. following is quoted from Sherwin Williams Bulletin No.
It is not a true chemical compound but a mixture of lead 343, page 2:
and lead oxide on a core of metallic lead. A typical com-
The mode of passivation is believed to occur
position is:
as follows: as iron corrodes in a solution contain-
ing chloride and sulfate, molybdate ions in com-
petition with these ions adsorb on the surface
and form a complex with divalent iron ions. This
complex offers no protection. However, the
142
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R J V - 3 93 8627940 0003590 2 T 3 W
divalent iron is oxidized by dissolved oxygen to Prolonged shows that the corrosion in-
the ferric or trivalent state. Thus, the ferrous- hibitive powers of red lead are not because it is an alkaline
molybdate complex on the surface of the metal is pigment or because it acts solely as an oxidizing agent
converted to a ferric molybdate which is insolu- over anodic areas.
ble in neutral or basic solutions. Eventually, all of As early as 1951 Mayne38 showed that water was
the corroding surface is covered with a protective non-corrosive after contact with linseed oil fatty acid
film of ferric molybdate and the corrosion soaps of lead, zinc, barium, etc. After some involved
ceases. laboratory procedures Mayne39 concluded that in the
presence of water and oxygen the lead soaps of the
linseed oil fatty acids yield soluble inhibitive degradation
Physical Properties Basic Zn Molybdate Basic CaZn Molybdate products. Mayne40also stated that the soaps of saturated
Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . white white
acids such as palmitic and stearic do not render water
Sp.Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . 5.06 3.00
non-corrosive. On the other hand, lead soaps of oleic,
Wt. per Solid Gal. 42.1 Ibs. 25.0 Ibs.
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . 14 18
linoleic and linolenic degraded to yield rust inhibitive com-
Av. Particle Size . . . . . . .1.35microns 2.5 microns pounds.
Specific Resistance Mayne and Ramshaw41showed that lead salts were
(Ohms) . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 5000 more efficient inhibitors than fatty acid soaps of calcium
-- ~. ~__
~
or sodium. Optimum efficiency occurred when both the

mono-basic and di-basic acids had a total chain length of 8
F. RED LEAD** to 9 carbon atoms. They showed that azelaic acid was the
Red lead probably has the longest history as an an- principal degradation product of linseed oil fatty acids.
ticorrosive pigment. In 77 A.D. the ancient Roman writer More extensive work showed that oiticia oil and tung oil
pl in^^^ mentioned that a painter called Micias used red metallic soaps had poor rust inhibitive properties relative
lead as a pigment about 320 B.C. Today, red lead is to linseed oil metallic soaps.
available in various33grades, such as 85%, 95% and 97% In conclusion, the inhibitive action of red lead is com-
PbJO,. Other than small amounts of trace elements, the re- plex. In addition to its oxidizing properties, red lead forms
mainder is lead oxide or PbO. Pure red lead is the lead salt soaps in the dry film. These soaps undoubtedly enhance
of ortho-plumbic acid (plumbus orthoplumbate). the mechanical properties of the film and in the presence
The structural formula is: of moisture, hydrolyze to release organic acids and soluble
lead compounds. Mayne has shown that soaps can inhibit
corrosion of steel. Mayne's studies in combination with
studies by Hawke & indicate that inhibitive or
passivation of steel under a red lead paint film can occur
by three mechanisms, either singly or in combination, so
Red lead is made by heating metallic lead in an excess of that one supplements the other.
oxygen. 1. Anodic adsorption of organic acid molecules. A
water extract of linseed fatty acids (no lead com-
heat pound present) has a definite corrosion-inhibitive
2PB + 0,- 2Pb0 effect.
2. Anodic adsorption of soluble lead compounds.
6Pb0 - heat
2Pb,0,
Under certain conditions, soluble lead com-
pounds will inhibit corrosion.
3. Anodic precipitation by oxidation. In the
presence of red lead, ferrous compounds are ox-
Physical Properties
idized to ferric compounds and precipitated on
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orange the metal.
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8.9 None of the hypotheses fully explain all of the obser-
Pounds per solid gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .74.1 vations. A provocative survey of the action of metal protec-
Oil absorption (gl100g) . . . . . . . . . . . . ..6 to 9 tive paints was prepared by Elm43.
Av. particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lto 3
micrometres G. STRONTIUM CHROMATE*
Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Anodic Strontium ~ h r o m a t e 'is
~ readily prepared by mixing a
solution of strontium nitrate with sodium chromate. The
While red lead has the longest history of use as an result is a yellow pigment.
anti-corrosive pigment, it also has the longest history of
controversy regarding its corrosion inhibitive mechanism. Sr(NO,), + Na,CrO,+SrCrO, + 2NaN0,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
143
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*4.3 93 8627940 0 0 0 3 5 7 3 L3T
The residual sodium nitrate content should be kept I. X0,”- INHIBITORS

below 0.8% in order to minimize blistering when it (SrCrO,)
This group of pigments is of scientific interest, but to
is part of the anticorrosive pigment.
date, they do not appear to have any practical application
Many years ago strontium chromate was used for
in coatings except as chromates, phosphates and molyb-
making artists’ colors. Organic pigments have now re-
dates. Cartledge46studied the behavior of inorganic ions
placed it as a color pigment.
and molecules of the general formula X0,n- derived from
As an anticorrosive pigment SrCrO, is used in
the elements of the VI to VIII groups of the periodic table.
coatings for the light metal alloys. Babcock and
The metals include salts or oxides of vanadium, niobium,
R e t h ~ i s c h , describe
~ the use of SrCrO, in combination
chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, technetium, rhenium,
with aluminum pigment as an aluminum flake corrosion-
ruthenium and osmium.
inhibitive coating.
Technetium was especially interesting. The atomic
Strontium chromate can be purchased to meet
number is 43. It was the first of the previously unknown
ASTM-D 1649.
elements to be artificially prepared in 1937 by Perrier and
Segle4’. Its radioactivity is so low that dilute solutions can
Typical Properties be handled without special precautions.
The nuclear properties of technitium make it useful in
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Yellow
studying the mechanism of inhibition. The inhibition
Strontium as SrO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..41.0% depends upon the maintenance of some minimum concen-
(mini mum)
tration of pertechnetate. In this case it was potassium
Chromium as CrO,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41.0% pertechnetate (KTcO,).
(minimum) Not all X0,n-1 type ions are inhibitors. The mechanism
Chloride as CI .................... .0.1’/0 of inhibition becomes more complex due to differences in
(maximum) behavior of the SO,’, CrO,=, PO,= and Mn0,- ions. It is well
Sulfate as SO, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.2% known that the sulfate ion accelerates corrosion. Accord-
(maximum) ing to Pryor and the phosphate ion is an active in-
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.67 to 3.77 hibitor if oxygen is present. If inhibition by chromates is
due to the unreduced ion, it is difficult to understand the
Pounds per solid gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .30.6 to 31.4
great difference between the sulfate and chromate ions.
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Cartledge4gproposed “the necessity of looking within the
Particle Size (microns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10to 15 inhibitor particle for the property responsible for its unique
Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Anodic action, and led to the hypothesis that a suitable degree of
internal polarity might be the distinguishing feature of in-
hibitors of the XO,”. type.”
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
H. TRIBASIC LEAD PHOSPHOSILICATE**

J. ZINC CHROMATE, BASIC*
This is a corrosion-inhibitive white pigment described
in U S . Patent 3,080,248. It can be modified with chromic Basic zinc chromate is also known as zinc tetroxy
acid to make a light orange lead silicate-lead chromate chromate. It is the most popular of the oxychromates. The
pigment. This material conforms to ASTM-D 2744. assigned chemical formula is 4Zn(OH), Zn CrO,.
Physical Properties Physical Properties

Color.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .White Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.87 to 3.97
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.00 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Yellow
Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . ..50.0 Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 to 16 Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .32.3 to 33.1
Mean Particle Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.25 micron Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Anodic
The water solubility is very low - on theorder of 0.02 g

Typical Composition CrO, per liter. For comparison, the common potassium
zinc yellow is about 1.1 g. CrO, per liter of water.
Lead oxide as PbO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..83 to 87%
The principal use for this basic pigment is in the pro-
Phosphorous Pentoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.5 to 5.25% duction of a wash primer50or etch primer. A popular wash
Silica as SiO, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1 to 7.9% primer formula is described in Steel Structures Painting
Water of Hydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1.5 to 2.5% Council Specification SSPC-Paint 27 and also in Military
- Spec. DOD-P-15328. These wash primers are two-compo-
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings I44

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 3 9 3 6627940 0003592 O76 m
nent products and are mixed together just prior to use. Any
wash primer that cannot be used within a maximum of Properties of Zinc Dust
eight hours after mixing with the acid diluent must be Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Gray
discarded. The chemistry of wash primers is more fully Total Zinc (as Zn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97%
discussed by Rosenbloom5'. Metallic Zinc (as Zn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..94%
Whiting52 published an excellent history and review
Zinc Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 to 6%
of the uses and types of wash primers. He believes they
function in three ways: Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cathodic
1. by forming both an inorganic and organic film
on a metal surface,
electrical contact and also electrical contact with the steel
2. by preventing or retarding corrosion, and substrate. The zinc in inorganic zinc coatings is held in a
3. by providing a base that improves the adhe- conductive medium so that particle-to-particle contact is
sion and integrity of subsequent protective not required. Zinc dust in zinc rich coatings acts as the
coating systems. anode and corrodes while protecting the iron or steel
Wash primers can be reactive or non-reactive. The substrate. The development and use of zinc-rich primers is
reactive type is a two-package product described in SSPC- discussed by Charles Munger in a separate chapter.
Paint 27. The non-reactive type is a one-package product.
This one-package type does not adhere to metals as well L. ZINC OXIDE
as the two-package type. The essential components of Zinc oxide was known long before C l e ~ p a t r a It
~ ~is. a
wash primers are phosphoric acid, chromate pigment and product of copper as well as zinc ore smelting. Zinc as an
a polyvinyl acetal resin - usually a vinyl butyral resin.
element was discovered by Paracelsus in 1520. In 1850 the
E i ~ k h o f studied
f~~ many variations of the reactive or
New Jersey Zinc Company produced zinc oxide from the
two-package wash primer. The overall performance of
metal, using a method which came to be known as the
these variations was considerably less than the original
American process.
two-package wash primer developed by Whiting52.
If optimum results are required, the metal surfaces
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
must be clean and free from dirt, grease, etc. If the metal is Physical Properties
steel, mill scale and rust must be removed to produce a
Sp. Gravity ....................... .5.6
near-white to white metal surface. Some investigators say
a small amount of rust is not objectionable. However, any Weight per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .46.7 Ibs.
visible rust will detract from wash primer performance - Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .White
especially if the painted steel object is continually Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 to 25
submerged in either fresh or salt water.
The thinnest coating that forms a continuous film is
recommended - e.g. 0.5 mils. Films over 1.0 mil dry film Commercial zinc oxide is available in either acicular
thickness do not develop good adhesion or adequate or nodular form. Normally, zinc oxide is not considered a
toughness. Wash primer is especially effective when ap- corrosion inhibiting pigment. For many years zinc oxide
plied to galvanized steel or aluminum, but is not effective i f has been used in combination with zinc yellow-alkyd
applied over another primer. It must be applied directly primers to improve the film-forming properties of the zinc
over a metal substrate. yellow. With the advent of water-borne (latex) metal protec-
tive primers, zinc oxide has shown some excellent metal
K. ZINC DUST protective properties. Mayne5' and Van Rooyen have
Almost a century and a half Davy, in England, reported on the passivating action of various metallic
reported that metallic zinc would sacrificially plrotect steel soaps of linseed fatty acids - including zinc. E v a n P
immersed in sea water. In 1916, GardneP promoted the classifies zinc oxide as a cathodic inhibitor. While zinc ox-
use of zinc dust in primers. From the mid-1940s the ide is used in many types of coatings, in this treatise only
development of zinc rich primers has progressed rapidly. its use in metal protective coatings is discussed.
There are two general types - the organic and inorganic
binder types. M. ZINC POTASSIUM CHROMATE*
Gassing in the container can be a problem unless the Zinc potassium chromate or zinc yellow, in its crude
paint manufacturer is careful in formulating. Many of the form, was prepared in the early part of the 19th century. In
zinc rich paints are supplied in two containers and mixed 1829 L a m p a d i ~ ssuggested
~~ its use as a paint pigment.
for use at the time of application. Zinc rich paints are also Zinc yellow as it is known today is a basic potassium zinc
supplied in one-package containers. chromate with the assigned formula 4Zn0.K20.4Cr0,.
Zinc dusts vary in particle size. Accordingly, for- 3H,O. Brizzolara60et al pointed out that zinc yellow is a
mulators' ideas vary as to which particle size is preferable. unique compound and varies slightly in composition. Com-
Organic zinc rich paints depend on particle-to-particle mercial zinc yellows contain very small amounts of
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*4.3 73 H Ab27740 0003573 TO2
sulphates and chlorides. See ASTM Specification D-478, One of the producers of zinc phosphate cautions the
Type 1 for a description of the low sulfate, low chloride formulator that salt spray and high humidity diminish out-
type. door performance.
BarracloughB6and Harrison propose that zinc phos-
phate protects steel by phosphate ion donation. Bar-
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yellow raclough believes further supporting evidence for
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.5 phosphate ion donation is shown by using the capacitance
Weight per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . ..29.2 Ibs. ce1I tec hnique6’.
Oil absorption .................... .34 PantzerB8 promoted the idea that phosphate
Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Anodic pigments build up protecting films in the anodic areas. His
report gives a schematic diagram showing the reaction
process for zinc phosphate.
There is some difference of opinion whether or not MayneB8 has established that, even though zinc
this pigment is a true chemical compound. When mixed phosphate has very low water solubility, aqueous extracts
with water, the pigment undergoes partial decomposition from zinc phosphate ground in linseed oil are inhibitive
and releases potassium chromate and potassium dichro- and behave similarly to an extract from zinc phosphate-
mate. This type of zinc chromate is not suitable for making linseed oil fatty acid soaps. Mayne also believes that dur-
wash primers or etch primers. ing soap formation a small quantity of phosphoric acid is
With the development of fast drying vehicles, zinc liberated and possibly improves the protective properties
chromate is used extensively in aircraft primers. Zinc of paints containing this pigment.
yellow-alkyd primers have a tendency to become brittle
with age, perhaps due to the common tendency of for- O. ZINC PHOSPHO OXIDE
mulators to include some zinc oxide along with the zinc This is a relatively new, white anticorrosive pigment.
chromate. According to Davidson70, it is an oxide of phosphorous
Like other pigments, the corrosion-inhibitive acid and zinc - sometimes called a zinc phospho oxide
mechanism of zinc potassium chromate is not readily ex- complex.
plained. The slightly soluble chromate ion is definitely a
factor. Zinc yellow is not recommended for use in linseed --
oil vehicles because linseed oil films are not sufficiently Physical Properties
water-resistant. The pigment is excellent for use in the
Color.. .......................... .White
water-resistant, oil-modified, synthetic resins.
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.06
According to Jordan and Whitby3‘ chromates can in-
hibit corrosion by keeping the primary invisible oxide film Wt. per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..33.8
in good repair. Chromates are essentially anodic in- Oil absorption .................... .40 to 60
hibitors. Chromates also precipitate ferrous salts even in Zinc Content (as Zn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61OO/
the absence of alkali to give a mixture of ferric and Av. Particle Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . less
. than 1
chromic oxides - a protective matrix which binds the pig- micrometre
ment particles to the metal.
Further theorizing is i n t e r e ~ t i n gbut
~ ~ newly de-
signed aríd carefully conducted experiments are needed to According to D a v i d s ~ n ‘ ~
this pigment is a “com-
more fully explain laboratory and field observations. pound made from zinc as a cation and a phosphite anion.”
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
US. Patent 3,969,293 describes this complex as a basic
N. ZINC PHOSPHATE zinc phosphite (XZnO.ZnHP0,) where X varies from 0.5 to
10. By using the proper proportions of zinc oxide, water,
Zinc phosphate is one of the more recent non-lead,
and phosphorous acid, tribasic zinc phosphite can be
non-chromate, corrosion inhibitive pigment developments.
formed (3 ZnO .Zn HPO,). This pigment has low hiding
Early work done in England was reported by J.B. Har-
power, enabling its use in pastel primers and topcoats.
r i s ~ and
~ - his
~ ~associates.
~ One formula assigned for zinc
phosphate is Zn3(P0,),2H,0.
P. ZINC SALTS OF ORGANIC
N ITROCOMPOUNDS
Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .White With the imposition of more and more environmental
Oil absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 restrictions, the development of lead-free, chromate-free,
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..3.15 anticorrosive pigments is important. Pantzer” reported on
a zinc organic nitrocompound (Sicorin).
Wt. per solid gallon, Ibs. . . . . . . . . . . . . .26.2
Particle shape ..................... Lamel la

146
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 3 73 8627740 0003594 949
tate from liquid or gas, or whether these continue to grow

Physical Properties by addition of single molecules or by aggregation of the
Zinc Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .about 45% precipitated units.”
Organic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a bout 50 O/O So what does the future hold concerning new pig-
ments for anticorrosive paints? For one thing water-
Nature of the compound. . . . . . . . . . . . .powder
thinnable binders and pigments compatible with them will
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . colorless
be large market factors. Much of our knowledge of the
Resistance to temperature. . . . . . . . . . .about 300°C mechanism of anticorrosive pigments is based on studies
(572 OF) of oleoresinous film formers. The water solubility or water
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.6 dispersion of alkyds, epoxies, etc. creates a new class of
Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .21.7 film formers and as a result will require new studies to ex-
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 to 40 plain their pigment-vehicle anticorrosive mechanism.
Equally important is the issue of pigment toxicity. Our
knowledge of the corrosion inhibitive mechanism of non-
lead, non-chromate pigments in aqueous media is ex-
P a n t ~ e rstates
~~ Sicorin is an electrochemical in-
tremely limited. The present non-lead or non-chromate
hibitor and suggests its use in combination with zinc
pigments leave much to be desired. In the next five to ten
phosphate.
years we will see the development of a whole new class of
commercially available, anticorrosive compounds. These
VIL SUMMARY compounds now exist - it is just a question of some
From the efforts of investigators to understand the modifications in order to put them to use.
secrets of corrosion inhibition, various schools of thought J. Paul Hogan said, “It’s what you learn, after you
have developed their own theories and explanations. The think you know it all, that counts.”
coatings industry must maintain a certain practical at-
titude toward the results from these investigators. Of *Chromate pigments are toxic substances that are closely
necessity it cannot ignore the effect of the binder, or resin, regulated. Users are urged to follow all applicable health,
or oil that carries the pigment. A ~ p l e b yElm76,
~~, safety and environmental requirements in applying, han-
Clay and Ashworth and Evans79,Barra- dling or disposing of these materials.
clough and HarrisonBoand MayneBi performed physico-
chemical tests that often included some type of organic or *Based on their toxicity and the precautions required by
inorganic binder to form a protective coating that will pro- law for their use and disposal, SSPC has proposed to with-
tect our bridges, tanks, automobiles and the myriad of draw all SSPC specifications for paints which use lead
other items. pigments.
In summary, Evans considers the chromate ion to act
because of its oxidizing power. Uhligs2ascribes the in-
hibitive mechanism to the effects associated with absorp-
tion of the unreduced ions. Pryor and Cohena3ascribe the
action of molybdate and tungstate ions as arising from
film repair, even though the molybdate and tungstate ions
are weaker oxidizing agents than the chromate ions.
VIII. CONCLUSION
Today, most industries are experiencing numerous
and rapid changes, many of them influenced by concerns
about pollution and toxicity. The list of scientific con-
t r i b u t o r s has become long and varied. Maybe
Shakespearea4was peering into his crystal ball when he
wrote, “O for a Muse of fire that would ascend the
brightest heaven of invention.”
There is magic about research. It is planned,
calculating progress. When improperly planned it is ex-
travagant and wasteful, but the one item more costly than
research is no research.
Barnetta5 aptly stated the problem when he wrote
“Probably the weakest point in our knowledge of pigments
is that we do not know how our pigments are formed, how
many molecules combine to make initial units to precipi-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 3 93 m 8627940 0003595 B B 5 =
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT REFERENCES
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active 1. K.C. Bailey, The Elder Pliny’s Chapters on Chemical Subjects,
participation of the following in the review process for this Edward Arnold, London, p. 61, 101; 1932.
chapter: AI Beitelman, Stephen G. Cantrell, Alex Chasan, 2. J.E.O. Mayne, Corrosion Technology, pp. 286-290, Oct. 1954.
Theodore Dowd, Raye Fraser, Carl Fuller, Tom Ginsberg, Leonard 3. J.E.O. Mayne, and D. Van Rooyen, Journal of Applied Chem.
Haynie, A.R. House, W.G. Huckle, Sid Levinson, Charlie R. Lewis, 4, pp. 384-394, July 1954.
Jr., Joe Mazia, Robert C. McClelland, Marshall McGee, Gordon D. 4. Appleby, A.J. and J.E.O. Mayne, Journal of Oil & Colour
McLeod, Ray McMaster, John Montle, Chuck Munger, John Per- Chemists Assoc., pp. 59, 69, 1976.
chall, Lother Sander, L.M. Sherman, V.P. Simpson, William 5. J.E.O. Mayne, and E.H.J. Ramshaw, Applied Chemistry, Vol.
Spangenberg, Armand Stolte, Hank Stoner, Verne J. Todd, 13, p. 553, 1963.
William Wallace, Duane T. Werkman and Rufus Wint. 6. F. Fancutt, and J.C. Hudson, Journal of Iron and Steel ln-
stitute, p. 154, 1946.
7. J.E.O. Mayne, Journal of Oil and Colour Chemists Assoc., pp.
183-199, March 1957.
8. J.E.O. Mayne, “The Mechanism of the Protection of Iror and
Steel by Paint”, Anticorrosion, pp. 3-8, Oct. 3, 1973.
9. Asbeck and Van Loo. “Critical Pigment Volume Relation-
ships” Industrial & Eng. Chem., Vol. 41, p. 1470, 1949.
10. Eickhoff, Unpublished information.
11. F. Fancutt, and J.C. Hudson, “The Work of the Protective
Coatings (Corrosion) Sub-Comm: British Iron & Steel
Research Assoc.”, Journal of Oil and Colour Chemists
Assoc., Vol. 35, No. 396, Aug. 1962.
BIOGRAPHY 12. A.J. Liebman, “Mechanical Surface Preparation” See/ Struc-
tures Painting Council Manual, Vol. 1, p. 8, 1954.
Arnold J. Eickhoff, who has 13. J.O.M. Bockris, “Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry” But-
retired, was a technical consult- terworth Scientific Publications, London, p. 180, 1954.
ant in surface preparation and 14. J.A.V. Butler, Trans. Faraday Soc., Vol. 19, pp. 729-734, 1924.
steel painting problems. He 15. K.J. Vetter, Electrokinetics Academic Press, New York, 1967.
graduated from the University of 16. J.F. Bosich, Corrosion Prevention for Practicing Engineers
Arizona with a B.S. in chemistry. Barnes and Noble Inc., New York, 1970.
He first became interested in 17. Clive Hare. “Corrosion and the Preparation of Metallic Sur-
protective coatings at the Nation- faces of Painting.” Federation of Soc. for Coating
al Bureau of Standards in Technology, Unit 26, 1978.
Washington, D.C. 18. Unpublished information.
During World War II he was 19. A.J. Eickhoff, L.M. Kebrich, and J.G. Wills, “Red Lead-Alkyd
concerned with marine corrosion Resin Reactions.” lnd. & Eng. Chemistry, Vol. 37, p. 399, April,
problems. After 26 years with 1945.
NL Industries he became Head of the Pigments and Coatings Sec- 20. L.A. O’Neill, and R.A. Brett. ‘Chemical Reactions in Paint
tion at the Research Laboratory. Films” Journal of Oil & Colour Chemists Assoc., Vol. 52, pp.
Mr. Eickhoff was a consultant for the Steel Structures Painting 1052-1074, 1969.
Council and chairman of a committee to develop specifications for 21. S. Buckman, et al., figment Handbook, John Wiley and Sons,
a latex metal primer and latex topcoat. He holds memberships in New York, Vol. 1, pp. 935-946.
the American Society for Testing and Materials,the American Chem- 22. R. Benedikt, On Some Salts of Boric Acid, Ber. Deut. Chem.
ical Society, the Federation of Societies for Paint Technology, and Ges., Vol. 7, pp. 700-704, 1874.
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. He is accredited 23. E.M. Levin, and H.E. McMurdie, “The System BaO.B,O,” J.
by NACE as a Corrosion Specialist. Am. Ceram. Society, Vol 32, No. 3, pp. 99-105, 1941.
24. US. Patents 3,033,700 and 3,060,049.
25. U S . Pat. 2,668,122.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
26. Eickhoff and Pitrot, Basic Lead Silicochromate Anticorrosive

Pigment, Industrial 8. Eng. Chem., Vol. 51, p. 57A, August
1959.
27. W.C. Spangenberg. Private communication.
28. Harvey Bennett, Private communication.
29. Mayne and Ramshaw, Jour. Applied Chem., Vol. 13, p. 553,
1963.
30. U S . Patent 3,677,783. A basic zinc molybdate.
31. U S . Patent 3,353,979.
32. Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 34-54;35, 20C AD 77.
33. A.J. Eickhoff, “Anticorrosive Pigments,” Chapter 4 of Organic
Protective Coatings by Von Fischer & Bobalek, Reinhold Pub.
Corp.
34. Jordan & Whitby, Sixteenth Bulletin Res. Assn. of British
Paint, Colour & Varnish Mfgrs., Teddington, England, 1936.
35. A.J. Eickhoff, ti W.E. Shaw, “Principles of Protecting Metals
with Organic Coatings”. Corrosion, Oct. 1948.
36. W. Beck, “Reaction Change of Red Lead Films” Schweig.
Arch. Angew. Wiss. Tech., Vol. 8, pp. 45-52, 1942.
37. H. Wagner, “Korrosion & Metalschutz,” Vol. 20, p. 221, 1944.
38. J.E.O. Mayne, J. Oil & Colour Chem. Assoc., Vol. 34, p. 473,
1951.
39. J.E.O. Mayne, “The Mechanism of the Protection of Iron &
Steel by Paint. Anti-Corrosion, pp. 3-8, Oct. 1973.
40. Ibid., pp. 3-8.
41. J.E.O. Mayne, and E.J. Ramshaw, Appi. Chem. Vol. 10, p. 419,
1960.

at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R * 4 * 3 93 = 8627940 000359b 711 =
42. D.L. Hawke, & W. Shaw, Unpublished observations. 67. J.K. Gentles, J.O.C.C.A,, Vol. 46, p. 850, 1963.
43. A.C. Elm, Paint Oil ¿t Chem. Rev., pp. 16-32, 38, Aug. 19, 1948. 68. R. Pantzer, Anti-Corrosion, pp. 3-7, June-July, 1975.
44. E. Lalor, Pigment Handbook, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 69. J.E.O. Mayne, “Paints for the Protection of Steel: A Review of
Vol. 1, pp. 851-859. Research into Their Modes of Action” British Corros. Jour.,
45. US. Patent 2,701,772 (Feb. 1955). Vol. 5, p. 106, 1970.
46. G.H. Cartledge, “The Pertechnetate Ion as an Inhibitor of the 70. S.L. Davidson, J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc., Vol. 58,
Corrosion of Iron and Steel.” Corrosion, Vol. 11, pp. 335t-342t, 435-442, 1975.
August, 1955. 71. R. Pantzer, Anticorrosion, pp. 3-7, June, July, 1975.
47. C. Perrier, & E.J. Segre, Chemistry Phys., Vol. 5 , p. 712, 1937. 72. R. Pantzer, Deutsche Farben-Zeitschrift, p. 13, 1975.
48. Pryor and Cohen, J. Electrochemical Soc., pp. 100, 203, 1953. 73. J.E.O. Mayne, “Current Views on How Paint Films Prevent
49. G.H. Cartledge, “The Mechanism of the Inhibition of Corro- Corrosion” J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc., pp. 183-199,
sion by the Pertechnetate Ion”, J. of Physical Chemistry, Vol. March, 1957.
59, p. 979, 1955. 74. J.E.O. Mayne, “How Paints Prevent Corrosion”, Corrosion
50. US. Patent 2,525,107, Oct. 10, 1950. Technology, pp. 286-290, Oct., 1954.
51. Rosenbloom, Industrial 8, Eng. Chem., Vol. 45, p. 2561, Nov. 75. Appleby and Mayne, “The Relative Protection Afforded by
1953. Red Lead Dispersed in Linseed Oil, Tung Oil, Oiticica and a
52. L.R. Whiting, Wash Primers, Magazine Corrosion, June, 1959. Long Oil Alkyd Varnish”, J. Oil and Col. Chem. Assoc., pp. 59,
53. A.J. Eickhoff, Unpublished information. 69-71, 1976.
54. E. Davy, Communications to the Fifth Meeting of the British 76. A.C. Elm, “The Mechanism of Action of Metal Protective
Association, p. 34, 1835. Paints” Paint, Oil and Chemical Review, Aug. 19, 1948.
55. H.A. Gardner, “Anticorrosion Paints for Steel Hulls”, Scien- 77. Clay and Cox “Chromate and Phosphate Pigments in Anti-
tific Section Circular, No. 49. Corrosive Primers”, J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc., Vol. 56,
56. Percy, Metallurgy, John Murray, London, p. 524, 1861. pp. 13-16, 1973.
57. Mayne and Van Rooyen, Jour. Applied Chemistry (London), 78. Ashworth and Proctor. “The Role of Coatings in Corrosion
Vol. 4, p. 384, July, 1954. Prevention - Future Trends, J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc.,
58. U.R. Evans, Metallic Corrosion, Passivity and Protection, Vol. 56, pp. 478-490, 1973.
Longmanc Green and Co., New York, p. 535, 1945. 79. U.R. Evans, Metallic Corrosion, Passivity and Protection,
59. Lampadius, W. Tech. Oekon, Chem., Einige Berner Pungen fur Chapter X.
Farbenfabrikanten, Vol. 4, p. 443, 1829. 80. J. Barraclough and J.B. Harrison, “New Leadless Anti-
60. A.A. Brizzolara, et. al. Industrial and Eng. Chemistry, Vol. 29, corrosive Primer”, Jour. Oil and CoIour Chem. Assoc., pp.
p. 656, June 1937. 341-355, April, 1965.
61. A.J. Eickhoff, Unpublished data. 81. J.E.O. Mayne, “The Mechanism of the Protection of Iron and
62. M.P. Wood, “Rustless Coatings for Iron & Steel”, Trans. Am. Steel by Paint”, Anticorrosion, pp. 3-8, Oct., 1973.
Soc. Mech. Eng., 16, p. 671, 1895. 82. H.H. Uhlig, “Metal Inter-Interfaces”, A Symposium, Am. Soc.
63. H.G. Cole, & H. Le Brocq, Journal Appl. Chem., Vol. 5, p. 149, Metals, pp. 312-335, 1951.
1955. 83. M. Pryor, and M. Cohen, Journal. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 100,
64. Burns & Schuh, Protective Coatings for Metals, New York, pp. p. 203, 1953.
299-301, 1939. 84. King Henry V., Prologue, Line 1.
65. J.B. Harrison, et al. J.O.C.C.A., Vol. 45, p. 571, 1962. 85. C.E. Barnett, Industrial and Eng. Chemistry, Vol. 41, p. 272,
66. Barraclough et al. J.O.C.C.A., 341-355, April, 1965. Feb. 1949.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 - L 93 8627940 0003597 658
CHAPTER 5.1
PAINT APPLICATION
by
Sidney 5. Levinson and Saul Spindel
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 1
Paint is not a finished product until it has been ap-
plied to the substrate. Therefore, proper application of the SUMMARY OF SSPC-PA i - Shop, Field &
paint is a critical part of the complete paint system. High Maintenance Painting
1. Scope
performance paint systems are especially sensitive to mis-
application and may fail drastically, even more so than 2. Definition
conventional paint systems, which are much less sensitive 3. Pre-application Procedure
to application variables. Therefore, it is imperative that in- 3.1 Materials Handling & Use
structions be followed explicitly, particularly when apply- 3.2 Storage of Paint & Thinner
ing expensive and sensitive high performance paint 3.3 Surface Preparation
systems. A detailed specification covering the general re- 3.4 Pretreatments
quirements of high performance paint application is given 3.5 Mixing & Thinning
in SSPC-PA 1, “Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting”, as 4. Factors Affecting Application of Paint
outlined in Table 1. 4.1 Temperature
Surroundings may prohibit use of spray application 4.2 Moisture
because of fire hazards or potential damage from over- 4.3 Humidity
spray. Parking lots and open storage areas are common 4.4 Cover
examples. Adjacent areas or objects not to be coated must 4.5 Damage
be masked before spraying and the masking mate- 4.6 Striping
rial must be removed afterwards. This takes time and, i f ex- 4.7 Continuity
tensive, may offset the advantages of the rapid area cover- 4.8 Thickness
age of spraying operations. 4.9 Recoating
Weather conditions are very important for good 4.10 Tinting
results. Avoid painting below 45°F or above 95”F, if the 4.1 1 Intercoat Adhesion
relative humidity is above 8O%, during rainy weather, when 4.12 Contact Surfaces
wind velocity is above 15 miles per hour or i f freezing will 5. Application Methods
occur before the paint dries. If lacquer coatings, such as 5.1 General
those based on vinyl or chlorinated rubber resins, are used, 5.2 Brush
they may be applied at temperatures as low as 35°F. 5.3 Spray - General
Brushing is ideal for small areas, edges or corners. 5.4 Air Spray
Roller coating is most efficient on large, relatively flat sur- 5.5 Airless Spray
faces. Spraying is most suitable for large areas but works 5.6 Hot Spray
just as well on irregular shapes such as bridge steelwork. 5.7 Hot Airless Spray
The surface should be completely dry and between 5.8 Roller
45°F and 95°F before painting. However, damp (not wet) 6. Shop Painting
surfaces may be painted with some water-base or latex (Types, Coats, Contact, Welding, Damage, etc.)
paints, and certain other systems as recommended by the 7. Field Painting
coating manufacturer. (Cleaning, Touch-Up, Procedures, etc.)
Lacquer products, such as vinyls and chlorinated rub- a.Maintenance Painting
ber, which dry rapidly, should be applied by spray. Brush or (Cleaning, Compatibility, Records, etc.)
roller application may be extremely difficult, especially in 9. Special Coatings
warm weather or outdoors on breezy days. 9.1 Conventional Types
Each method of application has a different effect on 9.2-9.6 Other Generic Types
dried coating. Brushing tends to leave brushmarks and
1o. Drying & Handling
rolling may cause stipple marks. Spraying, when done
11. Inspect ion
properly, gives the smoothest and most uniform paint film,
12. Safety
150
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U S O L 93 = 8627940 0003598 594
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
though sagging can occur if too heavy a coat is applied.
The degree of training and experience of the person-
nel may influence the choice of method of application.
Spraying requires the greatest degree of skill. Rolling is
the easiest.
I. PAINT PREPARATION
Since paints are pigmented they can become non-
uniform during storage. During long periods of storage, the
pigment, which is more dense than the vehicle, tends to
settle and sometimes cakes at the bottom of the con-
tainer. The liquid component might separate and form a
thin layer at the surface, or it could form a skin, especially
in a partially full can.
Mixing is required to make the paint homogeneous
e-
and uniform before use by stirring the vehicle, dispersing FIGURE 2
the settled supernatant liquid, and removing all skins, Paint Shaker
lumps and other large particles. The paint, if stored
Courtesy of Red Devil - Union, Inc.
at cold or hot temperatures, should be brought to a
containers at intervals to prevent settling. Check seals to
moderate temperature for application. Two and three com-
be sure there is no leakage. Check dated products and
ponent paints must be carefully mixed just prior to use.
replace outdated materials.
A. MIXING
A mechanical mixer is preferred because it is faster
and produces a uniform mixture. If manual mixing is .
necessary, don’t use cans larger than two gallons.
If there is a skin on the surface of the paint, carefully
remove before mixing to avoid the formation of lumps or
gelled particles.
Depending on the size of the container, mixers are
available, from attachments for hand drills to large port-
able units, which can be used to mix 55-gallon drums of
paint. Most of these attachments are propellers with the
following typical dimensions:
Shaft Length - 1 1 ” to 36”
Propeller diameter - 2” to 8 “
Horsepower - Up to ‘h H.P.
These mixers may be powered by electric, air or portable
drills. Multiple propellers, (two or more stacked on the
shaft) are also used in larger containers, such as drums, to
achieve uniform mixing (Figure 1). Some propellers are of
expanding type so that they can be inserted through the
bung opening of the drum. During mixing they open to a
diameter of 8 inches. When mixing stops, the blades col-
lapse allowing removal through the bung opening of the
drum.
Paint shakers can be used to remix containers of five
H EAVY-D U ~ YELECTRI CS
\
FIGURE 1
\ Al R gallons or less without opening the cans (Figure 2). They
operate by an eccentric cam which shakes the can
Drum Paint Agitator vigorously. Most paint distributors have these units.
Courtesy of Quick Spray, Inc. Avoid shaking partly full cans of latex paint. It can
cause foaming. Avoid splashing. Speed should be set as
The paint also may be tinted with some added color, such low as possible to create moxement of the paint with only
as for use as an intermediate coat. a slight vortex, or central depression, at the surface. A
Paint should be stored at a moderate temperature. large vortex should be avoided, especially with latex
Rotate stock and use older material first. Also. reverse paints, since this will result in drawing in air and foaming.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERxS-II 93 m 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003599 420 m
Discard all paint beyond that time. When one component

is a powder, e.g., zinc, aluminum or bronze, be sure that the
liquid component is completely uniform before pro-
ceeding. Follow manufacturer’s instructions as to whether
pigment is added to the liquid component or the liquid
component is added to the pigment. Add very slowly while
mixing continuously until the paint is smooth. Avoid the
formation of lumps, which may cause clogging of spray
equipment.
B. THINNING
Do not thin the paint unless recommended by the sup-
plier or needed for spray application. If the paint is cold, do
not add thinner to make application easier. Instead, bring
the paint to 50-90 OF. When thinning the paint, first be
sure that it is well mixed before adding the thinner.
Then continue mixing until the paint is uniform in con-
sistency. Be sure to use a thinner that is recommended for
the product. Paint heaters can be used to reduce viscosity
for spray application, thus avoiding the addition of thin-
ners. Observe safety precautions. Do not apply warm paint
to cold steel. Results are best if both are similar in
temperature.
C. TINTING
Do not tint paint unless recommended by the supplier
or tinting is necessary to change the color for an inter-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
mediate coat. If tinting is done, first premix the paint.
Make sure the tinting color is compatible before adding.
The type and maximum amount should be determined by
the paint manufacturer. Mix mechanically and continue
until the paint is uniform in color with no streaks on its sur-
face.
FIGURE 3
Tinting colors may be recommended to achieve
Rapid Paint Strainer
Courtesy of The DeVilbiss Co. desired topcoat colors. Follow the paint manufacturer’s
directions explicitly since colorants may not be compati-
Foam is extremely difficult to eliminate and will result in ble with all types of coatings despite the designation
bubbles or craters in the applied paint film. “Universal”. Do not use more than the maximum recom-
Scrape the bottom and lower sides of the container to mended by the manufacturer.
disperse all settled pigment. When mixed, the paint should WALL
look uniform from top to bottom, showing no striations or

color streaks on its surface.
If manual mixing is necessary, pour some of the paint
into another clean container. The balance of the paint can
then be readily mixed, after which the removed paint can
be poured back and mixed in. Follow the same precautions
as in mechanical mixing with regard to the bottom and
sides of the container.
When mixing two-component paints, check and remix
each component individually. Then blend the two com-
FIGURE 4
ponents at low speed until the mixture is completely Typical Paint Brushes
uniform in color. Often, the two components are supplied Courtesy of E 2 Painter Corporation
in different colors so that a good mix can be readily deter-
mined. Do not mix more than a few gallons at a time since Try to use the same batch number of topcoat in any
the exotherm caused by the mixture may be so high as to one area since there can be a slight color difference be-
make the paint solidify in the can. Be sure to use the paint tween batches. If different batches are needed, combine
within the pot life recommended by the manufacturer. batches as much as possible to avoid the possibility of
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*S.L 93 m Ab27940 0003600 T72 m
A. BRUSH APPLICATION
Brush application requires the least amount of prep-
aration before use and cleanup afterwards. Only the brush
has to be cleaned. However, brushing is slower than other
methods and should be used mainly for small areas and
for cutting in corners or edges. Brushing is also useful to
improve wetting of primers on difficult-to-paint surfaces.
-LENGTH OUT There are two general designs of brushes which may
be used in painting steel: conventional and flat brush.
The most common brush used on steel structures is
S T R I P O R FILLER the conventional “wall” brush, varying in width from 3” to
6“ and with bristling varying in length from 4 ” to 7”. Small
areas require narrower “sash” brushes, 2 ” to 3 ” wide. Ir-
FERRULE regular surfaces are best painted with oval brushes up to
2 ” in diameter (Figure 4).
The brush is constructed by cementing the bristling
ends in a setting compound then adding a handle. The set-
ting compound and flat end of the handle are fastened
together with a metal ferrule. Strips or fillers are inserted
HANDLE inside and at the bottom of the bristling. This forms a cavi-
ty that holds more of the paint and also reduces the total
volume of bristling, making it easier to spread paint and
reducing cost (Figure 5).
Bristling is controlled in length so the longest bristles
FIGURE 5 are in the center and their length is tapered toward the
Paint Brush Construction.
Courtesy of American Brush Manufacturers Association outer bristles. This makes painting easier.
The flat brush is made up of short nylon or polyester
filaments, 1 long, attached to a flat base, about 4 ” x 7”.
color differences. Alternatively, i f colors of the topcoat are
This allows for wider contact with the surface being
found to be slightly diffferent from one batch to another,
painted. A metal grip is attached to the other side of the
finish using one batch at the edge or corner so that batch-
base. This brush holds about twice as much paint as a con-
to-batch color differences will not be as noticeable.
D. STRAINING
Paints should be strained after mixing i f there is any
evidence of skins, lumps, color particles or foreign
materials. Straining is especially recommended i f paint
has been previously used and allowed to stand for any
length of time or if the paint is going to be sprayed. Strain
after completing all mixing, thinning, tinting or boxing.
Strain through a fine sieve (80 mesh) or a commercial paint
strainer (Figure 3).
E. TEMPERATURE
Temperature of paint may be excessively high or low
depending on storage or shipping conditions. If so, warm
‘or cool the paint to a temperature of 50-90 OF before mix-
ing and use.
II. APPLICATION METHODS

There are five methods of paint application: brush,
paint pads, roller, mitt and spray.
The choice of method to be used depends on the type
of coating being applied, adjacent areas that might be
damaged by overspray and degree of skill of the personnel.
FIGURE 6
Whatever method is used, tools should be of first Industrial Paint Roller and Tray
quality and should be maintained in top condition. Courtesy of Arcco Paint Rollers, Inc.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * S - L 93 8627940 0003601 907 M
FIGURE 8
Pipe Paint Roller
Courtesy of E Z Painter Corp.
Many brushes are made of blends of natural, nylon

andior polyester to combine the application qualities of
bristle, the wear resistance of nylon and the resistance of
FIGURE 7
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Use of Roller Extension Poles on Water Tank

polyester to water and high humidity.
Courtesy of the National Paint & Lacquer Association & E z It is important t o a s e high quality brushes and keep
Painter Corporation them in top shape. Avoid brushes with horsehair or with
filaments that are not flagged. Conventional brushes
ventional brush and applies paint more rapidly. It is should be tapered from side to center. The brush should
especially effective in forcing paint into crevices and feel solid with a good quantity of bristles and still be flexi-
around projections. It also can be used with an extension ble. All bristles should be firmly set with no loose bristles.
pole. Flat brushes require roller tray, are ineffective inside Dip the brush into the paint to about half the bristle
angles, and are more difficult to clean. A flat brush also length, then withdraw at the edge of the container in a par-
drips more, adding to clean-up problems. tial wiping motion or shake to remove excess paint. Hold
Two general types of bristling are used: natural the (conventional) brush at an angle of about 75” to the
bristles and synthetic filaments. work. Make several light strokes to transfer paint to the
Traditional paint brush bristles come from Chinese surface. Spread the paint evenly and uniformly. Do not
hogs. These produce excellent paint bristles since the press down on the brush. Pressing can create excessive
ends of the bristles are “flagged”, or naturally split so they brushmarks or cause wiping off some of the paint. Paint
hold a considerable amount of paint. Unfortunately, hog the adjacent area, completing the brush strokes into the
bristles are very expensive and are not practical foi‘ hot edge of the previously painted area. This prevents ex-
water-thinned paints. Other animal bristles, such as horse- cessive pileup of paint in the lapped areas, which can
hair, have been used but generally are inferior t o hog result in lap marks. Finally, cross-brush lightly to eliminate
bristles. any sag or brush marks.
The oldest synthetic filament is nylon. Flagged ends Avoid poking the brush into corners and crevices. In-
are produced by artificially splitting the filament tips. stead, use the end of the brush and twist it slightly to get
Nylon is much more water-resistant than natural bristles the bristles into hard-to-reach areas.
and works better with water-thinned (latex) paints since Flat and oval brushes are used in a similar manner but
nylon bristles do not soften excessively after prolonged are held so bristle ends directly face the work.
use. Nylon loses stiffness in lacquer solvent and alcohol
and should not be used with paints containing those
solvents. 8. PAINT PADS
Polyester filaments are widely available. They appear Paint pads hold more paint and are faster than
more water resistant than nylon and soften less after pro- brushes. They are almost as versatile for covering small
longed use. They also are less affected by lacquer sol- areas but require a tray and are more difficult to clean.
vents. Because of their relatively low cost, they can be discarded

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x 5 . L 93 8627940 0003b02 845
FIGURE 9
Pressure Paint Roller
Courtesy of Thomas Industries
after use. Their use on structural steel is limited. They con- FIGURE 11
sist of roller-type synthetic fabric attached to a foam Paint Mitt in Use
Courtesy of Bestt Roller, Inc.
backed flat pad about 4 “ x 7” in size. The fiber length is
about 3/tsrr. A spring-loaded handle keeps the pad parallel to C. ROLLER APPLICATION
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the work. The handle is threaded to accept extension
Paint rollers are excellent for large flat areas and do
poles.
not require the skill of spray application. They hold much
more paint than a brush and are two to four times faster.
They require the use of trays (or grids in large con-
tainers), are more difficult to clean and are not as effective
in applying paint evenly and with good wetting on difficult-
to-wet surfaces, e.g., hand cleaned, rusted or pitted steel.
Roller cleaning is not critical since they are economical
enough to be discarded. Paint rollers consist of three ma-
jor units: roller cover, roller handle and paint tray or grid.
1. Roller Covers
Roller covers vary in diameter, length, type of
fabric and fiber length (Table 2).
Diameter: Roller cover diameters may be 1% ” or
2% ”. The 1 ” diameter is most common.
Length: This may vary from 1 ” to 18”. The 9 ”
FIGURE 10
Paint Mitts length is most common. A 2” x 9“ roller will hold
Courtesy of Bestt Roller, Inc. twice as much paint as a 1 Ir x 7“ roller and a 2% ”
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 = 1 93 W 8627940 0003603 7 8 1
TABLE 2
CHOICE OF ROLLER FABRIC AND NAP
Type of Surface
Smooth Rough
Flat finish-oil or Polyester Polyester
water-based “-Y2n y2“-y4’r
Paints containing Special stapled covers
strong solvents
Enamels and gloss Woven Lambskin
paints % 8 ”-Y2 I’ 1k “-y, ”
A -
B-
C -
D -
E - FIGURE 13
F - Air V a l v e Conventional air spraying with lh inch fluid hose and X inch air
G - Pattern Control hose.
H - Gun Body (or Handle) Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
I - Fluid Packing Nut
NEEDLE V4LYE S r E u
0 ANNULAR R NG AROUND THE
I0
FLUID NOZZLE TIF
1 (2i
@
‘CONTAINMENTHOLES’
‘WINGS:.HORNS’OR.EARS.
SIDE-PORT H O L E S
@ ANGULAR CONVERGING n a E s FIGURE 14
Air spraying at oil refinery, with pressure pot, provides control in
FIGURE 12 spraying small structural shapes.
Construction of Air Spray Gun Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

156
at 303-397-2295.
FIGURE 17
Airless Spray PumpAir Operated, Suction Hose Type
Courtesy of Graco, Inc.
Fiber Length (Nap) or Pile Height: The length of

fiber in roller fabrics used on steel surfaces varies
from IA’’ to 3A“. Longer fibers hold more paint, but
do not give as smooth a finish. Therefore, they are
used on rougher surfaces with faster drying paints.
FIGURE 15
Air spray painting at electrical power plant.
Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
x 18” roller will hold up to 4 times as much paint, as

much as a quart if a long fiber fabric is used.
Fabric: The most common fabrics are polyester,
verel, nylon, mohair and lambskin. The choice of
fabric and fiber length (nap) depend on the type of
paint and the condition of surface, as shown in
Table 2.
CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW

OF AIRLESS SPRAY TIP
MATERIAL FLOW RAY F

UNDER HYDRAULIC j GLE
PRESSURE
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(Controls Flow-Creates
High Velocity from Pressure)
FIGURE 16
Airless Spray Action
Courtesy of the Aro Corporation
Woven Fabrics (as opposed to knit) are avail-

able. They shed fewer lint particles, are designated
“all paints” or “Enamel” on the label and are better
than knit fabrics for gloss paints.
Core: The core of the roller may be made of plastic
impregnated fiber or wire mesh. Be sure the core is
FIGURE 18
resistant when using epoxies, vinyls, urethanes and Airless Spray Unit With Two Guns-Air Drive Agitator +
other materials that contain strong solvents. Courtesy of Nordson Corporation
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R * S - L 73
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 20
FIGURE 19
Airless Spray Unit Dolly Mount, Air Drive -
Courtesy of Alemite Division of Stewart-Warner
2. Roller Handle
The handle is made of stiff wire (app. l/4 " in diam.),
with a comfortable handle for holding the roller at
one end and bent at the other end to form an off-
set right angle. The angle end has a spring wire or
metal attachment to enable slipping the roller on
and off, yet holding it firmly during use. The end of
the handle is hollow and threaded so an extension
pole may be used. Extension poles as long as 16
feet are available to avoid the use of ladders
(Figure 7).
3. Paint Tray
Paint rollers must be worked in when loaded with
paint. The roller (on the handle) is partially in-
serted into the paint, then rolled on the ramp until
uniformly coated. Most trays hold about '/2 gal. of
paint. Some are large enough to hold several FIGURE 21
gallons (Figure 6). Airless Spray Unit - Suction Hose, Air Drive
An alternative method i s t o use a large paint Courtesy o1 Binks Manufacturing Co.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*S.L 93 m 8627940 O003606 490 m
bucket, e.g., a 5-gal. can with a roller grid, on PUMP UNIT

which the roller is worked in. This allows the use
of rollers on ladders and scaffolds.
4. Pipe Roller
This special roller is made up of 2 to 5 narrow 1. Pump-to meet
delivery and
rollers on a spring spindle. They readily conform pressure needs
to contoured surfaces, such as piping. The size of
2. Regulator-
the pipe determines the number of segments re- to control
quired. The threaded handle allows the use of ex- pump operation
tension poles (Figure 8). 3. Fluid Outlet
fittings for
required hoak-up
1 s 3 For long hose lines 4. Drum Lid-
for mounting pump
1. Pump Unit 5. Agitator-for
continuous agitation
2. Fluid Hose
of material
3. Fluid Header
6. Lift-
(removed from pump)
convenient, quick
4. Fluid Hose to guns change of drums
5. Air Hose from
compressor
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 23
Air Driven, Drum Mount, Airless Pump With Agitator
Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
For shorter, direct
hose lines 5. Fence Roller
Roller covers with extra long naps (11'4' ") enable
1. Pump Unit rapid painting of wire fence from one side. The
2. Fluid Hose to guns long nap surrounds the wire and coats it on both
3. Air Hose from sides at once.
compressor 6. Pressure Roller
Pressure rollers allow continuous painting by
steadily supplying paint from a pressurized tank
directly inside the roller. The roller cover is made
1 of a perforated metal core that enables paint to
For heavy and pass from inside the roller. A valve controls
filled materials pressure either on the roller handle or the tank
(Figure 9).
1. Basic Pump Unit 7. Application
Roller application requires a very different tech-
2. Flow Control Valve
nique than that required for brushing.
3. High Pressure
Fluid Hose 8. Loading by Roller
If a tray is used, fill it half full with the premixed
4. Air Supply Hose
paint. If a grid is used, place it into the can (usual-
FIGURE 22 ly 5 gals.) of paint, setting it at an angle from one
Portable and Maintenance Painting Hook-ups side of the bottom of the can to the other side of
the can at the top. Dip the roller cover into the
paint until completely wet with paint. Then roll it
up and back along the tray ramp or the grid until
the paint is completely worked in. Before starting
to paint, roll the first load out on scrap paper to
eliminate any air bubbles trapped within the roller
cover fibers.
9. Applying the Paint
Place the loaded roller against the surface to be

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*S.L 93 8b27940 O003607 327
D. PAINT MITTS
A paint mitt is ideal for painting odd-shaped objects,
such as pipes and railings, when spray painting is not
feasible. It consists of a lambskin glove with or without a
thumb. It is dipped in paint and applied to the surface
(Figures 10 and 11).
E. SPRAY APPLICATION
The fastest way to paint large structural areas is by
spray. Table 3 gives some idea of the relative efficiency
of different methods of application:
TABLE 3
TYPICAL AVERAGE AREA COATED PER DAY
Method Square Feet
Brush 650
Roller 1,200-2,600
Air Spray 2,000-6,000
Airless Spray 3,000-8,000
Spray equipment also is versatile as shown by the
variety of equipment available:
a. Air spray (conventional)
b. Airless spray - Ambient and heated
c. Heated spray - Air and airless
FIGURE 24
d. Electrostatic spray - Air and airless
Airless Spray Unit - Electric Drive
Courtesy of Binks Manufacturing Co. e. Two-component application equipment
painted and roll the paint out in the form of a V or
W. Its size depends on the square area that even-
tually will be filled in around the V or W. A 7-inch
roller, for example, will cover an area about 3 x 3
feet. Then roll out the paint to fill in the square
area. Finish with light vertical strokes in the direc-
tion which produces the smoothest finish.
It is not necessary to press hard on the roller.
In fact, doing so will cause foaming and possible
cratering by entrapping air. Moderate pressure is
all that is required. Also, do not roll too rapidly,
since doing so will cause the paint to spatter. A
moderate rate of speed is best.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 25 FIGURE 26
Airless Spray Unit - Gasoline Operated Electrostatic Airless Spray Unit -
Dolly Mount, Air Drive, Heated
Courtesy of Nordson Corporation
Courtesy of H. G. Fischer & Co.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERx5.L 93 8627740 0003b08 263 D
1. Air Spray EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

ON A TYPICAL ENAMEL AND A TYPICAL LACQUER
The original method of spray application was by
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
air atomization. A compressor supplies air under

pressure via an air hose to a spray gun that
atomizes the paint to produce a fine spray which
is projected onto the surface. Paint is usually kept
in pressurized containers. From there com-
pressed air forces the paint to the gun via a fluid
hose (Figure 12).
Air atomization of the paint can result in con-
siderable overspray. Consequently, not only must
adjacent areas and objects be covered, but also
paint losses may vary from 20% to 40% on struc-
tural steel. The painter must wear some protec-
tion to avoid breathing paint mist.
FIGURE 28
Effect of Temperature - Paint Viscosity vs Temperature
Courtesy of Nordson Corporation
2. Airless Spray
Airless spray relies on hydraulic pressure rather
than air atomization to produce the desired spray.
An air compressor, electric motor or gas engine is
used to operate a pump to produce pressures of
FIGURE 27 FIGURE 29
Extension Spray Gun Air Driven, Heated, Airless Spray Unit with Compressor
Courtesy of Nordson Corporation Courtesy of Nordson Corporation
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * S = L 9 3 6627940 0003609 L T T
1,000to 6,000 psi. Paint is delivered to the spray

gun at this pressure through a single hose. Within
the gun, a single paint stream is divided into
separate streams, which are forced through a very
small orifice resulting in atomization of paint
without the use of air. This recuits in more rapid
coverage with less overspray (Figure 16).
The following comparison (Table 4) demon-
strates the differences between conventional and
airless spray:
Airless spray usually is faster, cleaner, more
economical and easier to use than conventional
air spray. The absence of atomizing air prevents
potential contamination from oil or water in the
compressed air, or from the cooling effect of
atomization in humid atmospheres. Airless spray
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is for large areas and the airless gun has fewer ad-
HYDR&ULIC SPRAY
CONVENTIONAL AIR SPRAY COLD AIRLESS
ENERGY RMUIREO **; :NERGY REQUIRED

9.3 H P / GP.M IIHPIGPM
Mx) PARTS AIR
i.
1.1
VISCOSITY 22 @ 70' 5 9 ~ ~.
FIGURE 31
Electrostatic Spray Units - Electric Drive
HOT SPRAY HOT AIRLESS TABLE 4

CONVENTIONAL VS AIRLESS SPRAY
'NERGY REQUIRED
.32 H.P. I G.P.M.
Conventional Airless
Coverage, sq.ft/day 4-8,000 6-10,000
Overspray, YO 20 to 40 10 to 15
Portability Fair Excel lent
Direct drive units No Yes
Hoses 2 Usually 1
Masking Considerable Moderate
VISCOSITY 150 @ 70'mT * *: VISCOSITY 150 d 70" 'FS'' Penetration of corners Fair Good
25 @ 150 22 @ 170'
& voids
FIGURE 30 Thinning before spray Usual Sometimes
Comparison of Spray Methods
Courtesy of Nordson Corporation Film build per coat Lower Higher
Moisture (Compressor) Possible None
Versatility More Less
Paint clogging problems Slight Possible
Safety during cleaning Excellent Poor
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R w 5 - 1 73 = 8b279LiO 0003610 711
FIGURE 32
Wraparound Effect of Electrostatic Spray
justments than conventional spray guns. Different

spray patterns may require a change in nozzles. FIGURE 34
Two-Head Spray Gun
Because of very high pressures, paint must be Courtesy of Binks Manufacturing Co
thoroughly screened to prevent clogging of the
nozzles, and cleaning the equipment may be ex-
similar to that used i n conventional spraying
tremely hazardous unless proper precautions are
(Figure 17-23).
followed.
b. Hectric Driven Unit - The unit is self-
3. Power Sources
contained with its own explosion-proof electric
Airless spray units are available in a wide variety
motor. Sizes vary from small units weighing about
of power sources:
40 Ibs to large units, which handle two guns yet
a. Air Driven Units - The hydraulic unit i s driven
can be wheeled by one man up or down stairways
by compressed air using an air compressor (Figure 24).
c. Gas Driven Unit - The spray unit is operated by
a gasoline engine for use in the field (Figure 25).
4. Mounts
Airless spray units vary in mounting or the method
used to admit paint to be sprayed.
a. Suction Unit - The spray unit is mounted on
wheels, and paint is aspirated in a hose or pick-up
tube that sucks paint from any container, in-
cluding drums (Figures 21, 24, 28).
b. Pail-Mounted Unit -The spray unit is mounted
directly onto the paint container, e.g., a 5-gal. can
or 55-gal. drum (Figures 18, 20).
c. Dolly-Mounted Unit - The spray unit is
mounted on a wheeled dolly which also supports
the paint container. It is excellent for larger con-
tainers, e.g., 10, 20 or 30 gals (Figure 26).
d. Immersion Tube Unit - The wheeled spray unit
has a rigid tube at the bottom. The unit is tilted so
that the tube can be inserted into a 1- to 5-gal. can
of paint. Some units are modified so a unit and a
can of paint can be maneuvered together (Figure
FIGURE 33 24).
Two-Component Spray Gun Internal Mix
Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company e. Drum-Mounted Unit - Large units, which can
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
I CORRECT, I I Less overspray and bounce back from corners
9 Less solvent fumes
9 Increased thickness per coat i f solids are in-
creased
STROKE PULL TRIGGER PULL TRIGGER STROKE Faster dry
Smoother finish (No pinholes)
HOLD GUN PERPENDICULAR
TO SURFACE BEING SPRAYED \'l RIGHT
Improved paint adhesion possible except on
cold steel
Less power and air required
e --r
FIGURE 35
Correct Handling of Air Spray Gun
Courtesy of Binks Manufacturing Co.
handle up to 4 guns, are mounted on a 55-gal.

drum of paint (Figure 23).
f. Self-Contained Unit - The container is part of
the spray unit the paint must be poured into I
before use (Figure 25). INSiOE
5. Agitators U3!!!€&1
Many pail- or drum-mounted units have built-in
agitators that keep the paint uniformly mixed dur- 'I \ Il
ing the spraying (Figures 18,23). FIGURE 36
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Spraying Inside Corners
Strainers Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
Since paint cleanliness is critical in order to pre-
vent clogging of nozzles, almost all airless spray
9. Comparison of Spray Methods
units have built-in strainers.
Figure 31 demonstrates the advantages of airless
Extension Guns and heated spray.
Airless spray extension or pole guns, up to 26 ft.
10. Electrostatic Spray
long, are available to reduce the necessity of scaf-
Portable electrostatic spray units are ideal for
folding or staging. Some have swivel heads to
spraying odd-shaped metal objects like wire
enable spray coating of inaccessible areas
fence, angles, channels, cable and piping. These
(Figure 27).
units produce a very high electrostatic charge, up
Heated Spray to 60,000 volts, which causes sprayed paint to
Heating paint before spraying reduces viscosity coat all exposed conductive areas more uniform-
(Figure 28).Thinning is reduced and paint solids ly, including edges and areas opposite the object
are increased, enabling application of thicker (the wrap-around effect). Portable units use a
coats. Caution must be observed because most transformer that can operate on 115 v (Figures 31,
solvent-thinned paints are flammable. Avoid ap- 32).
plying heated paint on cold steel. Condensation The method has not yet been adapted for use
at the interface may adversely affect adhesion. on exteriors of large steel structures. It has a
a. Equipment - Spray units which preheat paint number of advantages and disadvantages vs. con-
to 12O0-2OO0Fare available. They are portable but ventional spray equipment. Advantages include
tend to be cumbersome because of the added (a) complete coverage of odd shapes; (b) lowest
preheating unit (Figure 29). paint loss of all spray methods; (c) less overspray;
b. Advantages - Heated spray units have a (d) very uniform finish. Its disadvantages include
number of advantages over unheated units: (a) vulnerable to wind; (b) equipment expensive; (c)
Faster application i f viscosity is reduced formulation critical; (d) slower operation; (e) only
Lower pressure required - under 1,OpO psi thin coats can be applied; (f) possible shock
Can spray at lower ambient temperatures but hazard; (9) expensive servicing; and (h) as yet un-
avoid cold steel suitable for LARGE steel structures.
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*5-3 93 = 8627940 0 0 0 3 6 3 2 794
*-13 Li
1”.
a. Paint Viscosity - Adjust paint viscosity only
when necessary, and follow the manufacturer’s
r-
&ofnew
I
11- MANCHESTER 15, instructions. Excessive thinning results in more

-9
II
INSTRUMENTS LTD ENOLAM , overspray, sagging, insufficient film thickness, in-
7
21,
’3 sufficient hiding and inadequate protection.
b. Air Pressure - Always use the lowest air
pressure that produces the desired finish. Ex-
cessive pressure will increase overspray. It may
FIGURE 37 be necessary to increase pressure when paint is
Wet Film Thickness Gage
Courtesy of Gardner Laboratory, Inc. viscous or the hose is longer than normal. With
conventional spray, turn off the atomizing air
valve and adjust the paint valve at the pot to
11. Two Component Spray Guns
achieve a solid stream of paint about 24 inches
These are special guns that enable the use of two-
from the gun. Gradually open the air valve to
component coatings, which have very short pot
achieve the desired finish.
Iives.
c. Spray Pattern - Conventional spray guns
enable an adjustment of the spray pattern by turn-
TH IC KN ESS
ing the air control valve. Turn i t clockwise for a
round pattern and counter clockwise for a fan pat-
tern. With airless spray guns, the pattern can be
adjusted by changing the tip or adjusting the
Adjusta-Tip.
d. Spraying Technique - To achieve desired
coverage with a uniform coating with no sag, hold
the gun at the following distance from the work:
Conventional - 6 to 8 inches
Airless - 10 to 12 inches
FIGURE 38
Holding the gun too close will cause sagging
Elcometer Dry Film Thickness Gage and irregularities in the film from spray pressure.
Courtesy of Gardner Laboratory, Inc. If it is too far away, the result will be “dusting”.
Some solvent will evaporate before paint reaches
They are either made of two guns attached or the surface creating virtually dry paint particles
a single gun with the two components mixed which cannot flow to the surface. The gun must be
together while they are sprayed. In both types, perpendicular to the surface at all times and
separate hoses are used and no mixing takes should never be tilted. Tilting will cause one side
place until the two spray streams merge just of the pattern to be closer to the surface than the
beyond the nozzle. This prevents reaction of the other side, causing non-uniform coating. Use a
two components within the equipment (Figures free-arm motion, pulling the trigger after begin-
33, 34). ning the stroke and release it just before the end
12. Spray Technique of the stroke. Move i n a straight line, parallel to
The procedure for spray painting varies slightly the surface. Stop 1 to 2 inches from the edge.
for each type of spray equipment and type of When spraying an outside corner, hold the gun
paint. The following description for conventional facing the edge of the corner, then sweep along
air spraying is essentially similar for all. the corner to cover both sides. On inside corners,
spray each side separately, sweeping along the
corner. Apply the paint to all edges prior to paint-
ing the entire surface (Figures 35, 36).
When painting a large area, start at the top
corner and spray to the end of the top area, (ex-
cept for the edge), then return, overlapping the
first area just enough to form a uniform coating.
With conventional spray this will be almost half of
the first pattern, but with airless spray it will be
slight.
FIGURE 39
Inspector Dry Film Thickness Gage When spraying horizontal surfaces, start at
Courtesy of Gardner Laboratory, Inc. one side of the near edge and spray to the other
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * S - L 73 6627740 0 0 0 3 b 1 3 b20 W
side of the near edge, then reverse direction work- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ing away from the near edge.
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
111. FILM THICKNESS chapter: Earl G. Anderson, AI Beitelman, Alex Chasan, John B.
Conomos, Lawrence Drake, Arnold J. Eickhoff, Raye A. Fraser, J.
To do the job correctly, it is necessary to apply each Roger Garland, Dan Gelfer, Tom Ginsberg, Russ Harmon, Leonard
coating at the wet film thickness recommended by the Haynie, Robert L. Hooker, R. Kramer, Jay Leanse, Joseph Mazia,
Marshall McGee, John Montle, Clint Ryno, Melvin Sandler, L. M.
paint manufacturer. A practice area is recommended. Sherman, Henry Stoner, Verne J. Todd, Ted Tomlin, William J.
Measure the film thickness as the job progresses using a Wallace, Duane T. Werkman, Virgil P. Williams, Rufus Wint, and
wet film thickness gage (Figure 37). Joseph E. Ziegeweid.
When each coat has dried, use a dry film thickness
gage to check the actual thickness of the number of coats
applied versus the required thickness. This requirement is
most important for the complete system (Figures 38 and
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
39). Also see chapter on inspection.
IV. CLEANUP
All paint application tools and equipment must be
REFERENCES
carefully cleaned. Dried paint i n the equipment will ruin it.
Remove as much paint as possible. With solvent 1. “Paints and Protective Coatings,” Army TM 5-618,Navfac
MO-110, Air Force AFM 85-3, U S . Government Printing Office,
paints, clean thoroughly with a compatible solvent. Use a Washington, D.C.
detergent solution with latex paint. Clean two or three 2. S.B. Levinson, “Painting”, Facilities and Plant Engineering
times with fresh solvent (or warm mild detergent solution), Handbook, McGraw Hill Book Co., N.Y., N.Y.
3. S.B. Levinson and S. Spindel, “Recent Developments in Ar-
then wipe clean and dry. Well cleaned tools and equipment chitectural and Maintenance Painting,” Federation of Societies
will last longer and always be in prime condition. for Paint Technology, Blue Bell, PA.
Be sure to clean brushes down to the heel, since paint 4. R.H. Reynolds, N.W. Karr, K. Buss, “PDCA Craftsman Manu-
al and Textbook,” Painting and Decorating Contractors of
tends to dry in this less visible area. This can make the America, Fairfax, VA.
bristles shorter and less flexible. After washing, twirl to 5. “All About Painting Tools,” American Brush Manufacturers
remove excess water and comb to straighten the bristles. Association, Philadelphia, PA.
6. “Equipment Selection for the Painting Contractor,” Binks
Finally, wrap in paper or place i n a brush keeper and lay Manufacturing Co., Franklin Park, 111.
flat until dry. Never allow a brush to rest on its bristles. 7. “Airless Spraying,” Binks Manufacturing Co., Franklin Park,
This can cause permanent damage. 111.
8. “The ABC’S of Spray Equipment,” The DeVilbiss Co., Toledo,
If a roller is used, clean and wash the paint tray and OH.
partially fill it with solvent (or mild detergent in water for 9. “Spray Gun Motion Study,” The DeVilbiss Co., Toledo, OH.
latex paints). Work the roller out on newspaper until most 10. “Spray Painting Guide” Thomas Industries, Sheyboygan,
Wisc.
of the paint has been removed. Then work i n the solvent (or 11. “Surface Preparation and Application Guide,” Tnemec Co.,
detergent) and roll on the tray ramp until worked in. Again Kansas City, MO.
roll out on newspaper until all the solvent is removed. 12. “Safety Precautions for Use of Airless Spray Equipment,”
Civil Engineering Laboratory, Naval Construction Battalion
Repeat twice with clean solvent or detergent. Take care to Center, Port Hueneme, CA.
discard the paper used to clean the roller because of 13. W.F. Gross, “Applications Manual for Paint and Protective
potential fire hazard. Stand roller on one end until dry. Coatings,” McGraw Hill Book CO., N.Y., N.Y.
14. C.R. Martinson and C.W. Sisler, “Industrial Painting, the
Since some roller covers are relatively inexpensive, it may Engineered Approach,” Reinhold Book Corp.
be more economical to discard them (keep the handle). 15. “Contract and Plant Force Painting, Advantages and Disad-
Using a large container, wash the paint mitt used for vantages,” Materials Protection, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp 39-42,Feb.
1968.
solvent paints in three changes of solvent or warm mild 16. “How ,to Pick a Paintbrush,” Popular Mechanics booklet.
detergent depending on the type of paint. The solvent- 17. “How to Use a Paintbrush,” Popular Mechanics booklet.
cleaned mitts should then be washed in mild detergent 18. “How to Care for a Paintbrush,” Popular Mechanics booklet.
19. “Preserving Quality Paintbrushes,” PDCA, July 1972,Paint-
solution. Rinse i n clear warm water, then hang up to dry. ing and Decorating Contractors of America, Fairfax, VA.
Place clean solvent (or detergent solution) in pots and
pass through hoses and spray guns. Be sure to remove the
tip from airless spray guns and wash separately. Never im-
merse the gun in solvent because this can ruin the pack-
ing.
Clean with three changes of solvent (or detergent).
Then dry. When cleaning after spraying water-based paint,
be sure to finish rinsing with a water miscible solvent, *Completely non-rusting spray equipment should be used with
water-base paints to prevent rusting.
such as alcohol. Otherwise, some parts of the spray equip- Try to leave the solvent in the system when possible to avoid
ment may rust. Make sure that all hoses are flushed build-up of paint in the hose.
thoroughly.’

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R + S = L 73 8627740 0003bL4 567
20. “Paint Brush Buyers Guide,” American Brush Manufacturers

Association, Philadelphia, PA.
21. E.G. Anderson, “Those Costly Paint Brushes, Caring for Your
Investment,” PDCA, Nov. 1975, Painting and Decorating
Contractors of America, Fairfax, VA.
22. “Roller, Kit, Paint,’’ Federal Specification H-R-5506, General
Services Administration, Washington, D.C.
23. Volume II, Steel Structures fainting Manual.
24. fainting and Decorating Encyclopedia, Homewood, 111.
BIOGRAPHY
For biographies of Sidney U. Levinson and Saul Spindel, see
the chapter on Paint Materials.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER+5.2 93 8627940 0003635 4T3
CHAPTER 5.2
SCAFFOLDING
by
Sidney B. Levinson and Saul Spindel
Some type of support or extension must be used when Extension Ladders

painting operations are beyond normal reach. Often these The most common type of extension ladder is
operations can be accomplished with extension poles with made of two or three straight ladders connected so
paint rollers or extension spray guns. Extension devices they can be adjusted in length from that of a single
are not feasible during surface preparation, nor are they ef- ladder to the combined length, less about 3 feet of
fective much beyond 20 feet. Consequently, some type of each that overlap. They are available up to 48 ft in
support or rigging must be used. Although they provide ac- two sections and 60 ft in three sections.
cess to otherwise unreachable areas and improve effi- Special Ladders
ciency, their use also introduces hazards that must be Ladder modifications are available to make these
recognized and prevented. ladders more useful:
a. Double Stepladder: The ladder has steps on
I. TYPES OF SUPPORTS both sides so that either side can be used.
The two major types of supports are b. Combination Step-fxtension Ladder: The same
Ground supports: Supports or supporting systems ladder may be used either as a step or extension
that rest on the ground or roadway, e.g., on a bridge. ladder. However, its height is limited to about 8
Aerial supports: Rigging supported from above or at- ft when used as a stepladder and 14 ft when
tached to the steelwork. used as an extension ladder.
A. GROUND SUPPORTS c. Trestle Ladder: A double stepladder has a
center vertical section, which can be raised to
The most common ground supports are ladders and
support a horizontal plank or trestle. The max-
scaffolding. However, portable and self-propelled systems
imum height available is about 20 ft. The use of
are available. These may be much more efficient, depend-
a trestle ladder on each side of a plank provides
ing on the job.
a stable support.
1. Ladders
Ladder Accessories
There are three types of ladders: step ladders,
The following accessories make ladders more
straight ladders and extension ladders. Ladders
useful and safe:
are made of wood, aluminum or fiberglass. Wood
ladders are sturdy but heavy and subject to rot, a. Ladder Jacks: These lightweight folding jacks
especially i f stored in damp areas. Aluminum lad- hook onto the rungs of the ladder and support
ders are lighter but electrically conductive and sub- trestles or planks.
ject to corrosion. Therefore, aluminum ladders b. Planks and Stages: Planks and stages, usually
should never be used near sources of electricity, made of aluminum to decrease weight, rest on
nor should they be stored or used in corrosive en- the jacks. They are available in size from 8 ft x
vironments. Fiberglass ladders are light, safe from 12 in. to 39 ft. x 28 in.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
electric shock and resistant to corrosion. c. Work Platform: A one-man platform can be at-
2. Step Ladders tached to rungs of the ladder enabling work in
These are made of two straight ladders hinged at comparative safety (Figure 1).
the top so they are self-standing when opened and d. Cable Hooks: These are attached to the end of
locked in place. Although higher ladders are avail- the ladder and can be hooked onto a cable or
able, no ladder higher than 12 ft, when opened, any projection on the structure to improve lad-
should be used. Stepladders are not as sturdy as der stability.
straight ladders resting against a structural sur- e. Pole Straps: The top of the ladder can be rested
face, and should be used only at relatively low against or strapped to a vertical pole, piping or
heights. beam.
3 . Straight Ladders f. Pail Shelf: A working shelf can be hooked onto
Straight ladders are available in lengths up to the ladder rungs.
about 24 feet. They are used when working at low g. Ladder Shoes: All ladders should have special
to intermediate heights. shoes attached to the legs to prevent slipping.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r 5 . 2 73 = 86277LiO 0003636 3 3 T
a. Decks: These may be made of plywood,

aluminum or expanded metal. They can be hook-
ed onto horizontal frame members to form the
work floor and add to the rigidity of the scaffold.
They are available in lengths up to 10 ft and
widths of 24 in. or more (Figure 2).
b. Outriggers: These are adjustable and attached
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to high scaffolds to increase stability by in-
creasing base dimensions.
c. Locking Casters: These make the scaffold a
portable unit, i f desired. They must be locked in
place while painting.
IO. Portable Support Systems
With some jobs it is possible to use a self-
contained ground or roadway support system. If
this can be done, the time saved can be con-
siderable. There are two major types: boom lift and
scissors lift.
Either may be self-contained and propelled up
Ladder Platform
7 . Scaffolding
Built-up or portable scaffolds are much safer than
ladders. They also make work easier and faster.
There are two major types: stationary scaffolds
and portable scaffolds or lifts.
8. Stationary Scaffolds
Scaffolds were formerly constructed of wood at the
site. New types, based on use of metal tubular con-
struction, are faster to erect, safer and more
economical since scaffold units can be used again
with no danger of splitting or waste.
Scaffolds are usually constructed of specially
designed aluminum, or high strength (electrically
welded) galvanized steel tubing, connectors and
accessories. They are easily assembled to almost
any shape and height. They can be adjusted to
create a horizontal work surface on a stairway but
can be made narrow enough to be moved through a
doorway. Ladders and stairways can also be con-
structed as part of the unit, eliminating the
necessity of using portable ladders.
9. Stationary Scaffold Accessories
The following accessories improve the usefulness
Two Stow Scaffold with Casters
and safety of these scaffolds. Courtesy of Perry Mfg. Co.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 - 2 73 m 8b27740 O003637 276 m
11. Power Source

The vehicle carrying a boom lift or scissors lift may
be operated by a variety of engines, depending on
the type of work required. Gasoline, diesel fuel,
propane or electrical units are available. Some
scissors lifts are mounted on portable trucks that
can be moved by other power sources.
12. Rigging Systems
It is often necessary or expedient to support the
work platform from above rather than below. This
is especially true when the work is too high to be
reached with ground supporting systems, e.g.,
above 80 feet. There are two major types: cable
supported units and suspended scaffolds and
st aging.
a. Cable Supported Scaffolds:These scaffolds are
suspended by one or two lifts which, in effect,
ride up or down a cable suspended from above.
The lift is operated by a worker riding the sup-
port and can be raised or lowered at will.
FIGURE 3
Hydraulic Boom Lift - Self Propelled
Courtesy of JLG Industries
to 3 mph for job-site mobility, or they may be

mounted on a truck for mobility.
a. Boom Lift: The one-or two-person boom lift,
often called a cherry picker, is very fast and ver-
satile. It is self-contained and can be driven or
towed from job to job. Units are available that
support up to 2,000 Ibs at heights up t o 85 ft,
and even greater loads at heights up to 45 ft.
They work at almost any angle horizontally, and
some work at angles well below and up to 75"
above the level of the truck.
The boom is usually lifted hydraulically, but
some are articulated in two booms to avoid
obstructions. Their major limitation is the work
area, which usually is large enough for only two
people. This is compensated for by manuevera-
bility (Figure 3).
b. Scissors L i f t : The lift is raised from the chassis
either hydraulically or electrically. The work
area is as big as 6 ft x 13 ft, larger than a boom
lift. It can be moved only vertically, limiting its
FIGURE 4
utility. Some units carry a load of up to 4,000 Ibs Scissors Lift - Self Propelled
at up to 40 ft (Figure 4).
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- Courtesy of Fulton Industries

170
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 . 2 73 m 8627740 O003638 L O 2 W
Single Point Stage: This support, also called a

work cage, which also rides on a single cable,
can be made small enough to allow only one
person to stand or even small enough to pass
through a 20 in. opening, e.g., in a tank. Addition
of sections on each side widen the cage, ena-
bling two men to work comfortably (Figures 6
and 7).
Swinging Scaffold: This is also called a power
scaffold. It is usually supported by two cables,
one at each end, and can be as large as 39 ft x
28 in. (Figures 8 and 9).
Extendible Scaffold: Some scaffolds can extend
beyond 40 ft.
Swinging Platform: The use of four cables, one
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at each corner, allows the use of large working
platforms (Figure 10).
d. Suspended Scaffolds: Suspended scaffolds are
often used beneath structures to be painted,
e.g., a bridge or overpass. Supports with flat
horizontal bars are attached to the bottom
flanges of the overhead beams. Sometimes,
wheels are attached to these supports to enable
the scaffold to be moved along the beam with-
out dismantling. The scaffold planks rest on
and are attached to the horizontal bars of the
supports (Figures 10 and 11).
II. CHOICE OF SUPPORT OR RIGGING

FIGURE 5
The choice of supports depends on a number of con-
Bosun Chair-Air Drive siderat ions:
Courtesy of Sky Climber
The construction steel to be painted, e.g., tank,
building, bridge, overpass, cables, etc.
b. Operation: Three methods of operation may be
Difficulty in getting to the work surface and moving
available:
from one area to another.
Manual: Hand manipulated ropes are used.
Electric: Either 110 or 220 volt motors are used.
Some units enable changing from one to the
other, depending on current available at the site.
Air Motor: The air may be obtained from the
compressor used for blast cleaning or spraying
(Figure 5).
Some motors enable change of speed up to
30 FPM, depending on the load. There are some
systems with no limit to the height of the cable
since the cable of these units runs through the
hoist assembly.
c. Supports: The support used depends on the cur-
vature of the surface to be painted. Three
general types are used:
Bosun’s Chair: This chair holds one person and

is used where only one person can operate. The
worker has full control of the operation but has FIGURE 6
no room for any special equipment. Equipment One Man Work Cage Under Bridge Cable
must be tied to the chair (Figure 5). Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERx5.2 93 = 8627940 0003619 049
The height of a structure above flat ground or high-
way.
The relative cost-effectiveness of the support.
Often it is more economical to use mechanical
devices instead of labor to install support systems.
However, the initial and operating cost of some
mobile equipment is very high and warranted only
when it can be used extensively.
111. SAFETY
Because support systems are dangerous, proper
precautions are of the utmost importance, especially with
mob¡le equipment. Follow equipment manufact urers’ in- FIGURE 8
struction and comply with federal, state, and local safety Swinging Scaffold
Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co.
codes. Also see safety references 1, 4, 5,6,8, and 9 at the
end of this chapter including SSPC-PA Guide 3 “Guide to
sills or underpinnings. The upright legs must be
Safety in Paint Application,” Volume 2, Steel Structures
plumb and securely braced to prevent swaying. Use
Painting Manual.
cross bracing as required by law.
4. Anchor scaffolds to the structure i f possible. If in-
A. STATIONARY SUPPORTS dependent of the structure, guy Scaffolds at in-
The following precautions apply to scaffolds: tervals no more than 25 ft horizontally and 15 ft
1. Use galvanized steel, high carbon steel or aluminum vertically. Use horizontal diagonal bracing at the
tubing of equal strength in diameters up to 2 in. bottom and every 25 ft in height.
2. Inspect all sections before use. Reject any defec- 5. Provide guard railings 42 in. high, regardless of
tive or rusty parts. height, on the full length and the ends of the scaf-
3. Place supporting members on firm, rigid, smooth fold along with mid-rails where required. They
should be made of tubular fittings, not cable or
rope.
6 . Provide access ladders to all work areas.
7. Be sure that all planking is of correct grading and
at least 18 in. wide. Make sure it is fastened in
place and will support the load with no significant
deflection. Add supports at the center of the plank,
if necessary. Test by using twice the anticipated
load.
8. Keep scaffolds as dry as possible and free of any
material or equipment that will make them slippery
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
or unsafe.
9. Do not climb on the braces.
10. When using scaffolds, never over-reach or stretch
beyond the unit’s limits. Move the unit to get to
another location.
11. Avoid operations within 10 ft of a power line,
unless it has been shut down.
12. Do not ride on movable scaffolding while the unit is
in motion.
13. Casters on movable scaffolds should be at least 6
inches in diameter and must have breaks. Lock the
casters when the scaffold is stationary.
14. Do not attempt to move the scaffold without suf-
ficient help.
B. PORTABLE SUPPORTS
The following precautions apply to boom and scissor
FIGURE 7
One Man Work Cage on Water Tank lifts:
Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co. I . Allow only authorized and trained personnel to

172
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 * 2 93 8627940 0003620 860 =
operate the equipment.
2. Never operate a malfunctioning machine.
3. Inspect the equipment completely before use.
4. Do not move the machine unless the lift is down
and locked in position and all outriggers and jacks
have been retracted.
5. Avoid tipping the machine when moving over
grades.
6. Do not operate the lift until the machine is stable
and any outriggers or jacks are fully extended until
they are in contact with the ground. Chock the
wheels.
7. Set jacks on a firm surface or use shorings on a
soft surface.
8. Be sure there are no obstructions, personnel or
equipment in the way before extending the boom or
moving equipment.
9. Never use a boom as a crane. Do not exceed the
FIGURE 10
Swinging Platform
rated capacity of the lift.

10. Never stretch or over-reach beyond the side of the
boom or scissor lift.
11. Post a lookout when reversing direction or when
the user’s view (on a boom) is obstructed.
12. Always keep your attention on the direction of
travel of a boom.
13. Maintain a distance of at least 10 ft from power
lines.
14. Do not allow personnel to go underneath a raised
lift.
15. Keep the platform deck clean and free of oil, mud
or any slippery substance.
16. Use extreme caution when entering or leaving the
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
platform. Use the gate and be sure the platform is
no more than one foot from a secure structure. Do
not walk or climb the boom or scissors to do so.
17. Do not attach any cable to the platform.
18. Do not use a ladder on the platform to reach a
higher elevation. Keep both feet on the deck.
19. Shut off all power controls before making any ad-
justments on the equipment.
20. If towing a mobile, but not self-propelled lift, keep
speed below 10 mph. Do not tow on highways.
C. RIGGING
The following precautions apply to cable-operated rig-
ging:
1. Always read instructions before use. Be sure equip-
ment is in good operating order. Stay below rated
capacity of the rig.
2. Stages, except when necessary to pass through a
FIGURE 9 manhole, should be at least 27 in. wide.
Swinging Scaffold on Bridge 3. Check cable before use. Apply twice the rated load,
Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co. lift about 1 ft above ground. Note any slippage.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERb5.2 93 m 8b27940 0003621 7 T ï m
FIGURE 11
Suspended Scaffold under Highway
4. Equipment should have free-fall safety devices as D. SUSPENDEDSCAFFOLDS
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well as manual controls, in case of power failure.
The following precautions apply to suspended scaf-
The machine should be worm-geared and powered
folds:
in both directions. It must not move when the
1. Inspect all equipment carefully before use.
power is off. In addition to the normal brake, power
2. Working surface must be at least 27 in. wide.
driven units must have an emergency brake that
3. Guard rails shall be placed on either side of the
operates automatically when normal descent
scaffold, at about 42 and 20 in. with 6 in. high toe
speed is exceeded.
boards at toe level along its entire length and either
5. Guy or brace suspended scaffolds to prevent sway-
end.
ing.
4. Wear a safety belt at all times when working on a
6. Suspended scaffolds should have a guard rail (app.
scaffold. It should be attached to a lanyard and
42 in. high), an intermediate and toe rail along the
fall-prevention device that is attached to a lifeline.
entire length on both sides and at both ends.
5. Do not over-reach the side of the guard rail.
7. Wear a safety belt at all times when using rigging.
The belt should be attached to a lanyard and fall-
prevention device attached to a lifeline. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
8. No more than two men should work on a stage or
scaffold designed for a working load of 500 Ibs, and participation of the following in the review process for this
no more than three men should work on a scaffold chapter: AI Beitelman, Richard C. Bower, Alex Chasan, Lowell
designed for a 750 Ibs working load. Hartman, Cletus Junk, Paul Knobloch, Robert C. Kramer, and
Mark Patterson.
9. Don’t over-reach or stretch beyond the rigging’s
sides.

174
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 - 2 73 = 8627740 0003622 633
Others contributing to this chapter are listed under the il-

lustrations and in the Reference section.
REFERENCES
1. “Operation and Safety Handbook”, JLG Industries Inc., Mc-
Connellsburg, PA.
2. “Paints and Protective Coatings”, Army TM5-618, NAVFAC
MO-110, Air Force AFM 85-2, Government Printing Office,
Washington. D.C.
3. S.E. Levinson and S. Spindel, “Recent Developments in Ar-
chitectural and Maintenance Paintings,” Federation of Socie-
ties for Coatings Technology, Blue Bell, PA.
4. “PDCA Craftsman Manual”, Painting and Decorating Contrac-
tors of America, Fairfax, VA.
5. “Safety Requirements for Suspended Power Scaffolds”, Scaf-
folding i3 Shoring Institute, Cleveland, OH.
6. “Scaffolding Safety Rules”, Scaffolding, Shoring and Forming
Institute, Cleveland, OH.
7. “Spider Staging”, Spider Staging Sales Co., Renton, Wash.
8. “Safety Requirementsfor Scaffolding”, American NationalStan-
dards Institute, New York, N.Y.
9. SSPC-PA Guide 3 “A Guide to Safety in Paint Application”,
SSPC Manual, Volume 2.
BIOGRAPHY
For biographies and photos of Sidney B. Levinson and Saul
Spindel, see Chapter 4.1, “Paint Materials”.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 . 3 93 m 8627940 O003623 57T W
September 1993 (Revised)
CHAPTER 5.3
SAFETY IN PAINT APPLICATION

by
Sidney B. Levinson and Saul Spindel
I. INTRODUCTION 3. Paint Removers

Paint removal compounds may contain toxic and
Every painting job exposes personnel to conditions
dermatitic solvents or highly acid or alkaline com-
and situations that represent actual or potential danger to
themselves and others in the immediate area. The prod- pounds. Some also are very flammable.
ucts and equipment used always present a potential 4. Cleaning Solvents
hazard. The nature of the environment, for example the in- Cleaning solvents may be toxic if vapors are in-
side of a tank, represents a hazard in itself, or the hazard haled, may be dermatitic if allowed to remain on
may be caused by operator carelessness or lack of infor- the skin, and may be flammable.
mation. If supervisory personnel and workers are always
aware of potential hazards, they minimize risks and im- B. PAINT APPLICATION
prove morale and efficiency. 1. Paint Materials
This chapter describes in general terms some typical Most paint solvents, many pigments and some
hazards painters are exposed to and precautions that can binders are toxic. Essentially, all solvent-thinned
be taken to minimize risks. It is not intended to provide paints also are flammable. However, most paint
specific answers to specific questions of safety that arise materials are quite safe if used with proper
on painting jobs. Detailed guidance is available from a precautions.
qualified safety engineer or industrial hygienist, and from
2. Spray Equipment
publications listed in the reference section at the end of
Paint application is carried out rapidly with
this chapter. Each SSPC specification has a section on
pressure spray equipment. Airless spray equip-
safety, and SSPC-PA Guide 3 presents a safety checklist.
ment uses pressures that can be as high as
thousands of pounds per square inch. This equip-
II. KINDS OF HAZARDS ment can be extremely hazardous if handled
Painters are subject to many kinds of accidents: elec- carelessly.
tric shock, falls, suffocation, explosion, falling objects, in- 3. Support Equipment
halation of solvent or other chemicals and fire. i n addition Ladders, scaffolding, staging, work platforms,
to accidents, hazards to health can result from using toxic lifts, bosun chairs, and other support equipment
materials. Typical examples follow. may be used to reach inaccessible areas. Im-
proper use, inadequate Set-ups, and defective
A. SURFACE PREPARATION parts may lead to serious accidents.
Equipment and materials used for surface prepara- 4. Environment
tion can be hazardous if used carelessly. Painting conditions may be more hazardous than
anticipated, especially with solvent-thinned
1. Blast Cleaning paints. Solvents can accumulate to dangerous
Without proper precautions the high pressures used levels within an enclosed area. Other hazards are
in blast cleaning can cause injuries. The extremely always present, such as support equipment and
high pressures associated with water blasting can mechanical equipment in the work area. Local
cause serious injury if not treated with respect. Abra- contaminants may also be present.
sive materials may cause harm at high or even
moderate pressures, and continuous exposure to
the dust may result in lung disease. C. DEGREE OF HAZARD
2. Steam Cleaning Risks faced in any paint job vary considerably,
The high temperatures and pressures reached depending on the job location and the materials and equip-
during steam cleaning can be very hazardous but ment required. Painting a bridge railing at street level
are quite safe if handled properly. presents a relatively minor hazard, but using an airless
spray on a scaffold suspended 100 feet in the air or prepar-
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 . 3 73 8627940 0003624 406
ing the surface inside an enclosed area may present a Administration (NIOSHIMSHA). The degree of respiratory
much more serious hazard. It is important to be aware that protection required depends upon the kind and concentra-
hazards exist. Proper precautions must be taken to reduce tion of contaminants that workers will be exposed to, as well
the possibility of an accident or over-exposure to solvent as the duration of their exposure. To choose respiratory pro-
vapors. tection appropriate for a given contaminated environment,
consult an industrial hygienist. Specifications for respirable
D. PAINTING CREW air should be taken from FEDSPEC BE-A-1034.
There is an element of risk even with well trained
workers. However, lack of training, inexperience or inade-
quate knowledge of hazards by any painter can result in a
threat, not only to himself but to other workers in the paint-
ing area. No safeguard can guarantee safety where there
is ignorance or carelessness. Thus, every worker must be
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made aware of all hazards and the proper precautions
necessary. “Short cuts” should be avoided because time
saved will very often be more than lost i f one accident oc-
curs. Safety schools are recommended.
111. SAFETY MEASURES
A. GENERAL
FIGURE 1
A continuous and enforced safety program is man- Abrasive Blasting Helmet
datory to provide protection against potential hazards. All Courtesy: SoGo-JO Safety Hood Co.
personnel must be made aware of hazards and the precau-
tions against them. Abrasive Blasting Helmet
Disregard of any safety measure increases the poten- The helmet covers the head and shoulders. Ven-
tial danger and the odds that an accident will occur or tilation is supplied by fresh air blowers so the
health will be impaired because of excessive exposure to worker is not exposed to abrasive media or dust.
an unsafe environment or situation. (See Figure 1.)
Dust Respirator
B. GENERAL HEALTH, SENSITIVITY The face mask has removable cartridges that
AND ATTITUDE remove dust only. (See Figure 2.)
All personnel should be in good health and required to Chemical Cartridge Respirator
have a periodical physical checkup. Illness increases The face mask either contains removable car-
susceptibility to health hazards. Anyone sensitive to paint tridges or is connected to containers with ac-
materials should avoid the use of cleaning solvents and tivated carbon cartridges. The cartridges absorb
paint removers and should use less irritating paints, ¡.e. solvent, chemical fumes and vapors. (See Figure
the water-based types. Anyone sensitive to heights should 3.)
not be allowed to work on elevated structures or equip- Air Fed Helmet or Respirator
ment. Careless people should not be on painting crews. This respirator is similar to but lighter than a
blasting helmet because no protection against
C. ENVIRONMENT blast media under high pressure is needed. The
The general environment and working conditions i n respirator covers the head and shoulders and
any work area should be evaluated for hazards, and safety fresh air is pressure fed. It enables personnel to
precautions should be taken before starting work. Before work in confined areas, such as tanks. (See Figure
workers enter an area, they should be protected by 4.)
whatever devices, procedures, or clothing are necessary to Air fed to the blasting helmets and air fed to
enable safe work in complete confidence. respirators must be clean, dry and free of oil or car-
bon monoxide. A separate air supply should be
D. RESPIRATORY PROTECTION used. Do not attach air respirators to the same sup-
ply of air as spray guns. Keep diesel engine exhaust
In hazardous areas workers must wear face masks or
at least 25 feet from compressor intake. Com-
helmet respirators approved by the National Institute for
pressed breathing air should comply with FEDSPEC
Occupational Safety and HealthlMine Safety and Health
BB-A-1034.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERI5.3 93 8627740 0003625 342
FIGURE 2
Dust Respirator
Courtesy: Mine Safety Appliances
E. EYE PROTECTION
Safety goggles should always be worn to reduce the
possibility of dust, fumes, or water under pressure striking
the eyes during surface preparation or paint application.
Goggles are not necessary if a helmet is used. Safety gog- FIGURE 3
gles should fit well and allow adequate peripheral vision. Safety Helmet, Chemical Cartridge Respirator
Courtesy: Mine Safety Appliances
F. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Protective clothing should be worn whenever there is IV. HEALTH HAZARDS
a chance of a hazard. Protective clothing includes:
Coveralls - including fireproof clothing; A. TOXIC MATERIALS
Safety helmets (See Figure 3); Typical toxic materials are solvent vapors or dust
Steel-toed safety shoes; from blast cleaning of spraying operations, which may
Non-skid soles when working in enclosed areas enter the body by breathing, swallowing or even absorp-
or where flammable vapors may be present; tion through the skin. Symptoms of excessive ingestion or
Acid-proof clothing when handling acid clean- absorption include irritation of the nasal membrane,
ing materials in enclosed area; headache, dizziness, rapid heart beat, loss of appetite,
Rubber gloves or plastic protection. nausea and fatigue.
Do not store protective clothing that is saturated with
i. Solvenìs
chemicals. It should be laundered or disposed of.
Most solvents are toxic to some degree, depend-
ing upon exposure. The degree of toxicity can be
G. BUDDY SYSTEM measured by the Threshold Limit Value (TLV), ex-
Never work alone i n a hazardous area. At least two pressed as parts per million (ppm) of solvent to
people should work in the same area, and one should be air, that an operator may be exposed to during an
visible to the other at all times. This enables one to help 8-hour working day with no ill effects. This varies
the other in the event of trouble. from a high of 1,000 for ethyl alcohol to a low of 50
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SSPC CHAPTER*5.3 9 3 W 8627940 0003626 289 =
B. DERMATITIC MATERIALS
Dermatitic materials affect the skin. The skin
becomes irritated and can become infected if left un-
treated.
1. Solvents
Solvents have a tendency to dissolve and remove
natural oils and fats from skin, leaving it dry,
chapped and sensitive to infection. Aliphatic
hydrocarbon solvents, such as mineral spirits, are
not as irritating as stronger aromatic hydrocar-
bons or oxygenated solvents such as toluene,
methyl ethyl ketone or especially methylene
chloride, which is used in nonflammable paint
removers.
2. Binders
Some epoxy r e s i n s , a m i n e hardeners,
polyurethanes, solvent-thinned acrylics (not latex)
and polyesters may also irritate the skin to some
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extent.
3. Other Chemicals
The following chemicals are corrosive and must
be handled with particular care.
a. Paint removers and brush cleaners containing
phenol.
b.Acid and alkaline cleaners for surface treat-
FIGURE 4 ment.
Air Fed Respirator c.The acid or catalyst component of “wash
Courtesy: E.D. Bullard Co.
primers”.
C. PREVENTION OF HEALTH HAZARDS

The following precautions should minimize hazards.
for alcohol and as lowas for ’Orne glycol
They describe a common approach to avoiding
ethers. (See chapter entitled “Paint Materials”.) If
contact,
permissible exposure limits, as determined by an in-
dustrial hygienist, are exceeded, then respiratory * Use surface preparation techniques that minimize
protection becomes necessary. dust whenever possible.
Consult the Material Safety Data Sheet provided
2. Pigments
by the manufacturer. Use the material in confor-
Some pigments are toxic. The most common con- mity with the manufacturer’s directions.
tain lead, e.g., red lead, basic lead silico * Use ventilation, where possible, to keep ex-
chromate, chrome yellow and chrome green.
posures to airborne contaminants below the TLV.
Precautions should be taken when applying or
If this not possible, use respirators and other per-
removing paints containing these pigments.
sonal protective equipment recommended on the
3. Binders MSDS.
A few binders are toxic to some degree i f ex- Prohibit eating and smoking where ingestion of
posure is excessive. Typical of these are epoxies, toxic materials is likely. Provide areas for wash-
amine hardeners, acrylics (not latex), poly- ing before meals, and for showering and chang-
urethanes and polyesters. Polyurethane paints ing at the end of the shift.
that contain certain isocyanate compounds are
strong sensitizers with very low permissible ex- D. FIRST AID
posure limits. Once a person is sensitized and has Keep a first aid kit available. It should be stocked with
an allergic he should not be subject to fresh materials. All personnel should be able to give
further exposure to these vapors. emergency first aid.
4. Additives Any worker who becomes ill or is injured on the job
%
. ?x? Paint additives, such as the organotin Or should be examined by a doctor as soon as possible,
organomercurial comPounds used to regardless of the apparent seriousness of the injury. Some
fungicidal properties, are toxic if inhaled, ab- toxic materials do not take full effect for days. Report all
sorbed through the skin, or ingested.
at 303-397-2295.
mishaps to the foreman or first aid station. OSHA material
safety data sheets should be available for all materials used.
V. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
A. SIGNS AND BARRIERS
Use signs and barriers to isolate the work area and to
warn against smoking, flames, etc.
B. MANUFACTURER’S INSTRUCTIONS
Follow the manufacturer’s specific instructions and
precautions for the handling of his product or equipment.
C. GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS
Be sure that all safety requirements, equipment and sup-
plies conform to all applicable federal, state and local regu-
lations. See Chapter 26.0 for more information on federal
health and safety regulations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: AI Beitelman, Alex Chasan, Lowell Hartman, Morris L.
Hughes, Paul Knobloch, Ben Nieters and Preston Hollister.
BIOGRAPHY
Biographical sketches and portraits of the authors appear at
the end of the chapter entitled “Paint Materials”.
REFERENCES
1. “Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA) Reference Manual”,
Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, Fairfax, VA.
2. “PDCA Craftsman Manual”, Painting and Decorating Contrac-
tors of America, Fairfax, VA.
3. “Operation and Safety Handbook”, JLG Industries, McCon-
nellsburg, PA.
4. “Safety Requirements for Suspended Power Scaffolds”.
Scaffolding, Shoring and Forming Institute, Cleveland, OH.
5. “Scaffolding Safety Rules”, Scaffolding, Shoring and Forming.
Institute, Cleveland, OH.
6. “Handbook of Organic Industrial Solvents”, Technical Guide
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No. 6, American Mutual Insurance Alliance, Chicago, IL.

7 . “TLVs - Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and
Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment”. American Con-
ference of Governmental Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 1991.
8. “Fire-Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids”, National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, MA.
9. “How to Handle Flammable Liquids Safely”, Justrite Manufac-
turing Co., Des Plaines, IL.
10. “Safety Precautions for Use of Airless Spray Equipment”, Civil
Engineering Laboratory, Naval Construction Battalion Center,
Port Hueneme, CA.
11. “A Manual for Painter Safety”, National Association of Corro-
sion Engineers, Houston, TX.
12. SSPC-PA Guide 3, “A Guide to Safety in Paint Application”
Steel Structures Painting Manual, Vol. 2, 1991.

180
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SSPC CHAPTER*b.O 93 8627940 0003628 051 m September 1993 (Revised)
CHAPTER 6
INSPECTION
bY
Kenneth B. Tator and Kenneth A. Trimber
An analysis of the reasons for premature coating that the more stringent the inspection requirements, the
failure - deterioration of a coating system resulting in longer it takes to complete the coating work. The direct
rusting, pitting, chemical attack or other deterioration - costs of inspection must be considered because the in-
in most cases leads to a finding of either improper surface spectors are specially hired, trained, and equipped with ex-
preparation or deficient coating application. While there pensive instruments in order to verify the quality of the
may be potentially many other reasons for premature work. Accordingly, inspection is often considered as an in-
failure such as poorly written specifications, choice of the surance against the possibility of a highly expensive
wrong coating or paint for a given environment, coating premature coating failure.
misinformation, or a service environment more severe than The purpose of this chapter is to outline the inspec-
originally anticipated, it is estimated that approximately tions required to assure quality coating work. In addition,
75% to 80% of all premature coating failures are caused in paint inspection equipment is described and summarized,
whole or in part by deficient surface preparation andior including advantages and disadvantages, calibration and
coating appl ¡cation. use. This chapter is presented in the chronological order of
It is said that “a painter covers his mistakes.” This is the inspection sequence beginning with pre-surface
unquestionably true. Unfortunately, after the surface has preparation inspections and continuing through final dry
been coated, it is exceedingly difficult to verify the ade- film thickness and holiday testing. Inspection of the paint
quacy of surface preparation - especially blast cleaning. itself is covered in the two separate chapters on quality
Furthermore, without the use of appropriate instrumenta- control.
tion, it is impossible to determine coating thickness or, in
many instances, even the number of coats applied.
However, during the course of application, these items - I. THE FUNCTION OF THE COATING
as well as many others that might affect the ultimate INSPECTOR
coating quality - can be readily witnessed and easily Throughout this discussion the term “inspector” shall
verified. Accordingly, formal coating inspection, following be used to indicate an individual or a group of individuals
established guidelines or procedures, is mandatory on whose job it is to witness and document the coating work
many large projects (such as nuclear power plants) and is in a formal fashion. While informal inspection may be done
often a requirement on smaller, critical applications such by the painter, the painter’s foremen, or other persons
as tank lining coating work. Where the consequence of directly involved with the coating work, this type of inspec-
failure is expensive, the coated steel is inaccessible after tion shall not be considered in the course of this discus-
erection or the magnitude of painting great, formal inspec- sion.
tion can often be justified. The inspector’s purpose is to ensure that the re-
It must be recognized that any inspection, even the quirements of the coating specification are met. His func-
most casual kind, is an expense. Even during the perform- tion is analogous t o that of a policeman: he enforces the
ance of the work, fundamental inspection requires time. In- rules (specification) without exception even if he deems
spection, in its simplest form, occurs when a painter stops them to be inadequate. The authorization to deviate from
after a certain portion of his work is completed and ex- the specification is the responsibility of the “judge,”
amines it for adequacy. Has he missed any areas? Are usually the specification writer, contract administrator, or
there any runs or sags? Is the blast cleaning pattern engineer in charge of the job. The inspector certainly may
uniform and the cleanliness adequate - or in the case of venture his opinion and give recommendations to the
hand or power tool cleaning, are there any loose mill scale engineer, but cannot unilaterally deviate from the
or rust deposits remaining? Formal inspection is more specifications at the working level.
costly. Inspection procedures must be written, and the Besides specification enforcement, a thorough
quality of work witnessed and documented on a periodic coatings inspector provides a job documentation in-
(often daily) basis. The inspector must have access to the cluding a commentary on the type and adequacy of equip-
work area, and be allowed sufficient time to complete his ment at the jobsite, the rate of work progression, informa-
inspection work. Often this must be done at the expense of tion regarding ambient conditions and controls, and
continuing coating operations - and although other tasks verification that the surface preparation, coating applica-
can be done during the inspection period, the net result is tion, coating thickness and curing are as required. This is
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at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTERUb.0 9 3 ab27940 0003b29 T98
supplemented with any other information he deems of con-

sequence to the quality and progress of the work.
The amount and type of inspection will vary according
to the size of the project and the type of application con-
tract. There are a number of types of contracts, but for
simplicity two general categories, “fixed price” and “cost-
plus” will be addressed.
Inspection under a “fixed price” application contract
may be oriented t o ensure that the contractor does not
“cut corners” in order to hurry the job. While an evaluation
FIGURE 2
of the equipment, work procedures, and sequence, etc. is
important, the equipment and methods by which the con-
ELECTRIC PSYCHROMETER -
utilizes a fan to draw air across
thermometer bulbs, providing the wet and dry bulb temperature
tractor accomplishes the job are essentially at his discre- readings.
tion, provided the requirements of the specifications are
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met. When performing inspection services for a “cost- the work at various inspection points. The following points
plus” application contract, a knowledgeable inspector will be reviewed along with the appropriate instruments
must be able to evaluate the contractor’s equipment for used for each.
adequacy and must be able to assess whether the rate of I . Pre-Surface Preparation Inspection
progress is reasonable.
2. Measurement of Ambient Conditions
II. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 3. Evaluation of Compressor (Air Cleanliness} and
Surface Preparation Equipment
Safety is paramount on any job. Coating inspectors
should be aware of basic safety requirements. Although 4. Determination of Surface Preparation Cleanliness
the inspector is not expected to be proficient in all safety and Profile
codes and regulations, common sense should certainly 5. Inspection of Application Equipment
prevail. If lighting, scaffolding, or equipment malfunctions 6. Witnessing Coating Mixing
present safety hazards, the appropriate safety personnel 7. Inspecting Coating Application
should be notified. Paint application inherently presents
8. Determination of Wet Film Thickness
some dangers because the solvents used are flammable
9. Determination of Dry Film Thickness
anù because many objects to be painted are relatively high
or inaccessible. To paint these areas requires elaborate 10. Evaluating Cleanliness Between Coats
staging or the use of spiders or swing scaffolding for ac- 11. Pinhole and Holiday Testing
cessibility. The knowledgeable inspector will assure 12. Adhesion Testing
himself of the safety of these appurtenances before he 13. Evaluating Cure
becomes involved. Other safety concerns are addressed
more specifically in SSPC-PA 3, “A Guide to Safety in Paint IV. PREWRFACE PREPARATION
Application” and the chapter on Safety in this volume. INSPECTION
111. INSPECTION SEQUENCE Prior to the commencement of surface preparation or
other coating activities, it may be necessary t o inspect t o
Inspection often begins with a pre-job conference at
determine if the work is ready to be prepared and painted.
which the ground rules are set. The inspector is responsi.
Heavy deposits of grease, soil, dust, dirt, cement splatter
ble for witnessing, verifying, inspecting, and documenting
and other contaminants must be removed. Removal of
such large oil and grease deposits prior to blast cleaning
assures that they are not redeposited onto freshly cleaned
surfaces. This removal is accomplished by following the
steps outlined in SSPC-SP 1, “Solvent Cleaning”. This is
particularly important when abrasive recycling, blast
cleaning methods are used so that the abrasive itself does
not become contaminated. Such contamination would be
deposited onto any steel subsequently cleaned with the
same abrasive.
The specification may require that weld splatter be
ground or otherwise removed and that sharp edges be
FIGURE 1 rounded. Laminations in plate steel, i f detected prior to
-
SLING PSYCHROMETER used for measuring wet and dry bulb blast cleaning, should be opened. If deep enough, they
temperatures in order to establish relative humidity and dew
point. The instrument is spun in the air to reach temperature
may require weld filling, and, if sufficient deterioration
stabilization. has occurred to the structure, replacement of some

182
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S S P C CHAPTER*b.O 9 3 W 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0003b30 7 0 T
V. MEASUREMENT OF AMBIENT
CONDITIONS
While this is not specifically an inspection hold-point,
it is implicit that surface preparation and coating work be
done only under suitable ambient conditions of
temperature, humidity, and dew point. For most catalyzed
coatings, specific minimum temperatures must be met.
Many zinc-rich coatings require certain minimum
humidities as well. The inspector should be cognizant of
weather forecasts, particularly if coating work is to be
done outdoors.
Other ambient conditions that might affect painting
operations should be noted such as potential industrial or
chemical airborne contamination, water spray downwind
from a cooling tower, leaking steam or chemical lines, and
contamination from normal plant or adjacent operations.
Often, a heater or dehumidifier is used to control am-
bient conditions for painting operations. Ideally, a heater
should be indirect fired so it does not contaminate the sur-
face with products of combustion. Ventilation, if required,
should provide for sufficient air flow and adequate ventila-
tion of all areas where work is being performed. Most
solvents are heavier than air; thus, the dangers of explo-
sion and flammability are greatest in low-lying areas. Con-
trol of airborne contaminants such as dust and abrasive
must also be effective in order to prevent contamination.
FIGURE 3 While much of the above is inspected visually with the
DIGITAL HYGRO-THERMOMETER - gives instant readout of
air temperature, relative humidity and dewpoint. acceptance criteria governed by safety requirements and
common sense, the ambient conditions of air temperature,
structural members, “fish plating” or other repair may be relative humidity, and dew point are determined using in-
necessary. Responsibility for such repair should be strumentation. This includes psychrometers (Figures 1, 2,
specified in procurement documents but is not ordinarily and 3) or instruments that give direct read-out recording of
considered to be part of the coating contract. humidity (Figure 4) or dew point. Measurements with these
As a prelude to most painting operations, taping, instruments are taken before the work begins each day
masking and protection of adjoining surfaces not to be and periodically throughout the day. A suggested
painted must be accomplished. minimum frequency is every four hours, or sooner i f
NACE’S Visual Comparator for Surface Finishing of weather conditions appear to be worsening.
Welds Prior to Coating, referenced by NACE RP O1 78, may The psychrometer consists of two identical tube ther-
be used for inspection. mometers, one of which is covered with a wick or sock that
If the work involves maintenance painting, a deter-
mination of the percentage of rusting in an area will be
helpful. It should be made in accordance with SSPC-Vis 2
“Standard Methods of Evaluating Degree of Rusting on
Painted Steel Surfaces”. In addition, the coating type
should be ascertained in order to assure compatibility with
subsequently applied coats. Although there is no quick
“fool proof” field method for determining the type of
coating present on a structure, a chemical test series refer-
enced by ASTM test method D 5043, based on work done
by the U S . Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, is available
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
for general field studies. Alternately, and perhaps best, is a

test patch application of the new coating over the old, two
weeks or more in advance of production painting. The test
patch is then examined for adhesion, signs of wrinkling, lift-
ing, or other evidence of incompatibility. A more conclusive FIGURE 4
approach is to send coating samples to laboratoriesfor quick, RECORDING HYGROMETER - relative humidity and air
temperature are recorded on strip charts to provide permanent
inexpensive determination of generic type (by infrared spec- daily or weekly records.
troscopic analysis).
183
at 303-397-2295.
stabilizes. Stabilization occurs when three consecutive
readings of the wet bulb remain the same. At this time both
the dry and wet bulb temperatures are recorded.
When using the fan-operated psychrometer, the wet
bulb sock is saturated with water and the fan is started.
Approximately two minutes are required for stabilization,
and one need only observe the wet bulb thermometer and
record both temperatures when the wet bulb temperature
remains unchanged.
FIGURE 5A FIGURE 5B
U.S. WEATHER BUREAU TABLES - a book of tables for convert-
ing dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures to relative humidity and
dew point.
is saturated with water. The covered thermometer is called

the "wet bulb" and the other is the "dry bulb". The dry bulb
gives the ambient air temperature while the wet bulb
temperature results from the latent heat loss of water
evaporation from the wetted sock. The faster the rate of
water evaporation, the lower the humidity and dew point. FIGURE 7
There are generally two types of psychrometers: the DIGITAL THERMOMETER -
sling psychrometer, shown in Figure 1, and the fan or for direct readout of surface
tempera ture.
motor-driven psychrometer, shown in Figure 2.
When using the sling psychrometer, the wet bulb sock When the instruments are used in air temperatures
is saturated with water, the instrument whirled rapidly for less than 32 degrees Fahrenheit, the accuracy of the
approximately 20 seconds, and a reading of the wet bulb readings is questionable. The wet bulb thermometer will
quickly taken. The cycle is repeated (spinninglreading drop below the 32 degrees Fahrenheit temperature to a
without additional wetting) until the wet bulb temperature certain point (e.g. 27 degrees Fahrenheit) then "heat up"
rapidly to the 32 degrees Fahrenheit freezing point. Quite
often when using a sling psychrometer, this will take place
during the whirling of the instrument; therefore, a wet bulb
temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit may always be ob-
tained. When using the motor-driven psychrometer, one
can observe the wet bulb temperature drop below freezing,
then rise rapidly to 32°F. However, the low value may still
be incorrect. Thus i f the temperature is below 32"F, the
ambient conditions will have to be established by other
means. This could be accomplished by obtaining the
humidity on a direct read-out instrument using
sophisticated equipment or even inexpensive humidity in-
dicators available for home use. The ambient temperature
will still be obtained using a standard thermometer. These
two values can then be used to determine the wet bulb and
dew point temperatures by plotting out this information
"in reverse" on the charts or tables described below.
After the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are
determined, a psychrometric chart or table is used to
determine the relative humidity and dew point
temperatures of the air. Charts require plotting the dry
bulb and wet bulb temperatures on different lines and in-
terpolating the relative humidity and dew point from their
FIGURE 6
SURFACE TEMPERATURE THERMOMETER - for establishing intersection.
temperatures of substrates during blast cleaning and painting. The US. Department of Commerce Weather Bureau
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

184
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * b - O 93 8627940 0003632 582
Psychrometric Tables (Figure 5) consist of individual

tables for relative humidity and dew point. To use the
table, the wet bulb temperature is subtracted from the dry
bulb temperature and the difference found along the top
row of the table. The dry bulb temperature is found down
the left column and the intersection of the two is either the
humidity or the dew point, depending upon which table is
used. Other tables, such as the U.S. Department of Com-
merce, NOAA-WSTA B-0-6E (5-72), “Relative Humidity and
Dew Point Tables”, include the relative humidity and dew
point on the same table. FIGURE 9
SSPC VISUAL STAN-
DARDS - Photographic
reference standards for
abrasive blast cleaned
steel. Color print standards
illustrate four degrees of
blast cleaning (SP7, SP6,
SP10, SP5) over four rust
grades of steel.
readout. Only a few seconds are required for a temperature

readi ng to s t a bi Iize.
With any of the instruments used for determining am-
FIGURE 8 bient conditions and surface temperatures, the readings
Nozzle Orifice Gage (right) should be taken at the actual locations of the work. For
measures nozzle orifice
and indicates CFM of air re- general readings, however, one should consider the cold-
quired for the size. est point on the structure because a surface
Hypodermic Needle Pres- temperatureldew point relationship problem will occur
sure Gage (left) measures
air pressure at nozzle by in-
there first. Air and surface temperature considerations are
serting needle through also important to ensure that coatings are not applied out-
sandblast hose. side of their temperature limitations - in areas too cool or
too warm. Accordingly, readings for this purpose should
Dew Point is defined as the temperature at which be made at the coolest or warmest areas.
moisture will condense. Dew point is important in coating
Typical requirements for ambient painting conditions
work because moisture condensation on the surface will are given in SSPC-PA 1.
cause freshly blast cleaned steel to rust, or a thin, often in-
visible film of moisture trapped between coats may cause
premature coating failure. Accordingly, the industry has
established an arbitrary dew pointlsurface temperature
safety factor. Final blast cleaning and coating application
should not take place unless the surface temperature is at
least five degrees Fahrenheit higher than the dew point.
Although, theoretically, a surface temperature just in-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
finitesimally above the dew point will not permit moisture
condensation, the safety factor of five degrees Fahrenheit
has been established to allow for possible instrument in-
accuracies or different locations where readings are
taken.
Different field instruments are used for determining
surface temperature. One of the most common is a surface
temperature thermometer (Figure 6), which consists of a
bimetallic sensing element that is shielded from drafts.
The instrument includes two magnets on the sensing side
for attachment to ferrous substrates. Two or three minutes
are required for temperature stabilization of this instru-
ment. Other field instruments for determining surface FIGURE 10
temperature are direct reading thermocouplelthermisters SURFACE PROFILE COMPARATOR - consists of a lighted
(Figure 7). These instruments have a sensing probe magnifier and reference disc (shown) for visually comparing the
anchor pattern of blast cleaned steel. Reference discs are avail-
touched to the surface, resulting in a direct temperature able for sand, grit, or shot abrasives.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*b.O 93 8627940 0003633 419
ment - the compressor should be appropriately sized and

have a suitable volume to maintain the required air
pressures. Equipment suppliers have charts and data
available which are excellent aids for determining required
sizes of compressors, air and abrasive lines, nozzles, and
so forth.
FIGURE 11
Keane-Tator Comparator in use to measure surface profile.
Courtesy: KTA-Tator
VI. EVALUATION OF SURFACE PREPARATION

EQUIPMENT
The air compressor and other equipment used for
blastcleaning and any hand or power tools should be in-
spected. The inspector need not have an extensive
technical background on the equipment, but should be
familiar enough with i t to determine its suitability. A brief
summary is provided below, but more detailed information
is available in the chapters on Surface Preparation in this FIGURE 13
volume and in the Commentary on Surface Preparation in DIAL SURFACE PROFILE GAGE a depth micrometer that -
Volume 2. measures the depth oí valleys on the steel surface after blast
cleaning.
Courtesy: Elcometer, Inc.
The compressed air used for blast cleaning, blow-

down, and spray application should be checked for con-
taminants. Adequate moisture and oil traps should be
used on all lines to assure that the air is sufficiently dry
and oil-free so it does not interfere with the quality of the
work. A simple test for determining air cleanliness re-
quires holding a clean white piece of blotter paper approx-
imately 18 inches from the air supply downstream of
moisture and oil separators. The air is permitted to blow on
the blotter paper for a few minutes followed by an inspec-
tion for signs of detrimental amounts of moisture or oil
contamination on the blotter. Obviously, i f there is no
discoloration on the blotter, the quality of the air is ex-
cellent, while streams of moisture and oil running down
the sheet indicate unsatisfactory air.
Unfortunately, the point where good air becomes bad
is difficult to determine. However, by use of the blotter
paper (or a clean cloth, handkerchief, or paper), one can
make his own judgments as to the air quality. A thorough
FIGURE 12
TESTEX PRESS.O-FILM TAPE -
used to make a precise reverse
replica of the surface profile, which is measured with a spring
inspection of the surface after blast cleaning for signs of
moisture or oil contamination should be made and these
micrometer. results correlated with the results of the blotter test. In ad-
dition, the proper functioning of in-line moisture and oil
A. AIR COMPRESSOR A N D AIR CLEANLINESS traps can be evaluated on a comparative basis from the
When an air compressor is used - for blast cleaning, results of the blotter test. For work requiring that absolute-
power tool cleaning, or the operation of spraying equip- ly no moisture or oil be permitted in the compressed air;
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

186
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*b.O 93 = 8627940 0003634 355
C. ABRASIVE
There is a great variety of abrasives available for blast
cleaning. The size, type, and hardness of the abrasive have
a significant impact on the surface profile and speed of
cleaning. Steel shot and grit, because they can be recy-
cled, are most commonly used for rotary wheel blast clean-
ing. Where permitted by law, sand is a very common
abrasive for most field operations. Various slag abrasives,
due to lesser hazards from silica, are also widely used, par-
ticularly in tanks, ship holds and other relatively confined
areas. Sand and slag are disposable abrasives and should
not be recycled, whereas most metallic abrasives, such as
iron and steel shot and grit, aluminum oxide, and expen-
sive abrasives such as glass beads can be recycled if
fines, paint, rust and mill scale can be adequately
separated from the abrasive stream. Metallic and non-
metallic abrasives are reviewed in detail in other chapters
of this volume.
It is most important that all abrasives be clean and
free of moisture. Abrasives should be stored off the
ground, protected from moisture and the elements. Only
sand or slag that has been washed at the manufacturing
and packaging plant should be used. The washing should
be done using fresh water only; if brackish water is used,
FIGURE 14 chloride contamination of the cleaned surface can result,
ZAHN CUP - for measuring the viscosity of coatings prior to ap- with subsequent rust bloom in humid environments.
plication.
Although there is no inspection apparatus for deter-
mining the cleanliness of the abrasive used, a visual
oil-less compressors and sophisticated air drying equip- inspection must be made to assure that it is not damp or
ment are available. contaminated. When abrasive recycling systems are used,
a simple test for the presence of oil or grease contamina-
B. BLAST CLEANING MACHINE tion should be made. Drop some of the abrasive (e.g. a tea-
spoon full) into a small vial of water (pill bottle size) and
The blast cleaning machine mixes the abrasive with
shake vigorously. Inspect the top of the water for a film of
the air stream. The abrasive metering valve regulating the
grease or oil which will be present if the abrasive is con-
flow of abrasive into the air stream is perhaps one of the
taminated. Dirt and dust in the abrasive can be assessed
most overlooked but important considerations affecting
in the same manner. Small abrasive “fines” will be held by
the work rate. Generally, too much abrasive is injected into
surface tension at the meniscus, and a dirty abrasive will
the air stream, resulting in both decreased production and
color the water or cause turbidity. However, water-soluble
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
increased abrasive costs. The machine should be

contaminants such as salt will not be detected using this
equipped for “dead man” capability so that it can be shut
test. If water-soluble contaminants are present, a litmus
down from the nozzle in the event the nozzle is dropped. It
paper test of the water in the vial will tell i f they are acid or
should also be equipped with moisture and oil separators,
alkaline. If neutral, add a drop of 5% silver nitrate solution
or external separators should be provided. Since the tank
to the water. The formation of a white precipitate will in-
of the blast cleaning machine is a pressure vessel, it
dicate the presence of chlorides. Alternatively, allow the
should be constructed according to pressure vessel codes.
water to evaporate and look for salt crystals.
D. FORCED AIR AND ABRASIVE HOSES

Sharp constrictions or bends in these lines should be
eliminated, and they should be kept as short as possible to
avoid friction and loss of pressure. For the same reason,
internal couplings should be avoided. For safety purposes,
the couplings should be wired together to assure secure
closure, and the blast hoses should be equipped with
FIGURE 15 static wire grounding.
WET FILM THICKNESS GAGE measures coating thickness -
during application by progressively deeper steps marked in mils.
187
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERxb.0 93 8b27940 0003635 291
E. BLAST CLEANING NOZZLES AND

NOZZLE PRESSURE
A great variety of nozzle sizes, types, and lengths are
available for cleaning purposes. The specific nozzle
chosen will depend upon the specific cleaning job. Venturi
type nozzles provide a higher abrasive velocity than
straight barrel types of the same orifice size. In general,
the longer the barrel, the larger the orifice and the faster
the cleaning rate. Cracked nozzles and worn nozzles, even
i f not cracked, will reduce the rate of blast cleaning. As a
rule of thumb, a nozzle that has been worn beyond 25% of
its original inner diameter (I.D.) should not be used. A noz-
zle orifice gage (Figure 8) is available from equipment sup-
pliers for determining the orifice size after use. The
number etched on the nozzle housing indicates the size
when new. Nozzles are designated in sixteenths of an inch.
Therefore a Number 8 nozzle is equivalent to '12 inch.
The amount of air pressure at the blast nozzle is a
FIGURE 16 determining factor in cleaning rate production. The op-
INTERCHEMICAL WET FILM THICKNESS GAGE timum nozzle pressure is 90 to 100 psig. The blasting air
pressure should be determined at the nozzle rather than at
the gage on the compressor because there will be pressure
drops in the system due to hose length, bends, restric-
tions, blast pot, and moisture traps. Air pressure at the
blast nozzle can be determined using a hypodermic needle
air pressure gage (Figure 8). The needle of the gage is in-
serted through the blast hose as close to the nozzle as is
practical. The direction of needle placement should be
toward the nozzle. Pressure readings are taken with the
nozzle in operation (abrasive flowing). At the same time, all
other pneumatic equipment using the same compressor
system must be in operation.
FIGURE 17 F. ROTARY WHEEL BLAST CLEANING

MIKROTEST MAGNETIC PULL-OFF DRY FILM THICKNESS EQUIPMENT
-
GAGE non-destructively measures the thickness of coatings
applied to ferrous substrates. Many fabricating shops and painting sites are
equipped with rotary wheel blastcleaning equipment in
order to effectively prepare a surface for painting. The
number of wheels directly affects the area that can be
cleaned, and the type of structural shapes that can be
cleaned. Adjustments can be made to direct the blast pat-
tern from each wheel to the desired location in order to
provide a uniform cleaning pattern. The rate of speed
through the machine determines the degree of cleaning;
the slower the material goes through the machine, the
FIGURE 18
ELCOMETER 21 1 THICKNESS GAGE -
operates on the same
principle as the Mikrotest for non-destructive coating thickness FIGURE 19
measurements. ELEKTRO-PHYSIK PENTEST (Top) and ELCOMETER (bottom)
PENCIL PULL-OFF GAGES.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERWb-O 93 8627940 0003636 128
the abrasive used, the pattern and degree of prior rusting

and numerous other factors unique to each project. As a
result, jobsite standards are often developed to reach agree-
ment. Sections of the structure (or test panels of a similar
nature) are prepared and all parties involved ultimately select
one of the panels or areas that is representativeof the desired
end result. A complete listing of available standards is
provided in the Commentary on Surface Preparation included
in Volume 2.
FIGURE 20 COUNTERWEIGHT
greater the degree of cleaning. Details are given in the

POSIPEN PENCIL PULL-OFF GAGE
REFERENCEMARK
\
chapter on centrifugal blast cleaning in this volume.
Complex structural shapes are particularly hard to
clean using automated equipment. The interior of box
girders, enclosed shapes, and shielded members can not
be cleaned, unless cleaning is done prior to fabrication. In
many instances, fabricators will employ handheld blast
cleaning equipment in tandem with the automated equip-
ment to reach the inaccessible areas.
G. OTHER METHODS OF SURFACE

PREPARATION
Methods such as vacuum blast cleaning, water
blasting with or without sand injection, wet blast cleaning,
hand and power tool cleaning will not be discussed here.
FIGURE 21
VII. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PREPARATION CLEANLINESS AND PROFILE

A. CLEANLINESS When a certain surface preparation method is
specified, the intent is that it be employed over 100% of
All surfaces should be inspected after surface
the area, not just the readily accessible areas.
preparation to assure compliance with the specification.
Cleanliness after surface preparation is also very im-
The SSPC Surface Preparation Specifications describe the
portant. Residual traces of abrasive must be blown, swept,
appearance of various types of surface preparation
or vacuumed from the surface prior to prime coating. It is
methods, percentage of the surface area to be cleaned,
also important to ensure that dust is removed from the sur-
type of residues permitted to remain on the surface, and so
face prior to painting, particularly the “fine film” of dust-
forth. It is important that this inspection be timely, in order
like spent abrasive often held to the blast-cleaned surface
to avoid any rusting of cleaned surfaces prior to priming.
by static electricity. Any scaffolding, staging or support
The written definitions are supplemented by SSPC- steel above the area to be coated must be blown down and
Vis-1-89, which photographically depict the surface appear- cleaned to prevent abrasive dropping onto the freshly
ance of various grades of blast cleaning over four initial mill cleaned surface, or later contaminating the freshly primed
scale and rust conditions of steel (Figure 9). The standards surface. Concurrent blast cleaning and painting should
are visually compared with the prepared surface to determine not be permitted unless the blast cleaning is adequately
the degree of cleanliness. Other visual standards for surface isolated to prevent contamination of the freshly painted
cleanliness evaluation include the NACE coupons, and the surf ace.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Stan- The surface profile should also be measured or
dards. Agreement on the desired appearance of a cleaned estimated. Note that the profile or roughness of a blast-
surface using commercially available standards is often diffi- cleaned substrate is different than, but closely related to,
cult to achieve because of shadows and hues caused by surface cleanliness.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC c I A P T E R x b . 0 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 b 3 7 Ob4 D
B. NSPECTING SUF FACES FOR SALT

cor TAM I NAT1ON
An inspection of the surface may be required to
determine if it is chemically clean, free of salt contamination.
1. Evaluating the Surface
Two approaches are described. First, a review of
existing conditions prior to or immediately after sur-
face preparation can identify areas where contami-
nation may be present. Second, one of several
methods could be used to sample the surface after
surface preparation so that the extent of salt con-
tamination can be estimated.
a. Review of Conditions - Existing conditions before
surface preparation that would lead an inspector to FIGURE 22
suspect that salt contamination is present include: The swabbing method for obtaining samples to determine the
extent of salt Contamination.
heavy rusting and pitting at locations where the coat-
ing film has broken down; heavy blistering of a lin-
ing, abuse of the structure by chemicals or salts, surface can also be cleaned by scraping or
e.g., splash or spillage of chemicals and salts in an chipping off heavily rusted scale and cleaning
industrial plant. The use of deicing salt on a bridge with abrasive embedded discs.
is also likely to lead to salt contamination. Identify- Surgical grade cotton swabs moistened
ing areas of concern before surface preparation can with deionized water are used to remove salts
help limit the need for subsequent sampling of the from a known area of the structure. The method
surface to those locations believed to be con- requires that the operator wear surgical latex
tam inated . rubber gloves to prevent cross contamination
A common indicator of salt contamination of the surface or the retrieved sample by salts
which occurs after the surface is prepared is rapid naturally present on the surface of the skin.
rerusting in the absence of condensing-moisture. As an alternative to swabbing, a washing
Most often such flash rusting will be associated with technique may be used. This method typically
pitted or previously rusted areas on the structure. involves rinsing a prepared area of steel of
In some cases, the rerusting is more uniformly dis- known dimensions with deionized water until
tributed. This may indicate that the use of abrasives no further increase in the run-off water is not-
or the surface preparation process itself has imparted. All run-off water is collected and analyzed.
ed chemical contamination to a surface. A simple
water extraction test, ASTM D 4940, can be used
to help determine if an abrasive is contaminated.
b. Sampling Techniques - Several techniques are
available to acquire samples for analysis in order
to determine if an abraded surface is chemically
clean. All depend upon a surface extraction of solu-
ble salts. In almost all instances a pure deionized
water supply is used to extract the salts from the
steel surface. Salt retrieval methods used to deter-
mine surface concentrations of salt on ferrous
metals fall into three general classes:
Swabbing or washing methods;
Cell retrieval methods; and,
“Total” Extraction Methods. FIGURE 23
The first two methods can be used in both Using a magnetically attached limpet cell to obtain a sample.
laboratory and field settings, while “total” extrac-
tion methods, such as the use of boiling deionized 2) Figure 23 shows an extraction using a “lim-
water to extract salts from a steel sample, are gener- pet cell”. The cell itself is constructed of
ally only useful when performed in the laboratory machined plexiglas plastic plate and includes
and will not be discussed further. a conductivity meter to permit immediate read-
1) Figure 22 shows the swabbing method. An ing of fluid conductivity and a syringe to pump
area of corroded steel has been marked off af- fluid into and out of cell. The cell shown ad-
ter abrasive blast cleaning of the surface. The heres magnetically to the structure.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*h.û 93 = 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003638 TTO
teristics of each method and the conversion of

retrieved salt levels to actual surface concentration
est i mates.
Based on retrieval studies conducted in the
SSPC laboratories the following performance
characteristics are suggested for each extraction
met hod:
a. Swabbing Method - Between 15 to 35% of all sur-
face salts extracted;
b. Rigid Limpet Cell Method - Between 45 to 60%
of all surface salts extracted;
c. Bresle Method - Between 45 to 60% of all sur-
face salts extracted.
The interpretation of the results of analysis is
the subject of much debate among coating profes-
sionals.
Actual target levels depend upon the type of
FIGURE 24 coating to be used, the service environment of the
Bresle cells can also be used for sampling. structure and other engineering factors, for exam-
ple, the presence or absence of cathodic protection.
Target levels should be set forth in the contract
The cell surface area is known and a set
documents or governing specifications. A draft tech-
volume of deionized water is flushed in and out
nical update covering salt recovery and identifica-
of the cell space to wash the salts from the steel
tion methods is being developed by SSPC and other
surface. After a short period of time, normally
levels of chemical cleanliness are being defined in
about one to two minutes, the water is with-
SSPC-NACE Joint Task Groups. The I S 0 has also
drawn from the cell and stored for further
been developing standards for assessing and quan-
analysis.
tifying surface cleanliness.
Samples may also be collected using a
Bresle cell. a small adhesive oatch which ex-
pands when filled with sample liquid. Figure 24
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
shows a Bresle cell. Distilled water is injected
into the cell with a hypodermic needle. The
liquid is then retrieved from the patch and test-
ed. There are no published reports yet on the
effectiveness of the cell. The cell can hold only
about 5 ml of sample, less than can be obtained
with some other methods.
2. Analyzing the Samples
Water samples from either swabbing or cell extrac-
tions can be analyzed in one of two general ways.
The samples can be assayed for conductivity, us-
ing a simple cell arrangement or an analysis to iden-
tify the presence of individual ions can be
FIGURE 25
performed. Specific ‘Ons Of greatest interest are Inside of Mikrotest Gage with components corresponding with
chloride, sulfate or ferrous. Commercial test kits are those in Figure 21.
available for full extraction and analysis of these Courtesy: GilbertlCommonwealth
species. For more information on these tests, see c. PROFILE
the bibliography at the end of this chapter for arti-
cles on this subject published in the Journal of Pro- The profile anchor pattern or roughness is defined as
the maximum average peak to valley depth (or height)
tective Coatings and Linings.
càused by the impact of the abrasive onto the substrate. A
White Metal Blast can have a 1, 2, 3,.or 4 mil profile;
3. Interpreting the Results
likewise, a Commercial Blast can have a 1, 2, 3, or 4 mil
None of the methods described will retrieve all the
profile. Specifying a certain blast cleanliness says nothing
salt present on a contaminated surface. The propor-
of the profile requirement. It must be addressed separate-
tion retrieved varies from method to method. Fac-
tors that affect the amount of salt retrieved include ’”, _ _
the method of retrieval, the performance charac-
191
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*h.O 93 W 8627940 O003639 937
Surface profile is important because it increases the year that the master disc was formed is only significant i f
surface area to which the coatings can adhere, and pro- it were to be replaced at a later date.
vides a mechanical anchor, resulting in good adhesion. As The Clemtex Coupons are another type of profile
a general rule, thick coatings require a deeper surface pro- reference standard similar to the comparator discs. They
file than thin coatings. are stainless steel coupons individually blast cleaned and
Profile determinations are generally made in the field measured for profile depth. IS0 also provides a visual pro-
or shop using one of three instruments: a surface profile file comparator.
comparator, a depth micrometer, or a replica tape. Another field instrument useful for determining
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Magnetic measurements of surface profile have been at- average profile depths is a depth micrometer (Figure 13).
tempted with little success. More sophisticated laboratory The depth micrometer consists of a conical pin which pro-
methods include a profilometer and a depth measuring jects out from a large flat base approximately the size of a
microscope. SSPC has developed a standard method of nickel. The instrument is calibrated on a mirror or plate
measuring profile using a microscope. This is included in glass by turning the entire scale ring so that the “zero”
the SSPC Study “Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion
Paints.” While all methods are worthy of consideration, on-
ly the fieldlshop instruments will be discussed.
The most common comparator is the Keane-Tator Sur-
face Profile Comparator (Figures 10 and ll), which con-
sists of a reference disc and a 5-power illuminated magni-
fier. The disc is held magnetically against the magnifier,
through which test surface and disc segments can be
viewed simultaneously. The reference disc has five
separate leaves or segments, each of which is assigned a
number representative of the profile depth of the particular
leaf. Each disc is a high purity nickel electroformed copy
of a master. The master disc was measured microscopical-
ly by the SSPC to establish the profile depth.
The reference disc is compared with the surface
through the 5-power magnifier. The leaf or leaves which
most closely approximate the roughness of the surface are
considered to be the profile of that surface. For example,
the profile might be 2 mils, or perhaps from 2 to 3 mils if FIGURE 26
PLASTIC SHIMS - for calibrating dry film thickness gages.
the surface roughness appears to lie between the 2 mil and
3 rnil leaves.
There are three surface profile discs available. The
one to use for measurement depends upon the abrasive
used. Different types of abrasives may result in a different
profile appearance, although the depths might be iden-
tical. For example, shot is round when compared with the
more angular grit. In order to achieve similar profile
depths, the shot by virtue of its shape will generally result
in greater lateral distances between peaks than will grit,
resulting in a lower peak count per given area. The optical
effect provides an illusion that the shot-blast-cleaned sur-
face is deeper than the grit-blast-cleaned surface even
when they are identical. Therefore, it is essential that the
correct comparator disc be selected for the abrasive used.
The designations for three discs available with the in-
strument are for sand, s; for metallic grit or slag, G E ; and FIGURE 27
for steel shot, SH. The numbering system on each leaf con- NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY CER-
sists of a number followed by a letter designation, then TIFIED COATING THICKNESS CALIBRATION STANDARDS for mag-
netic pull-off gage calibration.
another number. The first number represents the profile
depth of that leaf, the letter represents the abrasive used, lines up with the pointer. Theoretically, when the instru-
and the final number represents the year that the master ment is firmly placed on the blast cleaned substrate, the
disc was formed. For example, 1S70 indicates that that base will rest on the tops of the “peaks” and the pin will
leaf was prepared to a 1 rnil profile using sand as the project into a valley. By taking a number of readings, an
abrasive and that the master disc was formed in 1970.The average profile can be obtained. It is important to pick the

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*bmO 93 86277110 O0036110 659
instrument up and place it down for each reading, rather VIII. INSPECTION OF APPLICATION
than drag it across the profile; otherwise, the point will EQUIPMENT
become blunted, yielding erroneous readings.
The inspector must also be familiar with the methods
Surface profile can also be determined by using
and equipment used for coatings application. A brief sum-
replica tape (Figure 12). The Testex Press-O-Film Replica
mary is presented here, but more detailed information is
Tape consists of an emulsion film of microscopic bubbles
-
provided in the chapter on paint application of this volume
attached to a uniform, 2 mil film of mylar. The tape is
and in Volume 2.
pressed onto the blast-cleaned surface, emulsion side
ADJUSTMENT
down, and the mylar rubbed vigorously with a blunt instru-
ment, such as a swizzle stick or burnishing tool. The peaks
of the profile will break the bubbles and ultimately touch,
but not alter, the thickness of the mylar, as the mylar is in-
EXTENSION
compressible. The tape is removed and measured using a
light-weight, spring-loaded micrometer, which provides a
REFERENCE
reading from the upper or outermost surface of the mylar
to the high spots on the emulsion which were not totally
crushed (corresponding with the valleys of the profile). The
total micrometer reading is adjusted for the thickness of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the mylar by substracting 2 mils from the results to provide

a direct reading of the maximum average profile. The tape
is available in “coarse” for profile measurements from 0.8
up to 2.0 mils and “X-coarse” for measurements from i.5
to 4.5 mils.
The replica tape will allegedly retain the impression COATING
indefinitely, provided it is stored in a cool area with no FERROUS SUBSTRATE
pressure applied. Conceivably, replicas of profiles could

FIGURE 28
be kept on file permanently for future reference. Operating principle of Pencil Pull-Off Gage.
It is important that the inspector realize that each of
the above methods has its drawbacks. For example, the A. SPRAY APPLICATION EQUIPMENT
comparator is subjective, and persons using it could be
Spray equipment is classified as either conventional
biased by the results of others. The peaks of the profile
(air atomized) or airless. With air atomization equipment,
may be too close together to permit the projecting pin of
the paint is fed through the fluid line at relatively low
the Surface Profile Gage (depth micrometer) to reach the
pressures, and compressed air is directed at the fluid
valleys, or the surface might be irregular or wavy, holding
stream through an air cap to atomize it. Adjustment of the
the base of the instrument slightly above the plane of the
fluid stream and air pressure enables the painter to adjust
profile, giving erroneously high readings. The replica tape
the spray pattern. Only the minimum pressures necessary
cannot be used for profiles exceeding 4 % mils, or i f there to adequately atomize the paint should be used. The prop-
is any dirt or dust contamination on the surface. Such con- er fluid cap and needle must be chosen, as well as a cor-
tamination will be picked up and incorrectly read as addi- responding air cap size. Because the compressed air
tional profile depth by the micrometer. Finally, it is impor- mixes with the coating, filters should be used to ensure a
tant to realize that there may not be exact correlation clean air supply.
among each of the above methods because each takes in a In airless spraying, very high hydraulic pressure
different peak count or surface area for its measurement. (1000-3000 psi) is used to atomize the paint through a
Therefore, it is advisable that all parties concerned agree precision-ground spray tip, much in the same manner as
on the instrument that will be used to determine the sur- water is dispersed into droplets when passing through a
face profile and not deviate from it. Because of the con- garden hose spray nozzle. In an airless spray gun, general-
troversy in agreement in surface profile measuring ly, variations in the spray pattern can be attained only by
methods, equipment or technique, manufacturers will oc- changing the spray tip (fluid orifice), although some ad-
casionally supply a profile reference coupon represen- justable tips are now available. Consequently, choice of
tative of the roughness necessary for their product or alter- the appropriate tip, as well as variation of fluid pressure
natively specify the use of a specific instrument. The SSPC can result in a wide range of spray patterns suitable for
has prepared a report on profile, its origin, measurement, almost any application.
control and effect on coating performance. It is entitled The coating manufacturer’s application instructions
“Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints”. Methods for usually recommend the appropriate spray tips and caps
measuring surface profile are given in ASTM D 4417 and for conventional and airless application of their material.
NACE RP 0287. The technology of surface preparation is This, however, is only a recommendation and under certain
covered in a series of separate chapters in this volume. conditions, other tip or cap combinations may be more ap-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x b . 0 93 8627940 0003643 595
propriate. Care should be taken when cleaning the tip or

caps as the orifice can be easily damaged.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 30
POSITECTOR 6000 - digital gage measures coating thickness
FIGURE 29 on ferrous substrates. Similar model measures coating thick-
ELCOMETER 345 - digital gage measures coating thickness ness over non-ferrous metal substrates using eddy current
on ferrous substrates. Similar model uses eddy current princi- principle.
ple to measure coating over non-ferrous metal substrates.
should be available and functional on conventional spray
The predominant malfunction in spray guns is at- pots. The pressure release valve should also be operative.
tributable to lack of cleanliness, both of the spray gun The conventional pot should be equipped with diaphragm
itself and of fluid lines. Paint chips or agglomerations and pressure regulators, making it possible to control both air
most blasting abrasive particles are of sufficient size to and fluid pressure to the spray gun from the pot.
clog the small diameter orifices, resulting in gun stoppage
or clogging. IX. MIXING OF THE PAINT MATERIAL
Additionally, cleanliness of mixing pots, spray pots, This is probably one of the most important opera-
spray lines, spray guns or other application equipment is
tions, as improper mixing or thinning will affect the
important and necessary for good paint application. Dirty
coating’s ability to resist the environment. However, mix-
equipment can cause new paint to become contaminated
ing is not always specified as an inspection hold point in
with old. Dislodged particles can clog the spray gun or
painting operations. Regardless, there should be some
even result in the deposition of incompatible traces of
means to assure that all components of a multi-
previously applied material in the new paint film.
component paint system have been added, that mixing is
Cleanliness of all spray application equipment should be thorough and proper and that any required induction times
verified prior to, or no later than, the time of mixing of the
have been met. Leaking or damaged containers should not
paint. Otherwise, resulting clogged paint equipment may
be used, particularly with catalyzed paints as some of the
cause the loss of the coating material due to expired pot components necessary for complete cure may have leaked
life or the presence of contamination.
out and proper proportioning may not be obtainable. Con-
tainers with illegible labels should not be used. Mixing
B. SPRAY POT should be done until the paint becomes smooth,
The spray pot should be clean and in working order homogeneous, and free of surface “swirls” or pigment
prior to use. Many types of paints, particularly zinc-rich lumps or agglomerations. Many paints settle out upon pro-
primers, require the use of an agitated pot (one equipped longed storage, so “boxing” of these paints is beneficial to
with a stirring paddle) in order to keep the paint com- ensure that all pigment settled on the bottom of the con-
ponents in suspension. Air and fluid pressure gages tainer is incorporated in the mixed paint.

194
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x b . 0 93 = 8b27940 0003b42 421 =
When adding zinc dust to the vehicle of zinc-rich
primers, it is a usual practice to sift the zinc dust through a
screen into the liquid portion while mixing. This helps to
reduce a major problem when spraying two-component
zinc-rich primers; that is, gun clogging caused by pigment
agglomerations that are not properly dispersed upon mix-
ing. For such heavily pigmented coatings, it is also impor-
tant that the spray pot agitator is keeping the pigment in
suspension.
Preferably, only complete kits of multi-component
paints should be mixed. If this cannot be done, the
manufacturer must be consulted to assure that partial mix-
ing of their material is permitted. If so, it is imperative that
the components be carefully measured.
Thinners are often required and should be well mixed
into the paint material. The type and amount of thinner
should be in accordance with the coating manufacturer’s
FIGURE 32
QUANIX 2300 - digital gage measures coating thickness over
non-ferrous metal surfaces.
1 through 5. The manufacturer can be consulted as to the

orifice size to use for his material, and the time in seconds
for the volume of properly thinned material held by the cup
to pass through the orifice. For example, the manufacturer
might stipulate that the material should be thinned such
that it will pass through a No. 3Zahn Cup in 20-30 seconds
at a given liquid paint temperature.
The clean cup is fully immersed in the coating
material and withdrawn quickly. A timer is started at the
precise moment that the top of the cup leaves the level of
the liquid. The material will flow steadily through the
orifice. When the solid stream breaks at the base of the
cup, the timer is stopped instantly. It is important to hold
the cup one or two inches above the surface of the liquid
so that the cup will remain in the solvent atmosphere and
FIGURE 31
QUANIX 2200 - digital gage measures coating thickness on away from all drafts. The amount of thinner is adjusted
ferrous substrates. accordingly so that volume of paint held by the cup will
flow through the orifice within the stipulated time range.
Viscosity measurements of this type are of value for
recommendations. The amount of thinner used should be quick field determinations of thinning and will reveal if
recorded by the inspector, as any thinner reduces the
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
significant changes in the viscosity occurred from pot to

volume of solid contents of the mixed paint. pot of material. However, the paint applicator himself is
Measurement of viscosity assures that proper thin- generally the best judge of proper thinning ratios to assure
ning ratios are used and that the thinning has not been that he can apply a smooth wet coat without runs or sags.
changed significantly from pot to pot. A common viscosity Additionally, the viscosity qf some high build thixotropic
cup (Zahn), as shown in Figure 14, is simply a small cup of coatings cannot be measured with the Zahn Cup, but other
known volume with a precisely sized orifice in the center. viscosimeters can be used. In this case, the manufacturer
Generally five orifice sizes are available and are numbered should be contacted for a recommendation.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x b - 0 93 m 8 b 2 3 9 4 0 O003643 368 m
and other areas where atmospheric contamination is pres-

ent. Often water washing between coats or application of
the topcoat within a minimum time interval is necessary.
Otherwise, contaminants often invisible to the unaided eye
may be coated over, leading to premature coating failure.
Deficient and excessive coating thicknesses in multi-
coat systems should be observed. In cases where a top-
coat is applied over a generically similar (non-rust in-
hibitive) primer, deficient primer thickness can be “built
up” by additional thickness of the topcoat. However,
where the primer contains rust inhibitors or is a different
generic type, an additional coat of the primer or previously
applied coating must be used before the topcoat can be
applied. Another common practice is to use coatings of a
FIGURE 33 different color, or to tint each coat. This is an excellent aid
QUANIX 1500 - digital gage measures coating thickness over to the applicator and inspector to assure that complete
ferrous and non-ferrous metal substrates.
coverage is achieved. Upper thickness limits are also
specified in some cases. When paint thickness exceeds
X. COATING APPLICATION the specified thickness, the excess should be removed by
Besides surface preparation, the actual coating ap- grinding, sanding or blast cleaning as appropriate.
plication is the most visible aspect of the coating work. Removal is usually followed by reapplication of a thin coat
After surface preparation, it is the most important aspect to seal irregularities. Excessive or unsightly runs, sags,
as well. It has been said that “the best coating specifica- drips, streamers, and other film deficiencies should be
tion is no better than the man behind the spray gun”. Ac- brushed out during application or removed after drying.
cordingly, the coating inspector should be knowledgeable This again is done by grinding, sanding, or in extreme
of the various application techniques. These are briefly cases, blast cleaning.
reviewed below, but detailed information is available in the
chapter on Paint Application of this volume and in Volume
.
z. XI. WET FILM THICKNESS DETERMINATIONS
When spraying with conventional (air atomized) equip- Wet film thickness readings are used to aid the
ment, the spray gun should be held from six to eight inches painter and inspector in determining how much material to
from the surface and maintained perpendicular to the sur- apply in order to achieve the specified dry film thickness.
face throughout the stroke. For airless application, the Wet film thicknesses on steel and most other metallic
distance should be from 10 to 14 inches. At the end of each substrates are considered “guideline” thicknesses, with
pass, the gun trigger should be released. Each spray pass the dry film thickness being the thickness of record.
should overlap the previous one by 50%, and where possi- However, when coating concrete or non-metallic
ble, a cross hatch technique should be used. This requires substrates, the wet film thickness is often the accepted
a duplicate series of passes at 90” to the first to ensure value because dry film thickness can be determined only
complete and uniform coverage. by destructive means.
In brush application, the brush should be dipped ap-
proximately two-thirds of its bristle length into the coating.
The bristle tips should be brushed lightly against the side
of the container to prevent dripping, maintaining as fully
loaded a brush as possible. Brushing is more effective
than spraying for working paint into depressed ir-
regularities, pits or crevices. However, care should be
taken to ensure that the coating is not brushed out too
thin.
Other application methods include rolling, using mitts
or pads, dipping, electro-static spraying, powder coating
(using fluidized bed or electro-static spray), and, increas-
ingly, roller coating using automated facilities for flat
sheets. Each has its own specific technique as described
elsewhere in this volume.
Besides ensuring proper application technique, addi-
FIGURE 34
tional care is necessary when inspecting coating work at MINITEST 1OOF - digital gage measures coating thickness over
fossil fuel power stations, chemical plants, coke plants, ferrous metal substrates.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
ensure the accuracy of the readings.
The Interchemical thickness gage is a narrow wheel
with two outer rings of the same size and an off-set inner
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ring. The instrument is rolled across the surface and

withdrawn. The wet film thickness is that point where the
coating no longer wets the inner ring.
Wet film thickness gages are of value only if one
knows how heavy a wet film to apply. The wet film
thicknessldry film thickness ratio is based on the percent
solids by volume of the specific material being applied.
The old theory of doubling the desired dry film thickness to
determine the wet film to be applied is only correct if the
solids by volume of the coating material is 50%.
The solids by volume of the coating material is infor-
mation readily available from the manufacturer and is
commonly included in their product data sheets. The basic
formula is DRY FILM THICKNESS = WET FILM THICK-
NESS X yo SOLIDS BY VOLUME. A more workable variation
of the formula showing the required wet film thickness for
the desired dry film thickness is as follows:
WET FILM THICKNESS =
DESIRED DRY FILM THICKNESS
Yo SOLIDS BY VOLUME
FIGURE 35
MINITEST 4000 - digital gage measures coating thickness over
ferrous metal substrates. Similar model measures coating thick-
ness over non-ferrous metal substrates.
The wet film thickness gage is generally a standard

“notch” configuration (Figure 15), although circular dial
gages are also used (Figure 16).
The notch type gage consists of two end points on the
same plane with progressively deeper notched steps in
between. Each step is designated by a number represent-
ing the distance in mils or microns between the step and
the plane created by the two end points. The instrument is
pressed firmly into the wet film perpendicular to the
substrate and withdrawn. In every case, the two end points
will be wetted by the coating material, and in addition
some of the steps in between. The wet film thickness is
considered as being between the last wetted step and the
next adjacent higher dry one. For example, i f the “3” step
is wetted and the “4” step is dry, the wet film thickness is
between 3 and 4 mils. If none of the steps or all of the steps
in between the end points are wetted, it is necessary to
turn the gage to a different face, as the wet film thickness
is outside of that particular range.
When using this instrument, it is necessary to stay
away from any surface irregularities that could distort the
readings. If determinations are being made on curved sur-
faces, it is important that the gage be used along the
length of the curve rather than across its width, as the
FIGURE 36
curve itself could cause irregular wetting of the steps. The ELCOMETER 300 - digital gage measures coating thickness
gauge must also be cleaned thoroughly after each use to over ferrous metal substrates. Similar model measures coat-
ing thickness over non-ferrous metal substrates.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * b - O 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003645 130 =
thickness increases nearly 2 mils.
Because the use of the wet film thickness gage is
dependent on the solids by volume, and the solids by
volume is considered as the “in can” percentage, it is
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
essential that wet film thickness readings be taken as

soon as a film is applied to the surface. Actually, during
spray application, between the time the material leaves
the gun and reaches the surface, some of the solvents will
already have evaporated, changing the percent of solids by
volume slightly. But for practical applications, this change
is not too significant. However, the longer one waits before
taking a reading, the less accurate that reading becomes.
For highly pigmented coatings (such as zinc-rich), or very
fast dry coatings, wet film thickness readings may be
unreliable.
FIGURE 37 XII. DRY FILM THICKNESS

TOOKE SCRATCH GAGE for determining dry film thickness by - Dry film thickness readings on steel substrates are
cutting a cross section through the film and viewing it under mag-
nification. commonly taken using magnetic gages. For non-ferrous
metallic substrates, eddy current equipment is used.
Calibration of magnetic thickness gages should be done in
The above formula is accurate provided the solids by accordance with SSPC-PA 2, “SSPC Method for Measure-
volume of the material is accurate. The percentage will ment of Dry Paint Thickness with Magnetic Gages”.
change, however, if any thinner is added to the coating. Although the standard is written for magnetic gages, many
When thinner is added, the total volume of the material is of the principles of operation and calibration techniques
increased without any corresponding increase in the apply to the eddy current instruments as well.
amount of solids. Therefore, the thinned material will Determination of the thickness of each coat in a multi-
result in a lower percentage of solids by volume. Thus, coat system should be an inspection hold-point. When us-
when comparing thinned versus unthinned material in ing magnetic gages to measure multi-coat systems, the
order to achieve a comparable dry film thickness, a heavier average of the first coat must be determined prior to ap-
wet film application of the thinned material will be re- plication of the second coat. Readings taken after the sec-
quired. The following formula, which incorporates the ond coat is applied will obviously be the total thickness of
“new” solids by volume, should be used to determine the the two coats combined, and the specific thickness of the
required wet film thickness when the material is thinned: second coat can only be determined by subtracting the
average thickness obtained from the first coat reading.
DESIRED DRY FILM THICKNESS The second coat thickness cannot be determined precise-
WFT = o/‘ SOLIDS BY VOLUME ly, however, because it is highly unlikely that specific
(100% + ‘/o THINNER ADDED) readings taken on the second coat will be over an area of
the first coat that is exactly the first coat average.
For example, assume a material contains 78% solids by Therefore, with magnetic gages it is nearly impossible to
and is to be applied in one coat to a dry film Specifically determine the thicknesses O f Coats applied
thickness of 8 mils. Without thinner added, the required after the and One must rely On averages only-
wet film thickness is determined as follows: It is often a good idea, where practical, to provide a
means to indicate coating thickness in areas where it is
either thin or thick, so appropriate repair can be done by
WFT = - = 10.25 mils
0.78 the coating applicator. Possible methods are brush ap-
plication of a light tinted coat of the same paint, compati-
ble felt tip marking pens, chalk or other material that can
If the coating in the same example is thinned 20%, the new
be readily removed or graphic plotting and notation on
required wet film is calculated as follows:
charts and records.
8 Thickness readings are taken to provide reasonable
WFT = - - - = 12.3 mils assurance that the specified or desired dry film thickness
0.78 (0.65)
1.2 has been achieved. However, it is not possible to measure
every square inch of the surface. SSPC-PA 2 states that
This, without thinning, 10.25 wet mils are required to ob- when using magnetic gages, five separate spot
tain 8 mils dry. After thinning, however, the solids by measurements should be made over every 100 square feet
volume drops from 78% to 65% and the required wet film in area. Each spot measurement consists of an average of

198
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER+b.O 93 m 8627940 0003646 O77 m
To operate, the scale dial is turned clockwise and the

magnet brought into direct contact with the metal
substrate (through the coating or non-magnetic barrier).
Then the scale ring is turned counterclockwise, increasing
the spring tension, which applies a pulling force onto the
magnet. Ultimately, the spring tension overcomes the at-
traction of the magnet to the substrate, lifting the magnet
from the surface. The spring tension is calibrated so that
the point where the magnet breaks contact with the sur-
face can be equated to the distance of the magnet from
the surface. This distance is read directly from the scale
dial in mils (or microns). The calibrated spring tension is an
inverse logarithmic relationship of the distance between
the magnet and the substrate (e.g. the greater the spring
tension required to remove the magnet, the thinner the
coating).
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Note that the thickness reading shown on the scale
ring when the magnet breaks contact with the surface
represents the gap between the magnet and the substrate.
FIGURE 38 This gap is considered to be the coating thickness.
Modified version of the TOOKE GAGE with all three cutting tips However, it could also be comprised of voids, rust, embed-
mounted on the instrument body and three bulbs to improve
lighting. ded contaminates, etc. Therefore, one must include a
thorough visual inspection during the work to ensure that
the coating is applied over a clean surface and does not
three gage readings next to one another. The average of become contaminated during drying.
the five spot measurements must be within the specified The Mikrotest, Positest, and Elcometer 21 1 Gages
thickness, while single spot measurements are permitted should be calibrated, or at least calibration verified, prior to,
to be 80% of the specified thickness. The single gage
during, and after each use to assure that they are measur-
readings, however, making up the spot measurement, can ing accurately. Calibration methods are described in SSPC-
underrun by a greater amount. For example, a specifica- PA 2, “Measurement of Dry Film Thickness with Magnetic
tion calls for 10 to 12 mils. The five spot measurements
Gages,” which defines the pull-off instruments as Type 1
(each a cluster of three gage readings) are as follows: Spot gages. Calibration test blocks similar to those supplied by
1 (10, 11, 12; average 11); Spot 2 (7, 8, 9; average 8); Spot 3
the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
(12, 12, 12; average 12); Spot 4 (7, 12, 11; average 10); Spot 5
which are chrome and copper plated steel (Figure 27) must
(12, 13, 11; average 12). This measured area would be ac-
ceptable because the average of the five spots is 10.6 mils
and within specification. According to SSPC-PA 2, unless
otherwise specified, the 8 mil spot measurement would be
acceptable because “no single spot measurement . . .
shall be less than 80% of the specified thickness” (8 mils
is exactly 8O%), and the 7 mil reading is acceptable
because “single gage readings . . _ may underrun by a
greater amount”.
Dry film thickness instruments fall into four basic
categories: magnetic pull-off, magnetic-constant pressure
probe, eddy current-constant pressure probe, and destruc-
tive. Each of the four categories are addressed separately.
A. MAGNETIC PULL-OFF
The magnetic pull-off type gages include the Mikrotest
(Figure 17), the Positest, the Elcometer 21 1 (Figure 18), and
the Pencil Pull-Off (Figure 19 and 20) type gage.
Basically, a Mikrotest, Positest, or Elcometer 21 1 Gage
consists of a lever running through the center of a scale dial
which houses a helical spring. The scale dial is located at
the fulcrum point of the lever. One end of the spring is at-
FIGURE 39
tached to the lever and the other end to the scale dial. One A hand-held spring loaded micrometer useful for measuring the
side of the lever contains a permanent magnet while the op- thickness of coating chips.
posite end contains a counterbalance (Figures 21 and 25).
at 303-397-2295.
Another type of magnetic pull-off gage based on a
similar principle is the pencil pull-off gage (Figures 19,
20 and 21). Basically, the instrument housing is similar
to a large pencil with a magnet at one end. An
extension spring is attached to the magnet and to the
top of the instrument housing. The instrument is held
perpendicular to the surface and the magnet brought into
contact with the substrate. As the housing is lifted, the
magnet remains attached to the substrate until the spring
tension overcomes the attraction of the magnet, popping it
from the surface. The tension on the spring required to lift
the magnet is read from the scale in mils or microns
(Figure 28). This instrument can not be adjusted, although
calibration should be verified. In this case, however, a
calibration correction curve is necessary if the instrument
does not read correctly on the shims. The preferred
method for verifying calibration is the use of calibration
test blocks. The pencil-style gages provide a quick check of
coating thickness, but considerable judgment is involved in
determining the point at which the magnet breaks from the
surface.
There are some precautions necessary when using
any instrument that has a magnet. First, the magnet is ex-
posed and therefore susceptible to attracting iron filings,
steel shot or grit particles. The magnet must be cleaned of
any contaminants during use, or the contaminant will in-
FIGURE 40 correctly be read as coating thickness. This i s extremely
Pocket-sized 30X microscope with integral light source useful for
examining coatings. important in shop work where grinding is employed. The
resulting iron filings often necessitate that the magnet
and coating surface be cleaned before each thickness
be used to verify the calibration of Type 1 Gages. The use reading. If the instrument is used on a soft film, allowing
of plastic shims is not permitted. It is essential that the in- the magnet to sink into the surface, a thinner coating
strument is calibrated in the desired thickness range of use. thickness will be recorded. This i s because the coating
If a coating is being measured in the thickness range of two itself may be tacky, holding the magnet beyond the point
to four mils, one would not use a gage calibrated at 15 to where the spring should have lifted it from the surface, or
20 mils.
Calibration using the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) plates is accomplished by first adjusting
the instrument to read the thickness stated on the calibra-
tion blocks in the desired range of use. Next, take a gage
reading of the bare, uncoated substrate after blast cleaning
(or other surface preparation). The instrument will generally 1I
d n FINISH C O A T
), 1 /
read between one and two tenths of a mil up to 1 mil or more
over the bare steel. Therefore, any coating thickness read- '
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PRIMER COAT
ings taken must be corrected by this bare steel base read-
ing in order to determine the coating thickness above the
peaks of the profile. Adjust subsequent thickness readings
by subtracting the magnetic base reading. For example, if
the instrument is calibrated to a 4 mil NIST Standard, and
a 1/z mil magnetic base reading on bare blast cleaned steel A' A FINISH C O A T THICKNESS
8' B PRIMER C O A T THICKNESS

is found, a paint thickness reading of 3% mils indicates that ~
the true thickness above the peaks is actually only 3 mils.

FIGURE 41
If one chooses not to physically adjust the in-
Measurement principle of the Tooke Gage.
struments as described above, it will be necessary to
develop a calibration correction curve using the instru-
ment scale as an arbitrary scale. For example, a five on the the coating under the depression caused by the magnet
scale may be equivalent to three mils, a ten equivalent to actually will be thinner. In this case, place a plastic shim
seven mils, and so on. on top of the surface to prevent the magnet from deform-
200
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * b - 0 93 8627940 0 0 0 3 6 4 8 9 4 T 9
ing the coating and subtract the shim thickness from any Therefore, it is necessary to stay at least three inches
subsequent readings. In addition, i f there are any vibra- away from any nearby iron or steel object, or the instru-
tions in the area of instrument use, they could cause the
magnet to be popped from the surface prematurely, giving
an erroneously high thickness reading. The instrument
should not be used any closer than 1 inch to an edge of the
surface. In addition, residual magnetism in the structure
on which the coating is measured can have an adverse ef-
fect on the readings.
The scale dial type instruments have an additional
“human error” problem during use. It is easy to continue to
turn the dial beyond the point that the magnet has lifted from
the surface, giving an incorrect thickness reading. It is im-
perative that the dial be stopped as soon as the magnet lifts
from the surface. Automatic versions of the Mikrotest have
addressed this problem by incorporating a self winding
mechanism which automatically retracts the thumb wheel.
B. FIXED PROBE MAGNETIC FLUX GAGES FIGURE 42

View through Tooke Gage Microscope. The interface of the
The fixed probe or magnetic flux type gages are coatinglsubstrate is one division to the left of .O6 on the scale.
described in SSPC-PA 2 as Type 2 gages. They include the Coating thickness is measured from this point to the left ending
Elcometer 345 (Figure 29), Positector 6000 (Figure 30), Qua- at the black bench mark at -05.
nix 2200 (Figure 31), Quanix 1500 FE (Figure 33), Minitest
200F (Figure 34), Minitest 4000 (Figure 35), Elcometer 300
(Figure 36), and others. The Type 2 gages also must be veri-
fied for calibration prior to use. Calibration verification is ac-
complished using the non-magnetic shim method (described
below) or the NIST calibration plates described previously.
When calibrating using the plastic shim method, verify the
shim thickness with a micrometer. Hold the shim firmly on
the bare clean(ed) substrate and measure it with the thick-
ness instrument. If the instrument does not read the shim
thickness, adjust the gage according to the manufacturer’s
instructions. Some gages cannot be field calibrated. Check
the calibration by using shims of lesser and greater thick-
ness to determine the range of accuracy. The instrument is
now ready for use for measuring thicknesses within that
range over the same substrate and surface preparation. If
a section of the bare substrate is unavailable, blast clean
small steel test panels (e.g., lhtrx 4” x 6“) to obtain the same
or similar anchor pattern, protect them from corrosion using
a dessicant, VPI Paper, or other suitable means, and use
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the panels for calibration. The instrument will correctly record

the thickness of the coating material. Any effect of surface
roughness is calibrated into the instrument because it was
adjusted over the bare steel, thus eliminating the need for
a magnetic base reading correction factor.
The magnetic flux gages experience some of the
same problems as the pull-off gages: 1) lower than actual
thickness readings on soft or tacky films; 2) necessity of
staying away from the edges during use; and 3)difficulty in
keeping the magnet clean. In addition, because the in- FIGURE 43
TINKER-RASOR LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE HOLIDAY DETEC.
struments are based on flux principles, they are vulnerable TOR - used for finding pinholes and holidays in non-conductive
to the effect of flux leakage from the instrument to nearby paint films up to 20 mils thick when applied to conductive
ferrous masses, causing the instrument to be ineffective. substrates.
201
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTERab.0 93 M B b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 b 4 9 B B b
ment calibration must be readjusted in these specific Another means of destructively measuring the
areas. If used inside a tank or vessel, they should be coating thickness is the use of either a depth micrometer
calibrated inside the vessel to compensate for flux or a standard micrometer. The depth micrometer can be
leakage. The probe of these instruments must also be kept used by removing a small section of the coating down to
perpendicular to the coated substrate during use; other- the substrate, permitting the base of the instrument to rest
wise, incorrect readings will result. on the coating while the projecting pin is adjusted to the
substrate. Alternatively, a sample of the coating can be
C. MICROPROCESSOR-CONTROLLED GAGES removed from the substrate and the thickness measured
Computer chips are now commonly incorporated into using a standard micrometer. The coating chips could also
dry film thickness gages. A hand-held microprocessor with be returned to a laboratory for microscopic thickness
digital thickness display is available with its physical opera- determinations. The Tooke gage could also be used for
tion similar to the magnetic flux gages above (Figure 36). this purpose. When viewing the edge (cross section) of a
disbonded chip, each division of the microscope is
D. EDDY CURRENT GAGES equivalent to 1.0 mil.
Eddy current instruments measure the thickness of
non-conductive coatings on non-ferrous metal substrates.
XIII. CLEANLINESS BETWEEN COATS
Included with this type of instrument are the Quanix 2300 Where more than one coat is to be applied, a proper
(Figure 32) and Quanix 1500 (Figure 33). The probe of inspection hold point is the determination of the
these instruments is energized by alternating current, cleanliness of the surface immediately prior to application
inducing eddy currents in the metal. The eddy currents of the next coat. In addition to dirt and dust, quite often dry
create opposing alternating magnetic fields within the spray, or overspray, will cause a problem. All should be
metal, modifying the electrical characteristics of the probe removed because the presence of these “contaminants”
coil. The extent of these changes is determined by the dis- can result in reduced adhesion between coats and porosi-
tance of the probe from the substrate and is shown on a
meter as coating thickness. The eddy current instruments
are calibrated using the plastic shim method.
E. DESTRUCTIVE TEST INSTRUMENTS

Destructive thickness testing includes the use of the
Tooke Gage (two models are shown in Figures 37 and 38),
Micrometers (Figure 39),or microscopes (Figure 40). The
Tooke Gage consists of a 50X microscope that is used to
look at slits in the coating made by precision cutting tips
supplied with the instrument. The principle of the Tooke
Gage is basic trigonometry. By making a cut through the
coating at a known angle and viewing perpendicularly to
that cut, the actual coating thickness can be determined
by measuring the width of the cut from a scale in the
eyepiece of the microscope. The instrument can be used
for determining the thickness of underlying coats in multi-
coat systems and eliminates many of the drawbacks of the
magnetic instruments caused by magnetic fields, proximi-
ty to edges, irregular surfaces, magnetic effect of the
substrate, profile, and so forth. The instrument can be
used on coating thicknesses up to 50 mils provided the
coating is not too brittle or elastic for a smooth cut to be
made.
Cutting tips of different angles are available. They are
designated as either l X , 2X, or 1OX. The tip used deter-
FIGURE 44
mines the thickness equivalent for each line in the USING A LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE DETECTOR to locate -
microscope eyepiece. The number of lines corresponding discontinuities in non-conductive coatings applied to conductive
with the coating is divided by the number of the tip used. metal substrates.
Official U.S. Navy Photograph
Therefore, 1 line when using the 1X tip is equivalent to 111
or 1 mil; 1 line with the 2X tip is YZ or .5 mil, and 1 line with ty, rendering the coating less resistant to the effects of the
the 1OX tip is or .1 mil. Thus, i f the coating cross-section environments. The surface should also be inspected for
covers 7 lines and the 2X tip is used, the thickness is or any adverse contamination from the environment (e.g.
3.5 mils (Figures 4 1 and 42). residue from chemical facilities, salt, etc.)
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * b * O 93 = 8627940 O003650 5 T 8 =
XIV. PINHOLE AND HOLIDAY DETECTION
After all the coats of paint have been applied, the in-
spector should verify that the appropriate clean-up is done,
and that any abrasions, nicks, or scrapes are repaired as
required.
Often holiday, pinhole, or spark testing is used to find
the nicks, scrapes, and pinholes in the coating film, par-
ticularly if the coating is intended for immersion service.
Holiday testing may be required after application of either
the next to last, or last coat of paint. Usually when such
testing is specified, it is done before final cure of the
coating has occurred so that any repair material applied
will successfully bond to the underlying coat.
Pinhole and holiday detectors are three general types:
low voltage wet sponge (Figures 43,44 and 45), DC high vol-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tage (Figures 46, 47 and 48), and AC electrostatic types.
The low voltage wet sponge holiday detectors are
used for finding discontinuities in non-conductive
coatings applied to conductive metal bases. The low
voltage detector is suitable for use on coatings up to 20
mils in thickness. The basic unit consists of the detector
itself, a ground cable, and a sponge electrode. The around
cable is firmly attached to the bare substrate and the
sponge electrode is saturated with tap water. The elec-
trode is moved across the entire surface, the water permit-
ting a small current to flow through the pinholes down to
FIGURE 45
the substrate. Once the current reaches the substrate, the K-D BIRD DOG LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE HOLIDAY DETEC-
circuit is completed to the detector unit and an audible TOR -
utilizes a wetted sponge and ground wire to find pinholes
and holidays in dry paint films applied to conductive substrates.
signal can be heard indicating that a pinhole or discon-
tinuity is present. When coatings are in the range of 10 to
20 mils, a non-sudsing wetting agent (such as Eastman
Kodak Photo-FIO) may be added to the water to increase
the wetting properties. If the coating system is found to be
outside of the 20 mil thickness limits, high voltage holiday
detection equipment should be used.
High voltage detectors basically function on the same
operating principle as the low voltage described above, ex-
cept that a sponge is not used. The instrument consists of
a testing unit capable of producing various voltage out-
puts, a ground cable, and an electrode made of conductive
materials such as neoprene, brass, or steel. High voltage
units are available up to 20,000 volts and more. High
voltage detectors are used for non-conductive coatings ap-
plied to conductive substrates. The ground wire is firmly
attached to a section of the bare substrate and the elec-
trode is passed over the entire surface. A spark will jump
FIGURE 46
from the electrode through the air gap down to the SPY HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR for uncovering -
substrate at pinholes, holidays, or missed areas, flaws in “thick” film systems. Voltages are available up to 22,000
simultaneously triggering audible andlor visual signaling volts DC. A spark jumps from the electrode through the coating at
deficient areas.
device in the unit.
For exterior pipeline work, many times the ground wise, damage to “good” coating could occur. A rule of
wire of the holiday detector is permitted to drag across the thumb is to apply 100-125 volts per mill of coating for thick-
earth provided the pipe itself is grounded to the earth. nesses in excess of 20 mils.
However, the preferred method of testing is to attach the When testing conductive linings applied over steel
ground wire directly t o the substrate whenever possible. substrates (¡.e. conductive rubber linings), the AC Tesla
When using high voltage holiday detectors, it is im- Coil type electrostatic testers are generally used. The AC
portant to use only the voltage level recommended by the tester has a variable voltage output (preferably, the voltage
coating manufacturer for the coating thickness. Other- is indicated) but does not require the use of a ground wire.
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R * b = O 73 m 8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003b5L 434 m
The unit constantly emits a corona which is blue in color, adhesive appears to soften and cause premature failure of
but when a break in the lining is passed over, a white spark the coating systems.
will jump to the substrate at the holiday or imperfection.
Note that surface contaminants or dampness may also XVI. EVALUATING CURE
cause a color change or spark; therefore, it is advisable to When a coating is to be used i n immersion service, the
clean and retest questionable areas to confirm that a
break in the lining is present.
XV. FIELD ADHESION TESTING

Occasionally, there is a need to test the adhesion of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the coatings after application. There are different types of
adhesion testing methods used from the simple penknife
to more elaborate testing units. The use of a penknife
generally requires a subjective evaluation of the coating
adhesion based on some previous experience. Generally,
one cuts through the coating and probes at it with the
knife blade, trying to lift it from the surface to ascertain
FIGURE 47
whether or not the adhesion is adequate. TINKER-RASOR HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR used -
A modified version of this type of testing is the cross- for non-conductive coatings applied to conductive substrates.
cut test. The cross-cut test consists of cutting an “X”, or a
number of small “squares or diamonds” through the
coating down to the substrate. Tape is rubbed vigorously
onto the scribes and removed firmly and quickly. The
cross-hatch pattern is evaluated according to the percent-
age of squares delaminated or remaining intact. The “X”
and “cross-cut” tape adhesion tests are described in
ASTM D-3359, “Measuring Adhesion by Tape Test”.
There are also instruments available for testing the
tensile adhesion strength of coatings. They apply a value to
the adhesion strength in pounds per square inch, thus
eliminating some of the subjectivity of the above tests. In-
struments for tensile testing include the Elcometer, Patti
(Pneumatic) and the Hate (Hydraulic) Adhesion Testers
(Figure 49). The adhesion testers consist of the test unit it-
self and aluminum or stainless steel test stubs. The pull stubs FIGURE 48
D.E. STEARNS HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR - used
are cemented to the coating surface using an adhesive. Af- for non-conductive coatings applied to conductive substrates.
ter the adhesive has cured, the piston or claw of the test in-
strument is placed over the pull stub. The test unit applies applied coating film must be allowed to dry cure for a given
a pulling force on the pull stub, ultimately breaking it from length of time prior to being placed into service. This dry
the surface. The point of the break is read from the scale cure time is generally shown on the manufacturer’s prod-
on the instrument in pounds per square inch. This method uct information. Alternately, forced-heat curing may be
is described in.ASTM D 4541. Not only is the numerical value used to reduce the time between curing and service.
of importance when using this instrument, but also the type Determining the cure of coatings is generally difficult.
of break. For example, there is a significant difference in the ASTM D1640 outlines one method, but there are no univer-
test results if one finds a clean break to the substrate or be- sally reliable field tests for such purposes. Solvent rub
tween coats, compared to finding a cohesive break within tests can be used, as well as sandpaper tests. When most
a coat. Many times one may experience a failure of the adhe- coatings are suitably cured, rubbing them with sandpaper
sive. If this occurs, it establishesthat the coating tensile adhe- will produce a fine dust. If the sandpaper gums up, depend-
sion strength is at least as good as that pressure that broke ing upon the coating, it may not be cured properly. Cer-
the adhesive. tain phenol-containing coatings may discolor upon
It is generally recommended that the two-component heating - and the cure of phenolic tank lining coatings is
type epoxy adhesives be used in preference to the single often determined by comparison of their color with color
component fast drying cyano-acrylate types. When testing reference coupons supplied by the coating manufacturer.
zinc-rich coatings, for example, it has been found that the Because a coating is “dry” or hard does not
thin cyano-acrylates have a tendency to penetrate and necessarily mean it is cured. In fact, for most coatings,
bond thezinc particles together, resulting in a much higher hardness is not synonymous with cure. The only coating
tensile pull than should be expected. In other cases, the types for which this is true are the solvent deposited

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*6-0 73 m 8627940 0003652 370 W
coatings such as the chlorinated rubbers and vinyls. Even ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

then, residual retained solvents (and moisture in water The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge William Cor-
emulsion coatings), under certain atmospheric conditions bett's update of this chapter. Both William Corbett and Steve Pin-
ney provided photos. AI Beitelman, Robert Doyle, Arnold Eickhoff,
Lewis Gleekman, Joseph Guobis, Ronald Hamm, John D. Keane,
Jay Leanse, Charlie Lewis, Jr., M. Lichtenstadter,Marshall McGee,
Stan Mroz, Melvin Sandler, L. M. Sherman, and William Wallace
participated in the review process.
BIOGRAPHIES
Kenneth B. Tator is the
President of KTA-Tator, Inc., a
consulting engineering firm
specializing in industrial protec-
tive coatings. A registered
professionalengineer, Mr. Tator
is the USA Delegate to the Inter-
national Standardization Organi-
zation TC351SC12 Surface
Preparation Committee. He is
active in the National Associa-
tion of Corrosion Engineers, the
American Societv for Testina
FIGURE 49 and Materials,the'society for Pãint Technology, and the Steel Struc-
TENSILE ADHESION TESTERS Pneumatic (back left), Elcom- - tures Painting Council. Mr. Tator holds an MBA from Columbia
University and a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from Lafayette Col-
eter (back right), and Hydraulic (front). Pull stubs positioned lege. He is the author of numerous publications and has presented
in front of each model.
technical papers at many association meetings and corporate
seminars
of temperature andlor humidity may take a long time to
Kenneth A. Trimber is the
escape from the paint film. Final attainment of film proper- Vice-president of KTA-Tator,
ties will be acquired only upon satisfactory loss of these Inc., a coatings consulting firm
entrapped solvents. In some cases this evaporation proc- based in Pittsburgh, PA. He is
also the Vice President of KTA
ess may take as long as two or three weeks or more. Services, Inc. and the Manager
of its KTA Environmental divi-
XVI I. CONCLUSIONS sion. Mr. Trimber began his em-
ployment with KTA on a
There i s a wide variety of inspection instruments part-time basis in 1968, and be-
available for use t o assure the adequacy of the ambient came a full-time employee after
his graduation from Indiana
conditions, surface preparation, wet and dry film University of Pennsylvania in
thicknesses, and final coating continuity. The instruments 1974. He is active in many tech-
all have advantages and disadvantages, but the overriding nical societies involvedwith pro-
tective coatings and serves on the Steel Structures Painting Coun-
factor i n their successful use is the knowledge and ability cil (SSPC) Board of Governors. He is Chairman of the SSPC com-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of the individual using them. It is important that the in- mittees on Surface Preparation and Visual Standards, and is Vice
struments be cared for, calibrated, and used properly. Chairman of the Lead Paint Removal Committee.
Mr. Trimber is also the Chairman of American Society for Test-
However, instrument inspection i s only part of the total in- ing and Material: D l which deals with all paints and protectivecoat-
spection process. It must be combined with a good, com- ings. He has authored numerous papers on coating evaluation,
mon sense visual inspection for detection of misses, surface preparation, inspection, lead paint removal, and coating
failure analysis. Mr. Trimber authored the Industrial Lead Painf
skips, runs, sags, surface contaminants, overspray, dry RemovalHandbook, which serves as the text for SSPC Lead Paint
spray, and any other defects objectionable for the service RemovalTutorials. He was the 1988 recipientof the SSPC Outstand-
intended. Proper instruments, specific knowledge, coming Publication Award for the development of a system for classify-
ing the condition of bridge coatings, and was given the SSPC John
mon sense and good judgment are required for good D. Keane Award of Merit as the Protective Coatings Specialist of
coatings inspection. the 1980s.
Finally, all results of any inspection should be
thoroughly documented in writing to verify that the
s p e c i f i e d requirements have been met. F u t u r e
maintenance or the removal and maintenance of a failed
coating system may be dependent on the factual reporting
of every phase of the work.
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTERsb.0 73 = Bb277LiO 0 0 0 3 b 5 3 207 =
REFERENCES
1. William F. Gross, Applications Manual for Paint and Protec-
five Coatings, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY,
1970.
2. Paul E. Weaver, Industrial Maintenance Painting, 3rd Edition,
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX,
1967.
3. “Blast-Off”, Clemco Industries, San Francisco, CA, 1970.
4. Kenneth B. Tator, and Kenneth A. Trimber, “Coating Inspec-
tion Instruments”, Plant Engineering, Sept. 19 and Oct. 3,
1974.
5. K.A. Trimber, and C.A. McCartney, “Importance of Coating
Application Inspection and Instruments Available for Use”,
presented at NACE 14th Annual Liberty Bell Corrosion
Course, Sept., 1976.
6. D.M. Berger, and S.E. Mroz, “Instruments for Inspection of
Coatings”, Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 4, No. 1,
pp. 28-39, Jan., 1976.
7. Kenneth B. Tator, and Kenneth A. Trimber: “Coating (Paint)
Inspection Instruments, Types, Uses, and Calibration”,
Paper Number 254, NACE Corrosion 80.
8. NACE Standard RP-01-78“Recommended Practice - Design,
Fabricatiorl, and Surface Finish of Metal Tanks and Vessels
to Be Lined for Chemical Immersion Service”, December,
1977.
9. NACE Standard RP-02-74 “Recommended Practice - High
Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings Prior to In-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
stallation”, August, 1974.

10. SSPC-PA 2 - “Method for Measurement of Dry Paint
Thickness With Magnetic Gages”.
11. NACE - “TPC Publication No. 2 - Coatings and Linings for
Immersion Service”, Chapters 2 and 4, Houston, TX.
12. John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F.
Weaver, Steel Structures Painting Council, “Surface Profile
for Anti-Corrosion Paints”, Pittsburgh, PA, 1976.
13. Bernard R. Appleman. “Painting Over Soluble Salts: A Perspec-
tive.” Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings. October 1987,
pp. 68-82.
14. KennethA. Trimber. “Detection and Removal of Chemical Con-
taminants in Pulp and Paper Mills.” Journalof Protective Coat-
ings and Linings. November 1988, pp. 30-37.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 7 - L 9 3 = 8b27940 0003654 I43
CHAPTER 7.1
QUALITY CONTROL OF PAINTS -

AS MANUFACTURED
by
John F. Montle and Mary Ann Stephens
The purpos of quality control of paints - as Quality control tests are elected i provide con-
manufactured - is to assure the paint manufacturer that sistency in manufactured products. Therefore, test values
materials supplied are acceptable to the consumer. and ranges for satisfactory performance are not neces-
Materials must be consistent from batch to batch and sarily valid over the the entire shelf life of the coating
must have satisfactory appearance, stability, application material. Many test values change with age. For example,
characteristics and performance. To achieve these objec- drifts in viscosity can occur, but are not necessarily indica-
tives, a quality control program must be designed that is tive of any change in the product’s suitability. Tests should
significantly more comprehensive than merely evaluating be designed to maximize detection of errors in manu-
the coating materials produced. facturing andlor variations in raw materials. Examples of
The primary function of quality control for coating common ones are shown in the Appendix.
manufacturers is to assure overall quality and perform- Proper selection of quality control range values is as
ance. Such a program encompasses significantly more important as selection of the proper tests. While ranges
than batch quality control testing for uniformity of should be as tight as necessary to guarantee reproduci-
material. The quality control group should have responsibility, they should be wide enough for practical purposes.
bility for all phases of manufacturing concerning quality. While the assigning of original test values is based on
This includes raw materials, the manufacturing process previous experience and skill of the formulator, the test
and the finished coating materials through packaging, values should be continually monitored so the ranges
filling and shipping. are proper.
The purpose of testing every batch manufactured is to Frequently, standard quality control tests, such as
assure reproducibility of various paint and coating shown in the Appendix, are sufficient for many paints and
materials. This is the basic purpose of quality control from coatings that are manufactured for general use. However,
a coatings manufacturer’s standpoint. The quality control special tests are frequently designed for specialized
tests must be selected and run on every batch of coating products and critical raw materials that have unique end-
materials produced to assure that a given batch is rea- use applications. It is advisable to use standard ASTM or
sonably consistent with batches previously produced. The Federal Test Methods whenever possible. However, stan-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
quality control laboratory is responsible for evaluating the dard tests that will measure those parameters critical to
material only in accordance to standards and specifica- proper end-use of a specific coating material are not
tions indicated by the coatings’ formulator. It is the always available. Therefore, a significant amount of
responsibility of the coatings’ formulator to build quality laboratory time and effort must be spent developing
into the formulation and develop quality control instruc- special quality control tests.
tions through proper selection of significant quality
control tests. These facets are essential if the materials
I. CONSIDERATIONS IN CONTROLLING
manufactured are to be suitable for field use.
QUALITY
Another factor that varies considerably, depending
upon the type of market for a particular coating, is quality
A. QUALITY OF FORMULATIONIPRODUCT
control of compliance with existing customer specifica-
DEVELOPMENT
tions. It is critical that those specific quality control tests
be run. However, merely verifying that a coating meets ex- 1. Consumer Needsfperformance Characteristics
isting specifications is not necessarily sufficient quality When a coating is formulated, the first step is to
control testing. Testing for a given specification might in- define the product characteristics, which are
dicate reproducibility as manufactured, but this may still usually predetermined by its purpose. The pur-
be insufficient to ensure the suitability of a product. Fre- pose of a formulation can be as simple as pro-
quently, additional quality control tests have to be de- viding a competitive product or as complex as
signed by the coatings manufacturer to guarantee the providing the means to answer a need that has
product’s suitability for use, in addition to tests designed puzzled the market for decades. Understanding
to meet specifications (see Appendix). the use and purpose of a coating is the first prob-
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*7.L 93 W 8b27940 0003b55 O B T W
lem of a coatings engineer, since this is the begin- tics, since many variables exist. Tests must be
ning of the formula design. The criteria may be designed to test all variable properties that could
based on either the wet material (perhaps prede- affect usability or performance. Test results
fining application characteristics), or the dry should make it obvious when the product i s not
material (involving a coating’s reaction to its en- meeting end-use requirements and should assure
vironment), or both (a sprayable coating that is that upon completion, if stored, handled and used
highly abrasion-resistant). So, investigating and properly, the coating material performs as intend-
understanding the end-use and purpose of a ed.
coating is primary in designing it.
2. Response to Needs ProducüSystem - E. QUALITY OF RAW MATERIALS
Effectiveness 1. Selection for Suitability
Once the performance characteristics are under- Selection of proper raw materials is essential in
stood, the next phase in formulation development optimizing selected properties of the finished
is to formulate and evaluate the coatings product. Selection is normally dictated by past ex-
generated to meet these requirements. In some perience with material, what properties it has im-
cases, the experimental phase consists only of parted, the quality and consistency with which i t
several candidates; in other cases, hundreds of has been received, the ease and safety of use, and
possibilities are tested. Optimizing the required cost. Selection of materials that the formulator
criteria as well as associated factors such as has had no previous experience with is more dif- I
ease of manufacture, cost, application properties, ficult, but these can be screened in the design
gloss, etc., are all considered. The final product development phase. Other criteria in selecting
must have all the required properties and satisfy component materials must include considera-
the end-use requirements of the customer. tions of long-term availability, and delivery and
As candidates are created, investigated and quality of packaging to assure stability. Addi-
eliminated, tests should be continuous to verify tional considerations, such as compatibility
conformance to wet and dry coating re- among various raw material components within a
quirements. Coating materials may be subjected formulation, must also be taken into account.
to simulated use testing, involving coating integri- Alternate suppliers for key raw materials should
ty under many environmental conditions, or under be evaluated thoroughly to assure consistent,
physical stress. Coatings may also be continu- qual ity avai labi I ity.
ously analyzed for wet properties to meet 2. Establishing Acceptance Criteria
specifications or demands for shelf stability or When a raw material is suitable for use, its
application properties. Consideration must also parameters must be defined to assure the
be given to the coatings system in which the material is of consistent quality. Only in this way
coating will be used; whether it is intended as a can duplication of the original design be possible.
primer, intermediate, or finish coat and how this It is necessary to determine which properties of
affects other coatings that may be used with it. the raw material are essential to the quality of the
It is essential to devise and employ methods product. These properties must be definable and
of simulating use and testing of coating material measurable so that the requirements can be com-
under many circumstances to ensure the material municated to the supplier prior to purchase. Deci-
has met design purposes. sions must be made on whether the properties are
3. Design of Inspection/Conformance Criteria critical to the finished product and must be tested
Satisfying performance characteristics complete- upon receipt, or spot-checked at random, and
ly is impossible unless the proposed design en- checked for appearance. It must be determined
sures repeated duplication of properties under whether it is necessary to check the condition of
normal circumstances. Beyond specifying in- the container to satisfactorily preserve the quality
structions for combining ingredients, the formu- of the material. Communicating the criteria for ac-
lator must specify the type and quality of raw ceptance to the suppliers of these raw materials
materials, all pertinent facts concerning combina- helps assure that the material received meets
tion and incorporation of these raw materials specification standards.
along with intermediate and final test methods 3. Testing for Conformance
and tolerances. Instructions for labeling, handling Having established criteria and tolerances, it re-
and storing coating material must be determined, mains only t o subject selected materials andlor
and specified and detailed procedures given on lots of materials to actual inspections. It is
use and application. necessary to provide inspection personnel with re-
In designing tests for new coatings, controls quired equipment, acceptance standards and test
must be based on predictions rather than statis- procedures, and instructions. Many times, the
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SSPC C H A P T E R W . ~ 73 m 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003656 TL6 W
test procedures are standards that the industry Clear, non-ambiguous instructions to production
routinely uses to test the particular material. In personnel leave no room for erroneous interpreta-
other cases, tests are unique to the material or a itions. The input from quality control testing
simulation of the end-use of the material. This is should be communicated to production workers
the point at which a decision is made whether or as affirmation that the job is being done properly.
not the raw material is fit to provide the required Problems should be discussed with these people
end properties of the coating product. This step is since they have firsthand experience on each
no more or less critical than the previous one batch. Many production units have an assigned
defining the tolerances of this measure of accept- technician to work with the formulator to deter-
ability. mine the process equipment, check point testing,
batch sequence of raw materials, and final accep-
4. Quality Data Analysis
tance criteria. In the case of resin manufacture,
Analysis of quality data generated through
sequence of raw materials, time, and temperature
raw material testing or experience is important to
controls must be monitored. It should not be
continuance of quality in the raw material and
overlooked that appropriate training can prevent
finished product. Coupled with analysis of fin-
many problems in quality.
ished goods test data, statistical analysis pro-
vides information necessary to adjust raw materi- 3. Instruments and Controls
al specifications to improve the quality, proper- Continuous monitori ng and i n-process test i ng
ties or stability of the finished product. It provides must be planned and executed to assure that
objective data on the reliability of raw materials batch making is proceeding properly. Tempera-
andlor suppliers and makes qualification or dis- ture monitoring can provide information on the
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qualification an easy task. It also simplifies selec- rate or progress of a chemical reaction or be used
tion of quality raw materials to be used in prod- as a guideline to judge the phase of the mixing
ucts yet to be developed. This data provides feed- process. Viscosity checks can monitor develop-
back and closes the loop between specifying and ment of thixotropic agents throughout the batch-
using. making process. Periodic fineness of grind tests
are essential in determining proper dispersion of
pigments and fillers added in the process.
C. QUALITY OF MANUFACTURE In addition to demonstrating that a batch is
1. Equipment and Processes progressing as planned, monitoring and in-
The ability of coating material to conform to process testing may detect problems occurring in
finished specifications can be affected. by the batch-making. If testing is done at critical points
method of manufacturing. Trial and error during of the process, any problems discovered can be
product development normally provides the basis identified and remedied. In-process batch ad-
for equipment use and selection, but the formula- justments, dictated by test results, are a reliable
tion type usually eliminates certain methods of method of assuring that the batch meets estab-
manufacture. Use of pilot plant facilities for large lished quality criteria. Modifying a completed
scale simulation tests is also helpful in selecting batch for conformance is far more difficult and
appropriate equipment for production. Optimum frequently less successful than in-process ad-
batch size must be determined during the first justments.
several batches produced, since the process can The reliability of measuring and test equip-
be more or less efficient depending on the ment is of utmost importance to quality. Proper
volume. Once criteria are established, each batch use and care of scales and meters must be com-
must be checked to affirm that the grind, viscosi- municated and monitored as necessary. Regular
ty, color and other properties are within specifica- checking and calibration of test equipment are
tion. As equipment technology improves, it is necessary to guarantee reliable test results.
necessary to re-evaluate the manufacturing
method for many standard products. Continuous D. QUALITY OF FINISHED PRODUCT
improvement in manufacture helps increase the
i. In-Process Inspection and Adjustment
efficiency and may reduce the cost of a quality In-process inspection points provide the oppor-
product. tunity to assess progress and quality of the
2. People and Procedures coating material as it is being manufactured. If
Training of production workers is a key considera- deviations are discovered at the critical points,
tion i n quality control. The ability of a worker to modifications can be made and the batch making
recognize when something is out of the ordinary can continue. It is possible to identify most
may prevent a batch from proceeding to the next critical points during the formulating stage. With
quality control test point without corrections. experience, in-process tests can be added as re-
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 7 . L 93 m 8b27940 0 0 0 3 b 5 7 952 m
quired to reduce failure, to meet final test re- vironments, immersion in chemical solutions,
quirements or reduce the necessity of making resistance to ultraviolet light and other tests
batch adjustments at inconvenient points. Some measuring the physical integrity of the coating.
additions can be made only at certain points dur- Normally, these types of tests are run during the
ing the batch making; trying to achieve a fine final stages of the formulation design phase, and
grind of added pigment in a portion of the batch properties required are built into the formulation.
that has very low viscosity, for example, is im- Verifying conformance can be done on initial
possible. Being cognizant of appropriate test batches produced and then routinely tested on
points, parameters and tolerances simplifies the batches chosen at random.
task of making successful in-process batch ad- 4. Handling, Storing and Shipping
j ustments. How the product is handled after batch comple-
tion is an important consideration from a quality
2. Final InspectionIConformance to Specificqtions
standpoint. Adequate packaging assures that the
It should be evident that if quality is not built into
product is protected from contamination. Packag-
product formulation, the selection of raw mate-
ing must be specified so the product remains
rials, and the manufacturing procedure and in-
stable at specified temperatures. The shelf life of
structions, it is impossible to build it in at the in-
a product depends on how successfully it can be
spection stage. The function of final inspection is
isolated from the environment and is ascertained
for verification. Pertinent in-depth testing should
by the actual storage history of the product. Nor-
be used to verify that the batch has been manu-
mally, lower temperatures maximize the useful
factured properly and according to procedures
life. Temperature must be considered during ship-
and meets specifications for the finished product.
ping, which may be long enough to adversely af-
The most important properties to verify on
fect shelf life.
almost every coating material are batch-yield, to
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Environmental control assures that a quality
verify that the volume produced conforms to the
product, once manufactured, can be maintained
theoretical batch volume; batch weight per gallon,
until used.
to verify that the material produced exhibits the
same density as the theoretical calculation of the
component ingredients; appearance, to verify that E. QUALITY OF SERVICE
the batch has been mixed properly, and contains 1. Opportunities for Improvement
no contamination; fineness of grind, to verify that With each batch of coating material shipped, the
the ingredients have been adequately dispersed. coating manufacturer has an opportunity to test
Verifying these properties assures that for- the effectiveness of the quality control system.
mulation instructions have been followed with Communication from the user is the most valua-
respect to type and quantity of raw materials add- ble information that a manufacturer can obtain to
ed and mixing and grinding during the manufac- assess the success of quality control. The whole
turing phase. Further “wet properties” verification system, from inception based on end-use suitabil-
includes tests of the following types: viscosity, ity, can be finally tested and critiqued by the user.
application properties, film build and sag tests, All complaints must be investigated and the
wet opacity, dry or cure time, usable pot life, per- source of problems determined so that quality
cent solids, percent pigment, percent vehicle, and control measures can be investigated and, when
flash point. Additional “wet properties” tests may required, adjusted.
be run, depending upon the type of coating materi- Efficient use of quality data provides
al and specifications. knowledge necessary for a dynamic control
“Dry properties” verification frequently in- system with potential for improvement with each
cludes hiding power, gloss, hardness of film, and problem.
color, as well as additional inspection depending 2. Success o f Recommended Application
upon coating type and required specifications. To close the loop of the quality control system,
Further testing frequently is performed as ap- the success of each product in each application
plicable to test the coating for end-use properties. must be communicated to the engineer and for-
3. Testing Through Simulated Use mulator to be used as data for designing or im-
Frequently, pertinent testing includes verification proving products.
of end-use properties. Adhesion of the coating to
a specified substrate or t o another coating i s im-
portant; flexibility of the coating in a particular ap-
plication may be specified, or resistance to a cer-
tain type of abrasion may be required. Among
other end-use tests are weathering in various en-

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SSPC CHAPTER*7-L 93 m 8627940 0003658 899
APPENDIX: TYPICAL QC TESTS*

Numerous tests are used for evaluating and monitoring quality control of paints and coatings; the examples shown
here are merely typical and illustrative and not intended to be inclusive.
Federal Standard
141 ASTM
A) Viscosity (consistency)
Brookfield Viscosity D 2196
Stormer Viscosity 4281 D 562
#4 Ford Cup 4282 D 1200
Zahn Cups D 1084
Gardner-Holdt Tubes 4271 D 1545
B) Dispersion (grind)
Hegman Gage D 1210
C) Density (weight/gallon)
Weight/Gallon Cup 4184 D 1475
Pycnometer 41 83 D 891
Westphal Balance 41 83 D 891
Hydrometer 41 83 D 891
D) Application Characteristics
Levelling D 4400
Brushing Properties 4321
Spraying Properties 4331
Dipping Properties 2121 D 823
Reducibility & Dilution Stability
Odor 4401 D 1296
Hiding Power D 344, D 2805
E) Film Characteristics
Drying Time D 1640
Gloss D 523
Color (Pigmented Coatings) D 3134*
F) Physical Characteristics of Film
Flexibility (Elongation) - Mandrel 6222 D 522
- Conical Mandrel 6222 D 522
Hardness - Pencil D 3363
- Sward Rocker D 2134
- Indentation Hardness 6212 D 1474
- Durometer D 2240
Abrasion Resistance - Falling Sand 6191 D 968
- Tabor Abrasor D 1044
Adhesion 6302 D 2197
6303
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21 1 Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
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SSPC C H A P T E R 8 7 . 1 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003b59 725 W
Federal Standard
141 ASTM
G) Appearance in Container
General Condition D 2090
Coarse Particles and Skins 41 O1 D 185
Skinning (partially opened container) D 154
Storage Stability (filled container) 3018 D 1849
H) Compositional
Volatile & Non-Volatile Content 404 1 D 2369
Pigment Content (centrifuge) 4022 D 2698
Water Content - reflux 4032
4052
I) Resistance (performance)
Immersion 601 1
Humidity 6071 D 2247
Salt Spray (Fog) 6061 B 117
Accelerated Weathering (open arc) 6151 D 822
(Q. U .V.) 6152
*ASTM test similar, but not identical, to Federal Test Method. **Prepared by Bernard M. Krarnper 53
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Note: Test methods vary. All parties should agree upon the accuracy and precision required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active Mary Ann Warner currently
participation of the following in the review process for this serves as a Technical Service
chapter: Dr. Bernard Appelman, AI Beitelman, Leon Birnbaum, Engineer for Carboline Compa-
Alex Chasan, Thomas A. Cross, Theodore Dowd, Leonard Haynie, ny. She acts as research
Robert Klepser, I. Metil, William Pearson, Walter Pregmon, Dale E. analyst, specification writer and
Radde, Melvin Sandler, Verne Todd and William J. Wallace. advisor between the develop-
ment laboratory and end-users.
Mrs. Warner graduated from the
University of Missouri, St. Louis
with a Bachelor of Science
BIOGRAPHY degree in mathematics and a
John F. Montle is Vice strong background in chemistry.
President-Technology of the First joining Carboline Company
Carboline Company, responsi- in 1973, she has worked as a
ble for new products develop- Laboratory Group Leader, Quality ControllQuality Assurance
ment, testing and technical Manager and Quality Specialist. Following four years of field sales,
assistance. Upon graduation she accepted her current position.
from Washington University of
St. Louis in 1958with a Bachelor
of Science degree in chemical
engineering, Mr. Montle joined
Carboline Company, where he REFERENCES
has been engaged in research
& development work on protec- 1. “Paint Testing Manual”, (GardneríSward) S.T.P. 500. ASTM,
tive coatings for 35 years. He is a member of the National Asso- 13th Edition, 1972.
ciation of Corrosion Engineers (Chairman of Task Group T-6G), the 2. “Manual of Coating Work for Light-Water Nuclear Power
Subcommittee on American National Standards Institute N101.2, Plants”, ASTM, 1st Edition, 1979.
American Society for Testing and Materials D33, the Federation of 3. Phillip B. Crosby, Quality is Free, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Societies for Paint Technology, and is on the Executive Committee 1979.
and Board of Governors of the Steel Structures Painting Council.
He has 40 publications and papers on zinc-rich coatings, nuclear
power plants, formulation, scanning electron microscopy and film
density.

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 7 - 2 93 m 8627940 0003660 447 m
CHAPTER 7.2
QUALITY ACCEPTANCE OF PAINTS -

AS RECEIVED BY THE USER
by
John R. O’Leary and Garland W. Steele
Testing received products, referred to as acceptance

I. ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
testing, is the responsibility of the purchaser. The purpose
is to determine that the quality of a manufactured product Obtaining unbiased samples is the most important
meets specified requirements. Acceptance testing main- phase of the acceptance procedure. If samples are not an
unbiased portion of the batch, no amount of testing can
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tains the integrity of procurement procedures when pur-

chases are made on the basis of low bid. reliably indicate characteristics of paint. Extreme care
Specifications accompanying a paint purchase or re- during sampling must be exercised. The sampler should be
quest for bid should reference the purchaser’s acceptance familiar with the product, have knowledge of the manu-
plan and should be discussed with the paint manufacturer. facturing process and be aware of the importance of
The acceptance plan should include, but not necessarily sampling techniques.
be limited to, the following: Sampling containers should be at least one pint,
Labeling requirements - information that iden- preferably glass or metal, with an air-tight lid. Containers
tifies the product, and other data such as manufac- must be clean, dry and nonreactive with paint. The con-
turer’s name, batch number, type of paint, grade tainer, when filled, should have no more than 6 percent air
(spray, brush, rolled), amount and type of thinning space.
solvents, percent total solids by volume (for use in Sample containers sent to the laboratory should be
wet film thickness calculations); packaged for shipment and fully identified. Manufacturer’s
inspection of finished product - acceptable and name, batch number and the date of sampling should be
unacceptable conditions of the paint at the time of written on or attached to the container. Other information,
sampling, such as settling, skins, etc; such as quality control test results, destination, color,
Sampling - the number of samples that will be date of manufacture, order numbers, etc., should be with
taken, the location and method of sampling; the sample or sent separately, i f requested by the
Testing - the frequency of tests, number to be con- purchaser.
ducted, procedure and time to conduct test;
Method of identifying tested and approved A. SAMPLING FROM STORAGE TANKS OR
materials; and VATS
Action available to the manufacturer when test It is recommended that sampling be done by a pur-
results indicate material does not meet acceptable chaser’s representative during pouring. Safety or other
limits. considerations may require sampling by an employee of
It is not believed advisable to accept material with the manufacturer. In this case, sampling should be
marginally failing test results. Acceptance of marginally witnessed by a purchaser’s representative.
failing material, even at a reduced price, could suggest During filling, samples of sufficient size should be
that the property being measured is irrelevant; that the drawn from the first one-third, the second one-third, and
purchaser recognizes the specification requirement is un- the last one-third of the pour. These samples should be
realistic; or that the limits have been set without regard to tested individually by the supplier to determine uniformity.
variables (material, manufacturing, sampling and testing). If test results such as weight per gallon, viscosity, and
Waiving specification limits, regardless of how small the fineness of grind fall within specification limits, it can be
deficiency, encourages laxity in the manufacturer’s quality a,ssumed the material has been properly mixed and sam-
control. pled. Quality control test results should be available to the
Realistic specification limits can be established purchaser’s representative. After the manufacturer’s tests
without costly and time consuming experimental projects. are completed and the results are acceptable to the
Specifications can allow tolerances acceptable to the purchaser, the three samples are divided to form duplicate
manufacturer and purchaser. Specifying target values, or triplicate samples, one to be sent to the purchaser’s
rather than limits, and using the manufacturer’s tolerance laboratories for analysis, one to be retained by the
can sharply reduce failures without sacrificing quality. purchaser’s representative, and one for the manufacturer.
at 303-397-2295.
STEEL STRUCI'URES PAINTING COUNCIL APPLICATION RECOLID
Pano1 No. Looation Exporure
P r o j m t No. Araooiitod Temts Supervised by
Suriaoe
REDUCTION
Matarialm Protreotment 1.t coot 2nd Coat 3rd Coat
Pmint name
Ssoond pari
Thinner uaed
Vol. . of paint
%
Vimoooity I I l I
PAINTING DETAILS
I
Dato Painted I I I I
I
Method Uoed 1 I I I
Air T e m ~ o r a t u r e I I I I
I I
~
S u rfaoe Temperatura
Eumidity
Weathor
Woifht per f d .
Wmiiht Belor,
Weilht Attar I I 7 I
Paint Ured I 1 1 I
I 1 I
Film Thioknoormeao.
Workin$ Proputiso
Paokade Condition
PROPERTIES
Color I I I I
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FIGURE 1
Steel Structures Painting Council Paint Application Record.
If the supplier wishes acceptance testing conducted using a sampling tube or other suitable device. When this
before paint is poured into cans or drums, samples should sampling procedure is used, the supplier must ensure that
be obtained at the top third, middle third and bottom third, the paint remains uniform until it is canned or packaged.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 21 4

at 303-397-2295.
T E S T NO. PROBLEM NO. PAINT NO.
SUBSTRATE LOCATION COLOR
PURPOSE OF T E S T
XPOSED REMOVE0 EXPOSURE N Z F W VFRT. 4 so

I
3 6 9 12 i5 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 Si 54 57 60
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IO
8
6
4
2
O
6 9 i2 I5 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60
IO
8
6
4
2
O
FIGURE 2
Front side of Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology single panel form.
FEDERATION OF SOCIETIES FOR COATINGS TECHNOLOGY
'This form has been cancelled. No replacement is available. 1315 WALNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA 19107
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERm7-2 93 = Bb279q0 0003bb3 156
I Sf COAT 2 N O COPT 3 R D COAT 4 T H COPT
~
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PREPPRPTION OF THE SURFACE----. I I I J

PROTECTION OF THE BACK ________ I
l l
i
I 1 I I
I I I I
REMARKS:
~~~
FIGURE 3
Back side of Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology single panel form.
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
1916 RACE ST, PHILADELPHIA, PA 19103
216
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERa7.2 93 8627940 0003664 O92
B. SAMPLING FROM CONTAINERS Methods in the following tables are commonly used.
Most test methods listed are quantitative in nature.
If containers are filled before the purchaser’s
Methods like gas chromatography and infrared spec-
representative arrives, or i f sampling is done at destina-
troscopy also lend themselves to the qualitative “finger
tion, two containers from each individual batch are ran-
print” technique. Infrared Spectroscopy - Its Use In The
domly selected. Because of the likelihood of settling upon
Coating Industry, published by the Federal Society for
standing, thorough and careful agitation by mechanical
Coating Technology, is an exceptional reference for in-
means andlor boxing is recommended before sampling.
frared analysis. Many other instrumental methods are
The exception is paint that is formulated to be non-
available for testing and identifying paints and consti-
settling. To test the effectiveness of agitation, pour half of
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tuents. Another excellent reference for a variety of

mixed material into an empty container of equal size and
methods is Part 10 of GardnerlSward, STP 500.
determine the weight per gallon for each half. If results do
not deviate more than 0.5 percent, it may be assumed that
the material is adequately mixed. Some paints, notably
TABLE 1
latex, tend to trap air bubbles when stirred vigorously. En-
trapped air should be allowed to escape before weight per PHYSICAL TESTS*
gallon is determined. To minimize the time needed for this, Federal
excessive agitation should be avoided. Test
When agitation is not possible and the container size Paint Property Method ASTM
facilitates shipping, two unopened containers should be
Preparation of Panels D 609
sent to the purchaser’s laboratories for complete analysis.
Preparation of Tin Panels D 609
Paints that are not ready-mix and are multi-com-
Viscosity (KU) 4281 D 562
ponent should be sampled as agreed between the purcha-
Weight Per Gallon 4184 D 1475
ser and manufacturer.
Fineness of Grind D 1210
Water Content D 95
II. ACCEPTANCE TESTING (LIQUID PAINT) Coarse Particles and Skins 41O1 D 185
Drying Times: D 1640
Most methods are standardized by paint tech-
Set To Touch D 1640
nologists and measure characteristics or physical proper-
Dry For Recoating
ties of paint. Results of paint testing depend on test pro-
Dry Hard
cedures; therefore, it is critical that standardized test pro-
Pigment Content D 2371
cedures be used and agreed to by the manufacturer and
Vehicle Content D 2371
purchaser. Test procedures listed in this section include
Non-Volat¡le Content 4041 D 2369
physical, chemical and instrumental test methods.
Adhesion D 3359
Paint testing is standardized by the National Paint
Brushing Properties 4321
and Coatings Association, The American Society For
Spraying Properties 4331
Testing and Materials, and The Federation of Societies for
Exposure Tests of Paints
Coatings Technology.
on Metals 6160 D 1014
Those interested in testing the composition or proper-
Salt Spray Resistance 6061 B 117
ties of coatings should have the following references.
Accelerated Weathering 6151 D 822
Federal Standard 141, Paint, Varnish, Lacquer and
6152
Related Materials, Method for Testing; American Society
Leafing 4451 D 480
For Testing Materials, Paints 6.01, 6.02 and 6.03, which con-
7233
tain tests for paints, pigments, resins and other raw materi-
Flexibility 6222 D 522
als; and Garner/Sward (STP 500) Paint Testing Manual,
Recoatability - The paint film shall not be lifted by a suc-
published by the American Society for Testing and Materi-
ceeding specified coating.
als, an excellent source which contains many tests for phys-
Compatibility - Manufacturer’s recommended volume of
ical, mechanical, chemical and appearance properties of
paint and thinner shall be mixed without curdling, liver-
paints and coatings.
ing, separating, or otherwise affecting the paint except
Paint tests should be done under controlled to thin it.
laboratory conditions. Standard procedures often specify
Storage Stability - No gas pressure shall build up after
temperature and relative humidity. Test conditions have a 30 days storage at 75OF (24OC) f 5OF ( 3 O C ) .
profound effect on some properties while on others they Water Resistance - The paint shall show no visual deteri-
will have little or no effect. When it is not practical to test oration, other than discoloration after two days immersion
under controlled conditions, the exact test conditions in distilled water.
should be recorded. In case of dispute or disagreement
between laboratories, the test should be conducted under *Test methods vary. Ail parties should agree upon the ac-
the ASTM standard conditions. curacy & precision required.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R + 7 . 2 93 8627940 0003665 T 2 9
Paint Property Test Method
TABLE 2 Zinc Oxide ASTM D 34

CHEMICAL TESTS Zinc Powder ASTM D 521
Zinc Sulfide ASTM D 34
Paint Property Test Method
Zinc Yellow ASTM D 444
Chemical Resistance ASTM D 1308
Liquid Dryers ASTM D 564
Drying Oils ASTM D 555
Aluminum ASTM D 480
Aluminum Silicate ASTM D 718
Barium Sulfate ASTM D 34, D 715
Basic Carbonate of Lead ASTM D 1301 TABLE 3
Basic Lead Silico-Chromate ASTM D 1844 I NST R UMENT TESTS
Basic Sulfate of Lead ASTM D 1301
Calcium Carbonate ASTM D 34
Paint Property Test Method Instrument
Calcium Sulfate ASTM D 34
Chrome Green ASTM D 126 Dry Opacity ASTM A 2805 Reflectometer
Chrome Orange ASTM D 126 Gloss ASTM D 523 Glossmeter
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Chrome Yellow ASTM D 126 Color ASTM D 2244 Colorimeter
Chromium Oxide Green ASTM D 126 Vehicle
Clay ASTM D 36, D 718 Identif ication ASTM D 3168 Infrared Spectro
Copper ASTM D 283 phometer
Copper Oxide ASTM D 283 ASTM D 3271 Gas Chromatograph
Extenders in Colors ASTM D 126 Solvent
Iron Blue ASTM D 1135 Identification ASTM D 3271 Gas Chromatograph
Iron Oxide ASTM D 768, D 50 Vehicle Solids
Leaded Zinc Oxide ASTM D 34 Identification ASTM D 2621 Infrared Spectro
Lit hopone ASTM D 34 phometer
Magnesium Carbonate ASTM D 34, D 717
Magnesium Silicate ASTM D 34 The listed methods can be obtained from the following:
Mercuric Oxide ASTM D 284 Paint Testing Manual, GardnerSward, STP 500
Mica ASTM D 716 American Society for Testing and Materials
Molybdate Orange ASTM D 126 1916 Race Street
Para Red ASTM D 970 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103-1187
Red Lead ASTM D 49
Silica Federal Test Method Standard No. 141
ASTM D 34, D 719
Superintendent of Documents
Strontium Chromate ASTM D 1845
U.S. Government Printing Office
Titanium Oxide ASTM D 2701, D 1394
Washington, D.C. 20402-9325
Toluidine Red ASTM D 970
ASTM Standards
UItramarine BIue ASTM D 1135
American Society For Testing and Materials
Water Soluble Salts ASTM D 2448, D 2455 1916 Race Street
White Lead ASTM D 1301 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103-1187
Yellow Iron Oxide ASTM D 768
Standardization Documents Order Desk
700 Robbins Avenue
Building 4, Section D
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19111-5094
The following cancelled specifications have been removed from this
table: D 50, D 135, D 767, D 2742, and MIL-L-14486.

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SSPC CHAPTERJ7-2 93 8627940 O003666 965
TEST NO. PROBLEM -.OH ___COLOR INSPECTED BY

LOCATION EXPOSURE W S E W VERT. 45. DATE
PINEL OR PAINT NO. PROPERTIES I REYARKS
FIGURE 4
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology multi-panel Record form.
FEDERATION OF SOCIETIES FOR COATINGS TECHNOLOGY
1315 WALNUT CT.. PHILADELPHIA, PA 19107
111. ACCEPTANCE TESTING: OUTDOOR conductive material should be used as a barrier between
EXPOSURE TESTS ON PAINTED METAL the panel and rack. Racks should not project shadows
There are two types of outdoor exposure tests: service across test panels. Test panels should be placed on the
tests, in which painted portions’of structures are tested; rack so shadows are not cast from one panel to the next,
and field tests, in which panels prepared in a laboratory rain water will not drip or flow from one to another and
are exposed to an environment similar to conditions of a water will not splash from the ground onto the panels.
service test. Each type has advantages and disadvan-
tages. Field tests are more easily standardized and are the B. TEST PANELS
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focus of this discussion. Panels may contain many of the same features as
A useful guide for testing methods is in the American structures to be painted, but not in such a way as to
Society for Testing and Materials D 1014, Standard Method obscure performance on flat or scribed surfaces. Mill
of Conducting Exterior Exposure Tests of Paint on Steel. scale, sharp edges and corners, angles, crevices, welds
This describes the metal used for panels, size of panels, and rivets are commonly encountered in steel structures,
panel conditioning, field positioning and monitoring of and some types of test panels contain these features.
panels, and evaluation procedures. Each panel should have an individual and permanent
coded identification mark stamped on the back. Panels
A. RACKS can be fabricated by the testing organization or purchased
Racks used to hold panels for field tests can be con- from a number of commercial firms.
structed of any sturdy material. If racks are metal, a non-
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SSPC CHAPTER*7.2 93 = 8627940 0003bb7 8TL
C. PANEL PREPARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Panels can be initially conditioned by degreasing and participation of the following in the review process for this
rusting. Panel rusting should be to the same degree as the chapter: AI Beitelman, Robert Brady, Paul Campbell, Richard
substrate and when possible, should be in an environment Drisko, Parker Helms, Marshall McGee, I. Metil, William Pearson,
Eugene Praschan, Melvin Sandler, John R. Saroyan and William
similar to that in which shop or field paint is exposed. Wal Iace.
When field paint is used in a marine environment, rusting
by salt should be considered. If paint is intended primarily
for maintenance, panel rusting before cleaning should be
severe. If the paint is for new structures, slight rusting is BIOGRAPHY
appropriate. The late John R . O’Leary
was Assistant Director of the
After rusting, panels are cleaned in a manner encoun- Materials Control, Soil and Test-
tered in the shop or field by hand cleaning, power tool ing Division of the West Virginia
cleaning, blasting, steam or hot water jets to remove salt, Department of Highways. He
was employed by the Depart-
or other acceptable means. Paint application should be ment beginning in 1963 in the
similar to that encountered in the shop or field. Paint film capacity of Head of the Coatings
is measured (SSPC-PA 2) after thorough curing and ex- and Corrosion Section.
He was a graduate of West-
amined visually with a magnifying glass. The dry film ern Illinois University with a BS
thickness and minor flaws of each coat on each panel are in Education in Mathematics
recorded on a form, such as shown in Figure 1. Panels with and Colorado School of Mines
with a Geological Engineering
paint flaws that might influence performance may be dis- degree. He was a registered professional Engineer in the State of
carded or i f of interest to the purchaser, may be included in Illinois and West Virginia and a member of the American Society
the evaluation. A minimum of four panels are typically pre- for Testing and Materials and the National Association of Corro-
sion Engineers.
pared for evaluation of each paint or paint system, one to
be retained as a reference, three to be installed on the
racks. Blast-cleaned panels need fewer replicates because
of more consistent performance.
D. FIELD EVALUATION BIOGRAPHY

Periodically, field evaluations of test panels are made. Garland W. Steele, P.E.,
President, Steel Engineering,
No less than two per year are recommended. The evalua- Inc., has over 37 years
tion team can include people who have had experience in experience in highway engineer-
paint performance evaluations. Rusting, as per SSPC-Vis ing. He received his BA degree
from West Virginia State College
2 (ASTM-D 610) is usually a primary criterion in evalu- and is a registered professional
ating paints for protection of structural steel using engineer in the States of West
pictorial standards. Properties such as chalking, checking, Virginia and Virginia. He is a
member of the American Society
cracking, rusting, blistering, and others that are deemed of Civil Engineers, the Nation-
important to the evaluation team should be given ratings al Society of Professional
from 10, representing the initial condition (perfect), to zero, Engineers, the American So-
ciety for Testing and Materials
representing complete failure. Ratings for each property of
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(ASTM), and theAmerican Concrete Institute. During his thirty years
each panels should be recorded on forms such as those with the West Virginia Department of Transportation (1955-1988),
shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4. The use of the forms in he served as a member and chairman of many technical sections
in the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Figures 2 and 3 is described in ASTM-D 1150, which also Officials and the Transportation Research Board. He is currently
contains the tabulation listed below of pictorial reference a member of the ASTM Board of Directors.
standards. His major field of interest is in construction, maintenance, and
operation of transportation systems with special emphasis on qual-
ASTM-D 4214 - Chalking ity. His many papers and publications involve a wide range of sub-
ASTM-D660 - Checking jects including statistical research, statistical quality assurance,
probability specifications,certificationfor materials acceptance, com-
ASTM-D661 - Cracking puter applications,technicians’ certificationprograms, polymer modi-
ASTM-D 772 - Erosion fied concretes, data handling systems, and performance
ASTM-D672 - Flaking specifications.
ASTM-D610 - Rusting (SSPC Vis 2)
ASTM-D 714 - Blistering
Pictorial reference standards can also be found in the Ex-
posure Standards Manual, published by the Federation of
Societies for Coatings Technology.

220
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SSPC C H A P T E R a 7 . 2 93 m Ab27940 0003bb8 738 m
REFERENCES
1. “ASTM Standards, Parts 27, 28, and 29” American Society for
Testing and Materials.
2. “Federal Test Method Standard No. 141, Paint, Varnish,
Lacquer & Related Materials: Methods of Inspection, Sam-
pling and Testing”.
3. Henry ,A. Gardner and G.G. Sward, “Paint Testing Manual”,
ASTM STP 500, 13th Edition, 1972.
4. “Quality Assurance Through Process Control and Acceptance
Sampling”, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal High-
way Administration, Washington, D.C., April 1964.
5. “Statistical Quality Assurance Workshop Proceedings”, U S .
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administra-
tion, 1968.
6. “Testing of Paints”, Oil and Colour Chemists’ Association
Paint Technology Manuals (No. 5), London, England.
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SSPC CHAPTER*B.O 73 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 O003667 b 7 4 September 1993 (Revised)
CHAPTER 8
COMPARATIVE PAINTING COSTS

By G.H. Brevoort, S.J. Oechsle, M.R. S h e
Since the purpose of protective coatings is primarily painting contractor or applicator. In this manner, specifics
economic, no practical treatise on painting structural steel of the particular job can be dealt with, and the estimate
is complete without a discussion of comparative costs. reflects all aspects that might otherwise be missed.
The specifier must have access to basic information The cost of each alternate should be considered on a
and procedures identifying candidate systems that are total project rather than a per square foot basis for several
suitable in the specific environment, costing each, making reasons. First, the magnitude of the work can be recog-
a selection and justifying the choice. nized and reflected in the cost estimate. Secondly, certain
Because there is considerable literature on coatings’ aspects of the work are better evaluated on a whole project
cost evaluation, this chapter deals primarily with basis. Different surfaces probably have different costs per
hypothetical practical examples of alternative costs. square foot (structural steel, tanks, piping, valves, etc.).
Assumptions regarding paint life are very conservative and Certain elements of the estimate such as productive labor
apply mainly to severe environments. Values for interest operations (abrasive blasting, coating application, etc.)
rates, labor, materials, salaries, overhead, energy, etc. have lend themselves to a square footage basis for production
been assumed to make illustration possible. In some ex- rates. Support operations and equipment generally are ex-
amples the time-value of money is neglected with the tacit pressed in terms of productive labor requirements (e.g.,
assumption that interest rate is currently balanced by infla- one pot tender for every two “productive” workers during
tion rate. Maintenance examples are based, whenever the abrasive blasting and priming operation). And finally,
possible, on new but sound industry practice, such as re- some operations are most appropriately expressed in
painting when SSPC-Vis 2 Rustgrade 7 or 8 is reached or terms of the total project, such as move-in and move-out,
when 10-15% repainting is required. Cost factors in sur- rigging, and similar operations.
face preparation are reviewed in a separate chapter.
Cost data represent the authors’ best estimate for A. ELEMENTS OF COSTS
1992-93, and are intended only to illustrate methods of com- 1. Labor
paring alternatives. Prices and costs in specific areas should Labor should be figured on a person-hour or
be secured from local paint suppliers and contractors. person-day basis for the project based upon the
Subjects covered in this chapter include Elements of operations performed. Typically, these include
Field Painting Costs (She); Cost Factors in Coating Selec- cleaning, abrasive blasting, application of each
tion (Brevoort); and Types of Contracts (Oechsle). coat of paint, pot tending (for abrasive blasting),
helping rigging, removing spent abrasive and
I. ELEMENTS OF FIELD PAINTING COSTS supervising. Productive operations are calculated
on the basis of labor production rates applied to
When selecting paint or a protective coating system, a
each surface area classification involved.
study of comparative costs of the systems is usually made.
Classifications might include large structural
Typical choices involve generic types of coating, number
shapes, small structural shapes, miscellaneous
of coats, shop or field coating and surface preparation
steel (handrails, ladders, etc.), piping, valves,
met hods.
equipment, vessels and so forth.
The cost of labor, equipment and material is constant-
Following is a description of typical labor
ly changing. A coating system considered too expensive
support categories:
today may become economically attractive if material
a. Pot Tender - Assists abrasive blasting
costs rise faster than labor, or if a technological improve-
operators to adjust abrasive blasting pots, refill
ment reduces the required labor. The number of cir-
cumstances to consider are too great to list individually. pots and frequently assists priming operations.
The ratio of pot tenders to blasters depends on
Coating steel involves the condition of steel, geographic
location, accessibility, size of the project, specifications equipment involved and labor restrictions. A
single tender should be able to handle at least two
and other factors.
pots. When bulk abrasive is used, pot tending is
One preferred method for evaluating and selecting a
much less time consuming; frequently, the crew
coating system is to secure a detailed analysis and cost
foreman doubles as pot tender.
estimate from an experienced coatings estimator such as a
@Portions of this text copyrighted 1993 by NACE Interna-
tional. All Rights Reserved by NACE; reprinted by
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permission.
222
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SSPC C H A P T E R U 8 . 0 93 m 8b27940 O003670 396 m
b. Abrasive Handlers -
Handle spent abrasive, 2. Equipment
when required. Most frequently abrasive handlers Equipment required for individual jobs varies with
are used to remove the abrasive from inside a type of job, size and configuration of the struc-
vessel or from the immediate work area; tures, type of surface preparation, type of paint or
sometimes, the abrasive must be hauled to a coating, etc. Following is a description of typical
remote dump site. Abrasive removal is normally operations and the equipment required.
figured on a pounds per hour or tons per day a. Abrasive Blasting and Priming - Compressed
basis. The rate is determined by the distance the air for the abrasive blasting is determined by the
abrasive has to be moved, the obstacles in the nozzle size and other factors, figuring 350-450
way, and the equipment. CFM per nozzle for aiypical job. Blast pots, hoses,
c. Helpers - Number varies with the re- nozzles and helmets (with appropriate air lines
quirements of the project. Helpers may be used to and filters) need also to be figured. Spray equip-
mix paints and assist in moving rigging; spray ment for priming would be figured as indicated
painters frequently take care of these operations below; since a large source of compressed air
when working on the ground but not when working Wou Id al ready be avai Iab Ie, addit ional compressed
off staging. The need and degree of use of helpers air would not be needed for spraying primer after
should be evaluated on a case by case basis. abrasive blasting.
d. Riggers - Deployment, placement and removal b. Conventional Spraying - Spray pots are
of equipment enabling workers to gain access to figured as required; the larger pots can handle two
surfaces to be cleaned and coated. This normally spray guns. If compressed air is not otherwise
includes hanging suspension scaffolding and available, a small compressor may be needed.
cages, erecting scaffolding, etc. The most effi- c. Airless Spraying - Airless pumps are figured
cient rigging method should be evaluated for each as required. Production sized units can normally
case; it is frequently dependent upon the opera- handle two guns unless the material is highly
tions to be performed (Le., abrasive blasting ver- viscous or other circumstances warrant. A power
sus hand or power tool cleaning). source (electrical or compressed air) needs to be
e. Supervisors - Field supervision. This is nor- used for the pump.
mally figured based on the number of crew days d. General - All jobs need a pickup or larger
and supervisors required. A single supervisor trucks to haul workers, equipment, and materials.
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seldom has more than 8 to 10 workers. A working Additionally, the project may require rigging
foreman may be employed on crews of up to about cages, lifts, scaffolds, or similar items. Offices,
6 persons. change rooms, storage rooms, sanitary facilities,
Once the person-hours for each labor opera- etc., may also be required.
tion are determined, the labor cost can be deter- The cost of equipment is figured on the
mined by multiplying the person-hours by the number of days each piece of equipment is used
hourly rate for each classification of worker. The at reasonable rental rate. Even if the firm owns all
person-hour rate is the labor cost plus an over- of the equipment, it should recognize and allow
head fee. Labor cost is the sum of wages, fringe for recovering the investment in that equipment.
benefits, travel pay and subsistence. Companies Items costing at least several hundred dollars are
differ in how they handle fees on labor and the normally considered rental equipment.
other components of the total system cost. One Supplies associated with rental equipment
method is to apply only payroll taxes, insurance, are either allowed for in the rental rates or are
small tools and expendables to the labor cost; themselves rental items. Included in this category
labor cost is then accumulated with equipment are hoses, nozzles, guns, abrasive blasting
and material cost and profit and overhead is ap- helmets, fuel, and so forth. Local rental firms or
plied to all of it as a group. Some firms consider published sources such as the Rental Rate Blue
payroll taxes and insurance as part of labor cost Book can be used to determine rental rates.
instead of fees, but the difference in methods is Rental rates are normally based upon continuous
not significant for the purpose of comparison. charge during the possession of the equipment
There is normally a difference in wages paid to with 5-day, 40-hour weeks. The renter normally
skilled and unskilled labor. Blasters and painters furnishes fuel and the operator.
receive more than helpers. Many unions require
premiums for wages on such items as abrasive 3. Materials
blasting and spray painting, working with epoxies a. Abrasives - The cost is figured by applying a
and other exotic materials, working more than consumption rate to the number of abrasive
fifty feet in the air and so forth. Supervision blasting person-hours or person-days figured. For
normally receives the highest hourly rate. abrasives such as sand, slag, and many mineral

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SSPC CHAPTER*B.O 73 H 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 b 7 1 222 D
abrasives, one-quarter to one-half ton is used per

hour. The higher consumption rates would be ex-
pected on large jobs with continuous operating 4. Cost Summary
bulk equipment. The cost of abrasives can vary so The costs individually calculated for labor, equip-
greatly that the cost of the entire coating system ment and materials are added together and a fee
can more than double i f changing from one of the for overhead and profit applied to give a total
lesser expensive when the abrasive is not recy- system cost. When considering alternatives to be
cled. Delivery costs of abrasive can also be a ma- undertaken by the same firm, the amount of the
jor cost factor in remote locations. When fee for overhead and profit is not important to
estimating costs, the abrasive supplier should be determine relative costs. On the other hand, i f an
contacted for a price to avoid serious errors in the owner is considering alternatives involving work
total system cost. by different vendors or himself and a vendor, dif-
b. Paint andlor Protective Coatings - The quan- ferences in fees by the different organizations
tity of each paint or coating is determined by might be significant.
dividing the surface area to be covered with that
material by the practical coverage. The practical B. AN EXAMPLE
coverage is the theoretical coverage less a loss Consider cleaning and painting the exterior shell of a
factor, typically 20-30%. The quantity of solvents new 200 foot diameter x 48 foot high storage tank. The
required for thinning and clean up should be calculated square footage is 30,159. If the first alternate is
figured, typically this is about 20-30% of the quan- a near white blast (SSPC-SP IO), 3 dry mils of inorganic zinc
tity figured for paint. The quantity of each material and 5 dry mils of polyamide epoxy, the system cost could
is multiplied by the cost per unit and taxes and be estimated as follows:
freight charges added in, for the total paint cost.
TABLE 1: Summary of Assumed Costs for Example of Storage Tank Coating

NOTE: The following 1992-93data and cost calculations are presented as examples only and are not in-
tended for use on actual jobs. Costs vary by location, job, and time. Secure estimates locally on the specif-
ic job involved.
*Assumed Labor Costs: MIN* MAX USE
Journeyman wage $15.00/hour $22.50/hour $19.00/hour
Foreman wage $17.50/hour $25.00/hour $21.00/hour
Fringe benefits $ 4.00íhour $ 7.50/hour $ 5.501hour
Assumed equipment costs (fueled):
750 CFM Compressor $180.001day
Four-nozzle blast pot with all
hose, hoods, nozzles, etc. $100.00/day
Airless spray rig with
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hose and 2 guns $ 35.001day

Spider $ 30.00lday
Pickup truck $ 30.001day
Assumed abrasive cost: $60.00/ton
delivered
Assumed coatings cost:
Inorganic zinc - $35/gallon - theoretical coverage 300 sq. ft./gal. @ 3 mils
Polyamide epoxy - $18/gallon - theoretical coverage 160 sq. ft./gal. @ 5 mils
Thinner for both - $8/gallon
Assumed internal company costs
Taxes and insurance 60% of wages
Tax
Social Security
Federal Unemployment tax
State Unemployment tax
Liability
Workers Compensation
Overhead and profit 35% of total labor, equipment and material

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Summary of Assumed Costs for Example of Storage Tank Coating (Cont'd)
Assumed production rates:
Blast @ 100 sq. ft./hr. 302 worker hours
Prime @ 300 sq. ft./hr. 101 worker hours
Finish @ 500 sq. ft./hr. 60 worker hours
Rig (from experience) 16 worker hours
Foreman (working) 1:4 120 worker hours
TOTAL - 599 worker hours
Pot tender and helper were not figured separately because with this small crew the foreman could fulfill
those functions.
The labor cost would be as follows:
Journeyman 479 @ $19 $9,101
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Foreman 120 @ $21 $2,520
Fringes 599 @ $5.50 $3,295
Subtotal = $14,916
Taxes & Insurance @ 60% (Wages only) = $ 6,973
TOTAL LABOR = $21,889
After blasting and priming is completed, the large compressors could be exchanged for smaller compres-
sors, but since the finch coating will be done in such a short period of time, this is impractical.With a 5-person
crew working 8-hour days, the job will be done in 15 working days: Therefore, the equipment is:
750 CFM Compressors 2 units x 15 days @ $ 180 = $ 5,400
Blast pot 15 days @ $ 100 = $ 1,500
Airless spraying rig 2 units x 15 days @ $ 35 = $ 1,050
Spider 4 units x 15 days @ $ 30 = $ 1,800
Pickup truck 15 days @ $ 30 = $ 450
TOTAL EQUIPMENT = $10,200
Materials cost:
Abrasive - V z ton per worker hour 302 x '1'2 @ $60 = $ 9,060
(25% loss)
Theoretical Practical Gallons
Coating Coverage Coverage Required Price cost
Zinc-rich 300 225 134 $35 $ 4,690
EPOXY 160 120 251 $18 $ 4,518
Thinner - 385 gallons x 20% = 77 $ 8 $ 616
Total coatings = $ 9,824
Abrasive from above = $ 9,060
Subtotal = $18,884
Sales tax 5% = $ 944
TOTAL MATERIALS = $19,828
Price Summary
Labor $21,889
Equipment $10,200
Material $19,828
Subtotal $51,917
Overhead & Profit @ 35% $18,171
TOTALCOST = $70,088
'Labor rates for the Northeast
If the system were being compared t o a system of commer- would be required for abrasive blasting equipment and less
cial blast (SSPC-SP 6) and three 2.5 mil coats of alkyd, the abrasive would be used. The cost of the coating materials
calculations could result in a price of, say, $40,000. The in the second alternate is less also.
second alternate would be less for the following reasons: The second alternate at $40,000 is lower in initial cost;
Abrasive blasting t o a commercial blast is faster than but is it the most economical in the long run? Perhaps not.
to a near white. Spraying alkyd is slightly easier and faster The analysis must be continued: What is the ultimate serv-
per coat than either inorganic zinc or epoxy, plus the ice life of each alternate (¡.e., how long before the system
millage is lower per coat. The fact that this is a three-coat fails and has to be blasted off)? What maintenance costs
rather than a two-coat system would be substantially will be entailed during the service life and when will they be
washed out by the increased production rates. Less time incurred?
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SSPC CHAPTER*B.O 93 8627940 0003673 O T 5
This example leads into the other portions of this A. PRELIMINARY COST ISSUES
chapter which deal with identification of candidate paint
Some common questions, factors and influences that
systems, expected service life, and economic evaluation
the specifying engineer will encounter are discussed on
and justification.
the following pages.
The analysis of coating alternatives begins with the
determination of cost using either currently available, Why Attempt Cost Calculations?
We live in a world of costs, numbers and
specifically applicable cost data or a detailed cost
“justification”. Decisions on most matters and
estimate. The maintenance cost and projected service life
materials are made on the basis of cost savings
must also be considered, weighing the value of monetary
and economics. To make good selections - and
expenditure over time.
have them accepted by management - the speci-
fying engineer must include a sound economic
II. COST FACTORS IN COATING SELECTION
analysis.
Identifying and justifying acceptable paint and protec-
Why Paint At All?
tive coating systems for a given environment is difficult,
Unfortunately, without a protective coating, steel
and often neglected. If the project is a new plant, specifica-
rusts and corrodes at varying rates depending on
tions often cal¡ for hand (SSPC-SP2) or power-tool (SSPC-
environment andlor climate. An alternative to
SP 3) cleaning, a shop primer and one or two topcoats of
painting is to specify thicker steel to compensate
alkyd applied at the jobsite. Sometimes an old specifica-
for corrosion loss. Assuming a twenty-year plant
tion from a previous job is simply pulled from the file,
life, if the corrosion rate of the steel in a particular
renamed, and used on the current job without considera-
environment is above 2 mils per year, painting is
tion of whether or not it is acceptable in the new environ-
less expensive than increasing steel thickness.(7)
ment.
Aesthetics, too, are an important reason to
Frequently, the coatings engineer is nonexclusive and
paint. Any structure simply looks better painted.
has other areas of responsibility. Paint and coating selec-
While some people discount painting for ap-
tion cost estimates and justification for new construction
pearance, it is, in fact, an important consideration
or maintenance can be a confusing and difficult task for
in most cases.
the nonexclusive coatings engineer. It need not be.
Importance of Initial Painting
The purpose of this cost guide is to help coating
Once a structure is in operation, it is sometimes
engineers understand basic cost elements, show how to
impractical, if not impossible, to blast clean, spray
calculate approximate applied costs and outline pro-
or to get sufficient “down time” to do an adequate
cedures for arriving at an intelligent coating selection
maintenance painting job. In most cases, the
based on fact with supportable detail. Use of the guide can
original painting is the only time in the life of the
help clarify coating selection and increase effectiveness.
structure when the job can be done effectively and
It must be emphasized that this cost guide is just that
economically. Therefore, the initial coating selec-
- A GUIDE. It is not intended as an infallible or absolute
tion is of critical importance. The alternative is
cost source. It is not meant for use in calculating actual job
costly andlor ineffective maintenance for the life
costs, nor as a tool for negotiating with contractors and
of the structure.
fabricators.
The cost guide gives the specifier a simplified means Design For Total Structure Life
of calculating total applied costs based on current Whether for new construction or maintenance the
material, cleaning and application costs. The cost informa- coatings engineer should consider the total cost
tion has been supplied by representative U S . applicators and number of paintings required for the design or
and paint suppliers. The base cost produced by the guide total life of the structure. If the design life is three
is for structural steel on the ground at the jobsite, with years, a coating system should be selected that --````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
costs for jobsite touchup i f shop priming is considered. will last only that long. However, if the design life
Percentage factors also are included to convert base costs is 20 years, a long-life system requiring a minimum
to in-place costs. number of maintenance paintings make sense.
The cost guide gives nonexclusive specifying See below, “Required Life (Design Life)” for more
engineers a method to help them identify candidate details.
systems for a given environment. It establishes a pro- To be cost-effective the immediate painting
cedure for calculating approximate applied costs and for must be evaluated from both a short-term, im-
estimating expected service life and cost per year for each mediate economic viewpoint as well as the
proposed system. The use of the guide facilitates com- long-term, total-structure-life viewpoint.
parison, selection and justification of a suitable system.

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SSPC C H A P T E R t 8 . 0 93 8627940 O003674 T3L
5. Why Blast? within the period the fabricator can accept, and
Hand (SSPC-SP2) or power-tool (SSPC-SP3) clean- that the coating manufacturer is in agreement. On
ing does not remove mill scale. In severe en- a practical basis, touch-up the final coat after all
vironments, mili scale pops off in one to three repairs and welding are completed.
years and takes the coatings with it. Blast clean- 8. Galvanizing YS. Zinc-Rich Coatings
ing is the most practical and effective means of Galvanizing and zinc-rich coatings, with their
cleaning the surface. It removes mill scale and galvanic action, have revolutionized steel protec-
creates an anchor pattern, which is essential for tion. Galvanizing with 1 % ounces of zinc per
good paint adhesion. While commonly considered square foot is equivalent in thickness to 2.5 mils
more expensive than hand or power-tool cleaning, dry of a zinc-rich coating. From a protection
shop blasting can cost less, since it lengthens the standpoint, they are about the same. Galvanizing
service life and reduces the cost per year. via a "bath" treatment is more easily applied to
6. Field YS. Shop Blasting and Priming small parts, gratings, etc. However, facilities are
On new construction, shop blasting is considered not always close to the job, and vat size can be a
to be about half the cost of field blasting. This limitation. Heat resistance is somewhat below the
means that where a minimum of 250 tons of steel melting point of zinc (75OoF-399"C).
is involved, shop blasting can be done for less Compared w i t h galvanizing, z i n c - r i c h
than the cost of hand andlor power-tool cleaning coatings are more easily applied to existing struc-
in the field. See Table 5 and 6 for direct compari- tures in place. They tend to weather better in
sons. This assumes the fabricator has centrifugal marine and coastal environments, and accept top
wheel-blasting equip ment. coats more readily(5.e), They are less expensive on.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
More important than the cost, shop blasting large structural members, and inorganic zincs
and priming allows and justifies application of a have heat resistance somewhat above the melting
suitable protective coating system at the one time point of zinc (750°F-399"C).
in the life of the plant when the job can be done ef- On a cost basis, the break point is approx-
fectively and economically. Application is easier imately 275 ft.Vton. Galvanize if the area is
on the ground, spray loss is reduced and personal greater; coat with zinc-rich if it is less.
safety enhanced. Job-site conflicts, scheduling 9. Cost Per Square Foot YS. Per Ton or Total Job
difficulties and comprised applications common Basis
on most construction projects are greatly reduced It is impractical, and generally unnecessary, for
or eliminated. the specifying engineer to attempt a take-off and
Selection of abrasion-resistant primers, such total job estimate. For system comparison and
as inorganic zincs, plus use of wood dunnage for selection, cost per square foot can be estimated
shipping, should be included to reduce in-transit through use of this cost guide in sufficient ac-
damage and job-site touch up. curacy for an intelligent decision.
7. More Than One Coat In the Shop? To convert to typical painting cost per ton
Painting can be controlled better i n the size, multiply cost per square foot by 250. For
fabricator's shop than at the job-site. Theoretical- large structural members, use 100-250 ft.2/ton; for
ly, the entire system or primer and intermediate medium 200-300 fL2lton; for light structural,
coat can be applied in the shop. When it is imprac- 300-400 ft.Vton; and trusses 350-500 ft.21ton.
tical to apply coatings in the field, such as an ex- 10. Delay Topcoating?
pansion of an operating facility in a highly cor- Many new construction projects run over budget,
rosive environment, total shop application is and i t i s not uncommon for construction
desirable. managers to search for items that can be delayed
Before the decision is made to apply totally until after start-up when maintenance dollars are
or partially in the shop, it should be recognized used instead of capital dollars. U S . tax classifies
that many steel fabricators have limited capabil- maintenance painting as a deductible expense; and,
ity to hold steel for extended periods. Some shops thus, a delay in topcoating could represent a
are not enclosed or heated. Frequently, a max- reduced cost. To the uninformed construction
imum of only 24 hours can be tolerated by the manager, topcoat application might appear to .be
fabricator for blasting, painting and loading. a good candidate for this.
If applying totally or partially in the shop, be If top coating is selected for delaying,
certain the steel fabricator selected can effective- "midstream" after the specification has been writ-
ly shop apply all coats. Make sure the coating ten and priming has been accomplished, and i f
system selected will dry and cure adequately the primer does not protect adequately for the ex-
tended period or in the environment, a major prob-
lem can result. The specifying engineer must be
227
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x 8 . 0 93 m 8 6 2 7 7 9 0 0003b75 778 m
aware of this possibility, and if it is likely to occur, For each system used or considered, simply list the tim-
select a coating system with a primer that resists ing, number, and cost of painting operations required to pro-
the weather and environment for an extended peri- tect the structure for its projected life. This should include
od. The engineer should be sure to include immedi- such items as original painting, touch-ups, touch up and full
ate and adequate touch up of scars, bolts and coats, and full repaintings. The cost of each painting opera-
decontamination of the primer prior to application tion should be calculated in three categories:
of final coats so rusting and undercutting would not 1) At current cost levels.
occur. 2) At net future value levels - current cost with inflation
11. Do Prejudices Exist? included. How much will it cost, in inflated dollars in
Often the specifying engineer is confronted with the year scheduled?
preferences/prejudices by projectiplant personnel 3) At net present value levels - t h e present worth of the
or client representatives concerning types of coat- inflated cost (NFV) in monies today invested at cur-
ings or suppliers, ¡.e., inorganic zinc, epoxy, “can rent interest rates.
only afford alkyds”, “can’t afford or tolerate blast For example, a current cost of $10 today inflates to
cleaning”, etc. These prejudices may or may not $12.76 in five years, assuming 5 percent inflation; $12.76 is
represent acceptable systems or conditions. Include the NFV. The formula for calculating this is:
them in the analysis and make certain the recom-
mended system is sound and its selection based on NFV = Current cost x (1 + i)”
facts with supporting detail. (1)
12. Maintenance Procedures (i = inflation, n = years)
See “Typical Maintenance Painting Practices”
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
below: To calculate the NPV, or “What the $12.76 is worth to-
day invested at current interest rates for five years?,” use
Typical Maintenance Painting Practices the following formula:
The sequencesfollowedby users maintenance repaint (spot prime
in maintenancepaintingvary widely. and full coat), and
For come, the only criterion is, “Does full repaint. NPV = NFV x 1 or $7.92 (2)
it need painting?” (1 + i)”
In reviewing the subject with a Life of the repaintingsteps will vary
number of painting contractors, the accordingto whether the “ldeal/Opti- $7.92 invested today at 10 percent for five years = $12.76.
consensus is that most users gener- mum” or “Practical” approach is While interest and inflation rates are constantly chang-
ally follow these painting sequences: used.
original painting, ing, the decision on coating selection is usually based on cur-
spot touch-up and repair, The following is an example of rent rates. By making these calculations for each system,
the approximate results.
the true cost and number of painting operations can be
compared.
Approximate Cosi If Original Cost If Orig. Painting
Operation Life in Field in ShoplField occurs
“I” ideaUOptlmum Fkpalnting and Maintenance Sequence:
Initial Painting “I” Life Original Cost Original Cost
I
O year
Table I Steps for Calculating an Economic Analysis
Touch-up 50% of ”I” 25% of Orig. 40% of Orig. 8th year
Maint. Repaint 75% of ”I” 55% of Orig. 70% of Orig. 121h year of a Coating System
Full Repaint 100% of “1” 115% of Orig. 150% of Orig. 18th year
For each candidate system (use Using the current interest rate,
“P” Practlcal Repalntlng and Malntenance Sequence: a separate sheet for each), draw calculate and record the NPV (of
Initial Painting “P” Life. Original Cost Original Cost O year a time line for the projected life the NFV) for all painting oper-
Table 1
Touch-up 25% of “P” 40% of Orig. 50% of Orig. 12th year of the structure. ations.
Maint. Repaint 40% of “P” 70% of Orig. 80% of Orig. 15th year For each system, mark on the For each system, total the sum
Full ReDaint 100% of “P” 115% of Oria. 150% of Oria 19.8th vear time line when all painting oper- of the three categories (current
ations will take place: original cost, NFV, and NPV).
painting, touch-up, maintenance Comparethese values, particu-
13. Economic Analysis and Justification repainting, and full repainting. larly NPV, for a direct compari-
This subject is sometimes misunderstood for paint Insert their current costs. son of each system’s true cost
Using the current inflation rate, in monies today.
and coating systems. Capital items require intricate calculate and recordthe NFV for
analysis to identify full financial impact. Paint and all painting operations.
coating systems are basically expense items without
salvage value or depreciation considerations. Rela- A system may be cheaper to install initially, but if it has
tively few calculations are required to compare one a shorter life and requires frequent repaintings, its financial
system with another and to measure each system’s cost can be measured, and the impact on plant disruptions
true cost in comparable dollars reflecting the time must be recognized.
value of money.

228
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R * B = O 73 m 8627740 0003676 804 W
See the example of a present value analysis below. 2. Field Painting Costs
Example of Present Value Analysis
Regional US 1992 costs for cleaning and paint ap-
Economic Anaiyas Wwksheel
plication at the site are included in Table 6. Note
Total Psnbng Cost Per Sq Ft lor ‘&her Plant Life the factors at the bottom of the table to convert (1)
Shree-CoaiEWXVPnmedHB EDOXV.CPB EiQhi-Year SVRem Lile
ShapiField/Flsld
~
to in-place costs depending on type of structure and

Years O 5 10 15 20 25 30
surface, and (2) to per-ton costs.
3. Shop Painting Costs (See Table 5 )
t t t t 1 For steel fabricators with automatic wheel-blasting
Prnmnp j ,Original Touchup Maintenance Full Repaint Touchup equipment, Table 5 gives regional U.S. 1992 costs
c ~ m ) Painting Year 8 Repaint Year 12 Year 18 Year 26
B!!s for cleaning and painting at the shop. Note that
caro 8” +$l71 y170 $1 22 12 61 IO70 t 897
cuimnl IS) usually a minimum of 250 tons is required to obtain
NFVmils ) competitive costs. After 1992 these costs should be
Furure ~ a i u r ) ~ U m u 16?8 m
3
am inflated by the inflation rate since 1992.
,“!adurn )
4. Paint and Coating Materials Costs (See Table 4)
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Current 1992 material costs for most commonly

used generic types of coatings are included in this
table. Typical dried film thickness (DFT) per SSPC-
PA 2 for each type are shown, as well as theoreti-
cal and practical costs. After 1992 inflate at current
inflation rates since 1992.
On new capital projects, coating costs are often capital- 5. Worksheet A
ized, which will require considerations for depreciation, tax- Use this worksheet for all systems to be applied at
es, etc. These are not necessary for maintenance work. the job-site. Note conversion factors at the bottom
When required, however, the same present value analysis to convert costs (1) to a per-ton basis and (2) from
should be conducted to make the coating selection, and the structural steel on the ground to specific surfaces
analyses turned over to project management for further finan- or structures in place.
cial treatment. 6. Worksheet B
Use this worksheet for all systems to be shop
B. HOW TO USE THE COST GUIDE primed with touch up and top coating in the field.
Before proceeding it is suggested that the reader review Note the same conversion rates at the bottom of the
the tables and worksheets presented below. worksheet.
1. Estimated Service Life (Table 3) 7. How to Make a Coatings Cost Analysis
How long will the coating system last? The answer a. Step 1: What system(s) will work in the environ-
depends on t.he particular user’s approach to, and ment involved? Identify the specific environment
philosophy of, maintenance painting. Is protection and contaminants and begin with Table 3 - “Esti-
alone important, or is appearance a consideration? mated Service Life”. Review the system(s) that will
Is painting looked at as a necessary evil, or is cost- work in the environment and examine their longevi-
effective protection the approach? ty. Select the ones that have the longest life, but
The guide supplies system life estimates for include, for comparison and analysis, other systems
two maintenance approaches, “ldeal/Optimum” that are popular or thought to be economical. Be
and “Practical”: (See Table 3) sure your analysis includes the effect of surface
“IdeallOptimum” life is the time until initial preparation on expected life. Include, if possible, a
breakdown (three to five percent) of the top-coats comparison of thensamegeneric system with differ-
occurs, before rusting begins, when first main- ent cleaning grades. If you are confronted with
tenance painting takes place. prejudices/preferences by projectlplant or client per-
“Practical” life is the time until five to 10 personnel, include their systems for economic compar-
cent breakdown occurs, active rusting of the sub- ison and analysis.
strate occurs, and Rust Grade 4 is present. b. Step 2: On new construction compare field paint-
Most users follow the “Practical” approach, ing vs. shop priming. As outlined before, if a mini-
thinking it is the cheaper or that they cannot afford mum of 250 tons of steel is involved, shop blasting
or be bothered by painting sooner. A comparison and priming is about half the cost of the same work
of the two approaches, however, will nearly always at the site. The job is done more efficiently and many
show the “ldeal/Optimum” approach to be the more of the normal jobsite conflicts and compromises are
cost-effective method (Table 2). Simply stated, once eliminated. Shop application usually gives better
aggressive rusting and coating breakdown occur, results. For the candidate system(s) selected in Step
it is more costly to repair, and protection is reduced. 1, include in your analysis a comparison of each
(See Table 2 for comparisons.)

at 303-397-2295.
system with both field and fabricator shop appli- d. Step 4: Calculate the long-term cost and num-
cations. ber of painting operations over the structure’s life,
c. Step 3: Prepare worksheets (A, B or both) on all by preparing a present value analysis for each can-
candidate systems. didate system as outlined above.
TABLE 2
Typical System Costs, Life, Cost Per Year, Long-Term Costs, and
Number of Paintings Over a 35 Year Structure Life
“ldeal/Optimum”
Life
TOTAL INSTALLED COST LONG-TERM COST
Initial cost/ Total Cost

surf. Installed Years Yearl No. @ Current
System Prep. cost Life fi2 Ptgs. Cost Levels
2-coat HB surf. SP6 $2.14 8 $0.27 6 $ 8.04

tolerant epoxy
2-coat HB surf. SP2 1.76 6 $0.29 8 9.06
tolerant epoxy
2-coat HB surf. SP6 2.13 6 0.36 8 10.96
tol. epoxylure.
l-coat HB surf. SP6 1.60 5 0.32 10 10.96
tolerant epoxy
l-coat HB surf. SP2 1.23 3 0.41 16 13.23
tolerant epoxy
“ Pract¡cal ’I
Life
TOTAL INSTALLED COST LONG-TERM COST
Initial cost/ Total Cost

surf. Installed Years Yearl No. --````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
@ Current
System Prep. cost Life ft* Ptgs. Cost Levels
2-coat Hl3 surf. SP6 $2.14 12 $0.18 6 $ 9.32

tolerant epoxy
2-coat H8 surf. SP2 1.76 9 0.20 7 9.66
tolerant epoxy
2-coat HB surf. SP6 2.13 9 0.24 7 11.71
tol. epoxylure.
l-coat HB surf. SP6 1.60 7.5 0.21 9 10.56
tolerant epoxy
l-coat HB surf. SP2 1.23 4.5 0.27 14 12.76
tolerant epoxy

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*8.0 73 8627740 0003678 687
TABLE 3
Estimated Service Life(') (in Years, Before First Maintenance Painting)
of Protective Coatings, Zinc-Rich Coatings, Galvanizing, and Zinc-Metallizing Systems
6.0 I 4 3 3 2 5 N N 3 25 N 8 5 3
P 6 45 45 375 N N 45 3.75 N 12 7.5 4.5
6.0 I 6 5 5 5 N N 5 45 N 10 7 5
P 9 75 N N 75 675 N 15 10.5 7.5
6.0 I 7 75
6 65
7 55 N N 6 5.5 N 11 8 6
P 10.5 9 9 825 N N 9 8 25 N 16.5 12 9
4.0 I 2 1 05 05 N N 05 05 05 4 2 1
P 3 15 075 075 N N 075 075 O75 6 3 1.5
4.0 I 3 2 1 1 N N 1 1 1 7 4 2
P 4.5 3 15 15 N N 1.5 1.5 1.5 105 6 3
60 I 3 2 1 1 N N l 1 1 7 4 2
P 4.5 3 15 15 N N 15 15 15 105 6 3
6.0 I 4 3 I 5 1.5 N N 1.5 1.5 t,5 9 6 3
P 6 4.5 2.25 2.25 N N 225 225 225 135 9 4.5
4.0 I 3 2 N N N N N N N 7 4 2
P 4.5 3 N N N N N N N 10.5 6 3
6.0 I 4 3 N N N N N N N 9 6 3
P 6 45 N N N N N N N 135 9 4.5
4.0 I 2 1 05 05 N N 0.5 05 05 4 2 1
P 3 15 075 0.75 N N O75 075 075 6 3 15
40 I 3 2 1 1 N N l 1 1 7 4 2
P 4.5 3 15 15 N N 15 i 5 15 105 6 3
6,O I 3 2 1 1 N N l 1 1 7 4 2
P 4.5 3 15 15 N N 15 1.5 15 105 6 3
6.0 I 4 3 $5 i 5 N N 15 1.5 15 9 6 3
P 6 45 2.25 2.25 N N 225 225 225 135 9 45
6.0 I 4 3 3 2 N N 3 2 3 8 5 3
P 6 45 45 3 " 4 5 3 45 12 7.5 4.5
6.0 I 5 4 4 3 N N 4 3 4 9 6 4
P 7.5 6 6 4 5 N N 6 45 6 135 9 6
7.5 I 5 4 3 3 N N 3 3 3 9 6 4
P 7.5 6 4.5 45 N N 45 45 45 135 9 6
7.5 I 7 6 5 5 N N 5 5 5 11 8 6
P 10.5 9 7.3 75 N N 75 75 75 155 12 9
5.0 I 4 3 3 2 N N 3 2 3 8 5 3
P 6 45 45 3 N N 45 3 45 12 7.5 4.5
5.0 I 6 5 5 4 N N 5 4 4 10 7 5
P 9 75 75 6 N N 75 6 6 15 10.5 7.5
10.0 I 7 6 6 5 N N 6 5 5 11 8 6
P 10.5 9 9 7 5 N N 9 75 75 165 12 9
mo I 9 8 8 7 N N 7 ~ 6 14 10 8
P 13.5 12 12 105 N N 12 105 9 21 15 12
8.0 I 5 4 4 5 N N 4 5 3 11 7 4
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
P 7.5 6 6 7 5 N N 6 75 45 165 10.5 6
8.0 I 7 6 6 7 N N 6 7 4 13 9 6
P 10.5 9 9 105 N N 9 105 6 195 13.5 9
12.0 I 9 8 7 8 N N 7 8 5 15 11 8
P 13.5 12 1051 12 N N i05 12 75 225 16.5 12
12.0 I 11 10 9 10 N N 9 10 6 17 13 10
P 16.5 15 135 15 N N 135 15 9 255 19.5 15
12.0 I 10 9 8 9 N N 9 ~ 7 16 12 9
P 15 135 12 i35 N N 12 13.5 105 24 18 13.5
12.0 I 12 11 10 21 N N 10 11 9 18 14 11
P 18 165 15 T65 N N 15 16.5 135 27 21 16.5
7.0 I 4 4 5 N N 4 5 3 1 0 6 3
P 6 s 7 d N N 6 73 4.5 15 9 45
7.O i B 5 8 7 N N 6 4 5 1 2 8 5
P 9 75 9 10.5 N N 9 10.5 7.5 18 12 7.5
10.0 I 11 9 6' 7' N N 6' 7' 10 19 13 9
P 16.5 13.5 9* 10.5' N N 9. 10.5' 15 285 195 135
10.0 1 12 10 6
. T N N 6 ' 7 ' 1 1 X I 1 4 1 0 300"'
P 15 15 9' î0.5' N N 9' 10.5' 16.5 30 21 15
6.0 1 4 3 3 2 N N 3 2 3 9 5 3
P 6 45 45 3 N N 4.5 3 4.5 13.5 75 4.5
6.0 I 6 5 5 4 N N 5 4 6 1 1 7 5
P 9 6 7,5 6 N N 75 6 9 16.5 10.5 75
6.0 I 7 6 6 5 5 4 6 5 7 1 2 8 6
P 10.5 9 9 7.5 75 6 9 7.5 105 18 12 9
6.0 I 6 5 5 4 N N 5 4 5 1 1 7 5
P 9 7.5 75 6 " 7 5 6 7.5 i65 10.5 7.5
6.0 I 7 6 6 5 N N 6 5 6 1 2 8 6
P 10.5 9 9 7.5 N N 9 7.5 9 18 12 9
35. 2 HBEpoxyPnmer/ 6 8.0 I 7 6 6 5 N N 6 5 6 1 2 8 6
HB EWXY P 10.5 9 9 7.5 N N 9 7.5 12 18 12 9
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*B-O 93 Bb2794O 0003679 513 =
TABLE 3 (cont.)
Estimated Service Life(')(in Years, Before First Maintenance Painting)
36. 2 HB Epoxy Pmner/ 10 8.0 I 8 7 7 6 6 5 7

H ú Epoxy P 12 10.5 10.5 9 9 7.5 10.5
37. 3 Epoxy Primar/ 6 10.0 I 9 8 8 7 N N 8 7 10
HB Epoxvl P 13.5 12 12 10.5 N N 12 10.5 15
HB Epoxy
38. 3 Epoxy Primar/ 10 10.0 I 10 9 9 8 8 7 9
li3 Epoxy/ P 15 13.5 13.5 12 12 10.5 135
Epoxy
39. 2 HB Epoxy Pnmerl 6 6.0 I 5 4 4 5 N N 4
-IC Urethane P 7.5 6 6 7.5 N N 6 75 4.5 15
40. 2 HB Epoxy h e r / 10 6.0 I 6 5 5 6 N N 5 6 4 11
~ a y l t cUrethane P 9 7.5 75 9 N N 7.5 9 4.5 16.5 1
41. 3 Epoxy PrimerlHB 6 8.0 I 7 6 6 7 N N 6
EpoxyiAcrylUre P 10.5 9 9 10.5 N N 9
42. 3 Epoxy Pnmer/HB 10 8.0 I 8 7 7 8 N N 7 8 6 13
Epoxy/Acryl Ure P 12 10.5 10.5 12 N N 105
43. 2 HB Epoxy Primed 6 6.0 I 6 5 5 5 N N 5
Polyester Ure P 9 7.5 75 75 N N 75
44. 2 HB Epoxy Primed 10 6.0 I 7 6 6 6 N N 8 6 7 12
Polyester Ure P 10.5 - 9 9 9 N N 9 9 10.5 18 t
45. 3 Epoxy Pnmeri 6 8.0 I 8 7 7 7 N N 7 7 8 13
HB Epoxy/ P 12 10.5 10.5 10.5 N N 105
Polyester Ure
46. 3 Epoxy Primer/ 10 8.0 I 9 8 8 8 N N 8
HB Epoxy/ P 13.5 12 12 12 N N 12
Polyester Ure
47. 2 IOïíHB Epoxy 6 7.0 I 10 8# 4' 3' N N 4'
P 15 I% 6' 4.5- N N 6'
48. 2 loz/HB Epoxy 10 7.0 I 11 9# 4' 3' 8 7 4'
P 16.5 13.M 6' 4.5' 12 105 6.
49. 3 IOIRtB Epoxy/ 6 11.0 I 12 10% r 6' N N 7" 6' t2
HB Epoxy P 18 1M 10.5' 9' N N 1oJ"
50. 3 IOtliB Epoxy/ 10 11.0 I 13 1I # 7' 6' 10 9 7'
HB Epoxy P 19.5 16.M 10.5' 9* 15 13.5 10 s 9. ta5
51. 2 IOutrB Auyltc 6 7.0 I 10 e# 3' 4' N N '
3
Ursthane P 15 12# 7.5' 6' N N 4.5'
52. 2 IOUHB Acryltc 10 7.0 I 11 9# 3' 4^ N N 3.
UfbNiaflE P 16.5 13.S 45' 6' N N 4.6*
53. 3 IOUHB Acryl Ure/ 6 11.0 I 12 1oW 6- 7' N N 6'
H0 Acrylic Ure P 18 15# 9' 10.5' N N 9"
54. 3 IOZñiB Acryl Ure/ 10 11.0 I 13 11# 6' 7' N N 6'
H3 Acrylic Ure P 19.5 16.W 9- 10.5' N N 9'
55. 2 ûalvNB Epoxy PCKL 7.4 I i? 9# 4. 3' 8 7 44 3. 11
P 16.5 13.H 6* 4.5' 12 105 6+ 4.5* 16.5
56. 3 GalviHB Epoxy/ PCKL 11.4 I 13 11x 7' 6' 10 9 r 6' 13
1.40Epoxy P 19.5 16.M 10 5' 9' 15 135 10.5' 9. 19.5
57. 2 Zinc Metallizing/ 10 9.0 I 12 1W 4" 3' 9 8 4. 3' t2
HB Epoxy P 18 15# 6' 4.5' 135 12 6" 4.5' 18
58. 3 Zinc Melaliizingl 10 13.0 I 14 1% 6' 5' 11 10 6' 5' 14
HB Epoxy/ P 21 18# 9. 7.5". 16.5 15 9' 75' 21
HB Epoxy
59. 3 IOUHB Epoxy/ 6 9.0 I 12 lo# 6' 6" N N 6' 6' 12
Poiywter ufa P 18 15# 9' 9' N N 9' 9' 18
60. 3 IOUHB Epoxy/ 10 9.0 I 13 Il# 6' ô' N N 6' 6' 13
Polyester Ure P 19.5 16.S 9' 9' N N 9' 9" 18.5
61. 3 GahW €poxyt PCKL 9.4 I 13 1It 6' 6
' N N 6
' '6 12
Pdyestw Ure P 19.5 16.M 9' 9' N N 9* 9' $8
62. 3 IOUHB Epoxy/ 6 9.0 I 11 9# 6' 7' N N 6' T" 10
Acrykc Ure P 16.5 13.W 9. 10.5* N N 9' 10,5' 15
83. 3 IOUHB Epoxy/ 10 9.0 I 12 101t 6' 7' N N 7' 11
Aciyhc Ure P 18 1% rt" 10.5' N N 9.
64. 3 GahNB Epoxy/ PCKL 9.4 I 12 10# 6' 7' N N 6'
Aaylk Ure P 18 15# 9' 10.5' N N 9.
6% 2 IOUWaterborne 6 6.0 I 9 7# 3" 3' N N 3' 3'
Aeryltc P 13.5 10,5# 4.5' 4.5' N N 4.5' 4.5'
66û. 2 IWaterborne 10 6.0 I 10 Ba 3' 3' N N 3' 3'
Actyl= P 15 12# 4.5' 4.5' N N 4 5" 4.5'
67. 2 Epoxy .TlncJ 6 7.0 I 9 7 5' 4" N N Y
. 4'
HB Epoxy P 13.5 1W 7.5' 6' N N 7 5' 6
'
68. 2 Epoxy ZncJ 10 7.0 I 10 w1 5' 4' 8 7 5- 4'
HB Epoxy P 15 1% 7.5' ô' 12 10.5 7.5- 6'
69. 3 Epoxy Zinc/ 6 11.0 I 11 9# 8' 7' N N o 7
HB Epoxy/ P 15.5 13.# 12' t0.5 N N 12- 16.5 th5 2885 t
HB Epoxy
70. 3 Epoxy Zinc/ 10 11.0 I 12 io# 8' 7' 8 9 o r t s s o t
Hû Epoxy/ P 16 1M 12' t0.5' 12 13.5 12' 10.5' f8 30 2
HB Epoxy
71. 2 Epoxy Zinc/ 6 7.0 I 9 7# 3* 4' N N 9 4. 8 15 i0
H ú Acryls Ure P 13.5 10s 4.5' B' N N 45' 6' tS 22.5 15 1
__.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R t 8 . 0 73 86277YO O003680 235
TABLE 3 (cont.)
Estimated Service Life") (in Years, Before First Maintenance Painting)
72. 2 Epoxy zw 10 70 I 10 8n 3' 4' N N 3. 4* 9 16 11 8# 300""

hytto Ure P 15 12# 45' 6' N N 4.5" 6' 13.5 4 16.5 12#
73. 3 Epoxy md 6 11.0 I 11 9# 6. 7" N N fi* 7" 10 19 13 911 3OOm
Hfl Acrylic Ure/ P 165 13W 9' 105' N N 9" 10.5' 15 285 19.5 13.#
H3 A c ~ ~ lUre
lc
74. 3 w w md 10 110 I 12 1M 6' 7' N N 6. 7 11 21 15 10# 300"
Hfl Acrylic Ure/ P 18 15# 9' 10s N N 9' 10.5' 16.5 31 5 22.5 15#
M Acryiic Ure
75. 3 ww 6 90 I 11 9# 7' 6" N N 7' 6' 11 19 13 9# 300")
HB EwwI P 165 13W 105' 9' N N 10.5" 9' 16.5 28.5 19.5 13.S
Polyswer tke
76. 3 iroxy aw 10 90 I 12 1M 7 6' N N 7. 6^ 12 20 14 tO# 300q*i
P 18 1% 105" 9+ N N 10.5' 9' t8 30 21 15#
Ure
77 3 Epoxy tirae/HB 90 I 10 8# 6' Y N N 6" P 9 18 12 c 3M1""i
EpoxyiACryfic Ure P 15 12# 9. 10s N N 9' 10.5' 13.5 27 18 12x
78. 3 90 I 11 9 # V P N N 6. 7' to 19 13 9# 3OOw'
Ure P 165 135# 9' 105- N N 9. 10.5' 15 28.5 19.5 13.W
79. 2 60 I 6 5 4 5 N N 4 5 N 10 7 5 140-160q~i
H0 Vinyl P 9 75 6 7.5 N N 6 7.5 N 15 105 75
80. 2 Vinyl Pnmerl 50 I 7 6 5 6 5 4 5 6 N 11 8 6 140-16o"o'
H 3 Vinyl P 105 9 75 9 75 6 7.5 9 N 16.5 12 9
81. 3 Vinyl Rimer/ 100 I 9 8 7 8 N N 7 8 N 13 10 8 140-15o"i
H3 vinyl/ P 135 12 105 12 N N 10.5 12 N 19.5 15 12
HB Vinyl
82' 3 Vinyl &mer/ 10 100 I 10 9 8 9 7 6 8 9 N 14 11 9 140-160"
HB vinyu P 15 135 12 135 10.5 9 12 13.5 N 21 16.5 13.5
H3 Wnyl
83. 3 IOZRt6 Vlnyü 6 110 I il W S 6 ' N N 5' 6
' N 16 12 9# 140.160"
H3 vinyl P 165 13.SX 75' '9 N N 7.5' 9
' N 24 18 13.S
84. 3 IOUHB WnyU 10 11.0 I 12 lo# 5' 6' 10 9 S 6' N 17 13 i# 140-160""'
WB Vbyt P 18 15# 7.5' 9' 15 135 7.5' 9
' N 25.5 195 1%
85, 3 GahrMB WnyV PCKL 11 4 I 12 10 5 " s 10 9 5" 5' N 17 13 1# 140-1W'i
w Vinyt P 18 7.5' 7 9 15 135 7.5' 7 5'; N 25.5 195 1#
93. 2 Coal Tar Epoxy 6 160 I 10 si 8 8 7 N N 8 7 8 13 10 8 200"
P 15 12 12 105 N N 12 10.5 I2 19.5 15 12
94. 2 CoalTarEpoxy 10 16.0 I 11 9 9 8 11 9 9 8 9 14 11 9 200"
P 165 735 135 12 16.5 135 13.5 12 13 5 21 165 13.5
ga 1 InorgaokTKIc 6 30 P 13 li# N N N N N N 19 26 16 Il# 740.1,wO'
99, 1 IrmrganieZinc 10 30 P 15 t3# N N 6 # W N N 20 27 17 12# 740-1.000°
?m. f OrmnicZjnc Rich 6 30 P 5 4 # N N N N N N 16 8 4 3# 250-300"
fEP0XY)
N 14p1w
(Vinyl B CR)
h 1 0 3 0 P 6 5 # N N 7# 6# N N I7 9 5 4# 250-300"
íEp0.W
N 140-le@
5
[Vinyl & CR)
PCKL 34 P 13 11# N N N N 20 27 17 12# 7400
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5 5.0 P 16 14# N N N N 25 30 20 14 740"
Notes: Definitions of Environments:

Life shown is for protection only, not cosmetic appearance. SEACOAST MARINE = Within five miles of coasüsalt water and no industrial plants or
N-Not recommended. fumes present.
'-Assuming topcoats are intact. and zinc is not exposed. SEACOAST HEAVY INDUSTRIAL = Within five miles of coastisall water and in presence
#-Assuming pH is within 5.5to 10 range. of heavy industrial plants with high levels of fumes and fallout.
~'i"ldeal1Optimum"life is defined as the time until the first maintenance paintingttouch-up CAUSTIC = Caustic soda up to 50 percent concentration, with splash, spills, and fumes.
should occur, when three to five percent breakdown of the topcoats occur, before active ACID = Minerai acids at approximately 10 percent concentration, with splash, spills, and
rusting begins. Normal maintenance repainting cycles include: original painting ("I" iife), fumes.
spot touch-up at end of "I" Me, spot prime and full coat after an additional 50 percent of FRESH WATER = Immersion at ambient temperature.
"I" life. and a full system repaint after an additional 75 percent of '"I"system life. This can SALT WATERIBRINE = Immersion at ambient temperature.
vary f15 percent, depending on local conditions and timing of inspectionirecognition of AMMONIA = Ammonia splash, spills, and fumes.
topcoat breakdown. CHLORINE = Chlorine splash, spills, and fumes.
i2Colorswill darkeniyeliow, and loss of gloss will occur. SOLVENTSIGASOLINE = Aromatic hydrocarbons, selected esters, gasoline. and alcohol
~3~Thermoplastic. Softens at 160°F. but protection remains. Will pick up dirt when softened. splash, spills. and fumes.
l']Grades of cleaning are geared to SSPC standards: MILD = Rural or residential with no industrialfumesffallout.
SP-2 = hand wire-brushing; SP-3 = power tool cleaning; SP-6 = commercial blast (SA-2 MODERATE = Industrial plants present but no heavy contamination by industrial fumes
or NACE-3);and SP-10 = near white blast (SA-2 112 or NACE-2). and fallout.
IWFT. Minimum Dried Film Thickness in mils. 1.0 mils = 25.4 pm. SEVERE = Heavy industrialand chemical plant area with high levels of fumes and fallout.
")Maintenance Schedule/Approach. I = IdealIOptimum; P = Practical.
PIA minimum SP-10 (SA4 112 or NACE-2) is required for immersion service.

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SSPC CHAPTER*8.0 93 Ab27940 0 0 0 3 b 8 1 171 =
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 4
Typical Material Costs of Paints and Protective Coatings
Approx. Cost per Sq. Ft. Q Typical DFT
Prpct.
Min. spray BN8hf
Coatlng DFT Theor. Ptaet, Rgll
Acrylic, Waterborne Primer 3.0 $0.070 $0.100 $0.078

Acrylic, Waterborne Topcoat 3.0 0.083 5.119 0,092
Alkyd Primer' 2.0 0.036 0.051 0.040
Alkyd Gloss Topcoat' 2.0 0.040 0.057 0.044
Alkyd Silicone 2.0 0.076 0.109 0.084
Coal Tar Epoxy Standard* 8.O 0.104 0.149 0.1 16
Coal Tar Epoxy C200" 8.0 O.lt5 0.164 0.128
Chlorinated Rubber Primer 2.0 0.075 0.107 0.083
ChJorinatedRubber HB Inte&/Top 4.O 0.166 0.237 0.184
Chlorinated Rubber Topcoat 1.5 0.062 0.089 0.0e9
Epoxy Primer' 2.0 0.037 0,053 0.041
Epoxy HB Primer' 4.0 0.080 0.114 0.089
Epoxy HB IntermediateBopcoat* 4.O 0.080 0.114 0.089
Epoxy Topcoat' 2.o 0.042 5.060 0.047
Epoxy, Waterborne 3.O 0.095 u.i36 0.106
Epoxy, HB Surface Tolerant' 5.0 0.104 0.149 0.116
Epoxy, Ester, Frimer 1.5 0.029 0.041 0.032
Epoxy, Ester, Topcoat 2 .o 0.055 0.079 0.061
Latex Emulsion, Primer 2.o 0.051 0.073 0.057
Latex Emulsion, Topcoat 2 .o 0.054 0.077 0.060
Universal Primer, 1-pack 2.o 0.061 0.087 0.068
Urethane, Elastomeric Solvented 20.0 0.755 1 .O71 NA
Urethane, Aromatic HB Primer' 5.0 0.155 0.214 0.167
Urethane, Aliphatic Acrylic" 2 .o 0.073 0.104 0.081
Urethane, Aliph. HB Acryl Inter/Top' 4.0 0.145 0.207 0.161
Urethane, Aliphatic Polyester' 2 .o 0.091 0.130 0.101
Urethane, Moisture-CuredAluminum 2.5 0.076 0.109 0.084
Vinyl, Solution Primer"' 2.o 0.075 0.107 0.083
Vinyl, Solution HB IntermedBop'" 4.0 0.145 0.207 0.161
Vinyl, Solution Topcoat" 1.5 0.072 0.103 0.580
Vinyl Ester 20.0 0.640 0.9f4 NA
zinc Rich, Inorganic' 3.0 0.092 0.131 NA
Zinc Rich, Organic 3.0 0.116 0.165 NA
Zinc Rich, Moiare-Cured Urethane 3.0 0.1ta 0.169 NA
'Available in high-solids versions. Application costs and the cost per mil square foot are about the same as for the low-solids versions.
'"Becoming available in high-solids versions. Application costs and the cost per mil square foot are about the same as for low-solids versions.
Notes:
Costs are approximate based on 1992 data secured from representative U.S. paint and coating suppliers. DFT = Dried film thickness in mils (I mil = 25.4 pm).
Spray Practical = 30% loss. RoWBrush Practical = 10% loss. NA = Not applicable; must be applied by spray.
TABLE 5
Shop Painting Costs per Sq. Ft. Including Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs
(No Material Cost Included)
For
Typical mix of sizes and shapes
Large structural 100
Medium structural 200
Light structural 400
Light trusses 500
Notes:
Costs shown are approximate, based on 1992 data secured from representative US. steel fabricators. Steel plate cleaning costs are about 20 percent less than prices
listed above for structural steel. Costs shown are for steel fabricators having centrifugal wheel blasting equipment. For steel fabricators without centrifugal wheel blasting
equipment or for those using conventional air blasting, costs will approximate field blasting levels shown in Table 6.
To convert to cost per ton see above.

234
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SSPC CHAPTER*B-O 93 D 8h27940 0003682 O08
TABLE 6
Field Painting Costs per Sq. Ft. Including Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs
(No Material Costs Included)
U.S.A. Fkrglons
Cleaning Grade East en^ Gulf West
SF-2 Hand Cleaning $0.47 $0.45 $0.55 $0.50

SP-3 Power Tool Cleaning 0.63 0.60 0.65 O .65
SP-11 Power Tool-Bare Steel I .o2 1.o2 1.o2 1 .o2
SP-7 Brush-Off Blast 0.52 0.50 0.50 0.60
SP-6 Commerciaf Blast 0.80 0.80 0.85 O .85
SP-1O Near White Blast 0.95 0.95 I .o0 1.o0
SP-5 White Metai Blast 1.20 1.15 1.20 1.20
Water Wash Prior to
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Surface Pteparation 0.22 0.25 0.25 0.20
Hi Press. Wa?er/Steam
Chan prior to Surf. Prep. 0.33 0.35 0.35 0.35
Water Slurry Blast 1.20 120 1.25 1.30
Applicatkm
One-Pack by BrusWRoHer 0.22 O 25 0.30 0.25
One-Pack by Spray o 18 0.20 O 25 0.18
TwOPack Epoxies, by Spray 0.27 0.25 0.30 0.25
TwoPack Urethanes, by Spray 0.33 0.30 0.35 o 30
Zinc Rich Primers, by Spray O 33 0.30 0.35 O 30
Touch Up on the Ground' 0.18 O 16 0.16 0.15
*Assuming 10 percent of surface needing touch-up, calculate touch-up rate times total square footage of
exposed steel.
Notes:
Costs shown are approximate, based on 1992 data secured from representative U.S. painting contractors.
Costs shown are for calculating the base price of new steel cleaned and painted on the ground at the job
site.
,- follow Follow instructions on Worksheet A, :-

dtrecttons on Worksheets A and 6, using using the following percentage factors
the faflowing percentage factors:
Yultlply . Multiply
Field */w Multiply
For Labor by For Cost by For by
Simple structures 40-11high > 125% Uaintenance. Typical mix of sites and
Ltght rusting, pitting, and > 100% shapes 250

Elevated tanks, intricate > 15048 paint breakdown
structures, or structures (SSPC * vis 1 -e) Large structurai 1O0
>%-fi high (Europ Std. Re 5-6)
(SNAME T&R 21, Figure 5) Medrum stfflctural 200
Ground tanks > 90% Heavy paint breakdown, r 120%
severe rustrng and pitting Light structural 400
Piping: 1-2 in. i 1% (SSPC VIS. i-D)
4-6 in > 100% (Europ Std Re8) Light trusses 500
12 and 24 in > 95% (SNAME T8R 21,
48 in. > 90% Rgures 3 and 6)
Extremegy heavy paint > 135%
films above 20 mils with
extreme breakdown a d
substantial pitting and
rusting
(SNAME T&R 21, Figure 7)
Adherent Millscale > 100%

(CSPC - VIS 1-A)
Flaking/Rusting Millscale > 90%
(SSPC vis 1-8)
~
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SSPC CHAPTER*ô-O 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003bA3 T 4 4 m
Work Sheet A - All Surface Preparation and Painting in Field

Project Name 8, Location ~
oil Storage Tank, St. Louis New Construction
Maintenance X
Material Cost Practical' (Table 4)
Type DFT
~ ~
CostlSq. Ft.
Primer Acrylic Waterborne 3

~- $ . 1O0
Intermediate - $
Topcoat Acrylic Waterborne - 3 $ ,119

Total New Construction
Total DFT 6 $ 219 (1) Material Cost
Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs

--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SP BlastlClean (Table 6) $ - (b/c)
Prime Coat (Table 6) $ .20
Intermediate Coat (Table 6) $
Topcoat (Table 6 ) $ .20

Total Base Labor
Total base labor or New Construction (2) New Construction Labor
labor for steel with adherent millscale: $ 1. o c wlAdherent millscale
New Const.-flaking/rusting millscale, multiply

blastlclean cost by 90% and re-total labor costs. -or-
$ (blc) x 90% = $-. Re-totaled labor $ (3) Total New Construction
Labor-Flk millscale
Installed Cost: $1.00

(2) or (3) x *Yo2 $ .go (4) Total Installed
Labor and Equipment
Recap-Total Installed Cost
Material Costs (1) from above $ 219 Material Cost
Labor and Equipment Costs (4) from above $ - 90 Labor & Equipment
Total Installed System Cost per Square Foot $ 1.119 (5) Total Installed
New Construction Cost3
Maintenance Painting: Multiply total installed cost (5) by percentage below'

Total Installed
$1.119(5) x 120 0%' = $ -1.34 Maintenance Cost3
EnvironmentlLife (Table 3) ~ moderate 7.5 Years life
Cost Per Square Foot Per Year3 $ ,179 (Cost + Life)
*30 percent spray loss, 10 percent loss by brushlroller.

IMainfenance: Light rust, pits, and paint breakdown, no change.
Heavy paint breakdown, severe rusting and pitting, 120 percent total installed cost.
Extremely heavy paint films above 20 mils with extreme breakdown and substantial pitting and rusting, 135 percent total installed
cost.
2For installed prices: simple structures less than 5 0 4 high, 125 percent of field labor; elevated tanks, intricate structures, structures
greater than 50-ft high, 150 percent field labor; ground tanks, 90 percent of field labor. Piping: 1 to 2 in., 150 percent; 4 to 6 in., 100
percent; 12 and 24 in., 95 percent; 48-in., 90 percent; typical mix of sizes, 100 percent of field labor.
TO convert to a typical ton mix of sizes and shapes cost, multiply by 250; for large structural, 1OOX; medium, 2OOX; light, 400X; light
trusses, 500X.

236
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SSPC CHAPTER*B*O 93 8627940 0003684 980
Work Sheet B - Shop Blast and Prime, Topcoat(s) in Field
Project Name & Location Simple Span - Highway Bridge - Detroit, Michigan
Material Cost Practical. (Table 4)
Type ~ DFT CostlSq. Ft.

Primer Zinc Rich - inorganic ~ 3
~- ,131
$ -~
I
Intermediate Epoxy Polyamide - 4 5 ,114
Topcoat ~ Acrylic Polyurethane 2 5 . 104
Touchup (10% of shop-applied coats-

primer, primerlintermediate, etc.) 5 .O13
Total DFT 9
-~ 5 362 (1) Total Material Cost
Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs
SP 6 Blast/Clean (Table 5 - shop) 5 .33

Recap
Prime Coat (Table 5 - shop) 5 .27 Field Labor
Primer Touchup (Table 6 - field) $ .16 5 .16
Intermediate Coat (Table 5 - shop; 6 - field) $ .25 5 .25
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Intermediate touchup, if inter, shop applied
(Table 6 - field) $ $
Topcoat (Table 6 - field) 5 .30 $ .30
Subtotal, Field Labor $ .71
$ 1.31 (2) Total Labor and Equipment Costs
Installed Costs: Multiply Field Labor and Equipment Costs only

by O/O shown below'
5 .71 field labor x 25%= 5 .18
5 1.49 (3) Total Installed Labor and Equipment
Recap-Total Installed Cost
Material Costs (1) from above 5 36 Material Cost
Labor and Equipment Costs (3) from above 5- 1.49 Labor & Equipment
Total Installed System Cost per Square Foot2 $ 1.85 Total Installed
EnvironmentlLife (Table 3) m a r i n e (deice salt) 16.5 Years life (to first maintenance)
Cost Per Square Foot Per Year3 $ ,112 (cost - Life)
*30 percent spray loss, 10 percent loss by brush/roller.

'For installed prices: simple structures less than 50-ft high, + 25 percent of field labor; elevated tanks, intricate structures, structures
greater than 50-ft high, +50 percent field labor; ground tanks, -10 percent of field labor. Piping: 1 to 2 in., +50 percent; 4 to 6 in.,
as is; 12 and 24 in., -5 percent; 48 in., -10 percent; typical mix of sizes, as is.
2To convert to a typical ton mix of sizes and shapes cost, multiply by 250; for large structural, 1OOX; medium, 200X; light, 400X; light
trusses, 500X.

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SSPC CHAPTER*B-O 93 8627940 O003685 817
111. TYPES OF CONTRACTS, BIDS, AND figured in. Most major construction firms are con-
PROPOSALS cerned about estimating construction labor costs
Considering current levels of inflation, never before two and three years hence.
has there been such a problem of outage costs (or down- 3. Fixed Price With Redetermination
time) as currently in the 1980’s. Calls for the subsequent negotiated adjust-
Because of this volatile and changing situation, many ment, in whole or in part, of the originally
different contract and proposal forms are being used to negotiated (base) price. Consistent with the par-
reflect the inflationary and changing conditions and to ticular form of price redetermination clause
give adequate protection to both client and contractor in selected, contract price should be adjusted up-
business awards. ward or downward, and retroactively or pro-
Listed below are the main types of proposals and con- spectively, or both.
tracts currently being used with an explanation of each. To RFP can be negotiated to a realistic current
organize this subject, U S . government terminology and price but not for later periods of performance.
definitions will be used with a relation to commercial prac- Retroactive After Completion: Fixed price can-
tices where applicable. not be negotiated initially; amount so small or
time so short any other contract type is imprac-
ticable.
A. TYPES OF BIDS AND PROPOSALS
This form of contract is often used in industry
1. Request for Proposal (RFP) for special equipment or services and sometimes
These are solicitations of written offers on in the construction industry for special equipment
negotiated requirements. This usually encom- or emergency services.
passes a written or verbal request to various firms
to submit a written proposal for the job at hand. 4. Fixed Price incentive Contract
2. Invitation for Bid (IFB) A fixed price contract providing for adjustment
These are soliciting bids on formally advertised of total target profit and establishment of con-
requirements. The resulting contract will always tract price by a formula based on the relation-
be a Fixed Price Contract. ship which the final negotiated total cost bears
to the total target cost.
Where cost uncertainties exist and there is the
B. TYPES OF CONTRACTS possibility of cost reduction by giving contrac-
After award, contracts generally fit into one of the tor:
following categories: ( I ) a degree of cost and responsibility, and
1. Firm Fixed Price Contract (2) a positive profit incentive.
Provides for a price not subject to any adjust- This form of contract is used by industry, but
ment by reason of cost experience of the con- will generally carry a penalty for poor perform-
tractor in performance of the contract. ance as well as an incentive for good perform-
The IFB must have definite design or performance.
ance specifications that are not expected to 5. Cost and Cost Sharing Contracts
change in the life of the contract. A cost-reimbursement type contract under
The owner and contractor must agree on fixed which the contractor receives no fee or a cost-
price at inception. reimbursement type contract under which the
2. Fixed Price Contract Escalation contractor receives no fee and is reimbursed for
Provides for the upward or downward revision an agreed portion of its allowable costs.
of stated contract price upon occurrence of cer- Normally development or research projects
tain contingencies specifically defined in the jointly sponsored by Government and contrac-
contract. tor where contractor anticipates commercial
The IFB must have definite design or perform- benefit in lieu of fee under the contract.
ance specifications. This form is not used by industry. As a rule, a
Used where market or labor conditions are ex- supplier will contract at a reduced price to get a
pected to be unstable over an extended produc- prototype installation in service. R 8, D is usually
tion period. Conditions are industry-wide and complete except for field test.
beyond contractor control. Contingencies must 6. Cost Plus Fixed Fee Contract (CPFF)
be specifically defined in the contract. A cost-reimbursement type contract providing
This form is used extensively in the construc- for payment of a fixed fee to the contractor. The
tion industry - often with some modification. The fixed fee, once negotiated, does not vary with
industrial owner will often request a firm, not to actual cost but may be adjusted as a result of
exceed, figure or bid, a price with the escalation any subsequent changes in the work or services
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
to be performed under the contract. tiveness over variation in costs throughout the
Generally a research or other development ef- full range of reasonable foreseeable variation
fort when the task or job can be clearly defined, from target cost.
a definite goal or target expressed, and a This contract type is not normally used in in-
specific end-product required. dustry. The contract must be sizeable in order to
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Negotiated estimate of costs; fee fixed initially make overseeing the contract worthwhile.
except for change in the work or services re- 9. Time and Material (T & M ) and Labor Hour (L-H)
quired. Contracts
A completelapprovedlcontractor accounting Provides for purchase of property and services
process is required. This is the least desirable on the basis of direct labor hours at specified
type contract from the owner’s point of view. hourly rates (including direct and indirect labor,
There is the least responsibility for costs from the overhead and profit) and material (T & M); direct
contractor’s point of view. However, this contract labor hours at specified hourly rates (including
form is becoming common in industry. direct and indirect labor, overhead and profit)
This format can be improved, from the and no material (L-H).
owner’s standpoint, by fixing certain items of IO. Letter Contract
cost. The ability to fix any item will depend on the A written preliminary contractual instrument
specific work to be accomplished. In some cases, authorizing immediate commencement of
material, equipment, mobilization, and demobili- manufacture of material, or the performance of
zation lend themselves to this approach. services including but not limited to pre-
production planning and procurement of
7. Cost Plus Fixed Fee and A ward Contract (CPF F A) necessary materials.
A cost reimbursement type contract providing Situation requires immediate binding agree-
for payment of a fixed fee to the contractor plus ment so work can begin but time does not per-
an award fee. The fixed fee, once negotiated, mit negotiation of a definitive contract.
does not vary with actual cost but may be ad-
This concept or a variation thereof is often
justed as a result of any subsequent changes in
used in industry for emergency services.
the work or services to be performed under the
contract. The award fee is determined monthly 11. Indefinite Delivery Contract
based on defined criteria established in the A fixed price contract for delivery or orders or
negotiating process. Typical criteria would be: “calls”.
Costs, Schedule and Quality. Generally for single type parts or items where
Award fee is based on performance and is an quantity and time may not be known.
agreed percentage of fixed fee, based a rating This form of contract is often used in in-
on each criteria. dustry. Can be set up as annual purchase or time
Now being used in the Nuclear industry where purchase of any type other than labor or service
the job or task can be only generally defined which would fall under the T & M or L-H contract.
and the schedule is uncertain. 12. Two Step Formal Advertising
Negotiated estimate of costs; fee fixed initially The owner will request, in step one, technical
and award process agreed to, except for major proposals based on design and performance re-
change in the work or services required. quirements, operational suitability and ease of
A complete approved accounting process is maintenance, the need for special skills and
required. This is a more desirable contract format facil it ¡es.
than the CPFF. Generally, the qualified contractor The contractor responds and his technical pro-
will reduce his fixed fee anticipating that his posal is evaluated.
performance will result in a substantial award. Acceptable proposers are asked to price their
Cost reduction, meeting schedules and quality all proposal only.
gain under this system. Award is made to the low bidder.
8. Cost Plus Incentive Fee Contract (CPlF) This is a unique procurement system. It p r o
A cost-reimbursement contract with provisions vides added flexibility in awarding contracts that
for a fee which is adjusted by formula in accord- include important technical consideration. The
ance with the relationship which total allowable owner has the freedom to weigh factors other
costs bear to target costs. than price (Step one) and award to the lowest ac-
Generally for development and test when incen- ceptable bidder (Step two).
tive formula can provide positive incentive for With present day increases in technical and
effective management. performance requirements on many coating and
The formula should provide incentive effec- lining contracts, i t becomes critical that the

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*B*O 9 3 W 8627940 0003b87 b9T W
owner use every means to get the best application ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

at the lowest price. Steve Dobrosielskiprovided cost updates for the revised chap-
The owner would normally set up a small ter. M.R. Sline contributed to an earlier version. The authors and
editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the follow-
group of personnel from Purchasing, Engineering ing in the review process for the original version of this chapter:
and Maintenance or any combination that can M. Batchelder, D.G. Beebe, J. Brock, J. Brown, Bill Chandler, D.W.
best evaluate a technical proposal. Christofferson, D. Davis, J. Davis, Dick Drisko, Noel Duvic, P.J.
Foehl, Raye Fraser, Tom Ginsberg, R.L. Goetz, Ron Hamm, Dale
The owner has a further advantage in that the Harp, M.W. Howie, H.H. Jacobs, G.N. Kirby, C. Leavitt, M. Lichten-
contractor may submit more than one proposal. stadter, Jim Lisa, J. Macrae, A.W. Mallory, Marshall McGee, C.T.
The owner can then take advantage of im- Main, J. Oeschle, C. Reed, D. Reese, M.W. Repasky,Jon Rodgers,
G. Schirmer, L. Sherman, W. Stanford, T. Stein, Ken Tator, Verne
provements in the state of the art or an entirely Todd, F. Trotter, R . Vansant, and W. Wallace.
new approach to the specific problem.
Keep in mind that the technical proposal
becomes the statement of work under which the
BIOGRAPHY
contractor must produce. It is difficult to com-
Gordon H. Brevoort is a
plain about a statement of work or specification if 43-year veteran in the heavy
the contractor prepared the document. duty paint and protective coat-
It is extremely important that a technically ings industry. He is well known
for his work in creating the
qualified group be established to evaluate con- “Paint and Coatings Selection
tracts. Table 7 can be used as an aid in this eval- and Cost Guide” which has
uation. If only one contractor is qualified, the con- been published biennially
tract should be negotiated after his proposal has through NACE since CORRO-
SION 79 and which he has com-
been priced. puterized into SpecMate-1 and
If more than one contractor has submitted SM1 customizer for industrial
plants and SpecMate-2 for
proposals, be certain that each has bid on iden- bridges.
tical conditions and types of proposals. For a number of years, Mr. Brevoort has been active in the
It is suggested that an evaluation recap sheet National Association of Corrosion Engineers, and the Steel Struc-
tures Painting Council (SSPC), and has conducted Coatings Eco-
be created that becomes a permanent part of the
nomics Tutorials for SSPC at their annual meetings and at their
purchasing record. This will protect the owner industry Seminars. He received SSPC’s 1988 COATINGS EDUCA-
against future claims that the award was made in TION AWARD at that year’s Annual Meeting.
a biased manner. Mr. Brevoort has worked for a number of major suppliers to
the Industrial Maintenance Protective Coatings and Rail Finishes
Markets.
IV. SUMMARY Mr. Brevoort is president of Brevoort Consulting Associates,
Inc., which he formed in 1985 and which offers a broad range of
A knowledge and basic understanding of field and technical, marketing, and business management services to the
shop applied paint and coating costs is necessary to prop- paint and coatings industry.
erly choose the painting system that provides maximum
benefits for a given structure.
The corrosiveness of the structure must be known.
The expected plant life of structures should be known.
At the one time in the life of a structure when a proper
protsctive coating system can be selected, justified and
applied, poor decisions are frequently made. Usual
reasons are initial “cost” considerations or failure to use
cost and service life data.
This chapter presents elements of field painting
costs, current cost data, an expected life table, cost
worksheets, justification procedures and a definition of
contract forms that can be used on actual jobs.
Professional Estimator. He has held chairmanships at various
To protect clients and sub-contractors from inflation levels in National Association of Corrosion Engineers, the
and changing conditions, understanding and use of American Society for Testing and Materials, the American Society
special contract forms designed to deal fairly and predic- of Professional Estimators, and the International Maintenance
Institute.
tably with these changes is highly recommended.
The ability t o effectively communicate with manage-
ment in economically justifying a painting system requires
a basic knowledge of cash flow, discounting practices and (A picture and biography of Jack Oechsle are given at the end
tax benefits by the corrosion engineer. of the chapter on Thermal Spraying.)
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240
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SSPC C H A P T E R * B = O 93 B b 2 7 ï Y O 0 0 0 3 b ö ô 52b =
REFERENCES SUGGESTED READING MATERIAL
1. “Abrasive Blasting Guide for Aged or Coated Steel Surfaces”. 1. Anonymous, “Estimating Guide”, Painting and Decorating
T&R Bulletin 4-27. (New York, NY: The Society of Naval and Contractors of America. 12th Edition, 1980.
Marine Engineers). 2. Anonymous, “High Maintenance Costs Call for New Approach
2. Bernard R. Appleman, “Economics of Coatings”. Journal of to Protective Paint Work”, Construction News, March 16, 1978.
Protective Coatings and Linings, March 1985, pp. 26-33. 3. Anonymous, “Rising Costs Favor Long Life Paints”. Finishing
3. Wallace P. Cathcart, “Warrants or Guarantees in the Rail Car Industries, August 1978.
Industry for Lining and Painting”. Journal of Protective Coat- 4. Anonymous, “The Painting and Decorating Contractor 1977
ings and Linings, July 1988, pp. 52-56. New Construction Profile and Estimating Guide”. McGraw-Hill
4. European Scale of Degree of Rusting for Anti-Corrosive Paints. Information Systems Company, 1977.
Photographic Material Supplied by The Corrosion Committee 5. Abel Banov, “Maintaining With Urethanes”. American Painting
of The Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering, Stockholm, Contractor, February 1980.
1961. 6. Gordon H. Brevoort, and A.H. Roebuck, “Costing Considera-
5. Financial Compound Interest and Annuity Tables, Table 5, Fifth tions For Maintenance and New Construction Coatings”. Paper
Edition, (New York, NY: Financial Publishing Co., 1970). No. 335 at NACE Corrosionl92.
6. S. Frondistou-Yannas, “Coating & Corrosion Costs of Highway 7. J.E. Haskins, Jr., “Maintenance Painting Costs”. Plant
Structural Steel”, FWHA Report No. RD-79-121, March 1980. Engineering, February 1980.
7. Walter W. Kaminski and J.R. Allen, “What is InspectionWorth?” 8. John D. Keane, “Protection of Structural Steel Work: Some U S .
Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, August 1984, pp. Experience and Practice” Corrosion in Civil Engineering,
30-35. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, pp. 31-57,
8. J.D. Keane, W. Wettach, W. Bosch, “Minimum Paint Film February 21-22, 1979.
Thickness for Economical Protection of Hot-Rolled Steel Against 9. Brian Mills, “Selling Management a Cost Effective Painting
Corrosion”. J. Coatings Tech., 44, No. 533, June 1960. System”, NACE Symposium on Protective Coatings, Septem-
9. J.D. Keane, “Evaluation of Coatings in Potable Water Tanks”. ber 25, 1979.
Materials Protection, 7, No. 4, 1968. 1O. J.W. Perchall, “Economical Coating Protection for Fabricated
1O. J.D. Keane, “Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steel”. Steel & Plate”. Canadian Structural Engineering Conference,
Steel Structures Painting Council/National Cooperative High- 1978.
way Research Project Report 74, 1969. 11. A.H. Roebuck and L.L. McCage, “Coating Economics”.
11. C.G. Munger, “Petroleum Industry Use of Zinc-Rich Materials Performance, October 1976.
Coatings”. The Zinc Institute National Zinc-Rich Coatings 12. Bill Sisler, “Industrial Painting Costs”. American Painting
Conference, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 77-81, December 4, 1974. Contractor, August 1979.
12. R.I. Pamer, “Corrosion Protection of Chemical Industry Facili- 13. J. Weber, “The Economics Significance of Corrosion and its
ties with Zinc Rich”. The Zinc Institute National Zinc-Rich Prevention”, Engineer’s Digest, September 1977.
Coatings Conference, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 34-37, December 14. P.E. Weaver, Industrial Maintenance Painting, NACE 1973.
4, 1974.
13. A.H. Roebuck, et al, “Economics of Zinc Coating Systems for
Corrosion Protection”. Journal of Protective Coatings and Lin-
ings, July 1984, pp. 20-25.
14. Standard Method of Evaluating Degrees of Rusting on Paint-
ed Surfaces SSPC-Vis 2-8 and ASTM D610-85 Steel Structures
Painting Council, Pittsburgh, PA and ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
15. Steel Structures Painting Council, “Good Painting Practices,”
Volume 1, chapter 8 (Pittsburgh, PA SSPC).
16. R.K. Swandby, “How to Analyze Costs of Painting a New Plant”.
Chemical Engineering, 62, May 28, 1962, p. 115.
17. J.J. Van der Veken, “Cost-Effective Maintenance Via Quality
Control”. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, Septem-
ber 1985, pp. 40-45.
18. D.E. White, P.A. Johnson, P.M. Charlton, “R-O-W Vegetation
Control: The Never-Ending Process”. Electrical World, August
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1986, p. 41.

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SSPC C H A P T E R U S - O 93 = 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0003bBS 4b2
CHAPTER 9
SHOP PAINTING OF STEEL IN FABRICATING

PLANTS
by
W. J . Wallace. Jr.*
*Anupdate o f the first edition chapter written by Jonathan structure, a different system may be adopted, which in-
Jones, former chief engineer for Bethlehem Steel, and volves a considerably greater initial cost, anticipating that
Joseph Bigos, formerly Senior Fellow at Mellon Institute. few if any repairs will be required until the lapse of years
makes general repainting necessary. The choice between
two such systems, or of some intermediate system, will be
I. INTRODUCTION made partially on the basis of estimated annual cost over
The purposes of shop painting structural steel are a long term, and partially, perhaps, upon other circum-
to protect it from corrosion for a limited time until it is stances important to the owner of a particular structure.
erected in its final location, and to provide a sound base Such estimates of total annual costs are beyond the scope
for the complete paint system. of this chapter.
Shop painting is the painting done by the fabricator at Also beyond the scope of this chapter is a detailed
discussion of surface preparation or the technology of cur-
the place of fabrication and before shipment to the site of
rent alternative shop primers. These are covered in
erection. Some fabricators go so far as to send the steel to
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shops that specialize only in blast cleaning and painting. separate chapters.
The process includes the surface preparation, pre-treating,
and application of paints; also, the supplying of all labor, A. PREPARATION OF SURFACE
material, and equipment, as well as the drying and pro- The existing practices described below are fairly
tection of the painted surfaces. representative of structural steel fabricating plants. This
The three principal aspects of shop painting are (1) country contains thousands of fabricators of structural
the preparation of the surfaces; (2) the choice of paint; and steel, from small tovery large, and exceptions could doubt-
(3) the procurement, storage, mixing and application of the less be found to practically any statement that could be
protective material. In recent years most of the paint made about shop practice. An initial expression such as
specifications generated for shop painting have specifical- “In general” or “For the most part” should, therefore, be
ly listed the generic type of paint material to be used. The assumed to precede most of the statements that will be
developments which have led to present general practice made.
in structural and steel fabricating shops will be discussed Structural steel as it leaves the “hot-bed’’ at the roll-
in this section; specialized aspects will be covered more ing mill is covered with layers of oxides of iron, necessarily
fully iri later sections. formed while the hot steel is exposed to the atmosphere.
The first two of these items may vary greatly in costs; This coating of “mill scale” varies from steel to steel, from
they are, however, only the first steps in the total protec- product to product, and frequently over different portions
tive system to be given the structure; therefore, the of the same rolled piece. Assuming that the steel has been
economic choice of one method or material as against rolled on specific orders from fabricators, and not for
another can be made only when the total system is studied storage at the mill, it will be promptly loaded and shipped,
and specified. It is not within the province of this chapter with this mill scale virtually intact; there may, however, be
to debate the economic advantage of one total system as exceptions, as when mill scale is shaken loose in the proc-
against others, although some factors that have a bearing ess of straightening a beam or bar that acquired a curva-
in that direction are mentioned. Such economics can be ture while cooling.
calculated only when the life of the complete paint system Large portions of the mill scale, usually firmly at-
is known; this life is dependent upon the use and environ- tached to the steel, are difficult to dislodge, and if held in-
ment of the structure, as well as upon the cleaning and tact under a reasonably good paint system in atmospheric
painting in the shop. exposure should be a source of added protection in mild
To illustrate the foregoing: for a given structure a non-corrosive environments. Other portions of the scaled
painting system may be adopted that involves a rriinimum surface, however, frequently are quite susceptible to
first cost, anticipating that there will be considerable atmospheric attack, because they are soon penetrated by
repair of weak spots over the first few years of service life, water and air. With the ensuing formation of rust they are
until a stabilized condition is reached. Or. for a similar still further penetrated, and if this mill scale is not removed

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SSPC CHAPTER*S-O 93 m 8b27940 0003690 184 m
it will be a source of trouble under even the most adequate Many steel fabricators use automatic centrifugal-
of paint systems. wheel blast cleaning equipment, while others use air blast.
Since the many steel shapes arrive at the fabricating In each operation the blast cleaning medium (metallic
shop from various mills and at various times, there may be shot, grit, or a combination) is recycled. These operations
a considerable waiting period in the shop receiving yard have reduced the cost of shop surface preparation
before the material enters the shop for fabrication. In the considerably.
shop, the steel passes through a myriad of operations that Sand or grit blasting, like pickling, must be followed
crack and remove the mill scale. Consequently, by the time by prompt painting before the bright surface begins to
the members have been completely fabricated and are rust. In the case of sand or grit blasting, however, in con-
ready for painting, the surface of a single member may trast to pickling, it is practical to perform the operation
vary (and almost certainly the surfaces of the many after the fabrication is complete.
members making up a structure will vary) from surfaces
containing the original tightly rolled mill scale, to surfaces B. SELECTION OF PRIMING PAINT
on which the mill scale is cracking or badly cracked, to sur- In the priming paint, the purposes of the pigment are:
faces where considerable rusting has already taken place. (1) to interfere chemically with or to “inhibit” the solution
This variation of surfaces inevitably faces the fabricator of iron and formation of rust in the presence of moisture
when the work is ready to be cleaned and painted. and (2) to minimize the amount of moisture and oxygen
In the past, some specifications had permitted steel penetrating the paint film to the substrate.
to be shipped, erected and weathered before painting. The purposes of the vehicle are: (1) to bind the pig-
Such practice has long been eliminated in favor of shop ment in intimate contact with the steel surface and (2) to
cleaning and painting; the resultant paint system has a assist in excluding the invading moisture and oxygen.
longer life than it would have if it were painted over weath- For many years, fabricators acted on the assumption
ered steel from which all the rust was not removed. that if they used exactly the paint that was called for by the
Many structures, particularly tier building frames, owner’s specification, and applied it conscientiously,
must be shipped without paint because they are to be responsibility for its behavior thereafter lay with the
encased in concrete after erection. The cleaning required owner. But it is a fact that the fabricators are forced to
at the shop is only a simple manual wire brushing to share the responsibility for the performance of the as-
remove scale and corrosion products already evident; a applied primer.
slightly rusted condition at the time the concrete is poured For many years, it was generally advertised and ac-
around the steel is generally considered to be in no way cepted that red lead (Pb,O,) and the more expensive lead
detrimental. Many other structures, particularly the frames chromate were the best possible inhibitors. It was also
of manufacturing buildings, while not encased in concrete, considered that linseed oil, either 100°/~raw or with some
will be permanently enclosed within walls and roofs, and admixture of bodied oil, was the best possible vehicle to
kept dry and warm. They also can be given a rapid manual carry the red lead. The Federal Government specification
cleaning followed by an inexpensive shop coat of paint. for red lead in oil, therefore, was a popular specification
It has become mandatory to blast clean and shop prime for steel structures. Various proprietary brand name paints
structural steel that is to be used in the construction of have appeared from time to time in competition and have
motels, hotels, and office buildings, etc., since the shop been specified for various reasons; but none achieved a
primed structural members are then coated with a fire- permanent status comparable to that of “red lead in oil.”
proofing material prior to completion of the structure. In the original treatment of this chapter, one of the authors
It is generally conceded that the breakdown of a prim- traces the development of “Bethlehem Primer” that was
ing coat would be delayed over the longest period of time the forerunner of the current Federal Specification No.
if, before painting, the steel were descaled, ¡.e., all scale TT-P-86, Type II “Red Lead Alkyd Paint”.
whatsoever removed, which might be accomplished either The increased use of blast cleaning has led to an in-
by pickling the steel before fabrication, or by sand or grit creased use of proprietary primer paints. These primer
blasting after fabrication. paints, some of which are modifications of the “red lead”
Pickling could be performed only prior to fabrication, have good protective qualities and, in the interest of pro-
as the pickling of a fabricated member would be impracti- duction, faster dry times. Since the good “wetting” quality
cable on account of the sizes and shapes involved, and of the “long” oils is not necessary with the blast cleaned
also might be a failure because of the entrapment of acid surfaces, the specification writers should be aware of the
in the many interstices between component pieces. Fur- fabricator’s shop facilities and specify primer paints that
thermore, such pickling would lose much of its value do not impede the production process by being very slow
because of the rusting and contamination that would driers.
occur in subsequent fabricating operations before the
paint could be applied. Thus, the prior pickling of the struc-
tural steel for bridges and buildings may be regarded as
practically non-existent at present.
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SSPC C H A P T E R x 9 . 0 93 W 8627940 0003b9L 010 W
C. APPLICATION OF SHOP PAINT II. GENERAL

General practice in a large number of steel fabricating Paint is generally appliei in such a manner as to ob-
plants may be exemplified by the following summary of tain a dry film thickness recommended by the paint manu-
practice. Detailed requirements are given in SSPC-PA 1, facturer. Dry film thicknesses are measured using pull-off
“Shop, Field, and Maintenance Painting.” or fixed probe magnetic gages such as a Mikrotest or
The works drafting room prepares and sends to the Elcometer. It is vital to remember that the magnetic gage
shop a “paint sheet” that digests from the job specifica- should be calibrated on a piece of steel blast cleaned in
tion whatever the shop staff must know about the speci- exactly the same way as the steel to be painted.
fied cleaning, the type or brand of paint, the ordered Continuous inspection is important. Every piece of
quantity of paint and, i f special, the requirements for painted steel should be inspected before it is moved from
application. the painting skids. A final inspection should be made
The drafting room also prepares and sends to the pur- after loading to remove all marks and handling damage.
chase department a requisition for the purchase of Records of these inspections should be maintained for at
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paint, including specified type or brand, quantity, and least the guarantee period of the job contract.
required dates of delivery. On a large contract, monthly The most important factor in obtaining long paint life,
shipments may be requisitioned to ensure the use of fresh with attendant protection of the steel, is proper prepara-
material. tion of the surface. Despite advertising to the contrary,
In recent years a large number of steel fabricators there is no magic paint that will eliminate the necessity for
have employed paint specialists to handle painting prob- a clean surface. Experience has proved that when steel is
lems. The paint specialist reviews all specifications, completely descaled and free of rust, oil, grease, and other
makes recommendations, issues painting instructions for contaminants, great variations in the composition of the
shop and field painting, and in general assists the various paint are possible without seriously changing the degree
operating departments in the paint application work. of protection in atmospheric exposures. Paint life on such
The constant updating of the product information completely cleaned steel may vary from two to five times
sheets on the part of the paint manufacturers has virtually the paint life on poorly cleaned and rusted steel, depend-
eliminated the need for in-house testing on the part of the ing of course, upon the paint system and the exposure. On
fabricator. However, it is good practice to have some the other hand, many recorded cases show that paint
personnel trained in the art of rudimentary testing of paint applied over clean, dry, tight mill scale has lasted as long
materials, for instance for viscosity, flashpoint, dry time as paint over sand blasted or pickled steel. Such sound
(8stages), solids content, and settling. mill scale is conceded to be a good base for painting if the
Paint materials are stored in the paint house, and exposure is not very severe.
when deliveries are made, each is identified and marked Lately, it has become a basic tenet of economic sur-
for the contract on which it is to be used. This work is done vival that the fabricator must have some recognized
by the paint house attendant, who reports and maintains method of shop surface preparation, or lose the work to a
records of all incoming and outgoing shipments. He also competitor who can do shop surface preparation. There
dispenses all materials to the painters; and before a are a few instances in which the cost of full field work is
painter can obtain any paint, he must state the contract on justified, but even these instances require considerable
which he is working. This is an additional check to ensure deliberation before electing to do all cleaning and painting
that he is using the correct material. Record of the in the field.
gallonage used by each painter on each contract is also Unfortunately, there is no guarantee that paint ap-
made by the paint house attendant and forwarded to the plied over mill scale will give satisfactory performance.
office daily. There is no method presently known that can determine
As a preparatory painting step on the steel structures the suitability of the remaining mill scale for painting.
contracts where exposure will be lengthy and severe, all However, the mill scale that shows visible cracks after roll-
edges may be initially “striped” with the specified primer ing or fabricating is almost sure to cause trouble later.
and allowed to dry. This eases the problem of pull-back Despite careful cleaning, a certain amount of the mill scale
that is apt to occur from edges and leaves a double coat in remaining will later loosen and carry away the applied
these vulnerable places. paint. In mild atmospheric exposure, the amount of mill
The paint for the prime coat is seldom thinned beyond scale that loosens after proper cleaning and painting is
the packaged condition, and then only on the specific in- slight. In severe exposures, such as chemical environ-
structions of the paint manufacturer. All drums should be ments or water immersion, mill scale should be completely
mechanically agitated before the paint is issued and removed to guarantee against large scale lifting of the
during application. paint.
The primer is applied by spray, except when the As stated earlier, this problem is really one of eco.
customer prefers another method of application. nomics; the owner of the structure must decide how far he
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SSPC C H A P T E R * S * O 73 W 8627740 0 0 0 3 b 9 2 T 5 7
will go in paying for the increased cost of the best surface raw linseed oil, or one sufficiently rich in raw oil to provide
preparation. It is not enough to point out the increased life the desired wetting. It is believed that such a vehicle (when
of the paint when applied over completely cleaned steel. used with proper pigments) is about as close to foolproof
Experience has also proved that it is economically feasible as any available for shop primers.
to clean by hand or by power wire brushes and paint over Unfortunately, raw linseed oil has disadvantages in
the remaining mill scale when the structure will be ex- shop primers that almost outweigh its advantages. It
posed to mild atmospheres. Much of the tonnage of the attains its excellent wetting ability from its low surface
steel fabricated in this country today falls into this cate- tension; by remaining fluid for a long time, it develops
gory. The extra years of protection afforded by better sur- good adhesion. For shop use, and in most cases in the
face preparation may not always be justified. A paint field, driers must be added to permit drying and handling in
system that protects the steel for fifteen years may not be a reasonable time. This cuts down the degree of wetting,
economically sound when the structure must be repainted but because of its wetting ability, the raw linseed oil-
every ten years for the sake of appearance. containing paints still have the best wetting characteris-
In the final analysis, the owner must calculate the cost tics of the recommended shop primers. Even with the use
of painting in dollars per square foot of surface per year for of driers, raw linseed oil paints require 48 or more hours for
the alternative paint systems that are suitable for use. drying. It is not uncommon to have such paints dry on the
Note that the problem is based on surface area since surface, but remain wet underneath for weeks. This is
cleaning and painting costs depend directly upon the area hazardous for steel workers who might skin off the surface
to be cleaned, not the tons of steel. The fabricator who and lose traction or slip. A second disadvantage of the use
makes estimates and calculates such costs on the ton of such paints is the poor resistance of raw linseed oil to
must be certain that his figures are truly representative water or chemicals; this lack of resistance makes the
because of the wide variation in square feet of surface per paints particularly vulnerable when they are placed in
ton of steel. service shortly after painting. Raw linseed oil paints are
One cannot separate discussion of surface prepara- currently considered poor for underwater exposure.
tion from the priming paint. The two must be considered Before leaving this subject, a few remarks on pig-
together in deciding the type and degree of surface prepa- ments and other primers may be pertinent. Red lead has
ration or the primer that will be used. When the primer is proved itself to be unsurpassed as a pigment for heavy-
arbitrarily chosen, the surface preparation limitations are duty primers. Formerly, it was felt that the pigment should
fixed. For example, when a fast drying, poor wetting primer be all red lead, and that as much red lead as possible
is to be used, the surface preparation must include re- should be crammed into a gallon of paint even though the
moval of mill scale, rust, grease, and oil. If the chosen paint was difficult to apply. The validity of these beliefs is
primer is a slow drying paint containing oil and adequate open to argument in view of the facts that have developed
rust inhibitive pigments and possesses good wetting in testing and evaluating of paints. The writer’s opinion,
ability, then hand cleaning may suffice. The degree of based upon the results of many tests performed by a
hand cleaning must be determined by the exposure and number of organizations, is that just as good a primer can
service expected of the shop coat. be formulated by replacing a portion of the straight red
It is generally true that the shorter the drying time of a lead pigment by other pigments, such as basic lead silico-
paint, the less effective is its power to wet the surface, chromate pigments. Two primers have already been men-
although paints of equal drying time may differ greatly in tioned; both of these have a pigment composed of 75% red
their wetting ability. Wetting of the surface, in turn, has lead and 25% iron oxide. Test results indicate that they
been found to be the most important factor in determining perform as well as 100% red lead pigments. Other test
the protection afforded by properly pigmented rust inhib- results indicate the red lead content can be decreased still
itive primers over the less well cleaned surfaces. Poor further by adding other pigments. Addition of mica to the
shop cleaning prior to painting leaves a surface with mill red lead and iron oxide does not seem to decrease the
scale, rust, oil, grease, moisture, soil, and other contami- performance, and might improve it for some services.
nants; the amount retained varies with the original condi- The addition of other pigments and extenders should
tion and the thoroughness of the cleaning. For such serv- not be considered a lowering of quality as long as sound
ice, the properly pigmented primer must have strong formulation principles are adhered to. The iron oxide
wetting ability to penetrate through the film of oil, rust, etc. decreases one fault of pure red lead paints: their poor
While mill scale itself is non-porous, fabricating opera- weathering resistance. If not covered by a top coat, red
tions crack mill scale and permit water and air to enter and lead primers will carbonate on long exposure to air and
begin rusting underneath the outer layer of the mill scale. turn a gray-white; however, the performance does not
A good wetting primer will penetrate these cracks as well appear to be adversely affected. Addition of the iron oxide
as the underlying rust and will retard further corrosion and decreases this tendency and permits touch-up or shop
subsequent mill scale lifting. priming to be exposed to the weather for a long time with-
It is the opinion of many qualified engineers and paint out harm due to failure to recoat. Addition of mica or other
technologists that the vehicle of the primer applied over suitable extenders decrease the permeability of the paint
hand tool or power tool cleaned steel should consist of to water and oxygen.
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SSPC CHAPTER*S.O 93 m Bb279LiO 0 0 0 3 b 9 3 993 m
Other rust inhibitive pigments used extensively are to which hangers are bolted, will remedy most of the diffi-
zinc chromate, lead chromate, zinc oxide, and zinc dust. culty. Corrosion that does occur attacks the hanger or the
Zinc chromate and lead chromate are mixed with other lug and does not weaken the pipe itself.
pigments for primers. The usual red oxide shop primer can Riveted or bolted joints should be placed so that they
be greatly improved in its rust inhibiting ability by the can be cleaned and painted. Too often, a line of rivets is
substitution of about one-third of the normal pigment placed so close to a corner that it is almost impossible t o
weight by zinc chromate. Zinc dust has great merit in a rust clean or properly paint one side of the rivets or joints.
inhibitive primer when used with zinc oxide in a proportion Sometimes the design does not permit sealing of joints by
of about 80 parts zinc dust to 20 partszinc oxide by weight. rivets and rusting spreads the joint apart. More recently,
When used with raw linseed oil, this primer has good inorganic zinc primers are permitted on splice areas that
wetting ability but is also slow drying. For freshwater will be connected by bolts or rivets in the shop and field.
paints, the zinc dust-zinc oxide combination is among the Pockets in fabricated members that can collect dirt
best, particularly when the vehicle is a phenolic varnish should be eliminated; roller shapes should be positioned
and the steel is sandblasted. so that dirt and water are not retained. If it is necessary to
In recent years, vinyls, epoxies, inorganic zinc (one have the open side of a channel facing upwards, weep
and two package), organic zinc, and chlorinated rubbers holes should be cut into the web.
have been used as shop priming paints. In this same Many times angles or channels are placed back to
period of time environmental regulations havecomplicated back, but are separated by a thin gusset plate or washers.
the steel fabricating industry efforts t o achieve better shop This leaves a space that is extremely difficult to clean and
painting performance. For example, in many areas the paint. Furthermore, it traps soil and has a tendency to
traditional paints containing red lead, chromates, and remain wet, accelerating corrosion. Channels or angles
large amounts of volatile organic compounds are no used for stiffeners should not be placed with the open
longer permissible. The specification writer should be angle against the steel and left open at the top and sealed
aware of the laws and regulations governing paint, paint at the bottom, since such a design permits water to ac-
selection, and the areas in which the paint is to be applied cumulate. Such stiffeners should have a flat surface
and exposed. against the wall t o be stiffened so that the crack may be
Before discussion of specific procedures is begun, it sealed with paint, as is done in placing stiffeners on webs
might be well to point out that proper application of paint of plate girders.
is no less important than choice of the proper paint. In When the structure is exposed to salt spray or con-
fact, a good paint poorly applied can be much worse than a tamination, or acid, or alkali, in fact any strong electrolyte,
poorer paint that is well applied. it is particularly important that the designer eliminate
pockets or corners that may trap contamination and water.
A. DESIGNING FOR BETTER PAINTING Electrolytic action in such spots often causes sufficient
loss in section to cause failure of the member. When the
It is unfortunate, but true, that many structures are
structure is exposed to periodic stresses, stress fatigue
designed so that they cannot be adequately painted or
coupled with corrosion can cause early failure at stress
properly maintained after erection. The designer should values far below the design limitations. Corrosion at
keep in mind the necessity of having weather-exposed localized spots may set up stress raisers which can cause
surfaces accessible for cleaning and painting. Where it is
stress fatigue at the spot.
impossible to provide accessibility, the member should be
completely sealed by welding, riveting or caulking. Corro-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sion activity in a sealed interior will use up the available
water and oxygen and then stifle itself. Therefore, it is not
necessary to provide protective coating in such hermeti-
cally sealed enclosures.
Gratings, decks and open flooring should be of a
design that eliminates crevices and cracks such as occur
when riveted, expanded grating is used. An example
(Figure 1) of a clean cut, open design is shown here;
however, even this grating may be difficult to paint. The
use of galvanized or fiberglass reinforced gratings is in-
creasing because of the difficulty in painting and main-
taining steel grating.
Collars for pipe hangers and similar projections cause
difficulty because they collect water and rust the pipe;
pitting may be severe in localized areas. It is difficult to
FIGURE 1
keep them painted or to seal the cracks because of expan- Example of a clean cut design of grating to eliminate crevices
sion and contraction of the pipe. Lugs welded on the pipe, that trap contaminants and accelerate corrosion.
246
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SSPC CHAPTER*S.O 93 m 8627940 O003694 8 2 T m
When a structure is exposed to severe attack, such as Steel should not be encased in concrete that contains
salt water or a chemical atmosphere, design engineers cinders since the acidic condition will cause corrosion of
should specify complete scale removal. Mill scale in such the steel.
environments becomes the cathode in local galvanic cells Designing to eliminate crevices is of particular im-
on the surface of the steel. The mill scale is protected by portance in underwater structures. Flat areas, such as tank
sacrificing bare steel (perhaps at cracks in the mill scale). roofs, should be designed to eliminate low spots which will
Under this condition, the total amount of corrosion is collect and hold water. Other details requiring precaution
usually the same as for descaled steel, but corrosion is in design are included in various chapters of this book, and
concentrated at discontinuities in the mill scale. The result particularly in Chapter 25.
is pitting, sometimes severe enough to perforate the metal Frequently the consulting engineer, architect, or
and cause a failure. When complete descaling is not feasi- owner specifies a paint system that the fabricator, because
ble, adequate maintenance painting must be scheduled of his previous experience, knows is inadequate for the
since extra thickness for “corrosion allowance” may not job. The fabricator should have a competent person look
insure the structure against failure from localized over the specifications for each new job to decide whether
corrosion. he can honestly endorse the specified system. He should
Noble metals such as copper, nickel, etc., should not do this in his own interest since he may be held responsi-
be fastened with steel rivets or bolts since galvanic action ble in the event of a failure. Quite often he can have the
will destroy the fastening while protecting the plates. On specification changed to include a material that he feels
the other hand, noble metals can generally be used as confident will be better, or at least will not fail to perform
rivets or bolts to fasten steel or iron. Here the galvanic satisfactorily.
attack on the iron is distributed over a large area and little, Sometimes through lack of knowledge, customers will
i f any, harm is usually done. specify a paint to be used over a type of surface prepara
When dissimilar metals are to be in contact, the con- tion that is inadequate for the paint. Either the paint should
tacting surfaces should be insulated. Paint is usually be changed or surface preparation improved.
satisfactory for this purpose. When steel is to be in con- Fabricators usually have a preference for a certain
tact with a porous material that may be wet (such as type of shop paint. When the customer does not specify
wood), the contact surface should be painted. the paint, the fabricator should consider the service and
In general, anodic areas (steel) should not be painted exposure of the structure and decide whether his usual
i f the cathodic area (copper, brass, etc.) is unpainted when shop cleaning and painting will be adequate for the job.
the galvanic couple is exposed to an electrolyte. Paint Better cleaning and higher quality of paint may increase
both, or else the cathode alone; otherwise, a break occur- the cost estimate for the job; it is hard for the fabricator to
ring in the painted anodic area may quickly lead to failure quote on expensive cleaning and painting while his com-
of the steel. petitors quote on poorer work. Here, preliminary negotia-
Steel that is encased or fireproofed with lightweight tions with the customers may make the customer realize
concrete (aggregate) or other lightweight, porous, fire that his specifications need to be changed so that better,
retardant material (vermiculite) should be painted with at even though more expensive, painting is called for. If this
least one coat of good quality rust inhibitive primer. When fails, the fabricator who wants to do the right thing must
conditions are severe, or humidity is high, two or more hope that customer’s satisfaction or insurance against
coats of paint should be applied as the concrete may paint failure will offset his decreased profit on the job.
accelerate corrosion. Other design factors are covered in Chapter 25.
When steel is enclosed in concrete of high density or
low porosity, and when the concrete is at least two to three
inches thick, painting is not necessary, since the concrete B. THE CLEANING AND PAINTING SHOP
will protect the steel. Cleaning and painting costs can be kept to a minimum
Steel enclosed in masonry should be painted with at by efficient layout and planning of the cleaning and paint-
least one coat of rust inhibitive primeras leaks in flashings, ing shop (or shops, since some fabricators find it advan-
condensation of water permeating the masonry, etc., may tageous to separate these operations). Basic fundamentals
cause localized corrosion. of sound industrial engineering should be adhered to in
Steel that is in partial contact with concrete is gen- establishing flow patterns for the work, eliminating cross-
erally not painted. This creates an undesirable condition as over and backtrack as much as possible, and providing
water seeps into the crack between the steel and the con- adequate facilities for efficient operation (Figures 2-8).
crete. Corrosion may then occur and a sufficient volume of A large portion of the painting costs in the fabricating
rust may be built up to cause spalling of the concrete as in shop are attributable to handling; the direct cost charge-
the corrosion of reinforcing bars in concrete highways. The able to crane time, etc., is easily recognized. Just as large,
only remedy known to the author is to chip or leave a or larger, indirect costs are often occasioned by lost time
groove in the concrete at the edge next to the steel and waiting for cranes, handlers, and back tracking for touch
seal the crack with an alkali resistant caulking compound up of damage done in handling. Operations should be set
(such as bituminous cement). up so that handling or moving is kept to a minimum.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * S * O 93 8627940 0003695 766 W
Continuous production lines should be set up when- open-sided shed is sufficient, but the roof should extend
ever possible; i f the fabricated objects are more or less over the sides sufficiently far to prevent a driving rain from
uniform, and not too large, a mechanized conveyor (over- ruining the paint job. In such open sheds, there is a danger
head, track, etc.) should be used to expedite handling of from high humidity in cool weather, or during rainstorms
the work. In general, mechanical equipment should be and fogs. In cold climates, the paint shop should be en-
used to the maximum degree possible and manual labor closed and heated at least enough to keep the temperature
kept to a minimum. above 40°F (4°C). If practical, the temperature should be
There is a trend, especially in shops that fabricate kept up to 6570°F (18-21 OC), for temperature and humidity
small parts, to employ the automatic spray line in con- have considerable effect on the quality of the paint job.
junction with electrostatic paint application. This innova- Low temperature or high humidity slow the rate of drying;
tion has been used to coat large diameter line pipe. it is very possible that under such conditions the painted
When continuous production lines are impractical, steel can be dried for the normal time and loaded for
semicontinuous lines might be feasible; such work can shipment before i t has dried (or cured) sufficiently. The life
sometimes be handled efficiently on carts or trucks run- of a paint is affected by the atmospheric conditions to
ning on small track. Extremely large beams and girders which it is first exposed, particularly when it has not dried
can be set up on flat freight cars and run through a clean- completely.
ing and painting shop that is built up on either side of the Heating the paint shop and the paint in cold weather
track. This process is not to be confused with the poor is desirable for several reasons. Cold weather makes the
practice of loading fabricated steel on cars for shipment, paint viscous and it will not flow properly; thus, it fails to
then cleaning and painting just prior to the shipment. wet the crevices and cracks in the steel surface and the
Whether the cleaning and painting shop is best adhesion is poorer. The cold paint is difficult to apply and
housed in the same building with the fabricating opera painters will not want to brush properly; brush marks re-
tions is decided by the individual fabricator. Handling main in the paint film and are weak points because of the
costs are generally lower if they are in the same building. thin film in the marks. Painters will thin the paint to com-
However, the effect of the cleaning and painting opera- pensate for its increased viscosity; the result is a dried film
tions on the remainder of the plant must be considered. If of paint that is thinner than normal, and consequently
blast cleaning is done in the shop, separate rooms or poorer protection.
cabinets are a must for efficient, safe operations. Even if In cold weather, moisture condenses on the steel,
only hand or power tool cleaning is done, the effect of the even indoors, when the dew point of the air is reached.
painting operations may warrant a separate building. Spray When the air is heated, the humidity is usually increased.
painting has been eliminated in some plants because of Since the steel temperature lags behind the air tempera-
the complaints of other workers who object to the fumes, ture, it acts as a condenser and collects water on the
even when no overspray carries to their portion of the surface. Water wets the surface of steel and causes rust; it
plant. To forestall such a contingency a spray booth, down- is drawn into the cracks of the mill scale, under the edges
draft ventilation, or other positive measures are necessary. of the mill scale, and into the rust. Even on scrupulously
All fabricating shops should have adequate facilities clean steel, a layer of water will be built up. Painting over
for cleaning and painting under cover. In warm climates, this water, which is generally impossible to detect, locks in
where the temperature does not drop below 40°F (4"C), an a potential corrosive medium. Rusting proceeds under the
mill scale, and eventually the mill scale lifts and ruins the
paint. Most cases of paint failure due to mill scale lifting
occur on steel that was fabricated, cleaned, and painted
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
during the winter.
Other facilities will be discussed under the various
headings that follow. In summary, when setting up or
changing the painting shop, use mechanical or automatic
equipment as much as possible; keep handling to a
minimum unless a completely mechanized handling
system is feasible; provide adequate and protected space
for cleaning, painting and drying.
C. QUALIFICATIONS OF LABOR
In many shops, cleaning and painting are considered
jobs that require no skill, but a good job at minimum cost
can be done only by trained men who are qualified for the
work. The practice of random assignment, on a day-to-day
FIGURE 2
Plate sand blasting in fabricating plant. basis, of manual labor for cleaning and painting should be
Courtesy: Chicago Bridge and Iron eliminated. One reason for poor paint jobs is that some

248
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SSPC C H A P T E R * S * O 9 3 8627940 0003b7b b T 2
workers are led to consider it just another job. others will have only patches of mill scale remaining. If the
Generally, however, the worker is basically proud of steel has been stored for a long time, rust scale may be
his skill and ability; given an even break he will try to do a present on a portion of the surface area.
job of which he is proud. He can be relied upon i f he is Oil will be present from handling, drilling, reaming,
educated to do good work and is provided the means to etc. Grease will be present from the machinery lubricants,
do it. crane drippings, etc. Carbonized residues from riveting and
Methods of training workers vary with the plants; most welding operations may be present. Chalk marks, perhaps
often, training is by on-the-job methods, or through drawing compounds, mill identification marks, piece
apprenticeship when this is required by union rules. Some numbers, etc., will be present. Water soluble cutting com-
plants have set up training programs that cover consider- pounds, or emulsions are sometimes present. Salt is some-
able ground and a long period of time. In such cases, times present on the surface. Mud and dirt are often
perhaps eight hours a week are devoted to instruction and present, as are hand prints.
discussion; the remainder of the time is spent in doing The methods of surface preparation generally used in
work, but the time for each type of job, or for each different the fabricating shops are as follows:
phase of activity, is programmed. At the end of six months, 1. Nominal Cleaning
or a year, the worker is promoted from apprentice, or 2. Solvent Cleaning
helper, to painter i f he passes a qualifying test. 3. Hand Cleaning
Because of the increased cost of labor, and the 4. Power Tool Cleaning
sophistication of the newer paint materials, most 5. Blast Cleaning
fabricating shops use automatic blast cleaning equipment 6. Pickling
and spray application of the paint. In those shops, and par-
All, except for the first, are covered by Steel Structures
ticularly in the field, where personnel are assigned the task
Painting Council Surface Preparation Specifications and
of “blaster-painter” there is a “lack of skill” due to fatigue,
Commentary and will not be repeated in this chapter. As a
especially when after spending most of the day blast clean-
precautionary note, the reader should familiarize himself
ing, the person is now required to apply the paint.
thoroughly with the SSPC Surface Preparation Specifica-
Spray painting is not a strictly mechanical operation;
tions and then take a hard, realistic look at the physical
it requires more skill than brush or roller application, plus a
capabilities of his workplace before committing himself to
technical knowledge of the equipment. In using the newer,
a method of surface preparation that would be impractical.
fast drying paints, correct know-how in the application is
Photographs of various methods of surface preparation are
positively essential for their success. In recent years the
presented for the reader’s familiarization.
major manufacturers of paint spray equipment have spon-
sored week-long classes in the proper methods of equip-
IV. SHOP PRIMING
ment handling and spray painting techniques.
In the final analysis, the man who applies the paint de- The basic requirements of shop primers have been
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
termines its performance. No matter how good the surface
preparation or the paint, it is no better than the man who
applies it; always remember, even the best paints will fail i f
not properly applied. The painter must be aware of the im-
portance of his work and proud of its quality; if he is doing
something against his will or for low pay it will be reflected
in poorer paint performance.
111. SHOP CLEANING AND PRETREATING

The cleaning of the surface has already been dis-
cussed in a general way; specific details are covered in the
chapters on mechanical and chemical surface preparation.
This section deals with specific operations in the fabri-
cating shop. Fabricated steel ready for cleaning and paint-
ing consists of a varied assortment of surface conditions.
New steel (steel that has been shipped from the rolling mill
and has not weathered in the fabricator’s yard) will usually
consist of almost intact mill scale. Weathered steel will
vary from almost complete rust to almost intact mill scale, FIGURE 3
depending upon how long it is stored in the fabricator’s Side view of centrifugal blast cleaning unit showing driving motor
yard, and whether it is stored under cover or not. and wheel housing. Work is cleaned as it passes the wheel only. A
fortyeight foot long cleaning chamber is provided, but most of
The surface conditions of the usual rolled shape will this space is a tunnel which serves only to trap abrasives and act
vary; perhaps one face may be completely rusted, while as a shelter.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x 7 . 0 73 8b27740 0003677 537
cised that the second coat of paint is compatible with the

first, since inter-coat peeling may result i f adhesion is not
good; also, the solvent in the second coat must not be
powerful enough to lift the fresh primer.
Another method is to shopcoat the steel in the normal
manner and ship the steel to the job site. Before erection,
the steel is given a second coat of paint. The prime coat
should weather long enough to lift vulnerable mill scale.
Spot cleaning and touch up of these areas is necessary
before the second coat of paint is applied.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Unfortunately, painting of the steel in the field before

erection requires extra handling operations. But the extra
cost for handling is offset by the timely on-site paint
application.
When the period of exposure before field painting is
short, or when the surface preparation is of good quality,
the burden thrust upon the shopcoat is eased, and con-
siderable variation in the primer is possible. Here, zinc
chromate primers show to advantage. Another alternative
is the application of inorganic zinc, epoxy, vinyl, etc., as
primers. However, caution must be exercised by the
specifier when he contemplates the use of these materials
as primer paints. They often require special surface prepa-
ration and application, and their suitability for specific
environments must be considered.
FIGURE 4
Illustration of a centrifugal wheel used for blast cleaning. Note
the extensive repair work which has been necessary on the
housing due to the wear from the abrasive.
discussed; it was shown that the most severe test of a

shop coat is long exposure without topcoats, such as on
steel for a large structure. Since the dried film thickness of
a good shop coat is only about two mils, it is not at all
surprising to find considerable failure of the paint after
long exposures. The type of exposure has much to do with
the manner in which the shop coat survives the interim
period before field painting. A heavy industrial atmos-
phere, marine atmosphere, high humidity, or chemical
environment will cause much more damage to the shop
coat than exposure in a rural atmosphere.
When it is known that the exposure will be long and
severe, several methods of circumventing probable failure
of the shop coat are possible. In the first method, two
coats of paint are applied in the shop. The first, or prime
coat, must be allowed to dry thoroughly before the second
coat is applied. This has the big disadvantage of tying up
large amounts of the drying and painting facilities of the
fabricator. Naturally, the fabricator will want to be paid, if
production of his plant is slowed down. Moreover, he will
not want to use this method because the real costs would
be enormous. The difficultv can be alleviated bv usina a - FIGURE 5
Exterior oí a nozzle blast cleaning room showing two continuous
semi-quick drying paint as &,e second coat. Here, one can
type feed tanks in the foreground along with control equipment,
take advantage Of synthetic type resins to Provide a more and oil and water seDarators: abrasive recoverv eauioment is in I ..
weather resistant outer coat of paint. Care must be exer- the background.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERa9.O 93 m 8627940 O003698 475 m
that proprietary products may not work as well. In fact,

many of these paints could be improved if enough time and
money were spent for that purpose. Also, many proprietary
paints meet and often exceed these specifications.
No primer has been found suitable for general use for all
service. A minimum number of primers should be chosen
for standard operations by each fabricator to be used on
work for which no prime paint was specified. However, it is
a rare case when contract specifications are written that
allow the fabricator to choose the paint. Normally, the
contract specifications call for generic types of paint to
be shop applied. In a majority of cases brand names are
mentioned, accompanied by an “or-equal” clause.
A variety of paint materials, all of which can be used
as primer paints, are presented in Table I.Also included for
each paint is a description of the pigment, vehicle, and the
minimum surface preparation required for each paint. Most
of the paints shown in the table are very seldom specified.
Several others have been banned from use by one or more
federal agencies, and the use of many of these paints has
been severely limited by standards of these same agen-
cies. It is the responsibility of the owner and his agent to
be aware of the regulations governing the use of certain
paints that could cause health and safety problems.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In selecting primers for shop coats, the following
points should be considered: (1) the corrosiveness of the
exposure environment, (2) the length of time that the steel
will be exposed, (3) the surface preparation that is accepta-
FIGURE 6
Interior view of blast cleaning room shown in Figure 5. Note air ble or economical. Furthermore, the primers that are
feed connection to operator’s mask for fresh air supply when ac- suitable must be selected upon the basis of the drying time
tually blast cleaning. Solenoid control of blast stream by operator available and the wetting ability required for the degree of
is available but is not shown. Material passing through this room
is carried on a continuous conveyor. clean i ng contem plated.
B. SHOP PRIMING PROCEDURES

A. RECOMMENDED SHOPCOAT PRIMERS To obtain satisfactory performance of any paint,
proper application is essential. Detailed specifications for
There are a tremendous number of primers availáble
proper application are found in Volume 2 of the manual;
for steel; the extravagant claims made for some of them
are completely unsubstantiated in actual use. Others,
while well formulated and of high quality, show little or no
superiority over proven formulations when the primers are
compared in controlled tests. Any primer that is sold on
the basis that i t eliminates preparation of the surface
should be viewed with extreme caution. Before widespread
use it should be tested in service to determine whether it
will perform satisfactorily or meet the requirements of the
fabricator and the customer. Reports of investigations of
primers for structural steel shopcoats have been made by
many investigators.
The tables below list paints that have been used as
primers for structural steel. They have been chosen as
being representative of the types and classes of primers FIGURE 7
that have proved themselves in actual service. Due to limi- Pickling Set-up with three pickling tanks in the foreground. The
furthest tank is a sulfuric acid pickling tank, the second is a water
tations, easily understood, many good primers have been rinse, and the closest tank in the foreground is a phosphoric acid
left out. Specifications for many of these paints are in- treatment tank. Concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acid are
cluded in SSPC Volume 2, “Systems & Specifications”; the stored in the iron tanks beneath the crane runway. Solvent clean-
ing of the steel takes place in the background prior to immersion
others are easily procurable. The reader should not get the in the sulfuric acid tank. Drying and painting racks and skids are
idea that because a primer is not included it is not good, or shown in the foreground.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*S*O 93 8627940 0003699 301
and general instructions for application are included in draw the viscosimeter and simultaneously start
other chapters of this volume. It is also extremely the stop watch. Time the flow of material through
important to consult the paint manufacturer on details the cup and stop the time when the flow of
regarding application of a particular paint. Details of ap- coating interrupts the first time. The viscosity is
plication that are primarily of concern to the fabricator are compared to the previously measured or specified
covered in this section. viscosity; since temperature affects viscosity, a
i.Shop Control of Paint Properties chart of viscosity versus temperature should be
Some control system should be set up to check prepared for each paint that will be used. This
the important properties of the paint. Procedures method of measuring viscosity works relatively
for such checks are covered in chapters on quality well for usual shop paints, but should not be used
control. Probably the most important characteris- without due precautions for thixotropic materials.
tics of paint that affect its application are vis- Brushing, spraying, and dipping properties
cosity, drying time, brushing properties, spraying are easily determined by actual application to
properties, and (in some cases) dipping properties. small panels; an experienced observer should
Other characteristics, such as storage sta- make the test. Drying times are determined by
bility and hiding power, have an indirect but exposing these panels in the shop or paint room.
important effect on application. Even where no Here, the shop has an advantage over the labora
laboratory facilities are available to the fabricating tory because the determination is made under the
plant, some person should be sufficiently trained conditions in which the paint will actually be
to enable him to check the most essential of these applied. Since drying time is affected by tempera-
properties. The necessary equipment is basically ture and humidity, the paint cannot always be
a viscosimeter (Zahn or similar type), a ther- blamed for improper drying; it may dry in the time
mometer, a watch with a second hand, a scale for specified when exposed to standard dry condi-
weighing, and some facility for drying weighed tions (about 77" F or 25" C and 50% relative
samples of paint when the percent of volatile hum idity).
matter is to be checked. While critical checks and Paints are thinned with varying proportions of
tests should be conducted by competent labora- thinners; some paints have almost no thinner,
tory personnel, the tests conducted by the shop others may run about 50% by volume of thinner.
personnel can guard against acceptance of a For example, when a paint that is 50 percent by
paint that is not in compliance with the specifica- volume thinner dries, only about half the volume
tions or the properties advertised by the manu- of paint deposited on the steel as a wet film
facturer. Such crude checks will not reveal im- remains in the form of dried paint (assuming little
proper pigments, resins, or oils, or fraudulent evaporation takes place in the application). This
substitutions with intent to deceive. On large jobs means that four mils of wet film must be de-
where considerable money is invested in the posited when specifications for such a paint re-
cleaning and painting, the services of a commer- quire two mils dried paint thickness. The same
cial testing laboratory should be utilized if the line of reasoning holds true for paints with more,
plant does not have an adequate laboratory. or less, than 50 percent by volume thinner. The
Weight per gallon can be checked by taking a more thinner in the paint, the more wet film will
filled one gallon or five gallon container and have to be deposited to achieve the specified dry
weighing it, then deducting the weight of the film of paint. Most paint manufacturers produce
empty container. Small platform scales are paint ready for spray application without the need
usually available around the plant that will weigh of additional thinning. The standard nowadays is
to within one ounce in 25 pounds. Allowing an airless spray application. Therefore, application
error of two ounces from the true weight in the methods other than airless spray may dictate that
weighing or over filling, the accuracy of such a the paint be thinned. In any case, the manufac-
method of determining the weight per gallon is 1/2 turer's recommendations regarding thinning
of one percent. This will readily show whether the should be adhered to very strictly.
paint meets the specification weight. When The fabricator is not interested in buying
samples are taken from large containers, the with- large quantities of thinner that will evaporate,
drawal of a representative sample requires dili- causing health and fire hazards; therefore each
gent precautions. paint should be formulated with only the neces-
Viscosity can readily be checked by dipping a sary amount of thinner to keep the resin in solu-
#2 Zahn viscosimeter in the paint, allowing the tion and to maintain the proper viscosity for
viscosimeter to remain in the mixed paint for ap- application. The volatile content of a paint can be
proximately 20 seconds to achieve temperature checked quite simply; for precise work, a drying
equalization between the paint and the cup. With- oven and analytical balance are essential. For a
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252
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SSPC CHAPTER*S*O 93 8627940 0003700 953 =
TABLE 1
TYPICAL PRIMER PAINTS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL
MINIMUM
PRIMER PIGMENT VEHICLE SURFACE PREPARATION
SSPC Paint 9 100% Titanium Vinyl Blast Cleaning
Dioxide
SSPC Paint 11 40% Oxide Raw Linseed Oil Hand Cleaning
40% Zinc Yellow and Alkyd Varnish
20% Extenders (equal parts)
SSPC Paint 13 60% Red or Brown Raw Linseed Oil Hand Cleaning
Iron Oxide Tung Oil Ester
12% Red Lead Gum Varnish
' 3 % Zinc Chromate Bodied Linseed Oil
25% Magnesium Silicate
SSPC Paint 15 Red Iron. Oxide Alkyd Resin Solids Hand Cleaning
Magnesium Silicate Mineral Spirit Thinner
Inhibitive Pigment Driers
SSPC Paint 16 52% Coal Tar Pitch Epoxy Polyamide SSPC-SP 6, "Commercial
48% Magnesium Silicate Blast Cleaning"
SSPC Paint 17 35% Rust Inhibitive Chlorinated Rubber,

Pigment suitably plasticized
12% Tinting Pigments and stabilized.
55% Extender Pigments
SSPC Paint 20
Type I 87% Zinc Dust Inorganic
Type II 93% Zinc Dust Organic
SSPC Paint 22 Inhibitive Pigment Epoxy Polyamide SSPC-SP 6

SSPC Paint 23 Inhibitive Pigment Latex SSPC-SP 6
SSPC Paint 25 Zinc Oxide Linseed oil/ Hand Cleaning

Red Iron Oxide Alkyd
Magnesium
Silicate
Mica
SSPC Paint 28 Not specified Water Borne Blast Cleaning
EPOXY Preferred
SSPC Paint 29 Minimum 50% Inorganic or Blast Cleaning
zinc dust in dry Organic
film
TT-P-641 80% Zinc Dust Raw Linseed Oil Hand Cleaning
Type I 20% Zinc Oxide Oil
TT-P-641 80% Zinc Dust Alkyd Varnish Blast Cleaning or

Type II 20% Zinc Oxide Pickling
TT-P-645 50% Zinc Yellow Alkyd Varnish Blast Cleaning or

14% Titanium Dioxide Pickling
17% Zinc Oxide
19% Extender
TT-P-636 50% Iron Oxide Alkyd Varnish Hand Cleaning
10% Zinc Yellow
10% Zinc Oxide
30% Extender
TT-P-31 60% Red or Brown Linseed Oil Hand Cleaning
Iron Oxide (5 parts)
12% Zinc Oxide Spar Varnish
28% Extender (1 part)
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R t S - O 73 m 8627740 0003701 89T m
TABLE 2
SOURCES OF INFORMATION PERTAINING TO CLEANING AND

PAINTING HAZARDS
National Safety Council National Paint and Coatings Association
1121 Spring Lake Drive 1500 Rhode Island Avenue, NW
Itasca, IL 60143-3201 Washington, DC 20005-5597
American National Standards Institute Painting and Decorating Contractors of America

11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor 3913 Old Lee Highway, Suite 338
New York, NY 10036-8002 Fairfax, VA 22030
National Fire Protection Association Canadian General Standards Board

1 Battery March Park, P.O. Box 9101 222 Queen Street, Suite 1412
Quincy, MA 02269-91O1 Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 1G6
American Foundrymen's Society U.S. Department of Labor

505 State Street Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Des Plaines, IL 60016-8399 200 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20210
Chemical Manufacturers Association
2501 M Street, NW U.S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
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Washington, DC 20037-1303
810 7th Street, NW
simple and fairly accurate check, less sensitive to check both weight per gallon and viscosity
scales can be used. Photographic supply houses since both improper thinning and mixing errors
sell small inexpensive scales that can be used for may compensate each other. Since the sample of
fairly accurate work. About 5 to 10 grams of paint paint will be small, a weight-per-galloncup should
are poured into a dried, weighed tray made of be used.
folded aluminum foil (about 4" x 4"; the lid of a 2. Storage of Paint
quart can may be used, but the sensitivity of the When a paint order is accepted, it should be
procedure is reduced); it must be weighed quickly, stored until required. Fire insurance policies,
since the solvent will start to evaporate immedi- government regulations, and manufacturer's in-
ately. If the paint forms skins in drying, a small structions dictate that paint materials be stored in
piece of wire should be weighed with the tray and fireproof rooms at controlled temperatures. In
left in during drying; it is used to break up skins addition, most jobs call for temperature control of
that may form. The sample of paint is dried at the stored paint. The storage room should be kept
about 220" F (104" C) until the weight becomes locked and only qualified personnel should be
constant. The loss in weight of the sample is used authorized to remove paint or thinner. Upon re-
to calculate the percent of volatile in the original ceipt of a lot of paint, the job number of the paint
sample of paint by weight. This can be recalcu- should be marked on each container. If the paint is
lated into volume percent, when the type of thin- for general use, it should be marked accordingly.
ner is known. Paints which deviate significantly In any case, stock on hand should be used first.
from specifications or known volatile content Containers of paint should be turned over about
should be checked by a more accurate method once each month to help keep the pigment from
before investigation of the reason for the settling hard. On some jobs paints that have a
discrepancy. limited shelf life are specified. The expiration date
Periodic checks should be made of paint of these materials should be shown, and they
from painters' buckets or spray pots. Viscosity should be used as soon as possible or returned to
checks will show whether paint has been ex- the manufacturer prior to expiration of the shelf
cessively thinned or adequately mixed. It is best life.

254
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SSPC C H A P T E R r S . 0 73 8627940 0003702 726
driven by electric or air motors. The small plant

that does not find it economical to go to
mechanical mixing equipment should purchase
paint in five gallon pails. The paint can then be
stored and mixed when necessary. Small me-
chanical mixers and shakers are also available for
5-gallon units.
4. Thinning
The thinning of paint must be done by qualified
personnel under careful supervision. There is a
feeling among some paint users that paint should
be purchased and applied at the greatest coverage
per gallon possible. This belief is encouraged by
FIGURE 8
Section of paint storage room showing power driven mixers con- some paint salesmen who claim amazing square
nected to built-in stirrers in drums of paint which are in use. feet per gallon coverage for their paints. The
Paints are drawn from spigots at the bottom of the drums when reasoning is false and poor economy. Paint
required. In the center of the photograph note pressure regulating
equipment which is used to maintain an inert atmosphere of should be applied at a coverage or spreading rate
nitrogen above paints when they are being circulated throughout that will ensure a dried film thickness capable of
plant circulating system (which was not being used). Note elec- protecting the steel. When too much thinner is
trical ground to paint drum shown on right. Mechanical equip-
ment, on the left is available, for lifting heavy containers of paint. used, it may be impossible to obtain adequate
thickness of dried paint. Paints will run and sag if
the painter attempts to build up thick films with
The storage area should be kept warm in cold overly-thinned paints; in such a case the only
weather to prevent the paint from freezing. remedy is to apply extra coats of paint.
The thinner used must be compatible with
3. Mixing
the paint being used. If the wrong thinner is used,
The paint room should be equipped with mechani-
it may throw resin out of solution and ruin the
cal mixing equipment; all pumps or motors should
paint. Most oil-base paints are thinned with
be explosion-proof. It is essential that mixing be
mineral spirits or V.M. & P. naphtha. The direc-
thorough. After mixing, the container should be
tions of the paint manufacturer or the specifica-
checked for residual solid material remaining on
tion should be followed regarding thinning of the
the bottom of the container. This solid material
paint. Some of the newer paints with synthetic
should be broken free of the container, broken up
resins require thinners composed of aliphatics,
as much as possible, and the entire contents of
aromatics, and ketones. These thinners should
the container re-mixed until a complete homo-
never be used to thin oil-base paints. It is possible
geneity is attained. The process should be re-
to use aromatic thinners in oil-base paints;
peated as often as necessary to insure thorough
however, extreme caution should be exercised i f
mixing.
this course of action is planned.
The fabricator who uses drums of paint may
Before paint is thinned for spraying, it should
order them with a built-in mixer, to which is con-
nected a driving motor or a hand crank when the
paint is to be mixed (See Figures 9 and 10).
When large quantities of paint are being
used, paint recirculating systems are available.
The paint is mixed continuously and stored in the
paint room. It is pumped through pipes to the
various stations where it is used; it returns
through another pipe to the original containers
and is constantly recirculated so that it does not
settle in the pipes. Control of the paint mixing and
thinning rests in the hands of the paint room
attendant. Such systems should be kept under an
inert atmosphere, such as nitrogen.
Where paint is to be supplied from drums for
brush painting, it should be kept in continuous
agitation and also under nitrogen while on de-
mand. For this purpose, propellor-type mixers are FIGURE 9
inserted in the drum of paint; these units are Air driven motor connected to built-in mixer in drum of paint.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*S.O 93 m 86279VO 0003703 b b 2 m
ally conceded that if application methods are

correct, either method is suitable. Brushing of the
prime coat of paint into the surface has a ten-
dency to promote better wetting and adhesion;
this is offset by the thinness of paint in the brush
marks. Spraying, on the other hand, deposits a
more uniform coat of paint than brushing, but it
has a tendency to bridge over dirt and cracks, and
to be blown away from corners. When a difference
in performance has existed between spraying and
brushing there is usually some unrecognized
factor that has caused the discrepancy in per-
formance. In cracks and crevices, around rivet
heads, on sharp edges, in corners, and similar
places, sprayed films are usually very thin, i f not
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altogether missing. For example, it is not uncom-
mon to find one side of sprayed rivets barely
covered by paint. Here, brushing is a definite
advantage, and a striping coat is recommended
prior to spraying. When brushing and spraying
result in equal thicknesses of dried paint over
properly prepared steel, there is no difference in
the durability of the applied primers.
Since spraying of paint is faster than brush-
ing, the saving in cost of application makes its
use advantageous; there may be factors which
preclude its use, however, such as toxic hazard to
personnel. Despite opinions to the contrary, when
FIGURE 10
Typical drum handling equipment; drum holder is handled easily proper precautions are taken, the hazard from
by shop crane and drum may be tipped when desired to draw spray painting is negligible. Some modern spray
paint. Tongs in foreground are used for handling drums of paint paint systems are so efficient that it is not neces-
by shop crane.
sary for the operators to wear face masks.
New developments in paint application by
spray are making headway in fabricating plants.
be spray-applied in the as-received condition to
The use of paint recirculating systems has already
determine the ease of application, flow, levelling
been mentioned. Since so much thinner is wasted
characteristics, film build, running and sagging,
in the synthetic resin paints, particularly those
and so forth. Modern spray equipment is capable
that dry by solvent evaporation, some plants have
of atomizing most paints, and it may be that no
thinning will be necessary. The result is a greater
film build per application. As long as the thick-
ness of the paint deposit does not become ex-
cessive, thicker coats of paint are advantageous.
In any event, the thickness of the dried paint film
must be adequate and should be controlled.
Thinning of paints for dipping operations is a
specialized operation that requires individual
recommendations. If dipping is to be done, the
advice of a competent paint company or specialist
should be solicited. Figure 11 illustrates a dipping
operation used to ease application of paints to
small, difficult to paint, fabricated assemblies.
5. Application Equipment
In some cases the type of paint t o be used will
dictate the method of application. However, paint
is usually applied by spray or brush. There is still FIGURE 11
Paint dipping setup. The tank of paint is raised by hydraulic jacks
considerable controversy regarding the merits of and then lowered, rather than dipping the work into the paint.
brush versus spray painting, although it is gener- Excess paint drips on the collecting trough on the left.

256
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SSPC CHAPTER*S*O 93 Ab27940 0003704 5 T ï
switched to hot spray application. Here, the form on dipped articles are removed; application
amount of solvent is reduced to a minimum by by flow or curtain coating - in which the paint is
heating the paint and spraying it hot; the paint applied and allowed to drain off and is then col-
dries faster and the build per coat is much greater lected in a sump and recirculated.
(Figure 12). This is a particular advantage when it To speed up production and improve the
is difficult to get more than one mil of dried paint performance of paint, some plants have installed
per coat using conventional means. drying ovens. Here, even paint on structural steel
Paint heaters may also be used for painting in can be dried in several hours. When the paint
cold weather. However, there is a danger factor requires a long drying time even at oven tempera-
involved. Caution must be exercised when apply- tures, the paint can be dried enough to permit its
ing hot paint over cold steel and vice-versa. A thin handling and stacking. Figure 14 illustrates such
layer of condensation is formed, and usually be- an oven.
comes entrapped at the paint-steel interface. This Even some brush painting has been mecha-
is a cause of blushing (alkyds) and discoloration nized; for instance in the use of a rotary cup-
(vinyls). If this practice is used, the paint should shaped brush for spotting rivet heads prior to
be applied in thin films until the specified thick- spraying. Fountain type paint brushes are availa-
ness is obtained. In a few plants, solvent recovery ble, in which paint is supplied through the brush
systems have been installed; the economy of this handle from a pressure pot.
operation in the ordinary fabricating plant at this
time is questionable. 6. Application of the Paint
Developments in ventilating equipment have The actual application of paint, whether by brush
made a marked difference both in working condi- or spray, requires plain common sense and experi-
tions and in plant appearance. Modern methods of ence. It also requires patience on the part of the
collecting overspray are to use either down-draft applicator, and more so on the part of manage-
ventilation or spray arrestors. In down-draft venti- ment, so that this important part of shop work is
lation, the spraying takes place over or near a not done sloppily. The surface must be cleaned of
grilled opening in the floor connected to a power- all dust, oil, or grease that may have been de-
ful exhaust system, while the overspray is sucked posited after the cleaning operation. The critical
into the system and collected. The principle of points should be stripe painted by brush with the
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operation is explained in Figure 13. The other same paint as will be used for the prime coat. The
general type of system utilizes a painting booth; critical points are rivets, welds, joints, cracks,
air is drawn through the booth, picking up the corners, edges, interstices, and any other place
overspray in the process. In both these methods, where the paint has a tendency to break down
the air then passes through a water curtain or a first.
iilter to catch the paint before passing through the At this time, or even earlier, small areas
exhaust fan. Paint may be reclaimed from the should be painted for transferring piece or identi-
separators, but its re-use for structural steel fication marks. The paint should be the same as
priming is not recommended. the priming paint; after it dries sufficiently, piece
marks are transferred by (or checked by) an in-
spector or foreman.
The striping paint should be allowed to dry, if
possible, before the full prime coat is applied. If
this is not practical, as much time as possible
should be allowed for it to dry. It should at least
set to touch. Drying time for the striping paint
should not be so long as to cause rusting or
deterioration of the remainder of the cleaned
steel.
FIGURE 12 The prime coat of paint is then applied ac-
Flow diagram through a paint circulating heater.
cording to the instructions in the chapter on paint
application and the manufacturer's instructions. If
New developments that have been intro- it is sprayed, the operator should be careful of his
duced into the fabricating plants include auto- technique. Fast drying synthetic paints may be
matic spraying of paint - used when the work is ruined if the gun is swung in an arc, or if it is held
not varied; electrostatic spraying - in which the too far from the surface and the paint is deposited
paint particles are charged with electricity and are "dry." If the gun is held too close, the paint may
attracted to the work, even around corners; elec- be too thick and run, sag, or curtain. Spray equip-
trostatic de-tearing - in which the tear drops that ment manufacturers should be called upon to

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*S*O 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003705 435 =
reach 40 or 50 percent. Because of this unknown
quantity, estimates of dry paint thickness from
paint consumed and area painted may be quite
erroneous and are more likely to be in error on the
dangerous side.
l If precautions are not taken, the thickness of
I. 1
.
the applied paint will vary between the easily
reached and the less accessible surfaces. Great
care should be exercised to coat the bottom sur-
faces of flanges, etc., with the correct amount of
paint. When the paint gun is held at an angle,
there will be a difference in paint deposited per
square inch across the cross section of the spray
pattern. Areas that are difficult to reach by brush
or spray should be examined with the aid of a
mirror under strong light.
The interiors of boxed members that are not
accessible after fabrication should be completely
DOWN DRAFT SPRAY BOOTH painted before final assembly. In many cases, a
spray gun can be used to reach difficult areas.
FIGURE 13
Schematic diagram of a down draft spray booth. Extension handles are available for lengthen-
Courtesy: Binks Manufacturing Co. ing the paint gun assembly in order to reach
inaccessible areas. Often, a brush will be needed
to coat edges, corners, or the blind side of rivets
assist in instructing painters in spray techniques.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
that cannot be reached by the spray pattern from
Parenthetically, spray equipment manufacturers
the gun.
conduct schools to which operators can be sent
Contact surfaces for riveted structures
for training.
should not be painted, since the hot riveting
The thickness of the wet film can be deter- operation will destroy the paint. Destruction of the
mined with a wet film paint thickness gage paint is not serious as the rust inhibitive pigment
immediately after application. The competent and
experienced painter will take two or three wet film
thickness readings per piece of painted steel. He
should also know how to read the gage. For exam-
ple, the painter is using a material that has a non-
volatile content of 50 percent and the specifica-
tion calls for a dry film thickness of 2.0 mils. By
dividing 2.0 by 50 percent (2.0 - 0.50) the painter
will know that he needs a minimum wet film thick-
ness of 4.0 mils to obtain the 2.0 mils dry film
thickness. The painter should place the "teeth" of
the gage against the painted surface perpen-
dicular to the plane of the surface and, without
smearing or sideways motion, withdraw the
gage. If he sees that the tooth marked 4 is wet
and the next highest number tooth is dry, then he
reads the wet film as between 4 and 5 or 4 and 6
whichever is the next highest number. If 4 is not
wet, the painter should be instructed to apply
more paint. Dry film thicknesses should always be
checked as soon as possible so that errors can be
corrected prior to shipment of the painted steel. It
is impossible to obtain accurate wet film thick-
ness readings on zinc-filled paints. Therefore, the
zinc-rich paints should be allowed to dry, meas-
ured, and repainted, if necessary, to obtain the
specified dry f i Im thickness. FIGURE 14
The amount of paint lost by overspray may Oven for force drying painted steel.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*S.O 93 m 8627740 000370b 371 =
will still be there, but the fumes that develop are
hazardous to workmen. When structures are
bolted together, the contact surfaces should be
painted, except when high tensile strength bolts
are used. Since these loose-fitting, bolted joints
depend upon friction of the contact surfaces, no
paint or other lubricant should be used between
the faying surfaces. Recent studies by the AISC
show that inorganic zinc paint is acceptable for
use on these surfaces. However, the contract
specifications will determine the course of action FIGURE 15
Painting and drying racks for fabricated plate. Notice contact sur.
to be taken. faces for field joints are left unpainted.
Shop welds should be cleaned as thoroughly
as possible before painting to remove weld slag
and spatter. The use of anti-spatter compounds
by a competent, experienced inspector. He should
has been successful in eliminating most of the
require another application of paint over thin
difficulty with weld spatter. However, when more
areas; runs or sags should be worked out by
than one pass per weld is necessary, or when
brush; a critical examination of rivet heads, welds,
welds meet, as in a corner, the first weld burns
edges, etc., should be made to be sure they are
off the anti-spatter compound. It then becomes a
adequately covered. Abraded or damaged areas
matter of shop practice as to the removal of addi-
should be touched up.
tional weld spatter, just so long as it is removed.
Weld spatter can be removed by hand or pneu- 7. Handling, Drying, and Storing of Painted Steel
matic chipping action. However, recent advances Handling, drying, and storage of painted steel vary
in grinding tool design make it more profitable to widely in the different shops. “Dry for handling”
remove weld spatter by grinding. times quoted for paints are not significant
When field welding is specified, the edge of because of the difference in opinion regarding
the steel is usually left unpainted for at least four how dry paint should be before it is handled. In
inches along the edge to be welded. In the field, some plants, steel is handled immediately after
this edge must be very thoroughly cleaned and painting and placed in the storage area for drying.
painted after welding. This is a potential weak If this is done, the storage area must be warm and
spot in fabricated steel, since the edges are dry, and the steel should be touched up immedi-
usually badly rusted by the time fabrication is ately where it has been scoured or abraded in
completed. An additional reason for painting, or at handling.
least the application of a temporary coating, is the In other plants, the steel is allowed to remain
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fact that the weld metal is a different metal than in place after painting until it is dry, perhaps 24 or
the parts being joined, in effect a cathodic cell. 36 hours. Actually, i f it is a heavy duty primer, the
This surface must be cleaned as well, if not better paint is not really dry, but dry only on the surface.
than the surfaces in the shop, and must receive It can easily be skinned in handling. In any case, it
the same coats of paint as were applied in the is good practice to rack, stack, or otherwise place
shop. freshly painted steel so that there will be a flow of
Edges of the steel left unpainted for field air over the painted surfaces. Preferably, the air
welding or riveting may be protected temporarily should be warm, starting from the lowest point
by a thin coating of lacquer, varnish, or weld (floor) and moving. This process will remove
preparation paint, which will be burnt off by the solvent vapors, thus eliminating solvent washing
heat when welding or riveting. Caution should be of the paint btefore the film is dried. In general, the
exercised when applying the weld-through zinc- manufacturer’s recommendations regarding dry
filled primers. These paints can and have caused time are the governing factor in most shop paint-
major problems when they are subjected to x-ray ing operations (Figures 16 and 17).
and radiographic testing. Regardless of the exact procedure used to
Machined surfaces should be protected from dry painted steel, the painted steel should be
rusting by an application of an approved rust dried in a warm, dry atmosphere - preferably
preventive compound. These compounds can be under cover, since rain or freezing can damage the
applied by brushing, daubing or spraying, and may paint and necessitate its removal and repainting.
be removed by mineral spirits in the field if The maximum allowable time should be per-
necessary. Application is illustrated in Figure 16. mitted for drying; the harder the dry, the better the
After painting, the steel should be examined paint can withstand exposure to the elements.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R t 9 . O 93 86279gO 0003707 208
V. SUPERVISION AND INSPECTION of poor paint performance is acute. Education and training
are essential to instill in the minds of these personnel, and
The entire shop painting should be under the super-
top management personnel as well, a proper attitude
vision of an individual on the staff who has sufficient
towards these operations. They, as well as the actual
authority to make changes in operating procedures,
painters, should be aware of the reasoning behind each
material, equipment, and suppliers despite controversy
operat ion.
that might be heard from the shop. Fabricators have long
been reputed to have an aversion to cleaning and painting
steel. Their dislike of this necessity has been one barrier to
B. INSPECTION
more progress in this field.
Even when the customer inspects and passes on all
A. SUPERVISION painting of his steel, the fabricator should provide his
own inspection system. Acceptance by the customer’s in-
The top level supervisor must have a working
spector does not relieve the fabricator of responsibility.
knowledge of paints, cleaning, painting, and corrosion in
The fabricator who knows his painting system is good
general. If his knowledge on these points is limited, he
must in turn educate the customer and his inspector. Many
must know where to turn for sound advice and guidance.
times customers are arbitrary in insisting on procedures
Most of all, he must have an open mind and must be willing
that might be detrimental to performance of the paint.
to accept new methods that are technically sound. Unfor-
Details of inspection are reviewed in a separate chapter.
tunately, a great number of the engineers, architects, and
The minimum inspection should cover the steel after
fabricators have little knowledge of painting; they rely on
cleaning and prior to painting and after painting. In-
specifications that are outmoded, basically unsound, and
spection of the actual cleaning and painting operations is
even impossible to achieve. The writer has run across
advantageous. No steel should be painted before it is
specifications in use today that were issued long before
inspected; the inspector may be the immediate supervisor
the first edition of this work was first published. In those
on the job. The cleaned steel should be checked for:
days there was a general lack of technical expertise in all
phases of steel painting. More amazing is that despite the 1) Oil or grease remaining on the surface: rubbing a
advances made, architect-engineers still produce unworka- white tissue across the steel will indicate the
ble, incompetent and contradictory painting specifica-
amount of residue; see (9).
tions. This lack of expertise may be due to an unwilling-
ness to become current in the “state of the art”. Some of 2) Dirt, soil, chalk marks, etc., that are visible to the
these specifications are filled with such outmoded clauses eye.
as “all rust and millscale shall be removed by hand wire- 3) Rust: the amount of rust remaining depends upon
brushing”. Accepting a contract with unenforceable the method of cleaning. Rust stains will be evi-
clauses is likely to cause expensive litigation over a costly dent on the surface unless the surface is blast
paint failure. For his own protection, the fabricator should cleaned to white metal or pickled.
have competent supervision over the cleaning and paint- 4) Rust scale: no rust scale (flaky or stratified rust)
ing, from original estimates for bids until the steel is should be left on the steel.
shipped and erected. 5) Mill scale: all mill scale should be tight and not
Supervision of actual operations in the shop should, removable i f the inspector recleans the surface in
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of course, be in charge of qualified personnel. Here, the the specified manner. (This is true of all these
lack of knowledge concerning the causes and prevention items.)
6) Residue from cleaning operation: the surface
should be free of dirt, dust, or other residue from
the cleaning operation
7) Steel blast cleaned to white metal should be free
of any visible rust, mill scale, oil, grease, or any
other contaminant.
8) Pickled steel should be free of rust, mill scale,
pickling smut, harmful acid or alkali: the surface i f
tested with pH indicating paper should test at the
same pH as the last rinse.
9) Solvent cleaned steel should be free of detrimen-
FIGURE 16 tal amounts of oil or grease residue. The amount
Machined surfaces are usually coated with a rust-proofing tolerable will depend upon the wetting power of
compound of grease consistency. This type of coating is being
applied to machined surfaces on the right, while in the center the
the paint to be used. If alkali or cleaning com-
unmachined areas are being painted with the specified shop pounds are used, the surface should be neutral or
primer. at a pH of 7.5 or less. In no event should the pH of

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R I S . 0 73 8b27940 0003708 144
the surface exceed that of the fresh, clean rinse (i) Inaccessible surfaces: were they painted speci-
water. fied number of coats?
Substrate temperatures should be checked and (j) Orange peeling of paint: paint poor or improperly
recorded. Some manufacturers have maximum applied.
and minimum temperature (substrate) limitations (k) Elasticity of paint: does paint curl properly when
for application of their paint. undercut by a knife? If not, the paint may have
Profile depth of the blast cleaned surface should frozen during drying, or paint may have deterio-
be checked using acceptable instruments. rated in storage prior to use.
(i) Blisters, pores, crazing, cracking, etc.: paint or
In general, the inspector should be sure that the work application improper.
has been done as well as possible and meets the intent as
well as the wording of the specification. Particular care
should be taken that no areas or spots have been missed. VI. SAFETY AND HEALTH
He should check the tools of the workmen to see that they The fabricator should comply with the safety regula-
are in proper condition, that brushes are effective, that tions promulgated by the various government agencies.
dirty solvent is not being used. If in the opinion of the in- Information about protective devices, as well as flamma-
spector the steel has been cleaned as specified, but is still bility and toxicity data on paints and solvents can be
in an improper condition for the paint and the expected obtained from the U S . Bureau of Mines, and are reviewed
service (for example the mill scale is badly cracked but not in a separate chapter.
removable by hand cleaning), the owner should be advised. The danger from toxic or fire hazards should be
If pretreatments have been applied, another inspec- always in the minds of the supervisors as well as the
tion should be made. If cold phosphate has been used, the workers. They are usually aware of the hazards from
surface should be dry and of a gray-white color. The mechanical equipment, cranes, ladders, staging, etc.; but
powdery deposit must be light; if it is excessive, it must be they do not realize the tremendous damage that may result
removed by brushing. If any dark, sticky liquid (unreacted from a small quantity of vaporized volatile solvent as an
acid) remains, it must be washed from the surface. When explosion hazard, nor do they appreciate the dangers to
wetting oils are used, the surface must be examined for health inherent in fume and dust exposure.
dry areas that require further oil; excessive oil should be Lists of respiratory protective devices officially ap-
wiped from the surface; rust and scale loosened by the oil proved for most types of industrial exposures are available
should be removed; the wetting oil should be allowed to from the U.S. Bureau of Mines.
set or dry for the specified time before painting. Wash Burning and riveting operations may create toxic
primer should be checked for thickness; it should not ex- hazards if paint is decomposed; in addition to volatilized
ceed the specified thickness, even if the underlying steel toxic compounds such as lead, zinc, cadmium and
shows through (this is normal). The wash primer should chromates, acrolein may be formed from decomposition of
not be white in spots; when dry, it should be tested for the oils in the paint.
adhesion to the steel by scraping it away with a knife. The The hazards in using chemical compounds such as
age of the mixed wash primer should be carefully checked acids and alkalies are generally known and precautions
if it is the two-component type. should be taken to protect personnel from all contact, in-
Painted steel should be inspected for the following: cluding spray, mist, spillage or vapor. The Chemical
(a) Dried paint film thickness: learn the correct Manufacturer’s Association has published adequate
manner of using the instruments; paint over mill methods for safe handling these.
scale and rust reads high if the instrument is
zeroed on bare metal; this is also true over rough
blast cleaned steel.
(b) Dryness: check the condition of the paint to see
that it has dried properly and in a reasonable time.
(c) Completeness of coverage: no holidays; edges,
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rivets, and welds satisfactory.

(d) Correct paint: was the right paint used?
(e) Brush marks, runs,sags, etc., should be eliminated.
(f) Wrinkling of dried paint indicates faulty paint or
too thick an application.
(9)Adhesion of dried paint: It should be tested by FIGURE 17
knife, or by the method specified in the contract. Painting and drying shop with tracks and carts for handling
painted steel. The shop is heated in cold weather. When carts
(hl marks:
Identification are numbers correct and reach the far end of the shop, they are placed on the incline on the
adequate? left and returned to the area in the foreground.

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S S P C CHAPTERs9.O 93 m 8b279LlO 0003709 0 8 0 m
A. SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Safety considerations are discussed in a separate
chapter. The protective clothing and equipment necessary
for the various operations is listed in publications of the
National Safety Council, the American National Standards
Institute, the National Fire Protection Association and
others. Insurance companies should be contacted for
technical advice on safety measures i f there is any
question.
The safety precautions necessary in cleaning opera-
tions are numerous; a highly recommended code for safe
practice is “Code of Recommended Good Practices for
Metal Cleaning Sanitation” issued by the American
Foundrymen’s Association.
Authoritative and detailed references for safety pre-
cautions for the many hazards encountered in the cleaning
and painting of steel are available from the sources listed
in Table 2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
chapter: T. Dowd, R.L. Doyle, James Flaherty, Raye Fraser, Lewis
Gleekman, R.W. Hamm, Fred Lichtenstadter, A.W. Mallory, Robert
McClelland, Marshall McGee, Joe Mazia, William Pearson, Verne
J. Todd.
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SSPC CHAPTER*LOmO 93 Ab27940 0 0 0 3 7 1 0 B T 2 W
CHAPTER 10
PAINTING OF RAILROAD BRIDGES

AND STRUCTURES
by
Raye A. Fraser
Procedures and materials presented in this chaptgr where salts are present, in designs where water can col-
are guides only. Other methods and materials may be of lect or in chemical atmospheres unless it is painted in the
equal value. All known methods that have proved desirable same manner as conventional steel.' Galvanized steel is
are included. Details of cleaning and painting in the shop becoming more common and is the preferred treatment for
are not included since they are covered in other chapters. new gratings, handrails and other small incidental items.
In preparing this chapter current industry practices Improvements in surface preparation, in treating
were surveyed through a questionnaire circulated with the cleaned steel, in applying paint and paints themselves are
cooperation of the American Railway Bridge and Building made periodically. Sometimes, a less expensive method
Association (ARBBA) and Committee 15 of the American with a shorter life is more economical than an expensive
Railway Engineering Association (AREA). Much of the
technical information has been supplied from work by the
Steel Structures Painting Council. Any reference to blast
cleaning refers to conventional dry sand blast cleaning.
FVater happed b! Jiructural mrmbers

I. GENERAL DISCUSSION
The cost of painting a structure can be estimated, but
the cost of deferring painting is much more difficult to
assess, particularly for railroad structures, though it is
clear that a good painting program is less costly than fre-
quent steel replacement. In every location there is slow
rusting of unprotected ferrous metals representing loss of
sound metal. Since a single railroad may have several T v p c s of creoirrs
thousand steel bridges, the situation cannot be allowed to
get out of hand. But painting programs of many railroads
have been restricted by a lack of funds in recent years, and Even Thin coating
cooti ond Iiablc to
70% of those responding to the questionnaire indicated damogc
maintenance painting was not sufficient to protect the
steel. Funds have been concentrated on a small number of
structures in particularly corrosive environments. The fre-
quency of repainting ranged from 5 to 40 years, with an
average of 16.5 years. It is common to see railroad bridges
entirely covered by rust.
Most of these structures are in an environment where
Effect of surface contours
the corrosion rate is slow. The menace of dripping salt
brine from bunker refrigerator cars has passed into
history. However, deep corrosion pits formed by dripping
brine are still present and are sites for active corrosion.
The main problems for most railroads are marine en-
vironments.
One line of attack is to attempt to use a construction
material that needs little or no corrosion protection. In new
construction many structures are built from concrete, and
others are a combination of steel and concrete with a PROBLEM SOLUTION
weathering steel. ASTM Type A-242 is also being used FIGURE 1
alone in larger structures. Weathering steel is not suitable A few design features to be a v ~ i d e d ' ~
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SSPC CHAPTER+LO.O 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 00037LL 739
method with a long life. On the other hand, there is only A. NORMALLY DRY (RURAL) - ZONE 1B
false economy in using inexpensive short-lived paints
Of all corrosive atmospheres and environments to
when cleaning and application costs are the same.
which railroad bridges and structures are subjected, the
The majority of bridge engineers realize the solution
rural is the mildest, its severity depending upon climatic
to corrosion problems cannot be obtained with a magic
variations, particularly humidity. But even in a rural loca-
paint that is cheap, has great coverage, is easily applied,
tion, a structure may be subject to corrosive attack. For in-
requires no surface preparation and has a long life. There
stance, one end of a long bridge may be exposed to a mild
is a never-ending search for better paints, but the potential
rural environment while the other end may be exposed to
life of good paints is seldom reached because of improper
corrosive gases or mists from a chemical plant; or the
surface preparation and application. The fault is not
steelwork of a bridge above the trackline may be exposed
always that of the railroad, or painter, because adverse
to a mild rural atmosphere while the floor system may be
conditions may make it impossible to do a good job. Paints
severely attacked by the spray of de-icing salt slush from a
that do the best job possible under adverse conditions
high-speed expressway passing underneath.
should be chosen.
TABLE 1
Survey of Environmental Zones for Railroad Bridges
Location
Zone 1A Normally Dry - Interior
* 92.1 /o'
Zone 1 6 Normally Dry - Exterior (or rural)
Zone 2A Frequently Wet by Fresh Water (splash,
Zone 26
condensation, immersion)
Frequently Wet by Salt Water (Marine or

- 5.6%
Zone 3
de-icing salts)
Chemical Exposure } - 2.3%
Design is an important part in corrosion prevention. One SSPC test in a rural environment is illustrated in
Narrow cracks and crevices that result in inaccessible sur- Figure 2b. In a rural atmosphere, only natural elements of
faces, box members that allow only very limited access water and oxygen are subjecting the bridge to corrosion.
and sections that trap water are to be avoided. Some other Therefore, i f oxygen and water cannot come into contact
undesirable features are shown in Figure 1. with the steel, little or no corrosion occurs.
There is no paint or organic coating known that is
II. ZONES completely impermeable to oxygen or water, but increas-
The first consideration in any paint job is to determine ing the thickness of the coating provides added resistance
the environment in which the structure is exposed, keeping to passage of water and oxygen through the coating to the
in mind that different parts of a single structure may be steel.
subject to different environments. Standardized en- Gradually, outer coats of even the best paint system
vironmental zones (defined by the SSPC) are widely deteriorate and erode from exposure to sun and moisture,
recognized as outlined in Chapter 1 of Volume 2 of the exposing underlying coats or primer. This is a natural proc-
Steel Structures Painting Manual and in Table 1 below: ess and indicates that steel has been protected to the limit
The percentages in Table 1 are based upon the foregoing of the paint system. The steel has not corroded and the
survey and show that the vast majority of railroad bridges structure is ready for repainting, which requires only minor
are in Zone 1B. Figure 2 illustrates some of the many SSPC cleaning, spot priming, and a new topcoat or two. If
tests conducted on railroad bridges in a wide range of en- deterioration is permitted, the exposed primer rapidly fails
vironments. and leaves steel unprotected. Rusting begins and failure of
Table 2 illustrates typical paint systems used in these the remaining paint is greatly accelerated. Now the cost of
environments. These are discussed in Section VII-D. suface preparation alone may be greater than the cost of
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264
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SSPC CHAPTER*LO=O 9 3 8627940 0 0 0 3 7 3 2 675
repainting, had the repainting been done before the onset

of rusting.
When rust appears in pinpoints on the surface or
causes blisters under the surface, the paint has failed.
Such a shortening of the paint life is probably caused by
improper surface preparation, improper application, im-
proper paint, or a combination.
FIGURE 2a FIGURE 2d
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FIGURE 2b
FIGURE 2e
FIGURE 2c FIGURE 2f
FIGURE 2
The SSPC has conducted a number of extensive paint tests on railroad bridges in the past. Examples of these shown above, include:
(Figure 2a) test on Protecting Load-Bearing Surface of Steel Bridges on the Chicago-Great Western; (Figure 2b) Painting of Steel Bridges
for Mild Exposures on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad System; (Figure 2c) Bridge Paints with Resistance to Salt Brine on the
Missouri-Pacific Railroad; (Figure 2d) Paints over Hand-Cleaned Steel on the Seaboard Cost Line Railroad; (Figure 2e) a series of tests of
Oil-Base and Urethane Paints on the Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad from 1965 to the present time; (Figure 2f) Paint Systems over Hand-
Cleaned Steel. Other empirical paint evaluation tests were carried out with the cooperation of the Association of American Railroads on
the bridges of the Southern, Great Northern and Penn Central Railways.
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SSPC CHAPTER*LO.O 93 8b27940 0003713 5 0 1
TABLE 2
TYPICAL RAILWAY BRIDGE PAINTING SYSTEMS'
ZONE ENVIRONMENT TYPICAL SYSTEMS" ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS"

1A Interior. normally dry SSPC-PS 18.01, Latex Paint System SSPC-Paint 15 (Type I), Steel Joist Shop Paint
Steel used in dry SSPC-PS 14.01, Steel Joist Paint System
railroad buildings. TT-P-664, Primer Coating. Alkyd, Corrosion-
Inhibiting, Lead and Chromate Free,
VOC Compliant
CANICGSB i.40-M89, Primer,
Structural Steel, Oil Alkyd Type
Finish Coat Optional
1B Exterior, normally dry. See SSPC-PS Guides 1.00 and 2.00
Includes many railroad Also SSPC-PS 1.09 Oil Base Paint System
structures or proven proprietary systems.
Surface Prep: Commercial Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 6) Surface Prep: Hand Clean (SSPC-CP 2) or Power Tool
(SSPC-SP 3)
Primers: SSPC-Paint 11, Alkyd-Linseed Oil Primer with
Red Iron Oxide, Zinc Chromate Primers: TT-P-1757, Primer Coating, Zinc Chromate,
TT-P-t 757, Primer Coating, Zinc Chromate, Low-Moisture-Sensitivity
Low-Moisture-Sensitivily SSPC-Paint 25, Red Iron Oxide, Zinc Oxide,
CANICGSB - 1.40 - M89. Primer. Structural Steel, Raw Linseed Oil and Alkyd Primer (Without
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Oil Alkyd Type Lead and Chromate Pigments)

Intermediate
Coats: SSPC-Paint 101 (Type il), Aluminum Alkyd Paint
Any of the above primers, tinted.
ToDcoats: SSPC-Paint 101 (Type I). Aluminum Alkyd Paint
TT-P-38, Paint, Aluminum, Ready Mixed
AASHTO M-69, Aluminum Paint
CANICGSB-1.69-MB9, Paint, Aluminum
SSPC-Paint 102, Black Alkyd Paint Surface Prep: Near White Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 10)
SSPC-Paint 104, White or Tinted Alkyd Paint
Primers: SSPC-PS 12.00, Guide to Zinc-Rich Coating
TT-P-81, Paint, Oil: Ready-Mixed, Exterior,
Systems
Medium Shades
MIL-P-38336, Primer Coating, Inorganic Zinc Dust
AASHTO M-68, Black Paint for Bridges
Pigmented, Self Curing
AASHTO M-70, White and Tinted Ready
Mixed Paint Topcoats: SSPC-PS 4.02-4.05. Vinyl Painting System
CANICGSB - 1.59-M89, Enamel, Exterior, Gloss, SSPC-PS Guide 15.00
Alkyd Type Chlorinated Rubber Painting Systems
SSPC-PS 13.01 Epoxy Painting System
Proven proprietary systems of either multicoat
or single high-build coat type
2A Frequently wet by fresh Paint Systems: See SSPC Paint System Guides 4.00 (Vinyl),
water. Includes conden- 12.00 (Zinc-Rich), 15.00 (Chlorinated Rubber),
sation, splash, spray PS 11.01 (Coal Tar Epoxy). PS 13.01 (Epoxy). or
or frequent immersion. proven proprietary systems.
Surface Prep: White Metal Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 5) or Surface Prep: White Metal Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 5)
Near-White Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 10)
Primers: SSPC-Paint 20 or Paint 29 (Type i-inorganic) Pretreatment: SSPC-Paint 27. Basic Zinc Chromate-Vinyl
Zinc-Rich Primer Butyral Washcoat
MIL-P-38336, Primer Coating, Inorganic, Zinc
Dust Pigmented, Sell Curing, for Steel Surfaces Primers: MIL-P-24441, Paint, Epoxy-Polyamide, General
AASHTO M300 Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer Speciíication for
1 GP-171M and amendment, Coating. MIL-P-15930, Primer Coating, Shipboard,
Inorganic Zinc Vinyl-Zinc Chromate (Formula No. 120)
CANICGSB 1.122-M91 (Type I),Primer, Vinyl,
Topcoats: The topcoat andlor a tie-coat shall be supplied Anti-Corrosive Organic Zinc-Rich
by the same manufacturer as the Inorganic System Specifications
Zinc Primer (Example: SSPC-Paint 20. Type Il-Organic)
Proven proprietary systems
Intermediates: SSPC-Paint 8,Aluminum Vinyl Paint
SSPC-Paint 9. White (or Colored) Vinyl Paint
Topcoats: SSPC-Paint 8, Aluminum Vinyl Paint
SSPC-Paint 9, White (or Colored) Vinyl Paint
i-GP-182M, Paint, Vinyl, Exterior

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SSPC C H A P T E R * L O . O 93 8b279Li0 0003714 448
TABLE 2 (Continued)
ZONE ENVIRONMENT TYPICAL SYSTEMS" ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS"
28 Frequently wet by Paint Systems: See SSPC Paint Systems and Guides 12.00 Paint Systems: See Alternatives to Zone 2A.
salt water. Includes (Zinc-Rich), 4.00 (Vinyl), 15.00 (Chlorinated
condensation, splash, Rubber), 13.00(Epoxy), PS 11.01 (Coal Tar
spray or frequent Epoxy) or proven proprietary system.
immersion Also see recommendations for Zone 2A.
3 Chemical Exposure Others as for Zone 2A. but the zinc base coatings
must be used with caution when conditions are
strongly acid or strongly alkaline.
Topcoats required.
(pH 5.5 or lower) Acidic - SSPC Paint System
Guide 4.00 (Vinyl).
(pH 5.5 to 10.5) - SSPC Paint System Guide
12.00 (Zinc-Rich)
(pH 10.5 or above) Alkaline - SSPC-PS 11.01,
Coal Tar Epoxy, SSPC Paint System Guide
13.00 (Epoxy) and 15.00 (Chlorinated Rubber).
'The following specifications have been removed from the revised table to reflect current practice SSPC-Paint 1 , SSPC-PS-1 04 - 1 08,SSPC-PS 4 01, SSPC-PS 7 01, TT-P-66,
TT-P-615, TT-P-636, MIL-P-15929, DOD-P-23236, AASHTO M-72, 1-GP-14, 1-GP-140, 1-GP-166, 1-GP-167, CISCICPMA 1-73a
"Ail coats of a paint system should be provided by the same supplier
B. FREQUENTLY WET BY FRESH WATER - C. FREQUENTLY WET WITH SALT WATER -

ZONE 2A ZONE 2B
Water is the primary cause of corrosion. Without The protection of steel structures in marine at-
water, corrosion would normally stifle itself, even with a mospheres and those exposed to de-icing salts presents
plentiful oxygen supply. Dangerous corrosion can occur severe conditions for railroad structures.
under some circumstances in the absence of oxygen. High humidity and salt are the culprits. Sea water con-
Corrosion can occur when soluble matter dissolves in sists of about 3 percent sodium chloride in water, along
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
water, such as the electrolytes formed by the solution of with a number of other salts present in small quantities.
salts or corrosive gases. In the absence of oxygen, the Common sodium chloride, salt, is one of the worst inciters
damage is usually caused by galvanic action of mill scale of corrosion when wet or in solution. Its electrolytic action
and steel, or rust and steel. Stray electric currents can do causes rapid corrosion in localized sites of steel and pro-
great damage in localized areas, causing complete failure tects other areas. The result is pitting of the steel, weaken-
of some steel work. ing the structure more than if the corrosion occurred
With a plentiful supply of oxygen, water becomes very uniformly over the entire structure.
corrosive and the condition is accelerated by the presence This electrolytic corrosion can easily perforate a steel
of salt or corrosive gases. If the structure is completely im- member. Corrosion products create an alkaline condition
mersed, cathodic protection used in conjunction with under the paint, which chemically attacks oil- and alkyd-
suitable coatings provides adequate protection in salt or based paints, and they soon disintegrate and wash away.
fresh water. The steelwork in the splash zone above the The result is exposure of more steel, an increase in elec-
water is the most difficult to protect as is witnessed by the trolytic action and more intensified paint deterioration.
severe corrosion that takes place in the region just above This is a cycle that, once started, is very difficult and ex-
the waterline on pilings or groins. Here, the best practice pensive to stop. The electrolytic action cannot take place
may be enclosing the vulnerable portion of the steel in without moisture. High humidity drives water into the paint
thick concrete. Problems encountered and possible solu- film and keeps it wet, permitting the flow of localized elec-
tions are discussed and summarized by La Que.2 tric current to corrode the steel. No organic protective
The portion of piling driven into the earth below the coating is impermeable to water.
water does not corrode once available oxygen is used. There is no protective coating that adequately pro-
Oxygen seldom can be replaced, so that portion of the pil- tects steel i f salt remains on the steel before it is painted.
ing presents no problem. The section of the piling in the The problem is solved i f no salt is allowed to come in direct
mud is subject to corrosion because oxygen is usually contact with steel.
present in decaying organic matter and because of its con- Not all portions of a steel structure exposed to marine
stant turmoil and replenishment. In the water region, the atmospheres are uniformly attacked. Exposure varies from
piling is also free to corrode, and the portion just above the complete immersion of steel piling, footings and groins in
water corrodes quickly. It is best to design steel structures sea water, to the much less severe exposure of high struc-
to minimize the immersion. Other structures that are ac- tures to salt-laden wind, rain and mists.
cessible for inspection, cleaning and painting can be pro- The severest attack is not on steel immersed in the
tected at reasonable expense. salt water but on steel in the splash zone just above high
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LO.O 93 m 8627940 0003735 3 8 4 m
tide. Here, although steel is never completely immersed, it used in rural atmospheres may be inadequate in industrial
is always wet, making it difficult to paint, and there is plen- atmospheres.
ty of oxygen to corrode it. This portion of a structure has a
tendency to provide cathodic protection to the steel com- E. BURIED STRUCTURES
pletely immersed in the sea water by sacrificing itself. An Buried structures are in the soil or are in contact with
excellent discussion of this situation is given by soil under conditions in which oxygen can be replaced.
H ~ m b l eEscalante
.~ and Iverson studied the protection of This exposure is very severe. Protection must be adequate
steel pilings in sea ~ a t e r . ~ for many years because of the expense in excavating to
The right way to protect a structure exposed to marine make structures available for repainting. This environment
atmosphere is to begin at the design stage. The steel is discussed in the chapter on pipelines.
should be blast cleaned and shop coated with a synthetic All soils are not equally corrosive. Some soils are
resin paint that has proved capable of standing up against neutral, dry and well packed, and little corrosion occurs.
marine atmospheres. If field coats are applied, any salt Unfortunately, much of the steel along the railroads is sub-
contamination must be removed from the surfaces by ject to corrosive conditions when buried. Possibly the
washing or steaming with salt-free water. Finish coats worst condition is encountered when the steel is buried in
must be resistant to salty atmospheres. cinders. Cinders are acidic and, when wet, are very
Maintenance painting of existing structures must in- destructive to any coating. Even galvanized iron fails rapid-
clude removal of salt contamination from painted or rusted ly in this environment.
surfaces along with the rust and scale. Hand cleaning is Brine drippings and de-icing salts also soak into the
not adequate, but steam cleaning after thorough wire or soil and have the same corrosive effect. Other contributing
power brushing is effective. The primers and finish coats factors are ladings and drippings from cars carrying high
must then be applied over salt-free surfaces. Another fac- sulfur coal.
tor, not ordinarily encountered in fresh water, is the Stray electric currents are encountered along railroad
abrasive action of sand on piling. At the sand line, where tracks, particularly along electrified systems. Direct cur-
the sand is moving because of wave action, any organic rent can cause great damage where it leaves the steel and
protective coating is quickly cut through and protection is enters the ground. To protect against stray currents (where
very d i f f i ~ u l t . ~ the amount of steel corroded is directly proportional to the
flow of direct current) steel must be insulated by a protec-
D. CHEMICAL EXPOSURES - ZONE 3 tive coating. Concrete permits flow of current, and disrup-
Steel in chemical or industrial atmospheres corrodes tion of the concrete is caused by the tremendous force ex-
much faster than in rural atmospheres. The life of any erted by the corrosion products on the surface of reinforc-
paint can be shortened by chemical attack of corrosive ing steeL5 Even without stray current, spalling of con-
gases, mists and dusts found in industrial atmospheres, crete is caused by the rusting underneath the concrete
though the rate depends upon the kind of chemical or in- when the concrete is too thin, improperly made or applied,
dustrial atmosphere and climate. While it is possible for or when water creeps in around the edge of the concrete
paint to have a shorter life in a rural atmosphere in Florida and rusts the steel.
than in an industrial atmosphere in Pennsylvania, paint Buried steel can be protected by application of thick
generally has a shorter life in an industrial atmosphere. coatings such as coal tar enamels or asphalts, but under
Accelerated corrosion in industrial atmospheres is very severe conditions steel is best protected by coating in
caused mainly by the presence of sulfur dioxide and tri- conjunction with cathodic protection. If possible, steel
oxide. These gases, when dissolved in water, form acids; should not be buried. Pipelines, conduits and other
and the dew, rain or mist in industrial areas is actually a steelwork should be supported above the ground where
weak acid that acts as an electrolyte. it can be protected by conventional means.
Soluble gases and salts ionize and penetrate protec- When steel is buried, as in culverts, the nature of the
tive coatings along with oxygen and water. The result is ac- fill must be taken into account. Basic conditions should be
celerated corrosion caused by direct chemical attack of maintained. Cinders should not be used as a backfill, but
the steel and the electrolytic action set up. The paint film limestone may be used as a fill around the buried steel or
itself may be damaged by the active chemical nature of the to support steel. Because fills are porous and act as a
contaminants. sponge to maintain wet conditions around the pipe,
The effects of corrosive industrial atmospheres are drainage provisions should be made.
evidenced in the early failure of galvanized iron in such ex- For a further discussion of the effect of burial on steel
posure. The life of galvanized roofing may be cut 50% to surfaces, see the chapter on protection of underground
75% by the failure of a zinc coating to form a protective structures and pipelines.
layer of corrosion products as it does in rural or marine at-
mospheres. It is not surprising to find that galvanized roof- F. TIMBER AND TIE BEARING SURFACES
ing must be painted to obtain an economical life in in- Damage that occurs to steel when it is in contact with
dustrial plants or in smoky atmospheres. Paint systems timbers and ties is usually aggravated by the fretting ac-
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L O - O 9 3 W 8627940 0003736 210
tion of timber moving when under load or impact. Even inspecting and painting, great care be devoted to the
when no fretting action occurs, water is absorbed by the following:
timber or drawn into the crack between the timber and the 1. Girders:
steel surface. Since those surfaces rarely dry out, condi- Tops of outstanding legs of inside bottom flange
tions for accelerated corrosion are established. Overcom- angles; the vertical legs of the same angles; in-
ing fretting or galling action is difficult. It is almost im- side of web plates and stiffner angles, particularly
possible to anchor the ties sufficiently to prevent move- around the bottom of the outstanding angle where
ment. it bears on the flange angle.
An SSPC study6 indicated that very few coatings 2. Floor Beams:
withstand the abuse suffered under the bearing surface Tops, edges and undersides of top flange angles
(Figure 2a). The exceptions were metallizing and inorganic and cover plates; top sides of outstanding legs
zinc coatings, both of which are able to withstand the fret- and vertical legs of bottom flange angles; webs
ting action for a considerable time.’ and gusset plates outside the rails.
Some railroads have had success with mastic pads
3. Stringers:
placed under the ties, but they must not absorb water.
Both sides of the outstanding legs of top and bot-
Good results are obtained by using soft coatings with a
tom flange angles and webs, particularly on the
grease or heavy oil base that do not dry out. A coating used
side nearest the rail.
under the ties should have some inhibitive chemical pres-
4. Laterals:
ent to retard corrosion. When the contact is not subjected
to fretting action, protection is possible by more ordinary
Outside of the rails along stringer connections
and lateral plates to girders.
methods.
5. Decks:
111. TYPES OF STRUCTURES To facilitate maintenance and repair of the track,
Typical railroad structures that require painting are bridges are often of the solid floor, ballasted track
bridges, fuel oil tanks, sand tanks, steel pipe, transmission type. Steel floor plates corrode and require protec-
towers, smokestacks, trainsheds, track scales, radio tion or periodic expensive replacement. Dirty
towers, flood light towers, catenary poles or docks, coal ballast remains wet and accelerates corrosion of
docks, sanding stations, buildings, roofs and many other floor plates. Waterproofing deck plates with
miscellaneous structures. asphalt membranes is successful. Unless strin-
gent precautions are taken, deck coverings are
A. BRIDGES not waterproof and the plates still corrode. Some
railroads have had success by asphalt coating
The greatest tonnage of steel that requires protection deck-plates and laying a slab of concrete over the
is found in bridges of all sizes and types, including asphalt before the ballast is applied. Drainage of
trestles, viaducts and highway overpasses. There are more accumulated water to keep ballast dry is of great
than 94,000 steel bridges with an aggregate length of 1,800 benefit when the drains can be kept open.
miles that are being protected by railroads. Each bridge Maintenance men should see that drains provided
must be considered in relation to exposure, service, dif- for the purpose of keeping structures dry are kept
ficulty of repainting, traffic and the cost of protection. open.
An idea of the magnitude and cost of painting bridges
6. Superstructure:
can be obtained from the experience of the Southern
It is practical to specify a different method of pro-
Railway.8 When painting a new bridge over the
tection for the portion of a bridge above the track
Cumberland River near Burnside, Kentucky in 1950, it re-
line, where exposure is less severe.
quired 19,000 gallons of paint, which, at ten pounds of
solids per gallon, represents a load of 190,000 pounds. It 7. Steel piling:
took 30 men six months to paint the bridge, and a normal Steel piling for bridges or trestles must be given
maintenance crew requires two years to repaint it. adequate protection which cannot be as thin as
Bridges usually get the best protection of any railway ordinary paint films unless the surfaces will be
structures because they are expensive and the investment available for repainting.
must be protected. Cleaning and painting costs on bridges 8. Tonnage and Area:
are so high that there is no point in using low-cost paints. Costs of bridges are almost always calculated on
If structural failure of a bridge occurs, the damage done a per ton basis; therefore, most records of the rail-
and liabilities incurred are often greater than for other roads usually contain accurate figures of the ton-
structures. Bridges, therefore, should receive good corro- nage. However, cleaning and painting costs are
sion protection and should be inspected at frequent inter- best based upon the square feet of surface area to
vals for possible damage because of corrosion. be treated, and those figures are not available in
A committee report of the American Railway Bridge most instances. Therefore, railroad personnel
and Building Association (ARBBA) recommends that when usually calculate painting costs on a per ton
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at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*LO.O 93 W 8627940 0003717 157 =
basis. This practice is satisfactory as long as the used. A separate chapter discusses painting galvanized
possible variance in the square foot of surface per surfaces.
ton of steel is considered. In the final economic Flashings, downspouts, eaves and rain conductors
analysis, cost per square foot is the governing may be galvanized iron and should be painted. Copper
factor. To facilitate estimating costs and keeping does not require painting except when the unsightly stains
records, Table 3 is a guide to the surface areas re- it causes on light coloured masonry or paints is con-
quiring cleaning and painting on various types of sidered detrimental. Aluminum flashing and downspouting
railroad bridges: is being used more and more. It should not require repaint-
ing; but if it is to be painted, wash primer (SSPC-Paint 30)
should be used.
C. OTHER STRUCTURES
TABLE 3
Towers of light angle or lattice construction present a
Average Sq. Foot of Surface
large square footage of surface that is costly to clean and
Type of Bridge Exposed Per Ton
paint. These structures should be galvanized and painted
Rolled Beam 90-150 before the galvanizing is lost. In painting signal standards
Plate Girder 80-110 and bridges, glossy paints should not be used since they
Pony Truss 105-120 reflect lights at night so that misinterpretation of signals
Deck Truss 115-125 is possible.
Thru Warren Truss 105-120 1. Tanks
(a) Riveted Joint 110-125 Interiors of fuel tanks do not require painting, ex-
(b) Pin connected 160-190 cept when oil or settled water is corrosive, or in
Thru Curved Chord Truss 105-125 the vapor space above the liquid level. Some-
For accurate work the actual surface should be calculated times, the bottom and the lower side are pro-
from the surface of the component plates and shapes, tected, perhaps with coal tar enamel. The exterior
making allowance for the surfaces in contact. of fuel oil tanks, storage bins, hoppers, etc.,
should be given the same protection as super-
~
structures of bridges.
Interiors of bins holding sand and similar
B. BUILDINGS material are difficult to protect because of the
abrasive action of the contents. If their contents
Painting buildings made of masonry, plaster or wood
are not very corrosive, they can be given the same
are outside the scope of this chapter, but many steel
protection as the exterior, but frequent repainting
buildings or component parts of buildings do require paint-
may be necessary. If the contents are corrosive, a
ing. Most require little special precaution because ex-
paint resistant to the corrosive material and to
posure is mild in the interior of most buildings. Interior
abrasion should be used.
paints do not require the durable qualities of those used
on exterior surfaces; primers are less expensive than 2. Steel pipe
heavy-duty primers used on bridges and exteriors; surface Steel pipe or other steel to be buried requires
preparation is less demanding; and repainting is done at special treatment such as hot-applied coal tar or
longer intervals. When appearance is a factor, enamels asphalt coatings. For severe conditions galva-
give good results and long life. nized culverts should be coated with an asphalt
Exterior steelwork of buildings should be given coating or coal tar enamel. Interiors of culverts
durable protection. If the steelwork is enclosed in should have a bituminous pavement to prevent
masonry, an inhibitive primer should be applied to protect wearing away of the protective coating when the
steel from any condensation of moisture or leakage from flow of sand or gravel is severe.
faulty flashings or roofing. Steel completely enclosed with 3. Turntables
concrete does not require protection if the concrete is at Turntables and trackscales should be protected
least two inches thick. the same as bridges, when they are in a dry sur-
Most metal roofing on buildings is galvanized. rounding. If they are in damp pits, the paint
Galvanized roofing in severe service fails at the laps. system used must be resistant to high humidity.
These laps should be protected when a new roof is laid by 4. Fences
a good paint or a mastic coating. As soon as galvanized Fences are a costly item to repaint; they should
roofing shows the first signs of rusting, it should be be galvanized originally and repainted before rust-
painted. Failure to do so results in greater cleaning costs ing makes their repainting very costly. Long nap
and a shortened life of the coating applied. New galva- roller coaters are effective in lowering the cost of
nized roofing cannot be painted unless special paints are painting fences.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L O - O 73 8627740 00037LB O93
necessary to remove these materials, although scraping or

power tool abrasive cleaning is satisfactory when the soil
is dried or caked.
B. SHOP-FINISHED
This type of surface receives all its coats of paint in
the shop. If damage in handling is slight, then field touch-
up of the coating system can be kept to a minimum.
C. FIELD-PAINTED
New steel that has not been shop-painted requires ex-
tensive cleaning. It is necessary that loose mill scale, rust
and the foreign matter be removed. The amount of loose
mill scale and rust depends upon the length and severity of
the weathering. Since the steel was not shop-coated, it is
assumed that the weathering is deliberate. Unless the
I 1 I I 1 period of weathering is very long or conditions very severe,
O 2 4 6 8 lo there may always be some mill scale on the surface. This
Nominal Thickness. Mils
adherent mill scale is tenacious and difficult to remove,
FIGURE 3
Average paint life YS. thickness (oil and alkyd paints). From an and it is not to be confused with the mill scale that has
SSPC report.'O been under-cut and is easily removed.
Unless this weathered steel is blast cleaned, the sur-
Regardless of the type of structure, paint or other pro- face is poor for painting. Any cleaning method less effec-
tective coating should be chosen with regard to the type of tive than blast cleaning dooms the paint to a greatly
exposure and the use of the structure. shortened life. If steel is not blast cleaned, it is much bet-
Specific recommendations are given later, but one ter to paint over tight mill scale before it gets a chance to
point should be kept in mind. It is often better to sacrifice weather. A comprehensive analysis of the results of all
some protection by standardizing on a few paints. paint tests available to the Steel Structures Painting Coun-
cil indicates that painting over rust, even though the rust is
IV. SURFACES ENCOUNTERED thin and tight, results in shortened paint life. Rusting of
bare steel, even before blast cleaning, has also been
The condition of a steel surface to be painted
shown to reduce paint life in severe environments.
depends upon whether or not the structure is being
Therefore, steel should be blast cleaned and painted
painted for the first time. Field painting new structures en-
before it has undergone any appreciable outdoor ex-
tails three basic types of surfaces.
posure.
According to the questionnaire, 50% of the railroads
A. SHOP-PRIMED responding specify shop priming with topcoating in the
In shop-primed steel for field painting, spot cleaning field; 25% specify the entire coating system to be shop-ap-
and touch-up priming are required. If shop painting is done plied; and the remainder specify the entire coating system
well and the paint is of good quality, little touch-up is be applied in the field, presumably after erection.
necessary. Rust that forms on scarred places is loose and
easily removed. If extensive rusting and mill scale lifting
has occurred, the shop coat has failed and the respon- D. MAINTENANCE SURFACES
sibility for the failure should be determined. The buyer can- Maintenance painting encounters all possible surface
not specify that only loose mill scale and loose rust be conditions. Large amounts of rust (beyond Rustgrade 7 of
removed and then expect to get a perfect paint job. It is in- SSPC-Vis 2), indicate that painting has been deferred too
evitable that some remaining mill scale loosens, depend- long. The cost of cleaning, when there are large areas of
ing upon the period of exposure of the prime coat. Even rusty steel, may be as great as the total cost of painting
after application of the field coats, additional mill scale with one coat of paint applied in time. When paint is well
loosens in spots and lifts coats of paint. This is becoming adhered and no rust has developed, a light brushing or sol-
less of a problem because most fabricators use a standard vent cleaning, followed by application of a single coat of
practice of rotary wheel blasting all steel. paint, livens the old paint and provides additional protec-
Soil may be found on steel resulting from dragging it tion. Rusted areas require thorough scraping, wire
through mud, storing it on the ground and subjecting it to brushing or power tool cleaning followed by spot-priming
other abuse. Oil drippings, grease, cement spatter, chalk with an inhibitive primer. If the areas are large, blast clean-
marks and other foreign matter found on steel must be ing and prime painting on the same day are recommended.
removed. Solvent and detergent cleaning are usually When the cost of scaffolding is high, it may be
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Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 27 1 Questions or comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
at 303-397-2295.
cheaper to get several extra years of life out of the paint by A. MAINTENANCE SURFACE PREPARATION
allowing it to deteriorate further. The increased cost of
Cleaning prior to painting has been the most
cleaning and spot painting at frequent intervals may be
troublesome process in proper railroad maintenance paint-
less than the cost of scaffolding. When the paint must be
ing. The value of proper surface preparation cannot be
completely removed, blast cleaning is recommended.
overemphasized. There are numerous figures reported in
Stainless steel and aluminum are encountered on oc-
the literature relating surface preparation to coating
casion, and i f painted, require pretreatment before paint-
durability. One reportgissued by the Steel Structures Paint-
ing; otherwise, paint does not adhere (see SSPC-Paint 27).
ing Council lists 37 references. One set of results from that
The type of old coating is always a factor in
report is averaged in Table 4.
maintenance painting. Compatibility of the new paint with
the old is a prerequisite to satisfactory performance. Nor-
mally, no difficulty is encountered with most paints over
old, weathered paints, but there may be a tendency for the
new paint to lift the old coating, especially i f the old TABLE 4
coating has cracked or checked, or some paints may con-
Typical Effect of Surface Preparation on Paint Life*
tain a solvent that acts as an efficient paint remover on the
old paint. Usually, a small test should be made by applying
Millscale Rusty
a brushful of paint and observing its action on the old paint
Exposure Blast Clean Wire Brush Wire Brush
before painting on a full scale is begun. If the coating is a ___
mastic type of coating, or grease, or non-drying oil, trouble Semi-Rural 9.6 7.6 8.0
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occurs unless the new coating is of the same type. Marine 6.7 3.7 3.0
SSPC-PA Guide 4 is a guide to maintenance painting
and SSPC-PA 1 is a specification for applying paint in ‘Results after 8 years exposure of two prime coats plus topcoat
shop, field, and maintenance situations. based on 25 widely different paint systems on 360 panels.
(10 = Perfect)
V. LABOR CONSIDERATIONS
Increasing labor costs make higher productivity im-
perative. On railroads, where paint “gangs” have been
eliminated, painting is being done by regular bridge and There is such a variety of surfaces, environments and
building crews that also do other maintenance work. This materials that these figures should be taken only as a
practice reduces painting skill. general indication, but all references agree on several
Field painting is being contracted in many instances. points.
In this case, workers are usually experienced, but it is not The more thorough the surface preparation,
unusual for contractors to recruit labor locally. Too often, the longer before repainting is required, regardless of
both the contractor and his men are interested only in get- the coating or exposure.
ting the painting completed as soon as possible and col- More severe exposures (meaning usually more
lecting fees. Consideration should be given to the integrity
moist) require a better degree of surface preparation.
and reputation of the painting contractor rather than
Many coatings (¡.e., inorganic zincs) require a
awarding contracts solely on the basis of the low bid.
According to the questionnaire, 40% of painting is high degree of surface preparation t o avoid
disastrous failure.
done by special paint crews, 25% by regular bridge crews,
Methods of cleaning steel reported by the railroads in
and 35% is contracted. There is great variance, and the
the field are as follows:
percentages in each case ranged from O to 1OOoh for dif-
ferent railroads. There is a slight trend back to using 1. Hand cleaning
special paint crews. using scrapers, wire brushes, chipping hammers,
Mechanized equipment, such as rotary power tools, chisels and other impact tools (SSPC-SP 2).
abrasive pads, brushes, pneumatic chippers, and airless 2. Power tool cleaning
spray paint outfits, has increased labor productivity. By using electrically or pneumatically driven power
reducing scaffolding costs large amounts of money may tools such as rotary wire brushing machines,
be saved. Increased production may be achieved by more sanding machines, power chipping hammers,
effective work. scaling hammers, scalers and a variety of
abrasive pads and grinding wheels. Radial or cup
wire brushes are satisfactory for use. Scalers may
VI. OTHER CURRENT RAILROAD PRACTICES be pistonless vibrating or rotary mechanical
Some aspects of mechanical and chemical surface scalers. Rotary abrasive cleaning pads are
preparation and paint application have special relevance available which are better than power wire
to railroad practice. brushes (SSPC-SP3).
272
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R k L O - O 9 3 8627940 0003720 741 a
3. Blasf cleaning sive; power tool cleaning will be more efficient;

sand blasting, using compressed air and sand but blast cleaning is often required to obtain a
(SSPC-SP 5, 10,6 or 7). (Field blast cleaning using satisfactory surface for repainting. If paint has
crushed iron, grit or shot is uneconomical unless deteriorated to the point where it must be com-
practically all of the grit can be recovered for pletely removed, sand blasting is most
reuse.) These methods of cleaning, which are con- economical. Removal of old paint by hand is time
sidered mechanical, are, in some cases, preceded consuming and ineffective. Power tools are an im-
by chemical cleaning methods utilizing solvent provement, but labor requirements are still ex-
cleaners or other chemical methods such as cessive. It is a difficult task to remove tight, well-
steam cleaning. adhered old paint and the necessity or advisabil-
Cleaning in maintenance painting or ciean- ity of removing such paint should be examined.
ing of weathered steel structures prior to priming When old paint is so thick that it tends to crack
may often be the most expensive of all the opera- and scale, it should be removed.
tions, and in turn, the major cost of cleaning is the Blast cleaning is the best method to remove
labor required. The work is usually tiring and all rust, scale and old paint from steel surface.
unpleasant; therefore, cleaning must be carefully Loose mill scale and loose or non-adherent rust
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supervised and inspected. are easily removed, but the degree of removal of
Bridge ends usually are in the poorest condi- the more adherent rust and mill scale, as well as
tion. Accumulations of dirt, leaves, and other old paint, depends upon the thoroughness of the
debris collect on cover plates, flanges, angles of cleaning. Power tools remove much of the scale
braces and similar places, and must be removed. and rust, but they have a tendency to drive rust
Particular attention should be paid t o bridge and scale into the surface. They do not remove
seats, bridge pedestals, shoes, base and sole rust from pits and may cut the steel surface leav-
plates and expansion joints. Steel should be ing sharp ridges or peaks on the steel. These
washed off with water, preferably under pressure. should not be allowed since the paint will fail
This wets the steel and delays painting, but in quickly over such projections.
most cases the debris or soil is wet anyway and 6. Choice
water has soaked into the paint. No painting Hard and fast rules do not apply in choosing a
should be done until the surface is dry. Often method of surface preparation. All methods give
debris is blown off with compressed air aided by satisfactory results under certain conditions. The
light scraping, but this usually does not leave a more severe the surface, the higher the quality of
clean surface. cleaning necessary. There are some restrictions
When there is heavy rust scale, it should be placed on blast cleaning, but it is the preferred
knocked off with hammers, using chisels on the method of surface preparation. The experience
difficult spots. This scale is porous and acts like a and judgment of the engineer responsible for the
sponge in holding water, resulting in faster corro- condition of the structure are necessary for a
sion. It cannot be protected by any type of satisfactory decision. The engineer’s decision
coat ing. should be based on costs, practicality and the
4. Solvent Cleaning demands of the paint to be used as primer. Clean-
When grease or oil are present, they should be ing should comply with the provisions of the Steel
removed by solvents rather than by spreading the Structures Painting Council’s Surface Prepara-
contaminants over a large area by the cleaning tion Specifications; the particular specification
tools (SSPC-SP1). Power wire brushing, for exam- used should be modified if necessary to meet
ple, spreads oil and grease over large areas caus- local conditions.
ing poor adhesion of the paint. Regardless of the method used to prepare
When the surface is contaminated with de- steel for repainting, it must be cleaned of residues
icing salts, salt from the sea, bird excrement, or of salt, leachings, alkali, acid or other chemical
other corrosive agents, thorough washing with contaminants. Any protective coating applied
fresh water or steam cleaning is necessary. over such corrosive agents is doomed to an early
failure. It is not sufficient to remove such cor-
5. Spot Cleaning
rosive agents completely; strict precautions must
In maintenance painting, the structure should be
be taken to prevent recontamination of the sur-
repainted or spot painted as the first breaks in the
face before the primer is applied. Contamination
paint occur and rust is just starting to form. At
between coats of paint or before the paint is dry is
this stage, cleaning costs are minimized since
less detrimental, but should be avoided if possi-
spot cleaning using hand tools is usually ade-
ble.
quate. If extensive areas of the bridge are rusty,
hand cleaning is burdensome, tiring, and expen-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L O . O 73 W 8627740 0003723 b88
B. PAINT APPLICATION
SSPC-PA 1 is a guide to Shop, Field and Maintenance
Painting, and SSPC-PA Guide 4 is a Guide to Maintenance
Repainting with Oil Base and Alkyd Paints. These are
helpful in the procedures involved in paint application.
1. When To Faint:
While cleaning can be done in most weather,
within limitations, weather affects paint applica-
tion principally and therefore limits the season
during which painting can be done.
Painting should not be done outdoors in cold
weather, and it is the usual practice to discon-
tinue painting during winter in the northern parts
of the continent. The lower temperature limit at
which most paints can be applied is not definite;
40" to 50°F (4" to 10°C) is considered to be the
lowest practical limit,' however, certain paints
may require a minimum as high as 60°F (15.5%).
Paint becomes thick in cold weather, and painters
tend to use large quantities of thinner so it is
easier to apply. The result is a thin coat. In addi- FIGURE 4
tion, no paint should be subjected to freezing Single spider cages in use in the painting of bridge. (Northern
Pacific RR photo)
after application until it has dried.
Moisture has worse effects on paint life than
cool weather. The foreman or engineer responsi-
Proper mixing of paint is essential. Many
ble for the work has a difficult decision to make
railroads purchase paint in five gallon pails. Hand
when rain is imminent. Many foremen keep pro-
mixing of paint in five-gallon pails is satisfactory,
tected parts of the bridge in reserve for rainy
provided all settled pigment is put into suspen-
weather. The exposed portions are worked on
sion. Mechanical mixers give best and quickest
first; the sheltered portions can be worked on dur-
results. If large drums of paint are used, careful
ing high winds or rain.
supervision of the mixing is necessary, and
Moisture harms paint when the relative
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mechanical mixers are essential to get a uniform

humidity is above 85% and the condensation mix. Sloppy workers pour off the top of the
point has almost been reached. Painting should paint, getting too much vehicle and not enough
be stopped when the dew point is within 5"F(3"C) pigment; when they get to the bottom of the drum,
of the air temperature. A slight cooling, or a few the paint is almost all pigment, so they add thin-
degrees lower steel temperature, causes conden- ner. Maintenance personnel should realize that
sation that may be invisible but still detrimental to making the paint go farther is bad practice.
the coating life.
Pigment of paint in buckets, spray pots or
Hot dry weather does not affect painting. cans may settle during the application and should
Paint has a tendency to be less viscous, which be stirred at intervals. Mechanical stirrers on
causes a thinner film, runs or sags; but these spray paint pots are recommended, and they are
problems can be overcome partially by not thin- essential if the pots are greater than five gallons
ning the paint. No proof exists that it is detrimen- in capacity. These mechanical mixers may be
tal to apply paint on hot steel at a temperature of hand-operated, or driven by air motors. Constant
125°F (52°C) or over. Under such conditions, mechanical mixing is required for certain paints,
however, catalyzed coatings may have an ex- such as those with a high zinc metal content.
cessively short pot life. Large drums of paint are easily fixed with air-
The effect of weather is very important to operated stirrers. If electric stirrers are used, they
successful application of paint, thus every super- should be explosion-proof. Pumps used to pump
visor should consult the weather forecasts before paint directly from the drum require auxiliary stir-
scheduling work. rers to keep the paint mixed.
2. Painting: Actual paint application is normally by brush
Paint failures occur primarily through improper or spray. A controversy still exists about which
cleaning; secondly, through improper application; gives better results. Both yield satisfactory
and finally, through poorly chosen paint. results if properly done.

274
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SSPC CHAPTER*LO.O 93 M 8627740 0003722 5 1 4 M
Conventional air spraying is two to three training in sophisticated coatings are given responsibility
times faster than brushing, and the paint film to apply these paints.
tends to be more uniform. Spray paint has a Some railroads have used grease or petrolatum
tendency to bridge over tiny pits and cover sur- materials for many years and feel they are giving good,
face dirt or oil on a poorly prepared surface. low-cost service when properly maintained. Other com-
Regardless of the method, the surface should be panies feel they make bridge inspection difficult or unsafe
dusted by brush or compressed air. (due to slipperiness), and allow underfilm rusting to pro-
Paint must be applied evenly so no skipped ceed undetected. It is a fact that they are very difficult to
spots or holidays occur, and as uniformly as remove from a surface, and once applied, the owner is
possible without running or sagging. almost forced to continue using this type of material. A
A combination of brushing and spraying is considerable number of railroads use this type of product
almost always necessary on railroad bridges even on load-bearing top flanges when ties are being lifted and
when spraying has been selected as the best time limitations make the application of conventional
method. The interiors of boxed members are dif- paints next to impossible.
ficult to paint. There is little use by the railroads of pretreatments
before painting, such as penetrating or wetting oils of the
Many railroads stencil the date of painting
drying type, phosphate treatments, or basic zinc chromate
and the paints used on the structure. This infor-
wash coat priming.
mation is of value to the inspector, but is a
The basic zinc chromate washcoat pretreatment
duplication of information that should be kept in
known as “wash primer” (¡.e. SSPC-Paint 27) is applied like
the records of painting. Such records are of great
an extremely thin coat of paint. It is used over bare steel
value to the railroad i f a complete breakdown of
and forms an outstanding foundation for many paint
the costs is recorded along with the material
systems. It can be used to prepare galvanized surfaces for
used, cleaning, labor requirements and rates, type
painting, but the instructions must be followed very
of surface and the life of the paint job. Only when
carefully. Wash primer permits many types of conventional
such records are kept up to date does the railroad
paint to be used over galvanizing. It is also used to provide
know the costs of painting and whether changes
adhesion of paint to stainless steel and aluminum and
in methods are really economical.
may be required by some vinyl paint systems.
Application methods for asphalt-oil, bridge
Various chemical pretreatments using phosphoric
cement, greases, emulsions, hot-coatings, etc., acid or phosphates as the main ingredients are on the
will differ from those of conventional paints. market. Often extravagant claims are made of their merit
on steel that is covered with mill scale, but a number of
C. CURRENT RAILROAD PAINTING SYSTEMS tests have disproved such claims. In some cases their use
is detrimental. They are effective when the steel is de-
The questionnaire revealed a wide variety of coating
scaled but has an extremely light deposit of rust, a condi-
materials are used on railroad structures. A large number
tion that is rare on railroad structures.
of railroads select different coating systems for different
environments. Some use their own specifications, and
many have settled on certain proprietary products. The D. LIFE EXPECTANCY OF PAINTS
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vast majority of coatings used are oil, oil-alkyd or alkyd The life of any paint system is dependent on the sur-
based, apparently due to the versatility of these types of face preparation, paint application, climatic and at-
paints and their good performance in most environments. mospheric conditions and paint materials. There is an in-
Several railroads use the same coating materials in all ap- terest in determining the relative importance of each of
plications but vary the number of coats to suit the situa- these factors under controlled situations in full sized field
tion, for example adding a third coat in a corrosive environ- tests. By holding one of these factors constant, and vary-
ment rather than switching to a completely different ing the others, comparative results can be determined. The
system. Others are making limited use of epoxy, urethane effect of film thickness was discussed in a report in the
and inorganic zinc coatings. One proprietary product used June, 1969 Journal of Coatings Technology.10Some of the
by several railroads for a number of years is of interest in results are summarized in Figure 3.
that it can give sufficient film build in one coat for most en- The expected life of good paint systems exposed to
vironments (5 mils dry film). Compared to previous surveys clean, rural atmospheres is easily 10 to 12 years. The
there has been a marked decline in the use of red lead possible variation is due to the condition of the steel
primers. before painting and to the paints used. In such mild at-
There is a general reluctance to use coatings that re- mospheres, linseed oil paints remain elastic and durable
quire special care or precautions unless absolutely for long periods. In desert atmospheres, 15 years of life is
necessary. Considering the conditions in the railroad in- common. The expected life of good paint systems exposed
dustry under which paints are used, this is understand- to industrial atmospheres is six to eight years, as an
able. Generally, unskilled painters with too little technical average.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERaLO-O 93 8627940 O003723 450
The life of paints exposed to marine atmospheres is stated previously, depends first on a well prepared sur-
variable and unpredictable because of the variance in local face, and secondly on proper application of the paint. A
conditions. If a good paint job is obtained on clean, dry, un- very common failing is too thin an application; many times
contaminated steel, six to eight year's life should be ob- the life of the coating would be prolonged several fold if
tained without difficulty in regions such as the Atlantic one more coat had been applied at a small additional cost.
Coast. Under severe conditions, much shorter paint life oc- The life of the coating also can be prolonged by the choice
curs on portions of the structure. In the Gulf Coast area, of coating, particularly in the more corrosive en-
2% to 3 year's life for paint is common unless topcoated vironments.
zinc-rich primers are used. Reducing the costs of application can be achieved
In actual field service, the maximum life of the paint is mainly by applying fewer coats. High-build coatings are
seldom .realized due to failures that occur because of becoming more common, and i f the same dry film build
rusting under the paint, mainly because of inadequate sur- can be obtained with two coats rather than three coats of a
face preparation. When the full life of the paint is realized, similar material, the savings are obvious. In some situa-
failure will occur by a gradual weathering of the top coats tions there may be savings in having faster drying paint,
resulting in a chalking condition of the paint. Almost certainly less expensive surface preparation
means shorter coating life and results in no savings,
E. PAINTING EXPERIENCE AND COSTS The cleaning of new steel at the fabrication plant can
Costs vary greatly. Each railroad has some idea of its be done at a much lower unit cost than in the field.
own costs, but in most cases they should be developed However, i f a particular specification for cleaning is used
more fully. that differs from the shop practice, an extra cost per ton is
Major points to be considered are costs of setting up charged.
at the job site; material costs including paint, cleaning The perfect coating does not exist and probably never
equipment, compressed air, staging or scaffolding; and will. Be suspicious of materials for which the following
labor costs, which should be broken down into various claims are made: (1) requires minimum or no surface
functions, Set-up, surface preparation and coating applica- preparation, or (2) dries instantly, or (3) can be applied in
tion. With labor costs it is better to work in worker-hours most or all weather conditions, or (4) tolerates damp sur-
rather than dollars. The actual costs can be converted to faces, or (5) will double or triple your coating life. Advances
dollars per ton or dollars per square foot from worker- in coatings are being made, but great break-throughs are
hours when required. In each railroad, many structures are rare. When presented with a new coating material that has
similar, so for quick reference costs could be kept on the not been used before, you should, after careful considera-
basis of a plate girder span of X length or a truss span of Y tion, field test if it appears promising. Do not be rushed in-
length. Costs for other lengths or multiple spans can then to a quick evaluation. At least several years of study are re-
be easily calculated. Another interesting figure to keep in quired. The results of accelerated tests, such as salt fog or
the actual working hours per week or per job free of inter- condensation cabinet exposures, are of interest but are
ruptions. sometimes misleading and cannot be relied on.
Even with good background figures, there can be The use of scaffolding and rigging is a specialized
large variations due to the type of structure, location of the subject covered in another chapter. The cost of these
structure, condition of the surface, weather conditions, items can be considerable, but devices that reduce labor
traffic patterns, etc. However, these variables are no ex- costs generally prove economical.
cuse not to keep a careful record of all costs. On a typical The use of small, air operated winches along with
job where the entire surface was given a near-white blast light timber frames fastened together with eye bolts per-
cleaning (SSPC-SP 10) the cost breakdown could be: mits easy hanging of scaffolding. Various types of
Materials - 20% (5-25);labor and equipment costs for aluminum staging are also available which combine light
cleaning and Set-up - 60% (40-80);labor and equipment weight with strength (Figure 4).
costs for two-coat application of paint - 20% (10-40). Special trucks are now available with hydraulically
(Figures in brackets are possible ranges due to the above powered, aerial booms that are used to reach overhead
variables.) structures from roads or under structures from track. They
Typical cost analyses of painting alternatives are can be purchased with maintenance bodies to store sup-
given in a separate chapter. plies and equipment. Heights as high as 30 to 40 feet may
easily be reached without use of scaffolding. Such equip-
F. OTHER RESPONSES ment is shown in Figures 5 and 6.
Questionnaire respondents indicated they were main-
ly interested in (1)longer paint life, (2) reducing costs of ap- VII. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PAINTING OF
plication, (3) reducing number of coats, and (4) better sur-
RAILROAD BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
face preparation. These are ahead of five other possible New structures should be designed with a thorough
answers to the question. All these factors obviously knowledge of the corrosiveness of the environment.'l The
reduce costs. To discuss these in turn, longer paint life, as following condensed summary of good practices is recom-
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276
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SSPC CHAPTER*LO.O 93 = 8627740 0003724 397
mended for the consideration of those responsible for the
economical protection of railroad bridges and structures.
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A. STORAGE AND HANbLING OF PAINTS

IN THE FIELD
It is desirable to have a separate temperature con-
trolled building to store and mix paint materials. Paints
stored for a long time should have the position of the con-
tainers inverted often enough to prevent hard settling of
the pigment. The shelf life or storage life of paints may
vary with different products and should always be con-
sidered. Too long a storage period makes some paints unfit
and makes proper mixing difficult. It could use up any sav-
ings from large volume purchases. To mix paints, a
mechanical rotating machine equipped with paddles
which can be inserted into the containers to agitate the
contents thoroughly is very desirable. A broad paddle with
a lifting motion up through the vehicle should be used.
Paint should be thoroughly agitated. It is always advisable FIGURES 5 AND 6
to pour the paint from one container to another near the Special trucks with aerial booms can reach overhead structures
from roads or under structures from track.
end of the agitation process. When aluminum paste pig-
ment is used, the pigment should be placed in a container,
and the vehicle added slowly as the mixing progresses.
Paint generally should be mixed without the addition of
thinners. In cold weather, a small amount of thinner may
be permitted for spraying.
Whether paint is furnished by the owner or by the con-
tractor, it is desirable that paint for each day's use be
mixed on the job at the beginning of the day. If the work is
being done by contract, the owner's inspector should be
present to observe the mixing technique, and to see that
thinners are used only to the extent allowed by the
specif ¡cat ions.
Paints should be stored in the original metal shipping
containers. The containers should be clearly marked to
show the type and color, specification number, quantity,
name of manufacturer, batch number, date of manufacture
and any other information desired, such as special ap-
plication instructions.
B. SURFACE PREPARATION
It is essential that a clean, dry surface be obtained for
the paint. Blast cleaning is highly recommended for all sur-
faces. The three commonly accepted degrees of blast
cleaning are defined and described in SSPC-SP 5, White
Metal Blast Cleaning; SSPC-SP 6, Commercial Blast
Cleaning; and SSPC-SP 10, Near-White Blast Cleaning. In
most situations commercial blast cleaning will be suffi-
cient, but there will be situations or coatings which will re- removed. If any field welding was done, special care must
quire near-white or white metal blast cleaning, normally be given in cleaning around the welds. The weld area must
Zones 2A, 28 and 3. Because of the construction opera- have all peaks and rough edges removed and all weld spat-
tions involved in building of a new structure, especially ter removed. When too long a period elapses between field
bridges, there are special cleaning problems. Cement or coats, dirt may need to be removed before the second field
mortar may have dripped or spattered on the steel; oil from coat is applied.
hydraulic jacks, reamers, or drills may have dripped on the Cleaning before painting should be done in accord-
steel or painted surface; steel shavings and other con- ance with the applicable Surface Preparation Specifica-
struction debris may be present. All of these must be tions in Volume 2 of the Steel Structures Painting Manual.

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SSPC C H A P T E R * L O - O 93 = 8627940 0003725 223
C. APPLICATION OF PAINTS TO STRUCTURES D. PAINTING SYSTEMS
IN THE FIELD Table 2 outlines paint systems as described in
When painting is done by contract, it is common for Volume 2 of the Steel Structures Painting Manual. The
the railroad owner to furnish paint to the contractor, recommendations are based on the environment to which
especially when the railroad’s own specification paint is the structure or parts of the structure will be exposed. All
used. The film thickness is critical and the use of a primers included here are rust inhibiting and have been
thickness gauge, such as the Elcometer, is essential. Nor- proved in service. Complete painting systems will be found
mally, prime coats should be at least 2 mils thick; in- in Volume 2 of the SSPC Manual.
termediate and top coats should total 1 to 4 mils in The paints in Table 2 are listed by specifications in
thickness. current use; proprietary paints meeting or exceeding these
On new work, the field bolt heads should be spot specifications are available and can be used provided the
painted as soon as possible, as should all scars, bruises, user has had satisfactory experience with the seller. The
rust spots, and thin spots in the shop coat, in advance of TT numbers listed refer to Federal Specifications; the
application of the first field coat. SSPC numbers refer to the Council’s specifications; the
The first field coat should be thoroughly dry before MIL refer to U.S. Military specifications; the AASHTO
the second coat is applied. A test for this is to press the refers to American Association of State Highway Official’s
thumb firmly against the paint surface, then twist. If the specification. The GP numbers refer to Canadian Govern-
paint skin does not slide, or come off, the paint is suffi- ment Specifications Board. The CISC numbers refer to the
ciently dry to apply the second coat. One or two days are Canadian Institute of Steel Construction.
usually sufficient for this drying time. Oil paints may not The intermediate and finish paints used depend large-
dry enough in this time to pass such a severe test; they ly upon the primer used. The methods of surface prepara-
should be tested by pressing hard without twisting. tion and pretreatment affect the selection of the primer
To require too long a period between coats of paint directly, but only indirectly affect the choice of topcoats.
may increase scaffolding costs. Here it must be Care must be used when hard, quick drying topcoats like
remembered that too thick an application may slow down some of the short oil alkyds and phenolics are used over
drying. However, the re-use of scaffolding without moving soft primers such as linseed oil; unless the oil primers are
it is no reason to permit application of the second coat of thoroughly dry, the topcoats may crack or wrinkle. When
paint before the first is dry. Generally, painting should pro- using unusual combinations, test patches should be ap-
ceed from the top down. From the standpoint of inspec- plied and inspected. Any detrimental film irregularities
tion, it is desirable to paint from the top to bottom, or from should develop within 24 hours.
one end towards the other, without skipping around.
When the bridge is being painted under traffic, the E. INSPECTION
work must not interfere with the movement of trains. Care Questionnaire responses indicated that many
should be taken that lines and scaffolds do not get within railroads do not specify coating thickness. The common
prescribed clearance. In the case of movable bridges, procedure is to apply, for example, two coats of paint and
which must be opened on demand by boat traffic, scaf- assume all is well. This may be a relatively safe procedure
folding must not be placed to interfere with movement of i f well-known paints are used for many years. But even dif-
the bridge. ferent batches of the same paint from the same supplier
In buildings, erection of new steel should be followed can vary considerably in film build properties. It is
up by spot painting of skinned, bruised or thin areas, and not at all difficult for an expectedly thin application to be
bolt heads, etc. If the steel is to be fireproofed, spot paint- applied and cut the protective life of the coating system in
ing of the shop coat is sufficient. Do not paint metal to be half. Film thickness gauges are not expensive and can be
embedded in concrete. On exposed interior columns and easily used by the supervisor or foreman on the job after a
beams, additional field coats are required of the type and minimum of instruction. It is a very small price to pay to
color of the final coat. When the steel is encased or help ensure a satisfactory paint application.
fireproofed with a thin or porous coating of concrete or Equally important and more difficult to control is the
light weight aggregate, an inhibitive primer should be quality of surface preparation. The life of the coating
used. If exposure conditions are severe, such as in salt depends largely on the thoroughness of surface prepara-
water, at least two coats of high quality inhibitive paint tion.
should be used. When the concrete is two to three inches Interestingly, most railroads seem to control applica-
thick, dense, of good quality, and without acid consti- tion by contractors more closely than when their own
tuents, priming is not generally considered necessary crews are involved.
because of the protection afforded by the concrete. This is
usually the case when steel is used in reinforced concrete; VIII. SAFETY
here, the bond necessary between the steel and concrete All application should be carried out in accordance
precludes the use of paint. with federal, state and local requirements. They should
also be in accord with the instructions of the paint
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SSPC C H A P T E R s L O - O 93 m 8b27940 000372b LbT m
manufacturer and requirements of the insurance under- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

writers. Safety considerations should include, but n o t be The first edition chapter on this subject was authored by
limited to, t h o s e presented in SSPC-PA Guide 3, “A Guide Manley A. Roose, who was very helpful in the preparation of the
present chapter.
to Safety in Paint Application”. Data on current practices were obtained by means of two
Proper handling and storage of paint materials on t h e questionnaires circulated to Committee 15 of the American
j o b should include safety considerations to avoid loss or Railway Engineering Association - D.S. Bechley, then Chairman.
damage, a s well a s to avoid hazards to workers. H o o k s for participation of the following in the review process for this
scaffolds, as well as all blocks and falls, including ropes, chapter: Carl Bye, Thomas A. Cross, Robert Doyle, Jim Hutson,
should b e examined every day or before use and replaced Raymond C. McMaster, Gatewood Norman, William Pearson, and
William J. Wallace, Jr.
before they are in a n unsafe condition. Cleaning materials
should be properly used t o prevent fires, a n d t o x i c fumes
REFERENCES
f r o m t h e m should be avoided. While wire brushing, chip- 1. “Weathering Steel Committee Report”. American Railway
ping, or scraping, workers should be required to wear gog- Bridge and Building Association, Proceedings, p. 73, 1972.
gles to protect their eyes. W i t h sandblast cleaning, proper 2 F.L. La Que, “Corrosion and Protection of Off-Shore Drilling
Rigs”. Corrosion, Vol. 6, No. 5, p. 152, 1950.
helmets w i t h a source of clean air m u s t b e provided for 3. H.A. Humble, “Cathodic Protection of Steel Piling in Sea
operators of blast guns. Scaffold ropes should be wrapped Water”. Corrosion, Vol. 5, No. 9, p. 292, 1949.
to prevent damage from blast cleaning. Gloves and protec- 4. E. Escalante, and W.P. Iverson, “The Protection of Steel by
Non-Metallic Coatings in Sea Water”, Materiais Përformance,
tive clothing should be worn. October 1978.
It is always necessary to conduct painting operations 5. “Investigation of Electrolytic Corrosion of Steel in Concrete”.
in a manner that does n o t cause danger to railroad train AAR Committee Report to Electrical Section of Engineering
Division, Corrosion, Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 37, 1947.
movements over t h e bridge structures, or to river t r a f f i c or 6. John D. Keane, “Protecting Load-Bearing Surfaces of Steel
highway traffic under the bridge. Bridges”. Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1968.
Detailed safety precautions included w i t h each sur- 7. L.S. Crave, “Corrosion Problems of the Railroads”. Digest of
Discussions, Second Railroad Corrosion Conference, Interna-
face preparation specification of t h e Steel Structures tional Nickel Company, 1951.
Painting Council, shown in Volume 2 of t h i s Manual, 8. L.S. Crave, “Corrosion Problems of the Railroads”. Corrosion,
should be observed. Safety recommendations of t h e Na- Vol. 8, No. 4, p. 149, 1952.
9. John D. Keane, “Surface Preparation Versus Durability”,
tional Safety Council for “Bridge Painting” should be
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Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1966.

followed t o avoid s u c h accidents as falls; injuries due to 1o. John D. Keane, William Wettach, and Waouter Bosch,
excessive heat or cold; poisoning; injuries due to oncom- “Minimum Paint Film Thickness for Economical Protection of
Hot-Rolled Steel Against Corrosion”. Journal of Coatings
i n g traffic; eye injuries while chipping, scraping, brushing, Technology, Vol. 31, No. 533, pp. 372-382, June 1969.
and riveting; drowning; and electric shock f r o m power 11. C.E. Webb, “Better Bridges Require Less Maintenance”,
cables. Railway Engineering and Maintenance, Vol. 32, p. 37, 1936.
12. John D. Keane, “Railroad Bridge Paints With Resistance to
People w h o work on elevated structures should be Salt Brine”, Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1968.
experienced and not be subject to dizzy spells or heart 13. John D. Keane, “Painting Railroad Bridges for Mild Ex-
ailments. Physical examination before hiring is recom- posures”. Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1968.
14. John D. Keane, “Golden Gate Bridge Paint Test”, Steel Struc-
mended. When working o n bridges over water, workers tures Painting Gouncil Report, December 2, 1976.
should wear l i f e belts, or a m a n in a boat should patrol t h e 15. John D. Keane, “Protector of Structural Steel Work - U.S.
water under t h e work area. In hot weather, shade is Practice”. Corrosion in Civil Engineering, Institution of Civil
Engineering, London, 1979.
beneficial to t h e workers and increases worker output.
Approved respirators are worn i f spraying or removing
lead paints; protective creams or o i n t m e n t s are used o n
BIOGRAPHY
t h e face, neck and hands; workers w a s h thoroughly before
Raye A. Fraser has a B.Sc. in
eating and after work. Attention is also drawn to the Chemistry from Mount Allison
hazards o f chromate in paints and to the hazards of lead- University and has held a num-
base paints. ber of positions at the Technical
Research Centre of Canadian
National Railways. During this
time, he has been involved in
laboratory and field evaluations
of coatings, and the writing of
coatings specifications as well
as the CNR Corrosion Protection
Manual for Steel Bridges and
Structures.
He is a past-President of the
Montreal Society for Coatings Technology and a past-Chairman of
the Protective Coatings Division of the Chemical Institute of Cana-
da. For the past 20 years he has been active on a number of Steel
Structures Painting Council Committees.
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SSPC C H A P T E R x L L - O 9 3 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003727 O T b
CHAPTER 11
PAINTING OF HIGHWAY BRIDGES

AND STRUCTURES
by
R. R. Ramsey and 8.R. Appteman
I. INTRODUCTION II. STRUCTURES AND CONDITIONS

This chapter covers present practice in the painting of
highway bridges and related highway structures. It em- A. TYPES OF STRUCTURES
phasizes painting done in the field. Shop painting is Highway structures requiring painting for protection
covered in a separate chapter. against corrosion are chiefly bridges. But, there are also
This chapter brings together both general and special corrugated culverts which are usually galvanized, guard-
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considerations for the painting of highway bridges. While rails and posts, light poles, truck scales, buildings, road-
some of the material here overlaps with material in other signs and miscellaneous structures. The same principles
chapters, the emphasis is given to the conditions and fac- apply to all structures, but only bridges will be discussed
tors that are unique to or especially important for highway in detail.
bridges. The discussion is brief in topics that are covered Steel highway bridges vary in span length from 20 feet
elsewhere. In the text the reader is referred to the most to the present Golden Gate suspension span of 4200 feet.
relevant chapters, although this chapter is meant to stand The types of steel highway bridges include the following:
by itself. Beam spans - simple, cantilever, continuous or com-
Highway bridges are painted for long-lasting corro- posite; always decked structures, span lengths to 120 feet
sion protection of the structure and improvement of its ap- (Figure 1).
pearance at the minimum cost. Girder spans - riveted or welded; simple, cantilever
Paint should function as an inhibitor and barrier to or continuous; usually decked structures, sometimes com-
prevent, as much as possible, the corrosive attack of the posite with deck; sometimes designed as box girders; span
steel substrate by moisture, air and oxidizing chemicals. lengths to 375 feet (Figures 2 and 3).
Primer coats therefore usually contain rust inhibitive Rigid frames - riveted or welded, single or multiple
pigments or pigments such as zinc dust that reduces cor- spans; decked structures; span lengths to 130 feet.
rosion through cathodic protection. The topcoats or finish Truss spans - usually riveted; simple, cantilever or
coats, on the other hand, provide barrier protection continuous; through (Figure 4) or decked (the latter
through the use of polymers and pigments that protect whenever practicable); span lengths t o 1800 feet.
against moisture permeation and the constant attack of Arches - usually riveted; single or multiple spans;
weather. through or decked; span lengths to 1675 feet. Arches may
The second purpose of painting highway structures is be trusses or girders.
for appearance. Quite often the color of the top coat is Suspension bridges - spans up to 4200 feet (Figure
chosen to harmonize with the adjacent topographic 5).
features. In some localities a leaf green top coat blends Deck type structures, particularly the shorter spans of
well with the surroundings, while in others a gray or beams, girders and rigid frames, are more protected from
aluminum coat may serve better. An important considera- the weather than the through and overhead types. Truss
tion for top coat selection is the ability to retain the types are more susceptible to painting difficulties than the
original color and gloss. Certain pigments (e.g. yellows, beam and girder types, because the latter have large
blues) are prone to fading. Urethane top coats usually pro- smooth surfaces, while trusses are broken down into
vide excellent color and gloss retention. multitudinous corners, edges and small parts. A timber or
Some bridges are being painted in two colors t o fur- open steel deck gives rise to more corrosion below deck
ther improve their appearance. For through structures, than does a solid concrete slab. An exception to this case
where night visibility is of prime importance, the blending has been noted in high humidity environments where, ap-
of colors to comply with the surroundings might be a detri- parently, condensation with poor drying conditions causes
ment. On the other hand, the painting of bridge end posts more corrosion below solid deck structures. In the case of
and steel members of overpass piers with obstruction a truss bridge with concrete floor, the paint on portions of
markings is an unsightly e3pedient but often necessary for the structure above the floor is often in worse condition
safety reasons. than on the floor system below the deck. Although timber

280
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L L * O 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 O 0003728 T32
FIGURE 1
Beam spans can be simple, cantilever, continuous, or composite, but are always
decked structures. Oak Hill Road Bridge illustrates rolled beam simple span.
Courtesy of Cal Trans
floors on bridges are nearly obsolete, old bridges with with moderate sulfur dioxide and moderate humidity, while
timber floors and new bridges with open grating floors others may suffer from high humidity, high sulfur dioxide,
show corrosive conditions below deck about equal to and salt. Frequently there is a large variation in the environ-
those above the deck. Corrosion occurs on the top flanges ment within a very small geographic area due to local ef-
of floor members, and dirt falls through and accelerates fects. Sulfur dioxide levels may vary substantially from one
paint failure by collecting on lower surfaces. Severe cor- end of a structure to the other. The direction of sun and
rosive conditions are generally found at the ends of bridge wind and the degree of sheltering strongly influence the
spans, at pin bearings, shoes, and expansion devices ex- highly critical time of wetness of structural members. De-
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tending across the bridge floor. Water frequently flows off icing salts will normally affect specific areas of the super-
at the ends of spans, where the accumulation of moisture structure, up to 12 or more feet above the roadway and
and foreign matter gives rise t o corrosion. These places re- various members of the substructure. The presence of
quire special attention when the bridge is to be cleaned. crevices or leaking joints will create accelerated local cor-
Periodic removal of the accumulated foreign matter in rosion. Faulty drainage and poor regular maintenance
maintenance operations will minimize corrosion at these cleaning of expansion joints further aggravate this situa-
locations. tion.
Steel piling t o be driven into the ground is not general- Identifying the corrosion environment is important
ly painted except where it is exposed. The type of protec- because the suitability and durability of the coating are
tion to be chosen depends upon the type of exposure. directly affected by the type of environment. Thus, in some
locales, a relatively inexpensive, easily applied oil-alkyd
B. EXPOSURE ENVIRONMENTS may last 15 years, whereas in more severe locations, that
system may show signif icant deterioration in 2-3 years.
The local environment of the metal on a structure
The environment can be determined from the ge-
substantially influences the rate of corrosion of the ex-
ography (proximity of seacoast, industry, cities) and
posed steel and the deterioration of the protective coating.
climate (acidity and quantity of rainfall, relative humidity,
Volume 2 of the SSPC Manual(15) lists and classifies ex-
pollution levels). However, the decision on painting nor-
posure environments. For highway bridges the following
mally requires individual inspection of the structure to
types of environments are considered most relevant.
determine its actual condition. In particular, one must note
Mild: Low pollution in the form of sulfurdioxide, low the performance of the coating system used previously
relative humidity, absence of chemical fumes or and the pattern of corrosion in order to select the most
accumulation of deicing salts, usually an in- suitable coating for repainting.
terior (inland) location.
Humid, Inferior: high humidity, low sulfur dioxide,
little deicing salt.
C. SURFACE CONDITIONS ENCOUNTERED
The surface of a bridge consists of a multitude of mini-
Industrial: high sulfur dioxide, moderate or high
surfaces with different conditions. Because of the large
humidity.
diversity in structure types and designs, there is an enor-
Marine: high salt content from proximity to sea- mous variability in the proportions of edges, corners, bolts,
coast or from deicing salt, high humidity and protrusions, back-to-back angles, joints, and flat areas.
moistu re. Because these areas are not likely to be coated and pro-
The above definitions are, by necessity, arbitrary. tected evenly and because of differences in environments,
Many bridges will not fall distinctly into any of the the condition of the substrate will vary considerably from
categories. Some bridges may have intermediate climates surface to surface.

1
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Typical surface conditions encountered on bridges uniformity of failure from beam to beam, the ASTM stan-
older than five years are as follows: dards are difficult to apply.
1. Tight, intact paint with no rusting. Frequently, the condition is expressed as the overall
2. Tight, intact paint, with some signs of visible rust. percentage of the area exhibiting deterioration. Alter-
3. Finish coat worn down to primer. natively, a rating system of 1 to 10 or excellent-good-fair-
4. Popping of mill scale down to bare metal where poor may be used. For bridges having less than 1 or 2%
shop cleaning was inadequate. rust, the usual choice is to spot clean and spot prime,
5. Flaking, blistering, alligatoring paint. followed by one or two full topcoats. It is important to
6. Bare steel corroding, tight rust. ascertain whether the intact paint is still tightly adhering
7. Heavy rusting and pitting; loose, flaky scale. and "alive", (e.g. not too thick or brittle).
8. Contamination from oil, dirt, debris. For structures showing greater than 20-25% surface
For each structure, highway officials have a series of deterioration, it is usually more cost-effective to clean the
options to consider, ranging from leaving the surface com- entire structure (particularly i f abrasive blast cleaning is
pletely untouched to complete blast cleaning and repaint- available). In the intermediate range, the decision is more
ing. In between are the options of spot cleaning, touchup, difficult and usually depends on local preference. SSPC-
and overcoating. The action taken and the type of coating PA Guide 4 presents a set of guidelines16.
system selected depend on the extent of occurrence of the It should be pointed out that the above visual percen-
surface conditions described. Other factors, described in a tage rating assigned a structure by an inspector or
later section, also influence the decision. engineer is not equivalent to the ASTM visual rust ratings
The condition of the structure is normally described in per SSPC-Vis 2 or ASTM-D 610". The former is normally
terms of the percentage of the surface showing some sort based on a percentage of the area requiring repainting
of failure such as rust, blistering, or delamination. while the latter is a numerical identification of the frac-
However, because of the variety of surfaces and non- tional area covered by rust or failed paint.
FIGURE 2
Continuous girder spans, Elkhorn Bridge, Sacramento River.
Courtesy of Cai Trans
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282
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SSPC C H A P T E R + L L - O 9 3 8627940 0003730 b y 0
D. BRIDGE STATISTICS from inadequate maintenance. The cost of that neglect is

hundreds of millions of dollars per year.
The following data are presented to demonstrate the
An approximate breakdown of the steel bridges is
magnitude of the problem of Qrotecting highway bridges.
shown below (Table 1) in terms of the type and size of
According to the most recent by the structure and the bridge environment. These data are taken
Highway Administration, there are approximately 112,000
from a 1980 Federal ~ i ~ d ~ ~ i h ~research
i ~~ t ~~ ~
steel bridges in the United States. Over 4000 of these are
report,.
structurally deficient; a large part of the deficiency arises
TABLE 1
Distribution of Steel Highway Bridges’
Exposure Environment
Bridge Type
and Size Rural Industrial Marine Total
Girder, d 60 feet 30,000 20,000 11,000 61,000
Girder, < 60 feet 14,000 10,000 6,000 30,000
Truss, Q 60 feet 5,000 3,000 2,000 10,000
Truss, < 60 feet accessible 3,000 1,000 1,500 5,500
Truss, < 60 feet inaccessible 3,000 1,000 1,500 5,500
Total 55,000 35,000 22,000 112,000
*Includes bridges on Federal Aid highway system; most county-maintained structures are not included.
111. COATING SYSTEMS FOR FIELD on the steel surface produced by abrasive blast cleaning.
APP LICATI0 N Surface contaminants on steel surfaces act as collecting
sites for moisture and soluble salts, and if not removed
Coating systems are the principal means for corrosion
they will cause accelerated rusting and corrosion product
protection for over 99% of the steel bridges in the U.S. The
to build up on the underlying surface. This contributes to
coating system as used in this text consists of the surface
the early failure of the paint system.
preparation, paint application, and coating materials.
The methods of surface preparation for the field paint-
(What the author calls “coating system” is synonymous
ing of steel highway bridges depend upon the condition of
with what the SSPC calls “painting system”). Each of
the surfaces prior to painting. There are at least nine
these three elements is important for achieving satisfac-
methods of surface preparation described by SSPC. The
tory protection. Most coatings experts consider the sur-
most important ones for highway steel are hand and power
face preparation to be the single most important part of
tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 2 and SSPC-SP 3), commercial
the coating system. For some zinc-rich, water-borne, or
(SSPC-SP 6), brush-off (SSPC-SP 7), and near-white (SSPC-
other high-technology coatings, the application is almost
SP 10) blast cleaning.
equally critical. These two aspects normally account for 50
In the painting of bridge structures, the most cost-
to 80% of the total cost of bridge painting. In this section
effective method for preparing large surfaces and intricate
are discussed the more common highway practices in
configurations is abrasive blast cleaning. This includes
preparation, application, and choice of coating systems.
jobs requiring extensive touch-up work on corroded joints
More comprehensive treatments are given in other
and newly erected steel, and the complete repainting of an
chapters.
existing structure. For minor spot repair, hand or power-
A. SURFACE PREPARATION tool cleaning may be more practical. In addition, when
Surface contaminants such as rust, rust scale, painting over existing sound paint, water blasting may be
chemicals, salts, dirt, loose paint, dust, oil, grease and preferred to brush-off blast cleaning.
moisture will cause poor bonding of a coating to the Concern over the toxicity of silica sand and paint
substrate. Good surface adhesion of the primer coat is dusts have caused regulators t o impose limitations on dry
essential to long service life. If inorganic zinc primers abrasive blasting in some areas. Alternative cleaning
are used, good surface adhesion requires an anchor pattern methods such as wet sand or grit blasting, water blasting,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LL.O 73 = 8627740 0003731 527
of the surface preparation or retained panels may be taken

at this time and then used by the inspector throughout the
course of the job. It is almost a certainty that the surface
preparation will not meet the requirements of the
specification if the contractor does not provide the ap-
propriate scaffolds and equipment to make the work area
safe and accessible (Figure 8). It is also extremely impor-
tant that the inspectors be able and willing to climb
anywhere on the structure where inspections are
necessary.
The cost of preparing bridge surfaces by abrasive
blasting can vary significantly depending on the structure
type, structure condition, and the grade of surface prepara-
tion specified. The type of dust containment required can
also have a significant impact on costs.
FIGURE 3 B. PAINT APPLICATION

Box girder type bridge. Bryte Bend Bridge.
The fundamentals and equipment for paint applica-
Courtesy of Cal Trans
tion, discussed in a separate chapter, are entirely ap-
plicable to bridge painting. (See SSPC-PA 1.) However,
or vacuum blasting and containment of abrasives are cur- bridge painting also presents certain unique problems and
rently being evaluated and are discussed in a separate considerat ions.
chapter. Abrasive blast cleaning removes most contam- The choice between roller, brush, conventional spray,
inants from the surface and provides a surface profile (pat- or airless spray depends on the type of paint, the size of
tern of peaks and valleys). The surface profile provides in- the job, the conditions at the site, and the capabilities of
creased surface area for improved adhesion of the primer the contractor. Brushing and rolling are suitable primarily
coat. Usually, excellent adhesion will be obtained if the on spans over residential areas and for small touchup jobs,
average depth of the blast profile is approximately one- to reduce overspray, or in some instances, to comply with
third the thickness of the primer. For example, self-curing union restrictions. Many of the newer, high-technology
inorganic zinc primers applied at three to five mils dry film coatings, such as zinc-rich primers, vinyls, high-build
thickness require a surface profile between one and two coatings, epoxies, and high-build coatings require spray
mils. The dry film thickness of the primer coat must pro- techniques.
vide adequate coverage above the surface profile peaks. Airless spray technique allows the use of more
Profile height is determined primarily by the mesh size of viscous materials than conventional spray. For trusses,
the abrasive, typically ranging from about 0.5 mils for lattice-work, structures with excessive bolts, and for painí-
60-120 mesh sand up to 3-4 mils for 12-30 mesh. Additional ing in confined spaces, airless spray may deliver too much
information on surface profile is available from SSPCz. material per unit of time. It becomes impossible to avoid
Daily abrasive blasting operations should allow suffi- excessive paint build-up on these areas. For such applica-
cient time for a thorough inspection of the work after all of tions, conventional air spray, which allows greater control
the loose debris is air-blown free of the steel surface. of the rate of paint application, is preferred.
Areas found deficient in surface preparation should be Whichever type of spraying equipment is used, it is
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
marked with chalk and then re-blasted or touched up by important to keep the paint in the spray pot continuously
power tool cleaning. The entire area should then be air- agitated in order to prevent pigment settling. The air supply
blown down again with high pressure dry air just prior to lines of the spray painting equipment should be equipped
application of the primer coat. Inspection of the daily work with water separators to insure a moisture-free air supply
should commence by 3 p.m. or earlier, depending on the at the spray gun. Tip size and fan selection are especially
weather and the time of year. important for efficient operation.
Mirror devices and lights should be used to check in-
side box girders. Bearing shoe assemblies, gussett plates,
angle braces, cross braces, lattice work, bolted connec-
tions, rivet heads, faying surfaces, and flange edges are all
troublesome areas to blast clean (Figure 7).
To obtain a good painting job the contractor must fully
understand the requirements of the surface preparation
specifications. Demonstrations of surface cleaning by
abrasive blasting at the bridge site prior to job bidding have
FIGURE 4
proved quite successful in showing the contractor what Skyway Bridge illustrating through truss and deck truss.
degree of cleaning is acfually expected. Color photographs Courtesy of Florida DOT

284
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LL.O 73 8627940 0003732 463
close enough to the surface. The dry spray can cause adhe-
sion problems, and should be removed prior to application
of the intermediate coats or finish coat. Constant agitation
and short hoses help application and maintain zinc
suspension.
When practical, painting should be done during warm
dry weather. The lower range of temperature at which paint
may be applied depends on the generic type of paint used.
It is, however, frequently limited by specification to 40°F
(4°C). Most catalyzed epoxies will not cure below 50°F
(lO°C), whereas inorganic zincs and vinyls can often be ap-
plied at 32°F (OOC).
Most types of paint thicken in cold weather, and the
painters use thinners to facilitate application, resulting in a
thin coat of paint, adhesion problems, and poor film in-
tegrity. As a general rule, the specifications and the
manufacturer's recommendations should be followed ex-
actly.
When the relative humidity of the air is greater than
85%, there is a danger of condensation of moisture on the
steel with consequent bad effects upon the paint, par-
ticularly in regard
- to surface adhesion and water entrap-
FIGURE 5 ment. Painting is usually not recommended until the
Golden Gate Suspension Bridge, San Francisco, California. The
SSPC has cooperated with the Golden Gate Bridge Highway & relative humidity drops below 85% and the wind velocity is
Transportation District in conducting tests of alternate paint less than 15 mph. Surface temperature of the steel should
systems on this bridge over a period of many years. These include
be at least 5°F (3°C) above the dew point.
evaluation of more than 20 alternate zinc-rich systems as well as
other generic types. Similar cooperative SSPC tests have been It is important to be aware of the cooling and heating
conducted on bridges throughout the country. characteristics of the steel being painted. The surface
Courtesy Golden Gate BH&T District temperature of the shady side of a structural steel beam
may be several degrees cooler than the sunny side. Small
members cool and heat more rapidly than the large struc-
In structural steel spray painting, the primer coat
tural elements. Exteriors of sealed boxes may reach
should be applied in multiple spray passes to achieve a full
temperatures of 130°F (54°C).
wet coat without sags, runs, or dry spray. The intermediate
coats (contrasting tint) and finish coat should be applied in
the same manner. Areas that are difficult to paint such as C. TYPES OF PAINTS USED
rivets, bolted connections, flange edges, etc. should A survey of forty State Highway Departments con-
receive extra spray passes to insure good coverage and ducted in 1968 by the Steel Structures Painting Council
film build. When oil-base paints are used, it is advisable to showed that lead-containing oil base and oillalkyd base
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
brush the first primer coat application on the hard-to-paint paint systems were the primary paint systems used to
areas; these areas are frequently also the ones not paint highway bridges and structures throughout the
thoroughly cleaned. Additional coats of paint may then be United States3. In 1979 these systems still ranked first in
applied by spraying. overall usage. However, since 1968, organic and inorganic
The paint inspector should be familiar with the paint zinc-rich coatings have gained significant support. Over
materials used and should have knowledge of the proper twenty-five states now allow the limited use of zinc coating
spraying techniques. The inspector should observe the systems4.
spraying techniques of each painter and should know the Florida, for example, has used inorganic zinc-rich
number of spray passes that are necessary to build the re-
quired paint film thickness over a given area. For many
coatings (particularly new synthetic polymers) excessive
film buildup may be as detrimental as too little paint. For
inorganic zinc-rich primers, too heavy an application can
lead to mudcracking and to problems of topcoat adhesion,
bubbling, and pinholing.
With inorganic zinc-rich primers, special care is
needed to insure a uniform wet coat application without
incurring dry zinc overspray. Inorganic zinc dry spray can FIGURE 6
result i f conditions are windy and the spray pass is not Modern mobile sandblasting unit.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L L - O 9 3 W 8627 940 0003733 3 T T m
Oil-Alkyd Coating System

Surface Preparation: Hand or Power Tool Clean-
ing (SSPC-SP 2 or SSPC-SP 3; SP 6 sometimes
used to enhance longevity of system)
Primers:
(1) AASHTO M-72*,** or TT-P-86’, Type III, Oil-
Alkyd Paint containing red lead
(2) AASHTO M-229* or Federal Specification TT-
P-615*,* *, Oil-Alkyd Paint containing basic
lead silico chromate
FIGURE 7 (3) SSPC-Paints 1 *, 2 * , and 25
Difficult areas to blast clean.
Topcoats:
(1) Federal Specification TT-E-489, High Gloss
primers on 90% of the bridge painting jobs contracted
Alkyd
since 19705. Many states specify inorganic zinc-rich
(2) SSPC-Paints 101, 102, 104, and 108, Alkyd
primers for new construction while maintenance painting Topcoats
continues to be done with oil-based or alkyd paints. Some
states have specifications covering organic zinc-rich Organic Zinc/Vinyl Coating System
primers for repair work as well as new construction. Surface Preparation: Commercial Elast Cleaning
Vinyl topcoats are commonly specified over zinc-rich (SSPC-SP6)
primers. Both the low-build type applied by conventional Primer: SSPC-Paint 20 Type II or Paint 29 Type II
air or airless spray and the high-build type applied by Tie-Coat: Vinyl Butyral Wash Primer
airless spray are in use. State specifications commonly re- (DOD-P-l5328*, SSPC-Paint 27*
quire that the vinyl topcoat be supplied by the manufac- , Topcoat(s): Vinyl Paint, e.g. SSPC-Paint 9
turer of the zinc-rich primer to avoid compatibility prob-
lems. A tie-coat or mist coat may be necessary for this pur-
pose. *Contains lead or chromate
Several states permit the use of all-vinyl coating * *Canceled
systems. The first coat is normally the vinyl butyral wash
primer (e.g. DOD-P-15328 or SSPC-Paint 27, followed by
two or more coats of vinyl paint.
Concern over restrictions on solvent emissions has
stimulated interest in water-borne coatings. Florida DOT
has been evaluating leaded and non-leaded water-borne
systems on structural steel since 1975. In 1978, three in-
land bridges over fresh water were painted with the most
promising of these systems. California DOT (Caltrans) has
done extensive testing of water-borne systems, including
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
both latex primers and topcoats, while avoiding the use of

lead compounds. A styreneacrylic latex primer and an
aluminum-pigmented acrylic latex topcoat have been ap-
plied to over fifteen structuresg.
Other coatings that have been used include the follow
i ng:
Epoxy Esters
Catalyzed Epoxy
Catalyzed and MoistureCured Urethanes
Aluminum-Filled Epoxy Mastic
Chlorinated Rubber FIGURE 8
Modified Alkyds (Silicone) Portable rolling scaffolding.
Coal Tar Epoxy Courtesy of Florida DOT
Coatings with Lead and Chromate-free
Inhibit ive Pigments
Vinyls

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L L - O 73 8627940 0003734 236 W
Inorganic Zinc/Vinyl Coating System of paint applied to an unprepared, dirty or wet surface will
Surface Preparation: Near-White Blast Cleaning no doubt suffer early failure. A bridge located in a dry, rural
(SSPC-SP 10) atmosphere with the best of paint properly applied to a
Primer: Inorganic Zinc-Rich; AASHTO M-300, well-prepared surface is expected to be protected for
see also SSPC-Paint 20 Type I or 29 Type I many years. Because maintenance cleaning and painting is
Tiecoat: Vinyl Butyral Wash Primer (DOD-P-15328* expensive, the longest possible paint life is usually the
or SSPC-Paint 27*) most economical.
Topcoat(s): Vinyl Paint, e.g. SSPC-Paint 9 An existing bridge exhibits a variety of surface and
Note: Variations on the zinc-rich systems include elimi- paint conditions. Any quantitative estimation of life expec-
nation of the vinyl wash primer and use of high-build vinyl tancy of a paint system depends on the definition of
topcoat. criteria for failure. Frequently, a paint system is said to
have failed i f the amount of surface area rusted or
Organic or Inorganic One-Coat Zinc-Rich System
deteriorated exceeds a threshhold figure (typically 16%).
See SSPC-PS 12.00 and PS 12.01 based on
However, the distribution of deteriorated areas is often
SSPC-Paint 20 Zinc-Rich, or Paint 29
more important than the overall percentage.
Vinyl Coating System A structure may have a few areas subject to severe
Surface Preparation: Near-White Blast Cleaning corrosion conditions that indicate localized paint failure,
(SSPC-SP 10) with the remainder of the paint in very good condition. In
Primer: Vinyl Butyral Wash Primer such cases a small amount of touch-up painting may add
(DOD-P-15328* or SSPC-Paint 27*) several years to the overall life of the paint. On another
Intermediate Coat: Vinyl Paint (SSPC-Paint 9, structure, blisters and rust spots may be visible on most of
2 coats) the webs, edges, and stiffeners; this situation would re-
Topcoat(s): Vinyl Paint (SSPC-Paint 9, 2 coats) quire a complete repainting.
Water-Borne Systems A given bridge may be hand- or power-tool cleaned,
Surface Preparation: Commercial Blast Cleaning spot primed, and given two finish coats of paint after a cer-
(SSPC-SP 6) tain number of years. The same bridge may possibly be
PrimerTTopcoat: Latex. Corrosion-Resistant (acrylic), allowed to stand twice this length of time and then be com-
SSPC-PS 24 pletely blast cleaned and given a prime coat and two finish
Table 2 below gives typical coating systems for field coats of paint. Unless the latter method shows a con-
repainting for representative bridge conditions and en- siderable saving in cost over the first method, it will not
vironments. SSPC-PA 2, “Measurement of Dry Paint prove economical because of the loss of metal through
Thickness with Magnetic Gages”” and SSPC-PA Guide 4, corrosion and abrasive blasting. Furthermore, the former
“Guide to Maintenance Repainting with Oil Base or Alkyd method gives a greatly improved appearance over the
Painting Systems”16give guidelines for application. years.
The first maintenance painting after construction may
D. LIFE EXPECTANCY OF BRIDGE PAINTS compensate for lack of mill scale removal in the first sur-
face preparation. Succeeding paintings often last up t o 100
Life expectancy for paint on highway bridges depends
percent longer. On some bridges repeated applications of
upon the following factors: type of bridge, surface prepara-
paint over 40 or more years results in excessive paint build-
tion, application of the paint, quality of paint, suitability of
ups (>25 mils). This can cause film failure and shortened
paint system to bridge design, number of coats, and
paint life even over intact mill scale.
climatic or other field conditions. With these variables,
Several major bridges (principally toll facilities) have
bridge paint may last from one to fifteen or more years. A
permanent paint crews so that the bridge is being cleaned
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
bridge in a severely corrosive location with a poor quality

and painted continuously. Many highway bridges are
painted regularly, possibly every five to eight years; others
in rural locations may not be painted more often than every
ten or twelve years when regular maintenance is
stipulated. In some jurisdictions, tight budgets and
negligence extend the repaint cycle to 20 years or more.
While data on the life expectancy of bridge paints vary
considerably, it may be assumed generally that for a three-
coat oil-base system on a well prepared metal base, the life
expectancy in semi-dry and rural regions is from seven to
fifteen years; the life expectancy for the same structure in
humid, industrial, or marine regions is three to seven years.
Inorganic zinc-rich coating systems have a life expectancy
of ten years or more in a marine or industrial environment
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERtLL.0 93 m 8627940 0003735 172 m
TABLE 2
Typical Coating Systems for Repainting Bridges
Bridge Condition Environment Suggested Coating System

Mostly sound, intact All Oil-Alkyd: spot hand-tool
paint (oil, alkyd) clean (SSPC-SP 2); spot
prime; 1 or 2 full topcoats
Severe corrosion in joints, Humid, Marine, Organic ZinclVinyl: spot
connections, etc; rest of Industrial power-tool clean (SSPC-SP 3);
steel mostly sound or spot blast (SSPC-SP 7)
topcoats (may require special
tie-coat between old paint
Extensive deterioration and vinyl)
paint, corrosion Mild Oi I-A Ikyd: f uI I blast
(SSPC-SP 6); 3-coat system
or
Water- Borne: f uII blast
(SSPC-SP6); 2 primer coats;
Extensive deterioration; 2 topcoats.
mostly flat, accessible Humid, Marine, Inorganic Zi nclVi ny I: ful I
Industrial blast (SSPC-SP IO); 2 or 3
coat system
or
Inorganic ZinclCatalyzed Epoxy1
Aliphatic Urethane: Near-
White blast (SSPC-SP IO);
3-coat system (for severe
Extensive deterioration; corrosion areas)
many details, lattice work, Humid, Industrial Organic ZinclVinyl: full blast
etc. (SSPC-SP6); 3 or 4-coat system
and fifteen years or more in a rural environment. Organic to damage by deicing salts. Through bridges in dry loca-
zinc-rich and other synthetic polymer coating systems (¡.e. tions or deck bridges in damp locations may be expected
vinyl, urethane, catalyzed epoxy, chlorinated rubber) are to have a somewhat shorter life. Certain sections of the
considered superior to oil and alkyd systems, but not as ef- bridge (e.g. expansion bays, pier caps, beam ends) might
fective as a well-applied high quality inorganic zinc require added protection in situations in which oil-alkyd
system. For all of these newer coating systems the maintenance systems are considered suitable for most of
performance is strongly dependent on the specific for- the steel.
mulation or brand selected.
The water-borne coating systems are still in an early IV. ADDITIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING
stage of development with only short-term field data COATING SELECTION AND PERFORMANCE
available. The results indicate that these coatings should
not be specified for conditions of high humidity or even for A. INSPECTION AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
moderate industrial or marine environments. In certain Quality assurance is the total process by which the
mild environments, water-borne systems have given up to state insures that the workmanship and materials meet the
four years of good service, but have not yet demonstrated requirements of the contract and specifications. The key to
equivalance to standard oil-alkyd systemsg. quality assurance of highway bridge painting is inspection.
In general, the deck beam and girder bridges in dry In all cases of field cleaning and painting of highway
locations may be expected to have a maximum paint life, bridges, the structure should be thoroughly inspected and
except for rail sections on parapet walls and raised me- repaired before any cleaning or painting is allowed. Bent
dians of steel grill work. The latter are particularly subject parts should be straightened. Rivets and bolts should be
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
checked for tightness and replaced when necessary. Rail- Inspection is particularly important when using zinc-
ings should be checked for alignment and strength of con- rich, water borne, and other high-technology coatings.
nections. Drains, floor expansion devices, shoes and bear- These coatings are much less forgiving of poor or im-
ings should be cleaned and repaired. proper surface preparation and paint application tech-
An important duty of the inspector is to see that the niques compared to the oil and alkyd paints they are
steel surfaces to be painted are clean and dry. The inspec- replacing.
tor must obtain samples of the paint. The paint should then
be tested in the laboratory to make certain it meets the B. ECONOMICS OF BRIDGE MAINTENANCE
specification. The inspector should retain certified copies PAINTING
of test reports. Inspectors must see that the paint is prop-
The subject of costs for coatings, surface preparation,
erly mixed and applied; of uniform thickness and ap-
and application has been discussed elsewhere in this
pearance; without sags, runs, or pools of excess paint; and
manual. It should not be assumed, however, that the most
that rivet and bolt heads, edges and corners are thoroughly
cost-effective coating system will be chosen. As shown in
covered with each coat of paint.
a recent FHWA report, the budgets for maintenance paint-
The inspector has a continuous responsibility during
ing of highway bridges is considerably below that which is
the cleaning and painting processes. The cleaning must be
needed’. Because of the limited funds, it is difficult to
closely and promptly checked to ascertain the quality of
convince bridge officials or legislatures to invest in
the work. This will prevent the expense and delay entailed
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
coatings with higher initial cost, although they may prove
in the replacement of scaffolding and equipment. The
least costly over an extended period.
equipment and materials used for abrasive blasting, hand-
For most bridges, the repainting consists of spot
and power-tool cleaning, and cleaning fluids should be
cleaning and priming the rusty or failed areas, followed by
checked against the specifications. The paint should
one or two full topcoats. Normally, the decision to repaint
always be checked to make sure it has been received from
is based on an inspection report or as part of a fixed
the proper source approved for the job.
maintenance cycle. Significant savings would be realized if
The inspector must witness all facets of the job. His
the repainting were done before the appearance of ex-
failure to discard poor materials or stop faulty work is
cessive rust or failed paint which must be removed. Timely
almost equivalent to giving the engineer’s approval of such
repainting would greatly reduce the labor costs of surface
practices. The inspector must see that all debris is re-
preparation and priming. Too often, structures are not
moved from the site at the conclusion of the work, that
painted until they display major signs of failure and corro-
concrete is not spattered with paint, or surroundings
sion.
defaced. Much helpful information on inspection is includ-
ed in Volume 1. Last, but not least in importance, adequate
C. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
information for permanent records of the painting job must
be kept. The best workmanship can be expected only when
proper attention is given to the safety measures provided
for the work force involved in the painting of steel. Safety
precautions issued by the American National Standards In-
stitute (ANSI) and the National Safety Council (NSC)
should be practiced. Additional sources of information are
available from SSPC-PA Guide 3, “A Guide to Safety in
Paint Application” and the pamphlet “Play It Safe and
Healt hy”’O.
1. Pathological
The cleaning and painting of structural steel involves
certain health hazards of which the owner and ap-
plicator must be aware. Chipping, grinding, and wire
brushing of steel give rise to flying particles of steel,
scale, and dirt, which could cause eye trouble unless
goggles are worn. Dust particles, particularly those
arising from sandblasting, may, after prolonged ex-
posure, result in silicosis, or other lung diseases.
Workers who are habitually exposed should be re-
quired to wear cartridge respirators or forced air
helmets. Similarly, fumes arising from certain paint
removers containing carbon tetrachloride or methyl
FIGURE 9
Checking dry paint film thickness. ethyl ketone, and from the paint solvents, may con-
Courtesy of Florida DOT stitute a health hazard. In such cases, and when paint
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R x L L . 0 93 H 8627940 0003737 T 4 5 W
is sprayed, adequate respirators should be used. Work foul easily and be heavy for a person t o drag. Injury is
clothes should be laundered frequently. When clean- sure to result if the person should fall. Life belts with a
ing or painting is being done on the inside of tower “D” ring in the back should always be used in conjunc-
legs or other large steel members, either an adequate tion with life lines; a loop of rope around the person’s
ventilation system should be installed or respirators body should not be employed.
supplied with clean air should be used. Workers Special care is necessary in extremely cold or hot
should eat with clean hands and faces in a clean, well weather t o make certain that life belts are used and
ventilated location. No type of gasoline, leaded or are in good condition. In very cold weather, a person’s
unleaded, should ever be used as a solvent for per- hands become numb, which could result in loss of
sonal cleaning. grip, while hot weather sometimes causes dizziness.
2. Acciüents 6. Life Nefs
Another effective form of protection is the life net. It
Falls from ladders and scaffolds are a frequent source
of injury to workers who are cleaning and painting may be erected under either individual scaffolds or
complete bays of the bridge. Where used, the net
bridges. The supervisor in charge of field work should
should be inspected and kept in good condition.
continually warn his crew t o use precautions t o pre-
vent such accidents. All scaffolds, fixtures, hangers, 7. Fire
cables, and ropes should be inspected by the job Most bridge paints and volatile liquids used in con-
foreman each day, or before each use. Any defective junction with them are flammable and should be kept
scaffold plank, cable, or rope should be discarded and in closed containers away from fires. Paints and thin-
replaced with new equipment. All standing or hanging ners should not be stored on bridge decks, even in
scaffolds should be inspected daily for strains or trailers. Smoking should not be permitted inside of
weaknesses caused by wind sway. paint storage rooms or near these flammable
Engineers and contractors should be familiar materials. Rags used to wipe paint and oils should be
with the Occupational Safety and Health Administra- kept in a metal container in the open air away from
tion (OSHA) Regulations for Construction, Part 1926. stored paint materials. Great care should be exercised
when painting in closed spaces since explosions may
3. Ladders occur i f the vaporized flammable solvent reaches the
Ladders used for access t o scaffolds or other parts of explosive concentration range.
the bridge should be securely lashed in place or pro-
vided with hooks at the top end. Lattice work on
D. REGULATIONS IN EFFECT
beams should not be used for climbing; a permanent
metal ladder or a securely lashed ladder should be Environmental, health, and safety regulations are
used. Ladders should never be permitted to stand in becoming an important factor in the choice of coating
the roadway unless protected by red warning flags systems for bridges. Replacements for lead and chromate
with an attendant on the traffic side of the ladder. pigments have shown reduced ability to protect against
corrosioni1. In addition, the performance of these coat-
4. Boatswain’s Chairs ings is very sensitive to the specific paint formulation,
If a boatswain’s chair is used, the worker should be unlike the conventional lead and chromate pigments,
fastened into the seat with a safety strap. Boatswain’s which have been effective in a wide variety of binders and
chair ropes and pulleys should be inspected daily by compositions. Thus, for the lead and chromate-free paints,
the foreman on the job and the person who is to use the quality assurance of the coatings will be more critical.
the equipment. The following precautions should be All of the states are required to submit State Im-
observed: An attendant (not the person in the chair) plementation Plans (SIP) to the Environmental Protection
should always be assigned to handle the hoisting and Agency (EPA)12, describing how they plan to meet the
lowering of the chair. clean air standardsi3. The published EPA guidelines did
The chair should be attached to the gantline, us- not specifically require any State action to control bridge
ing either a double becket hitch or a bowline hitch. coatings. It is expected, therefore, that until EPA issues
The sling, or safety strap, must be securely fas- more definitive guidelines, control of organic solvents in
tened. paints will be regulated at the local level.
5. Life Lines The anticipated restriction of solvents from the
Life lines should be used where required in accord- California Air Resources Board (CARE) has led the State’s
ance with OSHA regulation. In some cases contract highway laboratory (Caltrans) t o develop and evaluate
provisions state that ropes and cables not be placed water-borne coatingsi4. Although there have been ad-
on, or drawn across, freshly painted beams. This vances, there are still some severe problems in field usage
makes it difficult t o use lines in some cases. Where of water-borne coatings. The requirements for surface
life lines are used very little slack should be allowed preparation and application are more critical than for oil-
- not more than two or three feet, preferably less, based solvent-borne paints. In addition, water-borne
although this is difficult to enforce. A long line will coatings have not yet demonstrated the ability t o provide
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Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 2Document
i90 orprovided
Questions
by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L L = O 9 3 8627740 0003738 781
long-term protection in humid, polluted, or salt en- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

vironment~~. Particular recognition is due to Tom Shelley of CALTRANS
The practice of open-air sand blasting, recognized as for his advice and contribution to this chapter.
The authors and editors also gratefully acknowledge the ac-
the most efficient and effective way to prepare surfaces for tive participation of the following in the review process: Duane
maintenance, produces several undesirable effects, in- Bloemke, Carl Bye, John Conomos, Raye Fraser, S.C. Frye, Clive
cluding silica particles, dust clouds, and deposition of Hare, Preston Hollister, Robert J. Martell, Doug Nash, Charles Ray,
Gary Tinklenberg and William Wallace.
lead-containing paints in the environment. Efforts have
focused on alternative methods for preparing surfaces
such as water blasting, wet abrasive blasting, containment BIOGRAPHY
devices, acid cleaning, and non-silica abrasives. It is vir- Richard R. Ramsey re-
ceived a B.S. in Chemistry from
tually certain that the newer methods will add significantly Otterbein College in 1959. For
to the cost of surface preparation of bridges. the past 15 years he has been a
Overall, the regulations are expected to have the Materials Research Chemist
for the Florida Department of
following impacts on highway painting practices. Transportation. His primary re-
(1) Decreased level of performance due to search interest is in coating
systems for structural steel.
replacement of lead and chromate pigments, elimina-
He has been a member of
tion of organic solvent, and use of less effective and NACE for 10 years.
more costly surface preparation techniques.
(2) Need for greater attention to quality of sur-
face preparation, application, and inspection. A biographical sketch and portrait of Dr. Bernard R. Ap-
(3) Increased costs of protecting bridges due to pleman appear at the end of Chapter 2.8.
increased costs of surface preparation, insurance,
safety, equipment, coating materials, and training.
(4) More frequent repainting to maintain same level
of performance.
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The above factors will require greater allocation of
funds for bridge maintenance painting. However,
maintenance painting activities are competing with other
maintenance and construction needs for increasingly
scarce highway funds. The availability of the funds needed
to assure protection of the nation's bridges is still uncer-
tain. Shortages of these funds would result in a general
deterioration of their condition and safety.

Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 29 1 Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERULL.0 9 3 9 8627940 0003739 818 9
REFERENCES
1. S. Frondistou-Yannas, “Coating and Corrosion Costs of
Highway Structural Steel”. Report No. FHWA/RD-79/121,
March 1980.
2. J.D. Keane, J.A. Bruno, and R.E.F. Weaver, “Surface Profile
for Anti-Corrosion Paints”. Report No. FHWA-PA-71/14,1976.
3. J.D. Keane, ”Protective Coatings for Highway Structural
Steel”. National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP). Reports 74 and 74B, 1969.
4. C.J. Ray, F.A. Rideout, and L.E. Henton, “Coating Systems
for Painting Old New Structural Steel”. NCHRP Report on
Study 4-14, 1982. Published by Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC 20415.
5. Florida Department of Transportation: Standard Specifica-
tions for Road and Bridge Construction, 1977, Sections
560-562 and 971.
6. R. Warness, “Water-Based Coatings for Protection of Steel
Structures”. Report No. FHWA-CAITL-79/24,November 1979;
“Low Solvent Primer and Finish Coats for Use on Steel and
Other Structures”. California Department of Transportation
Research Study D-3-69 (604186), 1980-1982.
7. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, “Standard Specifications for Transportation
Materials and Methods for Sampling and Testing”. Part I -
Specifications”. July 1978, Washington, DC 20001.
8. California Department of Transportation: Standard Specifica-
tions (Paint, Primer, Zinc-Rich Organic Vehicle Type); and
Standard Special Provisions (Water Based Paints), 1981.
9. J.A. Bruno, and J.D. Keane, “Evaluation of Low-Solvent
Maintenance Coatings for Highway Structural Steel”. Report
No. FHWAIRD-811019, December, 1981; “Annotated
Bibliography, Report No. FHWA/RD-81/091,December, 1981.
10. “Play It Safe and Healthy”. (1967-72, 79), International Brother-
hood of Painters and Allied Trades, United Unions Building,
1750 New York Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C.
11. B.A. Appleman, J.A. Bruno, and R.E.F. Weaver, “Performance
of Alternate Coatings in the Environment (PACE) Volume I”.
Steel Structures Painting Council, i989.
12. “Policy Statement on Use of the Concept of Photochemical
Reactivity of Organic Compounds in State Implementation
Plans for Oxidant Control”. Office of Air and Waste Manage-
ment and Office of Research and Development, U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, December 5, 1975.
13. “Air Quality”. Federal Register 42, No. 131, pp. 353146, 1977.
“Most States Ready to Enforce Air Pollution Regulations”.
Products Finishing, 44, No. 12, pp. 546, September, 1980.
14. State of California Air Resources Board. “Model Rule for Ar-
chitectural Coatings”. July 7, 1977. See also American Paint
Journal; December 8, 1980, ((pp. 7-8); August 17, 1981, (pp.
45-46): November 2, 1981 (pp. 7-8, 12).
15. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2 - “Systems and
SDecifications”. John D. Keane, ed. Steel Structures Paintina
Council, 1982.
-
16. SSPC-PA 4, “Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting”. Steel
Structures Paintina Council, 1982.
17. SSPC-VIS 2, “Standard Method of Evaluating Degree of Rust-
ing on Painted Steel Surfaces”, Steel Structures Painting Coun-
cil. 1976.
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292
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S S P C CHAPTER*LZmO 73 m 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003740 53T m
CHAPTER 12
PAINTING OF VESSELS FOR

SALT WATER SERVICE
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by
David T. Bloodgood
I. INTRODUCTION drydocking a supertanker runs into hundreds of thousands

of dollars, not including the revenue lost while the ship is
The transition of shipbuilding from wood to ferrous
out of service. Thus effective corrosion control and anti-
materials subject to corrosive attack by the environ-
fouling measures during construction are of utmost im-
ment made it necessary to provide suitable methods
portance to the ship ownerloperator. Also, strong con-
to protect these materials. Coating systems comprised
sideration should be given to repairability of coatings and
of dense barrier coats or containing inhibitive pigments
coating systems. When a ship is being constructed, areas
can effectively protect against corrosion. Finish coats
to be coated are usually accessible, and sufficient time
are applied to improve appearance and to protect primers
can be spent on preparation and application. While in
against external influences so they retain anticorrosive
drydock, however, conditions for work can be marginal.
propert ¡es.
When coating systems are selected, therefore, the overall
This chapter describes present day practices for ap-
cost effectiveness should be studied, including cost of
plication, coating materials and surface preparation for all
maintenance, repair, and out-of-service costs.
surfaces on a ship subject to corrosion. New construction
Surface preparation and coating application tradi-
will be discussed separately from maintenance and repair
tionally are the last scheduled and least considered
because modern construction procedures have made con-
operations of construction. Coating during the modular
struction coating procedures quite different from those
stage of construction has partially relieved some prob-
in maintenance and repair. Protection problems vary
lems, but has created others. Final coating is still depend-
among ship types such as tankers, freighters, bulk carriers
ent on the work schedules of other crafts involved, whether
and small work boats. Specialized problems often arise in
it is new construction or maintenance and repair. As a
a particular service, but answers will usually be evident i f
result, efficient planning and operation must be main-
fundamental principles of marine corrosion and its preven-
tained if costs are to be limited.
tion through the use of coatings are understood and
followed.
A. THE PROBLEM
This discussion is limited to commercial vessels.
Naval vessels are considered a special case and are When a vessel is built, consideration is given to how
covered in a separate chapter. Even though surface to protect metal surfaces against the environment.
preparation, coating materials and application are Coatings are the primary method to protect surfaces. The
generally the same, service requirements for naval vessels type of coating applied, surface preparation and film
are different from those of commercial operators. Navy thicknesses will, to a degree, depend on expected service
criteria for testing and approving coating materials and conditions, such as salt water immersion, fouling, at-
systems are often a guide for selection of items by the mospheric exposure, etc. Often, cargo tanks should be
marine community, and Naval approvals of proprietary coated to protect the steel from corrosion and the cargo
systems often lead to acceptance of the systems by com- from contamination.
mercial operators. Destruction of a coating film and subsequent protec-
tion breakdown is caused by steel rusting beneath the
coating. Rusting occurs because of a reaction of the steel
II. GENERAL DISCUSSION substrate with water and oxygen that diffuse through the
Coating applicators and equipment manufacturers film.
must follow government regulations covering application In a rural environment, good protection can be ob-
and use of coating materials. For instance, the effects of tained by minimizing diffusion with a highly impervious
surface preparation on air and water pollution is of con- film that functions as a barrier coating. In more aggressive
siderable concern. Rules and regulations to control pollu- marine environments the rate of corrosion is greater, partly
tion add costs and other burdens for the shipyards. due to the presence of soluble gases and salts. Those
Coating systems that minimize maintenance and the gases and salts ionize and diffuse through the film. Corro-
frequency of drydocking are cost-effective. The cost of sion is accelerated by chemical attack on steel and elec-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LZ.O 93 Ab27940 0003743 476
trolytic action. The need for a high performance coating 2. Alternate immersion, such as alternate exposure
system in these circumstances is paramount. to the air, sunlight and salt water, causing
The underwater area of a ship can be one of the most premature failure of coating materials.
critical areas for protection. Because it can be observed 3. Abrasion damage from rubbing against piers,
only while the vessel is in drydock or through a perfunctory tugs, loading barges, or the bottom when
inspection by divers, coating systems and other methods operating in shallow waters, etc.
of corrosion control, such as cathodic protection, become 4. Fumes from stack gases and port environments.
increasingly important. Hull roughness, which is caused 5. Pollution of waters in harbors and docking areas
by corrosion, breakdown of the coating system and fouling
that may attack coatings.
can cause a loss in speed. To compensate for speed loss
6. Air pollution caused by industrial smogs.
an increase in power and fuel consumption is required.
Never in the history of the maritime industry has 7. Wide range of temperature, humidity and other
vessel “downtime” been so expensive. Drydock charges conditions during application and service.
range from $10,000 to $30,000 and more per day, depend- 8. Cargo splash and spillage.
ing on the vessel’s size. This, plus costs for yard labor and
B. ECONOMICS
materials to prepare a dirty and fouled hull for coating,
tends to make ship owners delay the chore until the very The economics of painting ships in service is com-
last minute. Many owners wait until seasonal slowdown or plicated by the uniqueness of the services they perform
the deadline for its classification survey to minimize lost and their size. A ship is only serving its function when mov-
income while the vessel is out of service. ing cargo from one point to another. Each day a vessel
Balanced precariously against the high cost of main- spends tied at a shipyard represents a financial loss to the
taining a vessel is the even higher cost of delaying owners. Depending on prevailing cargo rates and the ship
maintenance for too long. size, this loss can total thousands of dollars a day.
Most vessel operators know that between 10 and 20 When calculating the cost of repairing corrosion
percent more power is required to maintain speed because damage, it is first necessary to multiply the extra days in
of fouling (underwater marine growth on the hull and pro- dock by daily charges and losses. Losses due to corrosion
peller) or because of hull roughness caused by pitting from are usually represented by work, such as renewing welds,
corrosion. The increased cost of petroleum fuels and their replacing steel, renewing piping, repairing equipment, in-
potential scarcity, the need for extra power to stay on stalling new gear, etc.
schedule, or additional voyage time from running at re- Large sums of money involved in ship repairs make it
duced speed to conserve fuel can quickly exceed the cost apparent that controlling corrosion, can reduce costs. Any
of recoating. effective corrosion preventive measures that can be ap-
A VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier) operating at a plied when the vessel is built, or installed at regular visits
reduced speed of 13 knots can consume more than to a shipyard necessitated by regulatory bodies (such as
$700,000 in extra (wasted) fuel during a 30-month drydock American Bureau of Shipping’s Survey Requirements),
cycle because of drag caused by fouling. A typical 250,000 should prove economical. Section 45 “Surveys after Con-
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deadweight ton (dwt) tanker, with its hull freshly coated struction” of the “Rules for Building and Classing Steel
and smooth, will run at 13 knots with an output of approx- of the American Bureau of Shipping shows
imately 14,500 shaft horsepower (shp). A year later, 16,000 there are definite intervals during the life of a ship when it
shp will be required; by the end of two years 20,000 shp is must undergo inspection for corrosion damage. Some
required, and by 30 months the required shp will have gone special surveys normally take a ship out of service for
over 21,000 - an increase of almost 30 percent. Operated several days. This is an opportune time to consider corro-
at full power to hold schedules, the same tanker will start sion prevention.
running close to 17 knots, drop to 16 knots after one year, High dollar value for a ship’s availability requires a
15 knots after two years and finally, struggle along after 30 ship owner to study the total economics of corrosion pro-
months at 14.5 knots - with its engines developing full tection with performance requirements and cost of in-
shp. Drastic increases in fuel consumption require vessel stallation compared with dollar returns. For high grade
operators either to shorten the drydock cycle or to resort to coatings there is usually a higher grade surface prepara-
interim hull maintenance, such as underwater cleaning to tion required, which normally translates into time.
reduce hull drag caused by fouling. The optimum time for coatings and other corrosion
In addition to the general difficulties presented by preventive measures is during construction. All areas of
ships’ operational schedules, marine coatings must have the vessel are more accessible at that time (Figures 1 and
many specific resistances. Even though areas on ships dif- 2). During construction, conditions are more suitable for
fer greatly, the following conditions are among those that surface preparation and coating than at any other time
cause the most trouble: during a ship’s service life. Maintenance planning should
begin during design and be incorporated into construction.
1. Presence of salt water, an excellent electrolyte for At this time a vessel owner should establish a tentative
the promotion of corrosion. hull preservation and maintenance program.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 2 . 0 93 8b27940 0003742 302 =
ized on a larger scale by repair yards, but problems with
pollution arise because of regulations against foreign mat-
ter being dumped into the water. The cost of surface
preparation is increasing rapidly, partly due to these
restrictions and regulations.
1. Abrasive Blasting
Automatic blasting is an airless blasting tech-
nique (Figure 3) using a rotating wheel to throw
abrasives at a surface at a high speed with great
force. Abrasives normally used, steel shot andlor
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grit, are recycled. The initial cost of abrasives is

high, but recycling reduces the quantity per
square foot of blasted surface, which makes their
use viable and economic. The efficiency and ef-
fectiveness of this type of blasting is well
FIGURE 1
documented. It is used by most new construction
Unit Construction of Ship.
Courtesy: Bethlehem Steel Corp. yards for preparing plates and shapes prior to
assembly. Mill scale, rust scale and rust are
primary contaminants that must be removed.
C. SURFACE PREPARATION Most new construction yards using this
method for initial cleaning of plates and shapes
The effective life of any coating system depends on
apply a primer immediately after blasting, usually
the condition of the surface to which it is applied. The sur-
a pre-construction or after-blasting primer. This
face preparation required may vary depending on the
maintains the condition of the blasted surface
severity of service to which it will be subjected and the
during fabrication of units prior to application of
type of coatings applied.
specified coating systems.
In an environment with any degree of aggressiveness,
Portable closed-cycle blasting machines for
the higher the degree of surface preparation the longer the
cleaning hulls and decks are available (Figures 4,
expected coating life.
5 and 6). Their importance increases as regula-
Surface preparation is so important and diversified
tions against use of open air blasting become
that it is examined in several chapters of this volume. Stan-
more prevalent.
dards for surface preparation have been developed by Small parts can be cleaned very efficiently
several organizations. The most widely used, particularly
and economically in closed cycle blasting
in the marine industry, are the Steel Structures Painting
cabinets by one person. These cabinets are
Council (SSPC) Specifications, which describe re-
available in a variety of sizes and capacities.
quirements for surface preparation from hand cleaning to
abrasive blasting. Abrasive blasting specifications have 2. Nozzle Type Blasting
been supplemented by pictorial standards, such as the This method (Figure 7) utilizes air to impart
Swedish Standards. Other pictorial standards are found in kinetic energy to the abrasive particles and is the
a publication offered by the Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineersc3). The National Association of Cor-
rosion Engineers also has standards for abrasive blasted
steel.
Abrasive blasting is the primary method used by
shipyards for surface preparation. Blasting results in the
required degree of surface cleanliness and surface profile
with the greatest economy on large areas. For small areas,
power or hand tool cleaning is generally accepted and is
the most economically feasible.
In repair yards, high pressure water jetting is used for
removing fouling and loose paint from underwater hulls
and for cleaning heavily scaled surfaces.
Environmental regulations have an’impact on surface
preparation. Open air blasting is being scrutinized
because of dust and health hazards associated with
abrasives containing free silica or similar material.
FIGURE 2
Closed cycle blasting machines have been developed Unit Construction of Ships.
for cleaning hulls and decks. Water blasting is being util- Courtesy: Bethlehem Steel Corp.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U L 2 . 0 73 8627940 0003743 247
FIGURE 3
A Typical “Pre-Fabrication” Structural Steel Cleaning Machine.
Courtesy: Wheelabrator-Frye Co.
most common and widely used method of clean- preparation requirements in tanks and on ships
ing in shipyards. Because of the large surfaces to requiring recoating in drydock and to make other
be cleaned, it is the fastest and most economical shipyard repairs.
method for field cleaning. In new construction 3. High Pressure Water Cleaning
yards, initial coatings are applied in the modular High pressure water cleaning has been extensive-
stage. Except for yards that have large facilities ly used as a cleaning method for existing paint
for centrifugally blasting modular units, nozzle systems to remove haunches (barnacle roots),
blast cleaning is used. Most of this is done in an weed growth, loose paint flakes etc. The pressure
enclosed area where conditions can be controlled required for this work does not usually exceed
(Figure 8). Buildings in a number of yards have in- 137.9 to 206.8 bar (2000 to 3000 Ib1in2). High
stalled recycling systems, using steel grit, which pressure water cleaning can be used, however, to
provide a white metal finish with pressure up to
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falls through grated floors and is reclaimed just

as in the closed cycle blasting machines. 689.5 bar (10,000Ib1in2).A suitable mechanism in-
Other yards use mineral abrasives for jects fine grit of 3001400 mesh to create a slurry.
blasting in blast and paint facilities. There is nor- This system can also be used to dose the blasting
mally no recycling of these abrasives; therefore, water with suitable chemical inhibitors that
vacuum systems andlor manual disposal is re- passivates the cleaned steel surface until coating
quired. can commence or to “feed in” detergent to
What is a viable and cost effective method enhance chemical cleaning.
for one yard may not be for another because of High pressure water blasting minimizes
capital outlay, space allocation, climatic condi- health hazards, material costs and the need to
tions, etc. remove blasting media. One advantage is the
Nozzle blasting is used to meet surface complete removal of all residual salts from pitted

296
at 303-397-2295.
vantages over electric tools. Some of the advan-
tages are:
a. More power per pound; air-powered abrasive
tools are lighter, smaller and easier to handle
than electric tools;
b. No overheating;
c. Low maintenance requirements.
Basic types of hand power tools used in the
shipbuilding industry are abrasive wheels of
various sizes and shapes, scalers and. chisels.
For description of types, maintenance and
use of hand tools, see the Steel Structures Paint-
ing Council Manual, Volume 1, and the “Catalog
of Existing Small Tools. for Surface Preparation
and Support Equipment for Blasters and
Painters”, prepared under a research project
sponsored by the National Shipbulding Research
Program(8’.
FIGURE 4
Por.table Ship Deck Cleaning System.
steel. Failure to remove contaminants, such as

chlorides and sulphates, is one of the main fac-
tors that cause premature breakdown of paint
systems.
Water blasting can be a relatively cheap and
effective method for the removal of:
a. exhausted anti-fouling composition;
b. loosely adherent paint, rust and marine fouling;
c. included residual salts;
d. calcareous deposits caused by cathodic pro-
tection.
4. Hand and Power Tool Cleaning
To supplement abrasive blast cleaning for small
areas and areas where abrasive cleaning cannot
be used, hand and power tool cleaning are used.
Power tool cleaning is the most widely used
method in commercial shipyards. Most yards use
air-powered abrasive tools because of certain ad-
FIGURE 6
Portable Ship Hull-Side Cleaning System.
D. SURFACE TREATMENT
There are times when surface treatments are used on
steel and other metals. When steel is cleaned using water,
such as in hydroblasting, wet abrasive blasting or
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chemical cleaning, it must be inhibited to prevent flash

rusting. Inhibitors are introduced at the time of cleaning or
are an integral step in a sequence, such as in a chemical
cleaning. Inhibitors must be compatible with the coating.
Volume 1 of the Steel Structures Painting Manual provides
FIGURE 5
Portable Ship Hull-Bottom Cleaning System. much information on chemical surface treatments. A
Official U.S. Navy Photograph washcoat primer (Navy Formula 117, Military Specifica-

297
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SSPC CHAPTER*L2-0 93 8627740 0003745 O11 W
leaching out of the anti-fouling paint. Contact with steel,

because of poor barrier coatings, can cause inactivation of
the paint. Barrier coats must be highly impervious to
water. An excellent discussion on inactivation of anti-
fouling paints appears in “Marine Fouling and Its Preven-
tion‘4’.
Except in the presence of abnormal harbor pollution
and chemical wastes, the rate of steel corrosion in sea
water is approximately 75 to 150 microns per year. Anti-
corrosive coatings should be capable of protecting the
steel of a ship’s hull from attack by sea water and be inert
to normal pollution.
Abrasion resistance can be of considerable impor-
tance, depending on the type of ship, ports of call, etc.
When deep ships serve port areas with insufficient water,
the wearing away of bottom coating systems can result.
Consideration must be given to ports of call, time spent in
port, time between drydocking and how these conditions
will affect the underwater system.
A. UNDERWATER HULL
Underwater coatings, in addition to having anti-
fouling capability, should have good corrosion resistance,
FIGURE 7 provide adequate abrasion resistance and good service
Abrasive Blasting Under Controlled Conditions. life.
Courtesy: Bethlehem Steel Corp.
Ship bottom coating consists of an anti-corrosive
coating and anti-fouling paint. When an underwater
tion, MIL-P-15328, although of diminished importance, is system fails prematurely, it is because of corrosion and
still used on aluminum and galvanized surfaces of ships the breakdown of the anti-corrosive barrier.
as a bond coat for subsequent coatings. 1. Coating Systems
The most widely used underwater systems are
111. COATING THE SHIP conventional bottom systems, consisting of an
aluminum barrier coat with a copper oxide toxic in
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When ships were erected plate by plate, surface

a bituminous resin-rosin anti-fouling matrix.
preparation and coating were done after erection. Now,
These systems are easy to apply and do not re-
plates and shapes are normally abrasive blasted prior to
quire stringent surface preparation. They are eas-
assembly of block sections, which are units that may
ily repaired and maintained. They are also the
weigh 200 tons or more. Part or all of the specified coating
least expensive but provide acceptable quality.
system are applied before erection except for butts and
Life expectancies on initial application under
seams, which are left bare for welding. Coatings, in many
good conditions should be about 18 to 24 months.
cases, are applied under roof, permitting application over
Repairs and renewals should give 12 to 18 months
properly prepared surfaces with optimum temperature and
between drydockings. Conventional systems are
humidity (Figure 9).
a softer film material than the high performance
Many large ships are built today in building basins
systems and erode faster. Therefore, service con-
(Figure 10). Because of the construction sequences the
ditions and drydocking periods may dictate high
units are erected on permanent blocks. It is therefore
necessary to apply a complete underwater system prior to performance systems, which have higher initial
placing the units on the erection blocks. This includes the
anti-fouling paints. Many of these ships are not drydocked
prior to delivery because of size; therefore, the complete
anti-fouling system must be applied early in construction.
The effectiveness of the modern anti-fouling coatings is
not deterred by this long exposure to the atmosphere prior
to being placed in the water.
There is a severe galvanic corrosion burden on the
anti-corrosive, particularly when copper-based anti-fouling
FIGURE 8
paints are used. The anti-corrosive must be a good enough Unit In Building Being Prepared for Blasting and Coating.
barrier to prevent attack on the steel by copper ions Courtesy: Bethlehem Steel Corp.

298
at 303-397-2295.
~
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 2 = 0 73 H 8627740 0 0 0 3 7 4 b T58
great. (For recommended underwater hull

systems see Table I.)
2. Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection supplements the protection
against corrosion provided by underwater
coatings. Where coatings are damaged and bare
steel is exposed, cathodic protection will alleviate
corrosion and avoid renewals due to corrosion.
Properly designed and installed anode systems
reduce steel waste to 30 percent or less of that ex-
perienced in unprotected structures in salt
waterC5).Service histories also show that pitting is
effectively arrested.
The need for cathodic protection should be
FIGURE 9 established through careful study of corrosion ex-
Ship Construction in Building Basin. perience. For existing vessels, corrosion effects
may be assessed by inspectors or repair
superintendents. Newly built vessels, or those in
design, may have an anode scheme as part of the
cost but could be more cost effective.
corrosion-control program. For exterior hull pro-
Systems specified for the majority of new
tection, impressed current protection systems are
construction, particularly tankers, LNG’s and high
frequently used on new construction. These
speed ships, are chlorinated rubber, epoxy barrier
systems, which require an external source of
coats with various resin anti-foulings and high-
direct current and some means of regulating the
build vinyl systems. These coatings provide high-
current, can, with a minimum number of anodes,
build (> 250 microns) and long life.
provide full underwater hull protection. Sacrificial
To keep ships out of drydock for longer
anodes, such as zinc, magnesium or aluminum,
periods harder anti-foulings are used, which can
can be used to give stern protection. There are a
be cleaned by scrubbing while still in the water
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number of good publications on cathodic protec-

(Figure 11). It is costly to take a vessel out of serv-
t ions(5’.
ice, drydock it and refinish the bottom; and if this
operation can be postponed or delayed, it can
B. SHIPBOTTOM MAINTENANCE PAINTING
represent substantial savings. Once a bottom has
been scrubbed, however, it must be closely Ships are seldom drydocked for painting alone. A
monitored for recurrence of fouling, since scrub- glance at the American Bureau of Shipping’s survey re-
bing tends to reduce the effectiveness of the requirements‘*) suggests some work that may have to be
maining anti-fouling coating. done in drydock. The time can vary from a few hours on a
The selection of anti-fouling paint is gov- rudder or sea chest to several weeks burning, welding and
erned more by the time a ship spends at piers than riveting to replace corroded or damaged plates.
by the severity of fouling in the waters. It is rare to Shipowners traditionally had been more concerned
see an active tanker fouled because its turn
around time is so short. Ships that spend much
time in port, particularly in heavy fouling areas,
should use a high-grade, anti-fouling paint.
Copper toxics, such as cuprous oxide, are
still the major anti-fouling ingredients used.
Organo-metallics, such as organotin compounds,
are used as toxics, by themselves and in combina-
tion with copper compounds. A combination
system may give better overall protection from
shell fouling and grass than only one ingredient.
There are other methods of preventing foul-
ing, such as through the use of polymer com-
pounds with varying properties. These are being
brought into the market and may, in the long run,
offer great advantages by producing a smoother FIGURE 10
hull, through a self-polishing action over long Underwater Cleaning of Ships Hulls.
periods. The potentials for fuel savings could be Courtesy: Jotun-Baltimore Copper

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x L 2 . 0 93 8627940 0003747 994
TABLE I
~ ~ ~~~~~
TYPICAL SHIPBOTTOM PAINTING SYSTEMS
Surface Prepa- Paint Designation, Number of Coats
ration New and Film Thickness Application
Construction Anti-corrosive Anti-fouling Repainting Procedure Equipment
Bituminous. Abrasive Blast to Aluminum Barrier Rosin Base, Cuprous’Fresh Water wash, spot Spray recommended,
Aluminum . SSPC-SP 10, “Near- coal - 2 coats Oxide Toxic - 2 blast or power tool may be rolled.
Pigmented White” a 1 7 5 Microns coats @75 Microns clean bad areas.
MDFT“ MDFT
Vinyl Abrasive Blast to Vinyl Barrier Vinyl-Rosin Base ‘Fresh Water wash, spot Spray recommended,
SSPC-SP 10, “Near- High Build 3 2 coats @IO0 blast bad areas small areas can be
White” coats a200 Microns. Toxic rolled or brushed
Microns M D F l usually Cuprous
Oxide
EPOXY Abrasive Blast to Epoxy Barrier Vinyl Anti-fouling ‘Fresh Water wash, spot Epoxy-Airless Spray
Polyamide SSPC-SP 10, “Near- 2 coats a 2 0 0 2 coats a 1 0 0 blast bad areas, step back recommended-anti-
White” Microns MDFT Microns anti-fouling in way of fouling spray - small
repair. areas can be rolled.
Chlorinated Abrasive Blast to Chlorinated Chlorinated Rubber ‘Fresh Water wash, spot Airless Spray rec-
Rubber SSPC-SP 10, “Near- Rubber Barrier anti-fouling 2 coats blast bad areas. ommended, small
White” 3 coats @225 a 1 0 0 Microns MDFT areas can be rolled.
Microns MDFT
Coal Tar Abrasive Blast to Coat Tar Epoxy Vinyl Anti-fouling - *Fresh Water wash, spot Airless Spray rec-
EPOXY SSPC-SP 10, “Near- 2 coats @400 2 coats blast bad areas, step ommended for epoxy
White” Microns MDFT a 1 0 0 Microns back anti-fouling in spray anti-fouling,
way of repair. small areas can be
rolled.
Flakeglass Abrasive Blast to Flakeglass Vinyl or ‘Fresh Water wash, spot Spray recommended -
Epoxy or SSPC-SP 10, “Near- Barrier 1 or Chlorinated blast bad areas, step anti-fouling may be
Polyester White” 2 coats Q Rubber AF - back anti-fouling in applied by roller.
625 Microns 2 coats a 1 0 0 way of repair.
MDFT Microns
‘Prior to recoating, remove oil, grease, salts and other surface contaminants.
*‘Twenty-five microns = 1 mil.
with the structural integrity of the hull and the proper func- cies, and a qualified field representative is as-
tioning of valves, propellers and rudders than the applica- signed t o the job. The representative should be
tion of bottom paints. However, the increasing cost of fuel aware of the ship’s recent painting history and
has made owners aware that modern coatings can make a what can be expected on inspection of the bot-
significant contribution to fuel savings. Nevertheless, the tom. He should be fully advised of the shipowner’s
coatings specialist sometimes encounters opposition or wishes and given alternate procedures if inspec-
indifference at the shipyard. To combat this the following tion reveals a different situation than originally
procedures are suggested. contemplated. The owner should, in the mean-
1. General Agreement time, negotiate with the shipyard and advise them
Upon receipt of notice from a shipowner that a of the work he wants done as well as broad paint-
vessel is due to drydock, the ship’s painting ing plans. It is usually advisable to wait until the
history should be reviewed and a general ship has been inspected before writing detailed
understanding reached with the owner as to painting specifications.
whether the boottop and topsides, as well as the 2. Inspection of the Ship
bottom, are to be painted. It is advisable to come The owner’s port engineer, a yard paint super-
to an agreement about the type of paint to be used visor, the yard’s ship superintendent and a paint
and surface preparation required for successful company representative make the inspection so
paint performance. This is contingent on the they can agree on the work and the time required.
ship’s availability and the condition of the bottom. 3. Specifications
Arrangements are made for delivery of Members of the inspection party should confer to
enough paint to cover all reasonable contingen-
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300
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SSPC CHAPTER*L2.0 93 m 8627740 0003748 820 m
FIGURE 11
Condition of Underwater Hull After Service.
~ ~~ ~~
write the surface preparation and painting pro- signature. Should future events, such as rain,
cedures. threaten successful completion of the work, it is
The paint company, advised of the owner’s in- important that all concerned be advised so the
structions, outlines the surface preparation and best alternate procedure can be determined.
painting schedule. A yard paint foreman, familiar Many ship repair jobs involve complicated
with manpower and equipment availability, com- and tight schedules. It is here that an experienced
ments on whether the work outlined by the paint paint person is valuable. He knows how to ex-
company is possible. The ship superintendent, pedite surface preparation and painting pro-
the person ultimately responsible for completion cedures without subjecting the ship to serious
of the work, presents plans for scheduling the corrosion or fouling between now and the next
paint program and all other work that may be af- scheduled drydocking. Good painting specifica-
fected by it, or that may affect the painting and tions depend on the owner’s willingness to pay for
surface preparation. good work and on the paint person’s knowledge of
If there are no complications and the paint products.
program complies with instructions, the port The most important factors in successfully
engineer will usually ask the paint company carrying out painting specifications are:
representative t o write specifications for An adequate number of trained and conscien-
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 2 - 0 9 3 8627940 0003749 767
TABLE 2
TYPICAL BOOTTOP & TOPSIDE PAINTING SYSTEMS
Surface Prepa- Paint Designation, Number of coats
ration New and Film Thickness Application
Type of Paint Construction Primer Top Coats Repainting Procedure Equipment
Chlorinated Abrasive Blast to "Inorganic Zinc Chlorinated Rubber Wash and remove contaminants. Airless spray pre-
Rubber SSPC-SP 10, "Near- Silicate - One Two Coats Q 125 Abrasive blast or power tool ferred - air spray
White Metal" Coat Q 62.5 Microns MDFT clean damaged or failed can be used also
Microns MDFT areas. Touch up using same roller and brush
system as applied during for small areas.
Chlorinated Rubber Chlorinated Rubber construction,
wllnhibitive Pig- Two Coats Q150
ment - One Coat Microns MDFT
@50 Microns MDFT
EPOXY Abrasive Blast to "Inorganic Zinc EPOXY- TWO Wash and remove contaminants. Airless or air
Polyamide SSPC-SP10. "Near- Silicate - One Coats @ 125 Abrasive blast or power tool spray preferred -
White Metal" Coat Q 50 Microns MDFT clean damaged or failed areas. roller or brush
Microns MDFT Where overcoating epoxy can be used for
roughen edges to accept new small areas.
Epoxy Primer wl Epoxy - Two Coats epoxy. Touch up using same
Inhibitive Primer Q 150 Microns system AC applied during
One coat 50 MDFT construction.
Microns MDFT
Vinyl Abrasive Blast to "Inorganic Zinc Vinyl - Two Coats Wash and Remove contaminants. Airless spray pre-
(Including SSPC-SP 10, "Near- Silicate - One 6 1 5 0 Microns MDFTAbrasive blast or power tool ferred. Air spray
Vinyl White Metal" Coat Q62.5 or clean damaged or failed areas. can be used -
Acrylic) Micron MDFT' Vinyl Hi-Build One Touch up using same system as Brush may be used
Coat a100 Microns applied during construction. for small areas.
Vinyl Primer wl + One Coat Vinyl
Inhibitive Pig- Acrylic Q50
ment - One Coat Microns MDFT
Q 50 Microns Vinyl - Two
MDFT" Coats Hi-Build Q
200 Microns MDFT
For Topside Areas Wash and remove contaminants. Air spray pre-
on ships wlfairly Abrasive blast or power to01 ferred. Brush
fixed load lines clean damaged or failed areas. or roller may be
alkyd topcoats can used.
be used over a
zinc rich primer
with a compatible
tie coat. Two
coats alkyd top
coat @ 100
Microns MDFT
OThe inorganic as primer is the preferred system.

'Tie coat may be required with some vinyl materials,
"Wash primer should be used as initial coat with some vinyl materials.
tous supervisors to cover all shifts. The yard wire brushes or disc grinder.
(and the shipowner) should insist that the Good equipment also means providing good
manufacturer of a new type of paint have a light under the flat bottom of a ship on drydock.
representative present until the yard painters Most important, it means providing good staging
are taught the proper methods of application. or other means of getting surface cleaners and
Availability of good equipment for surface painters close to the work.
preparation and painting. This includes spray- 4. The Painting Report
ing equipment, roller coaters, brushes, abrasive Most shipowners and paint companies require
blasting machines, power scaling tools, power representatives to write a report of the paint job.
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302
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 2 - 0 93 8627940 0003750 4 8 9 m
Variations from specifications should be noted. usually done during general scheduled
Compromises are necessary, but it is important maintenance or, for a passenger liner, during
for the shipowner and the paint company to know dress-up prior to a cruise. Where the job is done is
whether subsequent failures were caused by im- usually determined by the time the ship is in
proper cleaning or application, or by inadequate drydock andlor the yard schedules.
paint. Organizing, planning, inspection and report-
ing will be similar to that for underwater hulls.
C. LIGHT LOAD LINEIRAIL D. STEEL DECKS

Most experts agree that alternate immersion is a more A good weather deck coating system starts with
severe service for coatings than continuous immersion. SSPC-SP 10, “near-white” blast followed by a coat of in-
The hull, from the light load or ballast lines to the rail organic zinc. This is the basis of the system. Except for at-
areas, are subject to salt water (both immersion and tack by stack gases, certain cargo spillage and being slip-
spray), sunlight, ice, etc. They are also subject to abrasion pery when wet, the inorganic zinc could be a good weather
from piers, tugs, lighters, etc. and pollutants, such as oil or deck coating. Therefore, for non-skid purposes and protec-
chemicals floating on water. tion against certain aggressive environments, zinc is over-
1. Boottop coated with materials such as chlorinated rubber, vinyl or
The boottop, the area from the light or ballast line epoxy. The non-skid additive may be incorporated into the
to the deep load line, is subject to conditions of final coat.
alternate immersion on all ships. The deep load Decks subject to heavy-duty traffic such as fork
line to rail is subject to these conditions on cargo trucks, wheeled vehicles, etc., require a heavy duty coating
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runs of tankers and freighters. Coating systems system. These coatings are applied over an inhibitive
used on the hull are normally the same for both primer. The normal makeup of heavy duty decking
areas on these types of ships. The only difference materials is a nonskid additive incorporated into
is that some owners specify an overcoating of pigmented epoxy or urethane resin matrix. These coatings
anti-fouling as a grass deterrent. Ships with more are normally applied to approximately 450 microns dry film
fixed load-lines, such as passenger ships, do not thickness.
require high performance coatings for the top- Interior decks receive a number of different materials.
side. Table 2 presents some information on the Wet spaces, such as toilets, showers, laundries, lockers
type of systems generally used for the boottop used to store cleaning gear, etc., normally have a
and topside. monolithic decking such as terrazzo, latex mastic or, for
Zinc-rich coatings, particularly inorganic zinc passenger spaces, ceramic tile. The decks in galleys,
silicates, are the base coat for most systems. Use which are also wet spaces, are normally quarry tile for non-
of a zinc primer can be very expeditious and skid and cleaning purposes.
economical. After block assemblies are com- A guide to various deck coverings and preparation is
pleted and ready for coating, a coat of zinc-rich published by the Society of Naval Architects and Marine
primer is applied. This provides an optimum corro- Engineers Technical and Research Bulletin 4-1lr7) and
sion protection during vessel erection. Zinc should be consulted.
coatings, particularly inorganic zinc, have ex-
cellent abrasion resistance and minimum burn- E. SUPERSTRUCTURE, MASTS, BOOMS, DECK
back from welding or burning. MACHINERY, ETC.
Where damage occurs, the surface is These areas in the past were maintained by the crew;
repaired and a coat of zinc can easily be applied however, with a reduced labor force and union and safety
for repairs. After erection and touch-up, zinc can regulations, this is now less common. To keep a better
be overcoated with a specified topcoat. A looking ship, many owners require a high-grade coating
drawback is that on weathering, salts will form on system. This is initially established during construction.
zinc coatings. This can diminish topcoat adhe- The surface is prepared to an SSPC-SP 10, “near-white”
sion, since zinc coatings are porous and will ab- and in most cases a coat of inorganic zinc silicate is ap-
sorb dirt and oil. Prudent care and planning plied.
should be followed to ensure removal of salts and Topcoats applied are those that have a history of long
contaminants prior to overcoating. life, withstand salt atmosphere and industrial air pollution,
2. Hull Coating Maintenance and maintain good color.
The first question t o be considered i n Failure in these areas usually occurs on sharp edges,
maintenance painting is where it should be done, rough welds and inaccessible places, such as behind
in drydock or while the ship is in water. A ship is pipes, conduits and hangers.
not drydocked exclusively for boottop and Usually, failures appear more seriously corroded than
freeboard painting; therefore, it is an item that is they actually are, because a small pinpoint of actual rust
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*12.0 93 Bb279LiO 0 0 0 3 7 5 1 31.5
will evolve into a large area of rust bleed. Even with a zinc blasting cannot be used. Power tool cleaning is
silicate primer, these conditions will prevail, although the tedious and time consuming. Chemical cleaning
amount is dim in ished. and high-pressure water jetting can clean such
Materials most used as topcoats in new construction surfaces more thoroughly and efficiently.
are high grade alkyds, silicone alkyds, chlorinated rubbers, Usually steel in older ships is corroded and
epoxies, vinyls and vinyl acrylics. If inorganic zinc is the pitted. Removal of old paint and scale along with
base coat, compatibility must be considered, and proper grease, oil, etc. offers a fair substrate to apply a
barrier coats and tie coats should be specified. For exam- paint system. However, systems must be very
ple, alkyds cannot be applied directly over zinc-rich forgiving to surface preparations.
coatings; therefore, a tie coat should be used. Some systems, such as epoxies, are being
Many smaller craft built today and older ships con- applied to surfaces prepared as above. The suc-
structed without inorganic zinc as the base coat require in- cess has been mixed, but technology is improv-
hibitive primers to prevent or reduce corrosion. The stan- ing.
dards in the past for the marine industry, for the areas 3. Tanks
under discussion, were red lead and zinc chromate. These Coating liquid cargo tanks is beyond the scope of
are still used to a great extent, but safety, health and air this chapter. It is a very complex subject with
pollution requirements are forcing a search for other in- many ramifications, dependent on the type and
hibitive pigments. Studies are being conducted by coating variety of cargoes carried, ballast, temperatures,
manufacturers and pigment companies to find suitable and product purity requirements.
replacements. The majority of today’s tankage is taken up
Coating systems for all exterior areas may be found in with petroleum products. These can be divided in-
the SNAME Technical and Research Bulletin 4-1518). to categories such as clean cargoes (gasoline, jet
fuels, solvents, kerosene, etc.) and dirty cargoes
F. INTERIORS (bunkers, heavy fuel, crudes, asphalt, etc.).
1. Living Areas
The basic premise for tank coating is that
steel must be cleaned to at least SSPC-SP 10,
Painting of living areas in modern vessels is
“Near-White Blast Cleaning”.
generally minimal. The steel is primed for corro-
Some petroleum products are very ag-
sion protection and cleanliness, but steel sur-
gressive and attack steel substrates and weak
faces normally are covered with insulation and
coatings rapidly. To protect steel or, where
fireproof board faced with decorative veneers.
necessary, to protect cargoes from contamina-
Where painted steel surfaces are used, gloss
materials are recommended for washability. tion, the integrity of the coating system must be
good. To ensure success, the coating system
2. Machinery Spaces
must be appropriate for the service required; the
Machinery spaces above the bilge areas are
surface preparation and cleaning must be as
primed with an inhibitive pigmented material such
specified; and the application equipment, tech-
as an alkyd. This primer is topcoated with an
niques and conditions under which the coating is
alkyd gloss or semi-gloss enamel. Topcoats
applied must be as close to optimum as possible.
should have good oil and moderate heat
Control of humidity and temperature (air and
resistance, and if white, they should be non-
steel) is very important. Proper curing time of the
yellowing.
coating, before being subjected to any service,
Machinery is factory finished; or, if required
should be considered.
for special color, a machinery enamel, usually an
The coating systems most widely used for
alkyd type, is applied over factory applied
coating cargo tanks are:
coatings. Surfaces above 125°F (52°C) normally
are coated with a heat-resistant aluminum. Epoxy
Bilge areas and below deck plates, are sub- Amine cured
ject to standing water, oil, steam, etc. Corrosion Ketimine cured
in these areas can be severe; therefore, a high per- Amine Adduct cured
formance coating system, such as an epoxy or in- Polyamide
organic zinc silicate, should be applied. Inorganic Zinc Silicates
Ships built prior to the era of high perform- Water Base
ance coatings have been coated with red lead Solvent Base
primers and phenolic type topcoats. These paints Urethanes
will have to be maintained, normally with hand Urethane Modified Epoxies
cleaning and touch-up with primers plus top coats Phenolic Modified Epoxies
to damaged and failed areas. Surface preparation Selection of a proper coating system is very
in bilges is very difficult because abrasive important, and its resistance to cargoes should
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S S P C CHAPTER*12.0 93 m 8627940 0003752 251 m
be known. Selective coating systems that have remove all loose scale, old loose paint and salts.
performed to some criteria gives an experience Non-oxidizing, lanolin base, oil-type or pigmented
factor. For example, coatings qualified under hydrocarbon resin materials can be applied to
Military Specif icat ian MIL-P-23236“Paint Coating rusted surfaces. Such coating systems will not
Systems, Steel Ship Tank, Fuel and Salt Water have the life expectancy of a properly applied
Ballast” have met a test requirement. epoxy or inorganic zinc system applied over a well
(a) Potable Wafer prepared surface, but a cost effective study could
show the economic feasibility of using such a
The coating system most widely used in potable
system. Oil-type materials that contain inhibitors
water tanks is a two-coat application of a zinc
dust paint. The vehicle is an alkyd-phenolic. Perti- can be spray-applied for the initial application and
nent government specifications for this type of when required can be renewed by the flotation
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material is MIL-P-15145, Zinc Dust Pigmented process. (This is in development status and the
method is still being evaluated.)
Enamel, Fresh Water Tank Protective, Formula
102. A zinc-dust enamel applied over steel cleaned (c) Peak Tanks
to SSPC-SPIO, “Near-White Blast” can be ex- Peak tanks in ships are in a confined area
pected to give a minimum of two years life without cluttered with internal structural members.
repair. Coatings are difficult to apply in these areas, and
Longer life systems such as epoxies, epoxy abrasive blasting is very hazardous. Ships built
phenolics, etc., are being specified, particularly prior to the block construction era usually were
on new construction. Care must be taken to apply coated with asphalt emulsion applied over hand
and mix them properly to preclude any taste being cleaned steel. With the new construction
imparted to the water. methods, units that make up an area, such as a
All coatings used for potable water service peak tank, are more accessible. Better surface
must be approved by the United States Public preparation can be used and higher grade coating
Health Service. systems applied. Peaks are sometimes used for
ballast on tankers and for other types of ships.
(b) Ballast Tanks
Owners are specifying epoxy systems or in-
Ballasting with sea water is a very important part
organic zinc silicates. After erection, because of
of a ship’s operation. Tanks are used to maintain
the configuration of these spaces, abrasive
stability and seaworthiness during certain
blasting to clean erection welds and damaged
voyages. Some tanks are used exclusively for
areas is not possible. Touch-up must be done over
ballast and carry only sea water. Others may be
power tool cleaned surfaces. The life of the
cargolballast tanks that will carry cargo on one
coating in these areas is less than that of a
leg of a voyage and ballast on another.
coating over an abrasive blasted surface, and
The time in ballast has some bearing on the
failures occur more readily under these condi-
coating system used. On new construction the
tions. A coating system for these areas should be
most widely used coatings are epoxy tank coating
tolerant to a lesser degree of surface preparation.
systems applied at a minimum of 200 microns.
Under certain conditions where a ship, such as a (d) Cargo Holds
tanker, may not be in ballast more than 28 to 30 For general dry cargo spaces, requirements for
days consecutively and the same amount of time corrosion control are not particularly stringent. An
out of ballast, consideration can be given to an in- inhibitive primer applied over a surface cleaned to
organic zinc silicate, water base, applied to 125 a good “commercial” blast (SSPC-SP 6) is suffi-
microns. cient. The primer is overcoated with a light col-
In tanks where liquid cargoes as well as ored enamel for light reflectance. Aluminum
ballast are carried, the coating system should pigmented topcoats are preferable for these
be inert to the cargo and the water. The combina- areas.
tion of cargo and sea water will sometimes Holds designed to carry coal, sulfur,
give different conditions than when service is phosphate rock, etc. but not ballast, frequently
for4iquid cargo or ballast exclusively. are not coated, at least not in the lower regions
For older ships that have been in service for subject to heavy abrasion from discharging equip-
years and tank coatings have failed or were never ment. If a coating is required, it should be a
coated, preparation of the surface to a ‘hear- material with good acid andlor alkali resistance
white” is very expensive. Therefore, a coating that and good abrasion resistance. Epoxy type
can be applied over rust or old paint is beneficial. coatings lend themselves to these conditions.
There are a number of coating materials on the Coatings in upper areas of holds intended to carry
market that can be applied to a scale-free surface. grain make them easy to clean.
High pressure water blasting can be used to

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SSPC C H A P T E R a L Z - 0 9 3 W 8627940 0003753 198
(e) Cofferdams and Voids ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Cofferdams during construction are usually The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
coated twice with an inhibitive primer, such as chapter: Leon Birnbaum, T.A. Corboy, Hing Dear, Raymond P.
zinc chromate. A corrosion conscious owner Devoluy, Theodore Dowd, Richard Drisko, J.R. Foster, John F.
could apply a coat of inorganic zinc silicate or Montle, Benjamin Fultz; Dan Gelfer, D.W. Metzger, N.M. Miller, C.
Munger, Walter Radut, and William Wallace.
other zinc-rich coating. If applied properly, main-
tenance primer may never be needed.
Voids may be divided into two categories, ac-
cessible and inaccessible. Accessible voids are
treated the same as cofferdams. Inaccessible
voids that are welded watertight and airtight,
where boundaries are not exposed to sea or
standing water, do not require any preservative
treatment. Where inaccesible voids must be
coated on the inside, it is done through special
plugs by filling and draining. If these areas are ac-
cessible during construction, they may be coated
by spray prior to closure.
Miscellaneous spaces are normally coated
like other areas required to perform the same
service.
REFERENCES
IV. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND THE USE OF 1. “Your Ship and Its Maintenance”, J.C. Hempel Foundation,
1965.
COLOR TO PROMOTE SAFETY
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2. “Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels”, American
Paint solvents present a fire and explosion hazard. A Bureau of Shipping, Surveys after Construction, Section 45.
3. “Abrasive Blasting Guide for Aged or Coated Steel Surfaces”,
study of the flash points and explosion concentrations of Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Technical
various solvents‘6)reveals that some are more dangerous Bulletin 4-9, 1969.
than expected. The importance of scheduling hot work and 4. “Marine Fouling and Its Prevention”, US. Naval Institute, by
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, November 1952.
painting ship exteriors for maximum safety has been 5. “Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection for Marine Service”,
discussed. It should be noted that the space under the bot- Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Technical
tom of a large vessel sitting in a closely fitting drydock is and Research Report R-21, 1976.
6. “Table of Fire-Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids,
almost the equivalent of an interior space, particularly Gases and Volatile Solids”, National Fire Codes, National
when there is no wind. Fire Protection Assn., Vol. 111, Boston, Massachusetts, 1977.
The only safe way to apply paints with dangerous 7. “Marine Deck Covering Guide”, Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineers, Technical Research Bulletin 4-11, July
solvents in confined interiors is to supply enough air and 1969.
exhaust to maintain the solvent concentration well below 8. “Coating Systems Guide for Exterior Surfaces of Steel
the lower explosive limit. In addition, all sources of sparks Vessels”, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers,
Technical Research Bulletin 4-15, 1978.
and flames must be eliminated. No other trades should be 9. “Catalog of Existing Small Tools for Surface Preparation and
working in the area of the ship being painted. Support Equipment for Blasters and Painters”, National Ship-
OSHA recommends the use of certain colors to pro- building Research Program. U.S. Department of Commerce,
Maritime Administration, May, 1977.
mote safety. These should be adopted for shipboard use.
Red . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Fire Protection Equipment
Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazard-attention
Yellow . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caution-Physical Hazards
Green . . . . . . . . . . . . .Safety-First Aid
Blue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Caution
Purple . . . . . . . . . . . . .Radiation Hazards
Piping systems are frequently painted with bands of these
colors to assist in rapid identification of various systems
aboard.

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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 3 - 0 9 3 = Ab27940 0003754 O24
CHAPTER 13
PAINTING OF STEEL VESSELS FOR

FRESH WATER SERVICE
by
J. R. Foster
Inland waterways of the United States have been im- tanks, where they are used to carry liquids under pressure,
portant to the country’s rapid social, industrial and or where pressure is used to discharge the cargo. The deck
technological growth. They were the first exploration barge is a simple box hull with a heavy plated, well-
routes and determined paths used by settlers, who chose supported deck, and in some cases a cargo box enclosing
sites for communities. They became the transportation most of the deck area to contain the load it normally car-
and communication links of communities, so most of the ries. It is usually a little smaller than the hopper or tank
present great centers of population, production and barge, varying from 110 to 195 feet in length and 26 to 35
distribution owe their origins to these arteries. Today 38 feet in width, with capacities from 350 to 1,200 tons. Other,
states, with about 95% of the nation’s population, have more specialized barges include dredges, barges used for
commercial transportation services provided by vessels shipping liquefied natural gas, and tip-up timber carriers.
operating on rivers, canals, bays, sounds or lakes; and 131 Although each is classified as a towing vessel, the
of the 158 cities with populations of 100,000 or more are towboat and tugboat are vastly different, as is seen in
located on commercial navigation channels‘. Figures 3 and 4. The tug is smaller, has a shaped bottom
The earliest commercial use made of the river system contrasted to the towboat’s almost flat bottom, and is, in
was hauling coal from Pennsylvania to the Ohio and effect, an ocean-going vessel most frequently used in har-
Mississippi rivers in the late 1700s. The vessels were flat- bors, intracoastal canals and the open sea. For this reason
boats constructed of logs, borne by the current and guided the painting of tugs is not covered in this chapter, which
by long tillers. Since they were without power to travel deals with fresh water vessels.
against the current, trips were one way only and boats There are approximately 1,800 companies in commer-
were usually dismantled at their destinations and sold for cial operations on inland waterways. These firms operate
lumber. more than 17,000 dry cargo barges with a total capacity in
Steam power made its appearance on the rivers in the excess of 19 million tons, 3,400 tank barges with a total
early 19th century, and soon increased steel production capacity of 7 million tons and 4,300 towboats and tugs
prompted the use of boats and barges made from steel. with aggregate power in excess of 4.3 million horsepower’.
Commercial channels now make up more than 25,000 There has been no survey of the number of other
miles of navigable inland waterways plus 1,800 miles on vessels using inland waters, such as ferries and pleasure
the Great Lakes. craft, but painting recommended here can apply to them.
I. TYPES OF VESSELS II. CORROSION OF VESSELS

Most freight on these water routes is carried on barges Literature does not disclose amounts of corrosive
made from welded steel. They are large, floating boxes, damage to steel vessels operating on inland waterways,
unmanned and without self-propulsion, with drafts of 6 to but preventive efforts have been roughly inversely propor-
14 feet. Barges are moved in groups by towboats or tugs. tional to the quality of water where vessels operate. Qual-
The hopper barge, because of its single large cargo ity has been affected by Industry growth and mining ven-
space, is adaptable to a wide variety of loads and finds the tures in the vicinity. Poor waste disposal practices con-
greatest use of the several kinds employed. It may vary tributing corrosive substances to rivers cause accelerated
from 175 to 290 feet in length, 26 to 50 feet in width, with deterioration of steel hulls.
capacities from 1,000 to 3,000 tons. There was a period of 25 years after World War IIwhen
A typical covered hopper barge is shown in Figure 1. efforts to protect immersed surfaces were greatly in-
Liquid cargo or tank barges range in the same dimensions creased and new and effective coatings were developed
with capacities of 300,000 to 900,000 gallons. They may for this purpose.
be of single skin design, where the sheel of the barge is Realization of limitations of the environment to ab-
also the tank wall, or of double skin, with an inner shell sorb continued, unrestricted industrial development led
forming the tank, as in Figure 2. They may also take the to concerted efforts to reverse the trend of water quality
form of hopper barges carrying independent cylindrical decline. Results have been notable2, particularly in
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SSPC CHAPTER*L3-0 73 8627340 0003755 TbO =
FIGURE 1
Covered hopper barge. Covers roll awav to exoose carao cornDanment. - Courtesy of Dravo Corporation
streams fed by drainage from coal mines. Reduced acidity shallow water, causing serious abrasion to the leading
has diminished emphasis on prevention of hull corrosion edges and interior surfaces.
by coatings. There are many factors in surface condition and ex-
Corrosion on ships in the strictly fresh water of posure to consider in planning a coating system for steel
the Great Lakes is minimal. Many operators apply coatings to be used in or adjacent to inland water immersion.
on hulls for cosmetic purposes. The most serious corro- Among the most critical factors is the need to remove
sion is in areas where coal, salt or other chemicals accu- traces of mill scale, particularly from surfaces to be im-
mulate for long periods, retaining moisture, such as blind mersed. Although a tightly bonded intact layer of mill
areas on large decks. Good coating procedures can pre- scale can protect a bare steel substrate, it is not possible to
vent damage. fabricate steel plates into hulls and other vessels without
New coating systems are being tested and finding use producing cracks and discontinuities in the scale layer. If
in protection of steel in inland water service. At least one this type of surface is painted and subsequently damaged
company has met the problem of towboat hull corrosion by by scraping or scratching through the paint film, moisture
cladding the entire hull with stainless steel3. Many protec- will reach the metal surface, and mill scale will separate
tive requirements for boats and barges in fresh water can from the substrate, carrying with it any covering coats of
be met by coatings used for ships in salt water. paint. Under immersion conditions this failure may occur
Refer to Chapter 12 for further recommendations. even without mechanical damage because of the permea-
The cost of building river vessels has skyrocketed in bility of coatings. The likelihood of abrasion also is greater.
the past 20 years. While most vessels are amortized for 20 Proper blast cleaning prior to application can eliminate
years, their useful life is 25 to 35 years. During that period this.
many receive new hull side plates and some bottom plates. Another cause of paint breakdown is improperly
The majority of damage is due to exterior corrosion, the cleaned welds. The joining process leaves deposits of
most noticeable attack occurring at water line areas where slag, flux, fume and spatter granules that must be removed
variations in load, moisture and oxygen, and dissolved before painting. Usually, hand or power scraping or
species in water accelerate metal loss. See Figure 5. brushing accomplishes the required degree of cleanliness,
Abrasion against concrete lock walls is a serious but the best effect is achieved by power grinding, which
cause of paint removal and exposure of bare side metal to also smoothes ripples of the weld metal. Examples of poor
corrosive elements, just as scraping sand bars and and acceptable practice are indicated in Figures 7 and 8.
submerged rocks or other objects damages bottom plates Resistance to impact damage should be considered
and raked or square ends. when selecting coatings for river transportation service.
Many towboats on inland waterways are equipped Not only are hulls subject to collisions with docks, locks
with Kort nozzles, which are tube-like enclosures around and floating objects, but cargo compartments receive fre-
the propellors, designed to increase propulsive efficiency quent encounters with cranes, clamshell buckets and
(Figure 6). They cause propellors to behave like pumps, other loading equipment. Flexibility and good adhesion
and a considerable quantity of sand, gravel and debris are minimize damage.
driven through the nozzles, particularly when boats are in
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308
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 3 . 0 93 8627940 0003756 î T 7 m
The variety of liquid cargos transported in tank barges

requires Coatings to resist solvent and other chemical ex-
posures. Tank lining is the subject of another chapter;
coatings for tank exteriors, however, must stand up
against frequent cargo spills and splashes.
Interior surfaces of side compartments, rake and
square ends and void spaces between inner and outer bot-
toms are areas usually subjected to high humidity. Also,
splashes and spills from cargos may get to these loca-
tions, making them vulnerable to corrosive attack.
Coatings must prevent perforation from the back side,
which is less frequently observed.
Superstructures of towboats and barges require the
same attention as land-based steel structures, and prob-
ably receive more cleaning and scrubbing. Selected
coatings must resist chemical and abrasive action and
weathering. Surface preparation requirements are not
stringent for these surfaces, but coating adhesion must be
adequate.
FIGURE 3
Good design can prevent early corrosion of all types Typical tugboat at work in harbor. Generally smaller, with hull
of structures. The best vessel design is economical over lines different from a towboat.
Courtesy of Dravo Corporation
an extended period and minimizes maintenance. Diligent
efforts should be made to include design features such as automated blast cleaning and application of pre-
provision for complete drainage of fluids, smooth junc- construction primers to flat sheets and formed members
tions between adjoining members and elimination of prior to f a b r i ~ a t i o n ~The
, ~ .use of airless spray equipment is
crevices. Improved paint application can be included as now common, and experiments are in progress with elec-
a significant contribution. Several builders provide trostatic spray methods'.
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FIGURE 2
Doubleskin tank barge. Courtesy of Dravo Corporation

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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 3 . 0 73 m 8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003757 833 m
b. Surface Preparation Standards and Recom-

mended Practices of the National Association
of Corrosion Engineers.
c. Standards and Recommended Practices for
Preparation of Surfaces for Painting of the
American Society for Testing and Materials.
d. Abrasive Blasting Guide for Aged or Coated
Steel Surfaces, Technical Bulletin No. 4-9 Soci-
ety of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
Specifications of SSPC are most widely adopted
because of clarity and range, which include visual stan-
dards in the form of color photographs, approved jointly by
FIGURE 4 SSPC-SP 10, and preferably a higher grade of preparation if
Typical towboat operating in inland waterways. Other visual standards are offered by NACE in the form of
prepared steel surfaces embedded in clear plastic.
In general, all surfaces to be immersed in water
should receive at least a “Near-White Blast”, according to
111. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CLEANING SSPC-SP10, and preferably a higher grade of preparation if
AND PAINTING economics of the paint system justify it. The same require
ment applies to surfaces exposed to cargo spill and
A. SURFACE PREPARATION splash.
Other surfaces, such as superstructures and interiors,
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1. New Work. Methods used to prepare steel surfaces

may receive solvent cleaning, according to SSPC-SP 1,
for first painting range from simple hand cleaning to grit-
blasting to a white metal surface with no trace of mill followed by hand or power tool cleaning, according to
SSPC-SP 2 or SP 3. In shipyards, where abrasive blast
scale or other surface contaminant. They have been stan-
cleaning facilities are available, the use of brush-off
dardized by a number of concerned agencies, and for a
blasting as in SSPC-SP 7 may be better and more
thorough description of the various grades the reader is
economical than hand or power tool cleaning.
referred to the following sources:
The importance of adequate traps in the air lines of
a. Surface Preparation Specifications and
blasting equipment cannot be over-emphasized. It
Pretreatment Specifications of the Steel Struc-
prevents contamination of freshly prepared surfaces.
tures Painting Council
On surfaces prepared by blast cleaning paint perform-
ance is improved by wash primer directly over the blasted
substrate. This material is most frequently based on a
vinyl butyral resin with inhibitive pigments and Is typified
by Military Specification DOD-P-15328and SSPC-Paint 27.
Its use is not justified if the surface has not been ade-
quately prepared. Under proper conditions it improves
adhesion of alkyd or phenolic coatings and vinyls. It is par-
ticularly useful as a pretreatment on galvanized or
aluminum surfaces.
Abrasive blast cleaning with a water solution followed
by application of corrosion inhibitors can be beneficial in
two ways6.It not only slows down rusting, but reduces the
amount of dust common to blast cleaning operations. For
the latter reason, its use may increase significantly in pro-
portion to regulations governing air quality in industrial
areas.
2. Repair Work. The method of surface preparation for
repairs is dlctated by the condition of the coating system
to be fixed. Extensive deterioration calls for abrasive blast
cleaning as specified for new work. This may require prior
treatment with solvents or steam cleaning to remove heavy
deposits of oil or grease. In less severe cases, power
FIGURE 5 brushes, grinders, hand scraping or wire brushing are suf-
Side of barge hull, showing accelerated metal loss between water ficient. As in the case of new work, brush-off blast clean-
lines.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 3 * 0 93 8627740 0003758 7 7 T
B. PAINTING
i. Hull Exteriors. Because these areas are constantly
immersed in waters of varying aggressiveness and quality,
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it is important to devote careful attention to their protec-

tion. The necessity of integrity of hull surface is very im-
portant. During industrial expansion following World War
II, there was a marked degradation of water quality in
many inland waterways because of discharges of in-
dustrial wastes and run-off from coal stripping operations.
These pollutants caused severe acid condition in rivers,
which was deleterious to steel hulls in them. It became im-
portant for operators to provide special protection i f
vessels were to remain in service for a reasonable time.
With the adoption of measures to improve water quality by
reduction of discharges to navigable streams, a noticeable
attenuation of corrosive conditions has occurred. This has
led to some reduction in the quality of hull coatings for
_- some barges.
FIGURE 6 Some barge owners apply no coatings below the light
Stern area of a typical towboat, showing Kort nozzles.
Courtesy of Dravo Corporation load line. For years it has been apparent from inspection of
barge side and bottom plates that painting at regular inter-
vals can significantly extend the life of side plates. The
ing may be the most economical and should be considered
same tests indicate no great benefit in coating horizontal
if equipment is available.
bottom surfaces since the coating is quickly removed by
In maintenance, the painting effort should be to
abrasion on sand bars. Many owners feel the cost of pro-
duplicate the original paint system or improve it. Gener-
tecting the sides by coatings is no longer justified by the
ally, the original system will be used, except that cleaning
increased life. Many barges are launched today with
before priming may be limited to spot areas. Cleaned
minimal coating protection on exterior hull.^!.^.^
areas should be feathered and built up to the level of old
Towboat hulls are still considered worthy of ultimate
paint in respect to protective quality, as well as to
protection. Modern painting finds inorganic zinc-rich
thickness. Where rusted areas are small, cleaning is less
primers employed with a catalyzed epoxy or coal tar epoxy
arduous and a better degree of surface preparation is
topcoat to be rated highest in service life. Straight epoxy
usually sought.
systems show good results and multiple-coat vinyl
systems over a wash primer perform quite well. The labor
saved from a reduction in the number of coats makes the
epoxy systems, and they are preferable when low ambient
high-build vinyl coatings has reduced the advantage of
epoxy systems and they are preferable when low ambient
temperatures prevent satisfactory application of epoxies.
2. Stern and Propellor Areas. Because of abrasion of
these areas by sand and debris stirred up by the pro-
pellors, particularly in shallow water, the stern and nozzle
surfaces require special attention. Vinyl and epoxy
coatings are adequate except on interior surfaces and
leading edges of Kort nozzles. Many materials have been
tried unsuccessfully, including rubber lining. Coatings
given the best chance for reasonable service life include
urethanes and glass-flake reinforced polyesters. One com-
pany has met this problem by lining nozzles with stainless
steel. It worked well enough to lead to similar plating of the
entire hull of two towboats.
3. Hull Interiors. These are not always seen, so the
cosmetic aspect is not normally considered. On rakes and
FIGURE 7 square ends common practice is to apply a single coat of
Example of a weld not properly prepared for painting. The spatter
arid ridges will lead to early paint failure. an alkyd or oleoresinous coating over a minimally
Courtesy of Dravo Corp. prepared surface. In wing compartments and inner bot-

Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 31 1 Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
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SSPC CHAPTER*L3.0 93 8627940 0003759 bob
the life of zinc-rich coatings is short, and therefore

coatings are not used.
In covered hopper barges interior surfaces and the
underside of covers may be blast cleaned and coated with
epoxy or vinyl systems to protect the steel and prevent
contamination of cargo. The more common practice is
hand or power tool cleaning followed by a single coat of
low grade pigmented coating, for cosmetic purposes.
6. Superstructures. A towboat is not only very useful
and expensive, but is also a great attention getter from the
passing public and an advertising asset for its owner. For
these and other reasons the best surface preparation and
coating are customary in their construction and upkeep.
Abrasive blast cleaning to at least commercial grade is or-
dinary, as are zinc-rich primers, followed with topcoats of
FIGURE 8 epoxy, epoxy ester or alkyd compositionB. Because of their
Good surface preparation of welded area shows elimination of outstanding weathering properties, acrylic and urethane
ridges, crevices and spatter. compositions may soon be common in these applications.
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Courtesy of Dravo Corp.
7. Painting Guide. Table 1 is a condensed guide to
systems recommended for the various surfaces.
toms the same practice can be followed, but more often
Selection of the appropriate system where several are
the coating is a rust-preventive compound of greaselike
named depends upon factors such as ambient tempera-
consistency and formulated from waxes or cut-back
ture and available surface preparation.
petroleum products. Typical materials of this type are
represented by US. Maritime Administration Specification
52-MA-602b and their use is described in SSPC-PS 8.01.
Reasonable protection has been afforded in these areas
by flotation-applied petroleum products of proprietary
nature.
Although performing satisfactorily as corrosion
preventives, they are objectionable from an environmental
viewpoint because of a tendency to be discharged into
water along with any bilge water that may require disposal
to eliminate unwanted ballast.
4. Decks and Exteriors of Cargo Boxes. Most com-
mon painting practice consists of alkyd or epoxy ester
systems applied over a blast cleaned surface to a commer-
cial finish (SSPC-SP 6).For many towboats and barges
with cargos requiring resistance to chemical attack, near-
white blast cleaning is common, followed by priming with
zinc-rich primers, either organic or inorganic, and top-
coating with epoxy finishes. Whatever system, a common
feature is skid-resistant material on the decks in walkway
areas. The non-skid feature may be incorporated in coating
material or may consist of fine sand evenly sprinkled onto
the first coat while it is still wet. It is then covered by a sec-
ond coat to encapsulate sand particles.
5. Interior of Cargo Boxes. Coating selection for
cargo box interiors is indicated to a large extent by the FIGURE 9
cargo. The abrasive nature of bulk and equipment used to Sideof cargo box, showing satisfactory performanceof alkyd t o p
load it generally preclude the use of high quality coat- Coat overzinc.rich primer after five years’ service.
Courtesy: Dravo Corporation
ings. In sand and gravel service, inorganic zinc-rich
coatings have shown excellent performance over abrasive
blasted surfaces, either alone or as primers for alkyd t o p
coats. Although the latter coatlng combination is usually
avoided because of the risk of saponification of the alkyd
resin, Figure 9 shows a cargo box with good protection
after five years in sand and gravel service. In coal service
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SSPC CHAPTERm13.0 93 m 8b27940 00037b0 328 m
Typical Painting Systems for Fresh Water Vessels
Surface to be Painted Typical Systems
Towboat and barge hull exteriors I, II, v, VI
Towboat and barge decks and covers I, 111, IV, v, VI
Towboat superstructures and interiors I, 111, IV, v, VI, VII, VIII
Coal and acid-carrying barge decks and hoppers v, VI, VII, VIII
Barge rake interiors IX
Barge innerbottoms and wings IX, x
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Typical Coating Systems for Fresh Water Vessels
Surface Typical
Systems Preparation Primer Finish Coating
I SSPGSP 10 Inorganic zinc-rich EPOXY SSPGPS 12 and 13**
II SSPGSP 10 Inorganic zinc-rich Coal tarepoxy SSPGPS 12 and 11* *
111 SSPGSP 10 Zinc-rich org. or inorg. Epoxy ester -
IV SSPGSP 10 Zinc-rich org. or inorg. Alkyd SSPGPaint 1û4*
V SSPGSP 10 Wash Primer Vinyl SSPGPaint 8*
VI SSPGSP 10 Chlorinated Rubber Chlorinated Rubber SSPGPS 15
VI1 SSPGSP 10 Wash Primer Vinyl SSPGPaint 8*
VIII SSPGSP 6 EPOXY EPOXY SSPGPS 13
IX SSPGSP 2 Alkyd Alkyd SSPGPaint 104' *
X SWEEP Rust Preventive - 52-MA602
* *Topcoat
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SSPC CHAPTER*l3.0 73 Bb27740 00037bl 2 b 4
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active James R. Foster is retired He
participation of the following in the review process for this worked in the Production En-
chapter: T. A. Cross, Theodore Dowd, Dr. Richard W. Drisko, gineering department of the Dra-
Randy Fulkerson, Dr. Howard G. Lasser, D. W. Metzger, C. G. vo Lime Company, where he was
Munger, William Pearson, and William J. Wallace, Jr. involved in productionand quality
control of pollution control
materials
He was formerly Research
Engineer, Dravo Research and
REFERENCES Development Department. He had
1. “Big Load Afloat”, American Waterways Operators, Inc., more than 25 years experience in
Washington, D.C. coatings evaluations and corrosion
2. “ORSANCO Quality Monitor”, Ohio River Valley Water Sanita- control. A Registered Profession-
tion Commission, Cincinnati, Ohio. al Engineer in the State of Penn-
3. Harry M. Herald, Private Communication. Hillman Barge and sylvania, he was active in the Steel Structures Painting Council and the
Construction Co., Brownsville, PA. American Society for Testing and Materials
4. Wayne LaGrange, Private Communication. Jeffboat, Inc., Jef-
fersonville, IN.
5. Nicholas Dashko, Private Communication. Dravo Corpora-
tion, Pittsburgh, PA.
6. Naval Ships Technical Manual, NAVSEA 0901-LP-190-0002,
Chapter 9190, “Preservation of Ships in Service”, U S . Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
7. Clayton Wilson, Private Communication. United States Steel
Corporation, Ambridge, PA.
8. B.A. Rich, Private Communication. Valley Lime Co., Cincin-
nati, OH.
9. Edward L. Shearer, Private Communication. Hillman Barge
and Construction Co., Brownsville, PA.
10. A.J. Liebman, “The Painting of Steel Vessels for Fresh Water
Service”, in Steel Structures Painting Manual, 2nd ed.,
Volume 1, Chapter 12. Steel Structures Painting Council,
Pittsburgh, PA.
11. Alan H. Edwards, Private Communication. Hillman Barge and
Construction Co., Brownsville, PA.
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12. Robert Kappler, Private Communication. Dravo-Mechling
Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA.
13. Robert A. Labdon, Private Communication. Federal Barge
Lines, Inc., St. Louis, MO.
14. Brent J. Lirette, Private Communication. Delta Shipyard,
Houma, LA.

31 4
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SSPC CHAPTER*14.L 93 m 8627940 0003762 LTO m
CHAPTER 14.1
PAINTING STEEL TANKS
W.J. Wallace, Jr.
This chapter presents information about painting in- isolated from daylight within 60 days. With water-base
teriors and exteriors of steel tanks. The discussion deals shop primers, “re-dissolving” has been encountered when
with selection of materials, inspection, and maintenance. primed steel was stacked and subjected to rain, condensa-
The scope is limited to steel tanks for storage of water, oil, tion or high humidity. Coal tar primer paints, particularly
gasoline, and other commercial liquids; it does not con- the primers for coal tar enamels, are subject to rapid
sider the very specialized area of tank lining, which is taken degradation in outdoor exposure. Some of the “exempt”
up in another chapter. Surface preparation, safety and ap- solvents are hydrophillic and if all of the solvent does not
plication techniques are also covered in separate chapters. escape from the paint film, the solvent will absorb water
back through the film and cause disbonding.
The list of problems can be extensive. It is no wonder
I. SELECTION OF MATERIALS that the inexperienced paint specifier sometimes fails to
make appropriate selections.
A. TANK INTERIORS Paint systems for tank interiors must conform with
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) stan- regulations issued by the Food and Drug Administration
dards list ten paint systems for tank interiors. They are 1) a (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the N a
three-coat system consisting of two aluminum phenolic tional Public Health Service, the Occupational Safety and
paint coats over red-lead primed surfaces; 2) a four- or five- Healt h Administration (OSHA), and other regulatory bod i es
coat vinyl paint system; 3) a zinc dust-zinc oxide, phenolic- at all levels of government. Conforming to these regula-
vehicle paint system; 4) a four-coat, singlesolution, high- tions can be difficult. Regulations often serve cross-
solids vinyl paint system; 5) a cold-applied petroleum wax purposes or are inconsistent. For instance, there are
coating; 6) a hot-applied petroleum wax coating; 7) a regulations prohibiting the use of coal tar derivative
metallic sprayed zinc coating; 8) a X,-inch, hot-appliedcoal coatings in a water tank, but none prohibiting the use of
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tar enamel coating; 9) a cold-applied coal tar coating above coal tar type coatings on the interior surfaces of pipes that
the high water level only, and 10) a cold-applied tasteless transport water to and from the same tanks.
and odorless tar-base paint. In addition, coal tar epoxies, Confusion in response to various regulatory bodies
catalyzed epoxies, alkyd-phenolics, three-coat high-build had had at least one beneficial side effect. The AWWA
vinyl paints, epoxylester paints, and chlorinated rubber D102 Committee has formed a toxicological study group to
paints are also covered. work closely with EPA in the formulation of a test protocol.
While these paint systems can yield satisfactory If the test protocol is satisfactory to both government and
results, problems may develop. For instance, coal tar epox- industry, the combined effort can then determine which
ies have limited flexibility. When used as shop primers paints or coatings other than catalyzed epoxies and vinyls
they cannot be topcoated later without additional surface are suitable for potable water service. Until government
preparation. If zinc-rich primers are not topcoated quickly regulations change, the specifiers and fabricator-paint
after applications, negative effects can result. engineers who wish to avoid problems with regulatory
Phenolic vehicle paints, including zinc-oxide, zinc-dust bodies and litigation with consumers can write their paint-
phenolic, alkyd phenolic, and epoxy-phenolic materials ing specifications for the inside surfaces of potable water
will not accept a topcoat after they are exposed to the at- tanks as follows: Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 10 “Near-
mosphere for periods of 6-9 months. The paint surface White Metal Blast Cleaning” or SSPC-SP 8 “Pickling”.
becomes very hard, and hardness increases with time. Ex- Paint materials should be limited to VR-3 vinyl (4-coat
posure to direct sunlight accelerates the hardening of the system) to a total dry film thickness in the range 5-6 mils; a
phenolic radical. Zinc-filled chlorinated rubber paints and high-build vinyl (3-coat) to a total dry film thickness in the
zinc-filled epoxy paints can also degrade rapidly when ex- range 6-8 mils; or a catalyzed epoxy system (2-coat) either
posed to sunlight, especially if condensation or high amineadduct or polyamide cured, to a total dry film
humidity becomes a factor. The non-filled chlorinated rub- thickness in the range 10-16 mils. All coats should be dif-
ber paints can fail quickly if they are not topcoated and ferent in color to facilitate rudimentary inspection.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U L 4 - L 9 3 8b27940 00037b3 037
reflectance. On water storage tanks, the color is typically

chosen by committee, and usually the committee com-
promises on some shade of blue or green.
The current version of AWWA D102 lists five paint
systems for exterior surfaces: 1) three-coat alkyd, 2) four-
coat alkyd, 3) two-coat alkyd with silicone alkyd finish
coat, 4) three-coat vinyl and 5) an organic zinc-rich with
chlorinated rubber alkyd topcoats. In all probability, the
primer chosen for number 5 will be azinc-filled chlorinated
rubber paint. Trouble can develop in this type of paint
system if the topcoats are not applied immediately after
priming.
In addition to the systems shown in AWWA D102,
there is a wide variety of proprietary paint systems, all of
FIGURE 1 which have some merit and all of which have their limiting
Spray painting the exterior of a water storage tank. characteristics. For instance, a true silicone-alkyd paint
Courtesy Chicago Bridge and Iron
contains approximately 33 percent silicone. This paint
cannot be roll-coated without causing a serious bubbling
On tankage to be used exclusively for fire protection, problem. The problem can be overcome in several ways,
especially where the stored water is pumped through such as overloading the paint with “bubble-buster” or
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sprinkler heads, water cleanliness is of prime importance. reducing the amount of silicone to prevent the bubble for-
Particulate matter entering the pipe can clog the sprinkler- mation. The best solution is the addition of the “bubble-
head system. The inside surfaces of such tankage should buster”. Some studies have shown that a silicone-alkyd
receive the best possible degree of cleaning, careful can be applied by roller when the silicone content is below
removing of all blast cleaning media and coating with two- 18 percent. Therefore, a specifier of silicone-alkyd should
coat catalyzed epoxy or coal-tar epoxy, or a three coat be aware of two things: 1) i f the location will permit spray
high-build vinyl paint system. Fire protection water tanks painting, and 2) if the silicone-alkyd is less than 33 percent
should be inspected at least once a year, if for no other silicone. As the silicone content becomes lower than 33
reason than to remove stagnant water. If the tank cannot percent, gloss and color retention is also lowered,
be inspected frequently, or the stored water cannot be sometimes disproportionately. An ordinary three-coat
‘Turned-over” on a regular basis, then a fungicide should alkyd paint system is superior to a silicone-alkyd system
be introduced into the paint to prevent algae growth. The with a low silicone content.
use of a fungicide in paint must be predicated on the
knowledge that the water for fire protection cannot ever
enter into the drinking water supply.
The same arguments regarding cleaning and painting
should be assumed to be true for fuel oil tankage, where
the fuel oil is pumped directly to the burners. Another
sound argument for painting or lining oil-storage tanks is
the fact that oils, even in the refined state, may contain
free sulfur. This sulfur is corrosive and attacks steel.
Be cautious about using zinc-rich paints on the inside
surfaces of fire protection tanks and fuel oil tanks. If the
water becomes stagnant, the zinc dissolves very quickly. If
the fuel oil contains free sulfur, and most of them do, there
is a formation of zinc-sulfide, and both the paint and the
stored product can be ruined. The condensate water that
forms in all oil tanks attacks the zinc paint and causes
rapid dissolution of the paint.
B. TANK EXTERIORS
There are several paint systems for the exterior sur-
faces of tanks. The systems range from the simple three-
coat alkyd to the sophisticated epoxy-urethane and all
sorts of combinations in between. In general, most
FIGURE 2
petroleum and solvent storage tanks are painted white Tank depicting earth as seen from fllghts in space.
(decals excluded) or very light pastel colors to provide heat Courtesy Chicago Bridge and Iron
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L4.L 93 öb279qû 00037b4 T i 3
should be tested for continuity of the paint film before the

painter leaves the site. The two most common methods are
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the wet-sponge test and the spark or “jeep” test. The wet-
sponge test, generally used on coating films up to 25 mils
thick, is conducted using a low-voltage, hand-held ap-
paratus that issues a warning sound (bell, beep, or horn)
when the probe is passed over a “holiday” or void in the
coating film. The probe is a sponge, saturated with a
solution of 5 percent table salt (electrolyte) and 2 percent
detergent (surfactant), in water. On tankage in nuclear
sites, where the very thought of chloride ions in water
causes mental spasms, the test solution is generally plain
water adjusted t o approximately 10 thousand ohm-
centimeter resistivity. The spark or “jeep” test is used to
detect holidays and areas of insufficient coating thickness
on coating films thicker than 25 mils. The normal operating
voltage is 1000 times the square root of the specified
coating thickness. Failure is detected by formation of a
spark, accompanied by snapping or crackling sounds.
Inspectors using holiday detection equipment should
FIGURE 3 be aware that this equipment cannot be used on zinc filled
Roller application of paint to tank exterior. paints, metallized surfaces and aluminum filled paints
Courtesy Chicago Bridge and Iron
such as vinyl aluminum. The inspectors should also be
aware that certain structural members that are not seal
The specifier must use caution in choosing the proper welded or caulked, such as the roof supports (rafters),
paint system. Consider, for example, the urethanes. bolted surfaces, box supports for roof columns and so
The most promising system on the market today is forth, cannot be painted properly. As a result, a test of
the epoxy-urethane paint system, that is, a prime coat these members will indicate a failure of the paint system.
of catalyzed epoxy paint, topcoated with a two-pack Therefore, unless it is specifically stated that these
aliphatic-polyester urethane paint. There are other
urethanes: single-pack (aromatic) vinyl-urethanes, epoxy-
urethanes, acrylic-urethanes, and so forth. Most of these
combination urethanes do not have the gloss and color
retention of the aliphatic-polyester urethanes. Therefore, it
behooves the potential specifier to be able t o ask ques-
tions in order to know what he is getting in a urethane. If
doubt persists about a given paint material, help is
available from AWWA, or some member of the SSPC Tank
Painting Committee.
The specifier should also be aware and beware of the
“or-equal’’ clause. This clause is a two-edged sword that
has caused much grief in the world of painting. For in-
stance, it is all well and good to use the phrase “generic or
equal”, providing, of course, that the specifier has listed a
number of paint suppliers, all of whom manufacture an
identical system, paint-for-paint. If only one of the
manufacturers listed has a unique system, then, the
specifier must 1) accept paint from a manufacturer NOTon
his list, 2) accept an alternate but “equal” system, or 3) be
prepared to accept total responsibility for what is in effect
a “closed” specification.
II. INSPECTION
Regardless of the type of tank built, the type of serv-
ice or the type of paint system, the as-painted interior sur-
FIGURE 4
face that is in contact with the product and the surfaces Water tank designed creatively to suggest its function.
that suffer exposure to condensate waters and vapors Courtesy Chicago Bridge and Iron
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 4 - L 93 W 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 00037b-5 9 0 T M
“voids” be sealed prior to painting, it is recommended that metal. In this way, the inspector can determine, from the
they not be tested for holidays. layers of paint, how many times the tank has been painted.
The same reasoning applies to dry film thickness Laboratory analysis of the paint cuts determines what
measurements. The dry film thickness should be paints have been used previously. Such an inspection,
measured in accordance with SSPC-PA 2 with a magnetic andlor careful analysis of the written history provides the
gauge that measures dry film thickness within an ac- owner several options prior to repainting.
curacy of 0.25 mil. As many dry film thickness An owner should hire a third party, knowledgeable in
measurements as feasible should be made so that there is paint work, t o inspect the work and make recommenda-
approximately one measurement (three readings) for each tions; and the owner should follow these recommenda-
100 sq. ft. of surface painted. If an owner’s representa- tions. Never keep repainting a tank, or anything else for
tive is at the site, the dry film thickness measurements that matter, without effectively removing deteriorated
should be made while surfaces are accessible at locations paint.
selected by the owner’s representative. Extensive re- The following is a true example of the kind of prob-
rigging after paint has dried so that dry film thickness lems that can develop if one hurries into repainting a struc-
measurements can be made is not required provided that a ture without considering its history. One rather large in-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sufficient number of the locations tested meet or exceed dustrial firm owned an old 250,000 gallon elevated water
the minimum dry film thickness specified. tank that was painted on the exterior surfaces as follows:
The inspector should also be aware that dry film commercial blast cleaning followed by two coats of alkyd
thickness readings obtained on edges, fillets, welds and enamel (black). The tank was repainted with the same
so forth may not be accurate because of differences in paint system twice in the next 10 years. During the next 30
magnetic fields. Therefore, it is pointless to take these years it was painted six times using the company colors. In
measurements. 1978 the company was going to paint the tank again.
It is good, sound practice to inspect the paint applied Moreover, they rejected the advice of some very
to the water-bearing surfaces of a tank within the first year knowledgeable people that some sort of surface prepara-
to 13 months after painting has been completed. In a mation work be performed on the paint. Two competent tank
jority of cases, 90 to 95 percent of all areas that can fail do painting firms declined to bid the work. A first-hand in-
fail in the first year of exposure. Moreover, the paint work spection revealed stress cracks in the paint, large enough
is under guarantee for this period of time, and barring un- to reveal the black paint. But the tank was painted, and
foreseen complications, the remedial work can be ac- within three months large chunks of paint fell off the
complished at no cost to the owner. This is a policy tank. Recently, this tank was blast-cleaned to white metal
adopted by the AWWA, and it is fair to both owner and con- and painted with an epoxy-aliphatic urethane system on
tractor. The 13-month limit also gives the conscientious the exterior surface. It now has a properly restored paint
owner plenty of time to make arrangements for proper in- system.
spection of his tank, and the opportunity t o start his
maintenance painting program.
111. MAINTENANCE
A maintenance painting program begins with a burn-
ing desire to preserve an already expensive installation,
an absolute willingness to accomplish the task and the
necessary funds to do the work. Water tanks in particular
get painted many times during their service lives, and
maintenance painting often represents more expenditure
than the original paint work. Therefore, it behooves the
owner or his representative to think seriously about some
of the “do’s’’ and “don’t’s” associated with maintenance
painting.
The most obvious “do” is to obtain the painting
history on the subject tank. An accurate history reveals the
tank age, the original paint system (generic), subsequent
repairs and repaint work, and generic changes in the paint
system. In short, the history contains most of the informa- FIGURE 5
Interior water tank paints were evaluated in a series of tests in-
tion required to make an informed judgment about the pro- itiated in 1931 and carried out jointly in 1950 and again in 1958-59
posed paint work. In the absence of a written history, the by the SSPC, the Ambridge Water Authority and the Pittsburgh
owner, his representative, or a competent inspection firm Des Moines Steel Company. The latter tests included 196 test
areas (each 21 feet tall) involving chiefly phenolics, which failed
should remove “cuts” of paint from the tank in several and vinyls (per SSPC-PS 4.00) which, with touch-up, were still ef-
locations. These cuts should remove the paint down to the fective as described in Reference 4.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L4.L 73 = 8627740 0003766 846 =
IV. SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The previous chapter on this subject was written by the late
Tank painting can be relatively simple, environmental- J.O. Jackson.
ly acceptable and still comply with government regula- The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
tions and AWWA requirements. The interior surfaces of participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: AI Beitelman, Duane Bloemke, Wallace Cathcart, William
potable water tanks should be painted with two coats of Chandler, R. Burt Chase, T.A. Cross, Ted Dowd, Richard Drisko,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
catalyzed epoxy (polyamide or amine-adduct cured) to a Ronald W. Hamm, Leonard Haynie, Harlan Kline, Iggy Metil, John
Montle, C. Munger, Joe Richard, Harry A. Skilton, T. Wilhelm,
dry film thickness in the range 10-16 mils or a three-coat or
Louis Zadra.
four-coat (VR-3) vinyl paint system. The three-coat vinyl
system affords the option of a thicker coating (7-8 mils dry
film) than does the VR-3 (four-coat) system. In both cases
the final coat should be an SSPC-Paint 8 “Aluminum Vinyl REFERENCES
Paint” to achieve an effective “seal” over the preceeding 1. J.O. Jackson, “Painting of Steel Tanks” Steel Structures Paint-
ing Council, Volume 1, pp. 298-308, 1952.
coats. 2. “Final Report of Ambridge Test of Paints for Water Tank In-
The exterior surfaces are still painted as elected by teriors”, Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company Technical
the owner. However, the specifiers should be painfully Bulletin No. 3304, 1933.
3. ”Second Report of Inspection of Test of Steel Priming Paints
aware that new OSHA regulations have virtually banned and Methods of Surface Preparation After 584 Days Expo-
the use of the lead-bearing primers. The OSHA regulations sure,” Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company, May 4, 1941.
have also placed the chromate pigments in jeopardy. 4. J.D. Keane, “A 25-Year Evaluation of Coatings for Water Tank
Interiors”, Steel Structures Painting Council Report, December
Therefore, it is a wise specifier who determines, in writing 1, 1975.
of course, that a particular manufacturer’s primer is lead- 5. “Painting and Repainting Steel Tanks, Standpipes, Reservoirs,
free and will NOTdisbond under severe condensation con- and Elevated Tanks for Water Storage”, American Water
Works Association, Inc. February 11, 1964.
ditions. The same line of reasoning holds true for the top-
coats. There are some totally lead-free primers that are
proving satisfactory for the exterior surfaces of water
tanks, and eventually, the applicators will catch-up with
the technology. In any case, the major considerations in
choosing exterior surface paints are location, (proximity to
houses, etc.), time of year painting will be accomplished,
and application characteristics of the paint (can it be
rolled as well as sprayed). If, for instance, one is con-
templating the purchase of a new tank, and it will be
placed in an open area that will eventually be surrounded
by buildings, then it is time to consider the long-lasting
systems, such as epoxies, epoxy-urethanes or the high-
build vinyl enamels. If the tank is or will be placed in
crowded conditions, pick a system that will afford the
fewest problems in applications.
Petroleum tankage should always be painted. White is
an excellent choice for the exterior surfaces. The interior
surfaces should be coated with epoxy or epoxy-phenolic
materials or lined with a “baking phenolic material”.
It is good to remember the following: steel is relatively
inexpensive. In fact, the steel is the least expensive item
on the job. If, then, the cost of design, fabrication, labor,
and erection are the most expensive factors, why do we
pay so little attention to protecting the basic item of the
structure? The replacement costs are enormous. Again, i f
all of these beautiful steel structures are designed and
built as a monument to man’s ability to overcome nature,
why do we become so penurious regarding the one thing,
painting, that will protect our genius from the ravages of
nature?
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 4 . 2 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 7 b 7 782
CHAPTER 14.2
THE LINING OF STEEL TANKS

by
Wallace P. Cathcart and Albert L. Hendricks
I. INTRODUCTION Flammability of Materials Used

Ground Fault Interrupter
This chapter describes accepted practices for select-
Nearest Telephone
ing and applying protective coatings to the interior sur-
Nearby Traffic, Cranes, Moving Objects
faces of steel tanks. These coatings used as linings pro-
Protect ive Clothing
tect tank interiors from corrosive andlor erosive products
Respiratory Protection
and often prevent contamination of the product by the
Safety Permits
steel substrate. The tank may be used for processing,
Safety Rescue Equipment
transporting or storing chemical or food products.
Safety Showers
The requirements necessary to obtain economical
Scaffolding
service life with a coating as a lining include safety,
Source of Breathing Quality Air
designlfabrication, selection of coating materials, surface
Spark Proof Tools
preparation, application techniques, curing, inspection
Static Equipment Grounded
and maintenance. For purposes of this chapter the discus-
Toxic Materials
sion of a protective coating used as a lining is limited to
Warning Tags and Signs
materials applied in one or more coats by conventional air
spray or airless spray methods to a total dry film thickness Precautions in excess of standard industrial safety
of no greater than 50 mils. This chapter does not include practices must be followed for the work performed inside
other application techniques such as flame spraying, tanks. For instance, all electrical power to work areas
sheet-applied linings, metallizing or hand lay-ups. must pass through a ground fault interrupter. Clothing
The success of a coating system depends upon the must be sufficiently thick to protect the skin from bom-
design of the tank, intended use, coating selection, total bardment during abrasive blasting and to provide protec-
dry film thickness of coating and application technique. tion from the coating material during application. Foot
These factors make it essential to seek advice from a com- wear for individuals applying the coating should have soft
petent supplier of coating materials and a knowledgeable, nail-free soles that resist solvents, prevent sparking and
experienced applicator. provide good traction. All workmen inside a tank should be
equipped with forced, fresh air breathing apparatus when
II. SAFETY any blasting or spraying is being done (Figure 1). An alter-
Assuring the safety of workers in tank lining is of ut- nate or standby source of breathing air must be available
most importance. Working in confined areas with dust and to provide a safe escape time in the event the primary
toxic andlor flammable materials can create hazardous source fails.
conditions. Individuals working in these areas should be Ventilation must remove blasting dust for visibility
familiar with precautions necessary to prevent accidents’. and provide sufficient air to maintain solvent vapor con-
Regulatory bodies, such as OSHA, have guidelines that centration below both the lower explosive and threshold
must be followed. In addition, training program should be limits. Because nearly ali solvent vapors are heavier than
established to educate all individuals who apply coatings air, they tend to concentrate in low afeas so it is necessary
to steel tanks. to assure such areas are well ventilated. Detailed informa-
tion pertaining to explosive and threshold limits can be ob-
Use of a check list such as the following, prior to start-
tained from various p u b l i ~ a t i o n sEye
. ~ ~protection
~ should
ing work, helps to establish conditions necessary for safe-
be mandatory for all workmen in the tank and in the area of
ty:
the tank when they are handling abrasive or when abrasive
Barricades
blasting is in progress. All pressure equipment including
Elect rical Hazards
blast pots must be constructed as specified by National
Explosion Proof Electrical Equipment
Board Code and the ASME Code for Unfired Pressure
Eye Protection
Vessels. Safety relief valves should Oe tested daily and
Falling Objects
pressure tests should be conducted at least once and
Fire Alarm Station
preferably twice a year.
Fire Extinguisher - Fire Blankets
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER+14-2 93 = 8627940 0003768 619 D
ed in the design, they should be eliminated by fillet
welding. The contour should be smooth enough for the lin-
ing material to be applied uniformly4 (Figure 2).
IV. SELECTION OF MATERIAL

Selecting the coating material for immersion service
is one of the most difficult functions and requires the
greatest degree of engineering skill and effort.
Immersion service is usually thought of as immersed
or submerged in a liquid. In this chapter that is the
assumption; however, it must be realized that tanks, silos,
railroad cars and hoppers are often lined to handle a dry
product such as grain, plastic pellets or salt. When lining
for dry service, it is sometimes assumed that the absence
of liquid eliminates the stringent requirements for coating
application. But there are several factors that may
counteract the apparent lack of liquid. In the case of
plastic pellets, for instance, where the lining is used solely
FIGURE 1 to protect the product, a chip or flake of the lining that may
Safely equipped man spraying the inside of small food process- be of little concern in a liquid contamination environment
ing tank. could be of great economic concern i f it managed to get in-
Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
to the rollers of a high speed film manufacturing plant. In
another instance, hydroscopic properties of a product,
such as sodium chloride, can result in severe corrosion in
111. DESIGN AND FABRICATION TO RECEIVE covered hopper cars after as little as three years. For dry
LINING service, caref u I, knowledgeable engineer¡ ng wi I I
Whether a tank is being lined to prevent contamina- sometimes allow deviations from recommendations for im-
tion of a product or to provide protection from corrosion, mersion; however, this is the exception rather than the
the coating must act as a barrier between the product and rule.
the steel tank. The coating must be essentially continuous Among all the factors in coating selection, the three
to perform effectively. Long or meticulously detailed most critical are (1) resistance to the reagent or the prod-
specifications for tank design are needed only for the most uct to be stored; (2) resistance to undercutting or underfilm
exacting conditions as when a highly corrosive environ- attack at points of minor breaks, discontinuities or
ment is to be handled. More commonly though, coatings permeations that exist or develop; and (3) physical proper-
are used as linings to prevent iron or oxide contamination ties such as flexibility, adhesion and elongation that are
of the product and the specifying engineer should address
himself to the difference. The essentials of good tank
design, stated simply, are these: avoid or eliminate sharp
edges, projections, crevices, acute angles and pits; design
the tank so that all surfaces are visible and accessible to
the workers preparing the surface and applying the
coat ing.
The surface tension of most liquid coatings tends to
pull the film from the apex of any edge or projection and
thus leave less film to protect the substrate. Arbitrarily, the
industry has assumed a minimum of ya’’ radius of a sharp
edge, but more significantly, sharpness must be
el imi nated.
Consideration should be given to designing nozzles
that extend into the tank for inbound flow to prevent high
concentrations of solutions from running down the sides
of the lining. In addition, the nozzle should have a large
diameter and short length to facilitate coating application
to the interior surfaces.
When applying a coating by spray, excessive FIGURE 2
Lining of baked phenolic over carbon and stainless steel for high
thicknesses tend to accumulate in areas where crevices, pressure and temperature chemical separator.
pits and acute angles exist. If such areas cannot be avoid- Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U L 4 - 2 73 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 00037b9 555
satisfactory for the service for which the lining is intended.

For instance, a thick brittle lining might work well in a
fixed, rigid storage tank yet fail prematurely i f used in a
railroad tank car or a thin-walled storage silo. Lesser fac-
tors, but nevertheless sometimes important, are (4)
resistance to water and oxygen passage; (5) resistance to
abrasion; (6) resistance to aging; (7) application and curing
characteristics such that a proper coating film is feasible
in the specific vessel to be lined.
As an example, the baking phenolic coatings that are
final cured at 400°F. (204°C.) cannot easily be applied in
extremely large tanks due to the difficulty in obtaining a
uniform temperature. Final cure temperature is limited to
the temperature resistance of the insulation on the vessels
that have been permanently insulated. Also double-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
* ” A * h a ! *- ~
skinned barges, as now designed, cannot be baked above

approximately 300°F. (149°C.) because the inner tank ex- FIGURE 3
Failure of water tank lining from poor design, fabrication,
pands and distorts or even splits the outer shell. material selection and application.
When selecting the proper coating system, it is Courtesy: D.M. Berger
necessary to understand all of the conditions to which the
lining will be subjected, such as product type, exposure temperature differential is lost. Thus, the results must be
time, temperature variations, temperature source, vapor carefully interpreted.
area, pressure, cleaning procedures, agitation, wet and dry Laboratory tests are normally conducted on steel
conditions, versatility, degree of abrasion or erosion, ther- coupons prepared under laboratory conditions by in-
mal shock, trace chemicals present and possible physical dividuals well versed in the application of coatings to test
impact, either on the lining or the reverse side. Figure 3 samples. Coated coupons are exposed to the product in-
shows a typical failure that occurred, in part, because all tended for storage or transportation by submerging in a
of these conditions were not taken into account. container or using an Atlas Test Ce1L5 The samples are
Gathering information on the variable in making a normally observed at various intervals from 24 hours to
selection is simplified if identical field history exists. But one year or until failure occurs.
even seemingly insignificant variations should be judged The Atlas Test Cell consists of an open pipe to which
by an experienced person competent in understanding test panels are bolted on each end to form a double end
their significance. Some material suppliers and some ap- flange (Figure 4). The center piping has openings where
plication companies keep extensive records of successes heating elements, condensers, thermometers andlor
and failures of each coating system used. This information agitators can be inserted. The body of the cell is con-
is often available, but it must be used judiciously. If actual structed of glass, resistant alloy or coated steel. This test
experience is not available, it is necessary to conduct can simulate many of the conditions experienced in actual
either field or laboratory tests. Field testing in the actual service, such as agitation, temperature differential across
environment is the most effective because it takes into the surface and temperature sources from inside or out. In
consideration all of the variables that exist. Field testing is evaluating a protective coating for immersion the test
painstaking, time consuming and many times impractical; should be conducted for a minimum of six months and
therefore, the tendency is to utilize accelerated laboratory ideally for one year.
testing. But it must be emphasized that evaluation by ac- Any changes in the appearance of the coating should
celerated tests is a technique to be used with great cau- be recorded. Failure is normally indicated if blistering,
tion as it will only reject bad selections and not prove good severe softening, swelling or severe discoloration has
ones unless there is favorable correlation between the been noted. With regard to softening and discoloration,
results and similar performances. the difference between “severe” and “less severe” or “in-
In field testing, application of the test material to the consequential” requires considerable experience and in-
actual substrate is preferred since it is then exposed com- depth understanding of the expected performance of the
pletely to all the variables. If substrate testing is not feasi- lining. Likewise, failure of the panel is indicated if the liq-
ble, it is then advisable to suspend or attach a coupon uid is affected by the exposure in any significant manner.
within the tank. Dissimilar metals should be insulated Again, experience and understanding of expected perform-
from the sample to prevent a galvanic differential between ance is necessary to interpret what is significant. Follow-
the sample and the vessel itself. The difference in the ing is an example of what can be significant.
temperature on a coating and the temperature of the out- The liquid in a particular test has a pickup of two parts
side tank wall may also be significant to its performance. per million of iron. By comparing liquid volume to surface
When suspending a panel, however, the variable of area, relating all to time and exposure in test as compared

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R t 1 4 . 2 93 = 8627940 0003770 277
to anticipated time of exposure and use, the amount of
iron pickup can be calculated and judgments made as to
whether it is significant. In some circumstances, any
measurable extractable or any color change of the product
is deemed to be a coating failure. Normally, a slight color
change in the coating, a slight weight loss or a slight
weight gain are not considered failures. An important final
determination of a test coupon, even though the coating
appears to be unaffected, is to remove the coating from FIGURE 4
Test cell indicates failure as a result of adhesion loss.
the steel and inspect for any signs of damaging permeation Courtesy: Gilbert Associates
or under-film attack.
Several different generic coating systems are used as
protective barriers for vessels in immersion service. The formulation is normally applied by spray in a number of
resistance of each type varies with the individual formula- coats to a total dry film thickness ranging between 4 and 8
tion. Resistance tables can be obtained from coating mils. Pigmentation varies t o enhance adhesion,
manufacturers or organizations such as the National permeability, spray characteristics and color. Chemical
Association of Corrosion Engineers. These tables should and physical properties.are excellent, although when com-
be used with discretion since slight variations in formula- pared to the unmodified or straight phenolic, the
tions could decrease the resistance of a specific generic resistance to solvents and concentrated acids is lower.
type. Interpretation of these charts is also important. Good Some modifications can result in an increase in resistance
alkali resistance does not mean the system is resistant to to alkalies and strong oxidants. Due to the limitation on
73'/0 caustic soda but possibly resistant to pH slightly in film thickness, this system should not be used in highly
excess of 7. Similarly, good solvent resistance does not corrosive areas and is not pinhole free.
normally mean the coating system has resistance to im- Similar, but generally less resistant, formulations are
mersion in methylene chloride. available that, while still thermosetting, can be polymer-
The following is a brief description of the major ized at lower temperatures. Optimum cure is obtained at
generic types of coating materials presently used as lin- approximately 200°F. (93°C.) metal temperature. Much of
ings: the disparity in resistance can be overcome by these
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
material's ability to be applied at much heavier films, 8-12
A. PHENOLIC mils.
A high-bake pure phenolic, unplasticized, based on a

phenol formaldehyde resin, often referred to as a straight C. EPOXY
phenolic. Polymerization is accomplished by heat curing Formulations based on Bisphenol A Epichlorohydrin
at metal temperatures ranging between 350" to 450°F. resin utilizing either amines, amine adducts or polyamide
(177" to 242°C.). They are spray applied in a number of curing agents for polymerization. Heat, while not always
coats to a total dry film thickness ranging between 4-8 necessary to cure, does optimize resistance. This type of
mils. The pigmentation used in formulations affects the system can also be modified with phenol formaldehyde
e n d c o l o r , adhesion, p e r m e a b i l i t y and spray resins, coal tar or other resinous materials. It is possible to
characteristics. The chemical and physical properties of formulate systems with no volatile solvent, various solvent
bake phenolic systems are excellent. They are unaffected combinations or with water. Pigment is added to the for-
by most solvents, including hydrocarbons, alcohols, mulation to obtain color, workability, adhesion or abrasion
ketones and chlorinated solvents. They are resistant to resistance. The resistance of this category varies substan-
concentrated sulphuric acid but due to the limitation on tially based on the formulation, but, generally, it will have
total dry film thickness cannot be used in dilute acids excellent resistance to various chemicals that range in a
where the corrosion rate on the underlying steel would be pH from 4 to 12. The solvent resistance will be fair. Its ex-
excessive. They exhibit poor resistance to alkalies, alkali posure to severely corrosive environments will be limited
salts and strong oxidants. This system normally meets all due to normal film thicknesses ranging from 8 to 30 mils
the requirements of the FDA and USDA for protecting when applied by spray. Heavier films (not in the scope of
substrates exposed to products intended for human con- this chapter) can be formulated containing flaking or
sumption. Because of the limitation on film thickness, this fibrous fillers and applied by spray, trowel, or hand lay-up.
system normally is not specified as a pin-hole free lining.
D. POLYESTER-VINYL ESTER
B. PH ENOLIC/EPOXY BAKING TYPE Formulations based on either a polyester or vinyl
Formulations based on a phenol formaldehyde resin ester resin contain styrene or a similar monomer at a vary-
crosslinked with a Bisphenol A Epichlorohydrin. ing percentage up to 55 percent. The styrene monomer
Polymerization is accomplished by heat curing at metal enters into the cross linking but also evaporates;
temperatures of 350" to 450°F (177" to 242°C.). This type therefore, it is difficult to determine coverage by normal
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*34-2 93 8627940 0003773 303
volumeisolids methods with either of these materials. H. PRECAUTIONS

Polymerization is accomplished with peroxide type
The phenomena of cold wall effect, that is, a driving,
catalysts and promoters. Pot life can vary from 15 minutes
permeating force assisting ionic passage through the
to 8 hours, depending on the reactivity of the formulation.
coating to the metal in the direction from a hot liquid to a
The pigmentation varies depending on the intended use
cold wall, has been reported and is a significant adverse
and the manufacturer’s preference. Formulations contain-
factor in the performance of some lining. Conversely, with
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ing chopped glass, glass flake or inert oxide flake pigment

a heated exterior wall, the heat comes from the exterior
are used for lining vessels. Film thickness varies with the
towards the contents and within reasonable extremes, the
formulation, but for immersion application from 30 to 60
lining seems to be protected and the performance is im-
mil films are applied by spray. Heavier films (not in the
proved in these areas.6
scope of this chapter) from 40 to 120 mils may be applied
Coating materials used as linings tend to be the most
by trowel or hand lay-up. The chemical properties are
sophisticated of the paint and coating formulations. With
defined as excellent with resistance to various acid and
this often comes unusual sensitivities. Care should be
alkali environments. The solvent resistance is generally
taken to insure that coatings used as linings are well
fair. A pinhole free film can be obtained with these
within the shelf life as defined by the material supplier.
systems.
The storage or shelf life may be materially affected by
elevations in temperature or by exposure to sunlight.
E. NEOPRENE Others, i f once frozen, may not be suitable for usage.
Synthetic elastomers that may be dissolved in Storage under controlled temperatures and safe ventila-
solvents or as a latex dispersed in water. Common curing tion with scheduled package inverting as recommended by
agents are zinc or magnesium oxide. The solvent materials the supplier is essential for optimum shelf life.
are spray applied in thicknesses of 20 or more mils and
have excellent resistance to both alkalies and acids. The V. SURFACE PREPARATION
latex materials (like the styrene butadiene latex) are Surface preparation is important in obtaining suc-
sprayed in thicknesses of 10-25 mils and are widely successful linings for tanks. It should provide a substrate that
cessful in strong alkali immersion (50 and 73% caustic is free of contaminants, uniformly roughened and cleaned
soda) but not in acids. All neoprene are considered to be
to a white metal, such as outlined in SSPC-SP 5. This type
relatively poor in solvent environments. of surface can be created only by abrasive blasting. The in-
dustry has not established a guide for degree of profile,
F. INORGANIC ZINC although certain manufacturers do specify depth of profile
Formulations are based on either alkali or alkyl required for their systems. Observation indicates that with
silicates with a varying percentage of zinc pigment. The some coating systems in certain environments the depth
alkali formulations are water based and the alkyl, solvent of surface profile can significantly alter the results. Deter-
based. The amount of zinc loading will determine the mination of the depth of profile in the field has been made
degree of galvanic protection offered. This kind of system by using visual comparators, by making microscopic
may be self-curing, or it may rely on moisture in the air, or it measurements and by measuring depths imposed on a
may be post-cured by application of an acid solution. Its tape. However, the accuracy of this type of equipment has
chemical resistance is excellent in solvents and petroleum not been established.
products that are relatively free of water and with a near As environmental and health standards often prevent
neutral pH. It prevents corrosion of steel substrates by preparation of substrates by blasting with sand, evidence
sacrificial or preferential action. Topcoating is therefore shows that a clean angular iron or steel grit of proper hard-
advantageous to prevent rapid deterioration of the zinc. ness can provide an excellent surface. Steel surfaces
Possible contamination of the stored product may result blasted with metallic grit do not have the classic “white
when zinc coatings alone are used for immersion service. metal” appearance, nor do they have the same light reflec-
tant properties as steel blasted with sand because of the
G. VINYL absence of sand residues. In selecting any abrasive, care
Solutions consisting of vinyl chloridelvinyl acetate must be taken to insure that it is clean and non-
copolymers in ketonelaromatic solvents. Low volume contaminating. After abrasive blasting, dust must be
solids normally necessitate the application of several removed from surfaces and from the air. Once the dust has
coats to achieve recommended film thickness of 5-12 mils. settled, the surface should be carefully brushed andlor
Special high build formulations are available, but selection blown down with moistureioil-free air, andlor vacuum
should be made with extreme caution since the pigmenta- cleaned. This is a critical step in surface preparation for
tion can provide a very porous film unsuitable for immer- coatings to be used as linings.
sion service. Vinyls formerly were widely used in a Surface preparation of tanks that have previously
multitude of chemical and food services, but now are been exposed to liquids requires special treatment. Prior
somewhat limited to water, fatty acids and salt solutions. to blasting, it may be necessary to clean residues of
They exhibit poor resistance to solvents. previous contents with solvent, caustic, acid, detergent or

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R + L 4 . 2 93 8627940 0003772 0 4 T =
steam. However, no one or combination of these cleanings ess. The type of solvent, method of application, and the en-
is consistently successful. Many early failures have oc- vironmental conditions during the application are all fac-
curred even after the expensive but common procedure of tors which determine the readings. Good air circulation is
abrasive blasting first, then one or more cleanings fol- required to remove the solvents.
lowed by another abrasive blast. Extreme cleanliness is required throughout the
The only consistently successful procedure is as coating application. Clean, lint-free clothing should be
follows: worn. For safety reasons shoes should provide good trac-
1. Clean by an approved method to a visual tion but should have smooth soles to prevent tracking. If
cleanliness. the conditions of traction allow, a wrapping of the shoes
2. Prebake the vessel to a temperature of at least with polyethylene or other plastic film not affected by
25 F ” (14 Co)above the temperature that the tank solvents in the coating can be advantageous. To prevent
will encounter either in curing the coating, as in a contaminating the surface, lint-free gloves should be worn
high bake coating, or the tank’s highest operating during all phases of coating application.
temperature. The prebaking is most important in Application equipment must also be kept extremely
used tanks that are pitted or have been in a sulfide clean. New hoses for each type coating are desired, but i f
or salt environment. not available, previously used hoses must be meticulously
cleaned as residues of other products may have a severely
3. Abrasive blast the vessel to the specified surface
detrimental effect, particularly on a catalyzed coating. A
requirement.
thorough cleaning should be done immediately after use
of application equipment.
VI. APPLICATION TECHNIQUES Coating materials used as linings, as discussed in
The first coat must be applied as soon as possible this chapter, are spray applied by either conventional air or
after surface preparation to prevent rust blooming or ox- airless spray (Figures 5 and 6). Air spray indicates that the
idation of the substrate. To delay even a few hours could coating comes in direct contact with air for atomization
be detrimental unless the relative humidity and the while airless spray utilizes high pressure through a small
temperature of both the air and metal can be carefully con- orifice with no direct air contact. Air spray allows the
trolled. sprayer better control for thickness, particularly in con-
The first coat is normally applied by spray. If the fined areas andlor around intricate shapes in corners, etc.
material’s wetting properties are poor or the surfaces are The major disadvantage of air spray is that in spite of all
pitted, brushing should be considered. After the first coat warnings, the air supply used for spraying may contain
has been applied, it is often a good practice to brush one detrimental amounts of oil or water. Small amounts inter-
or more coats on welds, edges or any area that is not ideal- jected in certain coating systems could result in a change
ly fabricated. The brushing of welds, called stripping, is of physical properties such as the development of pin-
done to insure better coverage and continuity. It should be holes, blistering, fish eyeing, blushing or poor adhesion.
accomplished with care to avoid excessive film build. The.airless spray eliminates potential problems with
Depending upon the coating material, it is often advisable contaminated air. In addition, overspray is appreciably
to thin the coating to obtain better wetting characteristics. reduced. But the high volume of output makes it difficult to
The humidity must be controlled inside the tank dur- handle in confined areas and around intricate shapes. Im-
ing application of the coating due to possible and often in- proper buildup of some materials can result in a porous or
visible surface condensation. A psychrometer is used to cheesy film due to entrapped solvents.
determine the relative humidity, and thermometers are Multiple-coat lining systems require thorough visual
used for determining air and surface temperatures. inspection of all surfaces between coats, sanding or
A spray painter must be properly trained to apply a scraping out rough areas or entrapped foreign materials
coating. There are no hard and fast rules about the number and then repairing by brushing or additional spray applica-
of passes or the speed with which they should be applied; tions. Additionally, inspection after the first coat is the
therefore, technique and experience are important. Apply- time to pick up previhsly undetected fabrication or plate
ing a coating in a criss-cross pattern provides a more shortcomings. In most cases, these can be corrected by
uniform coating thickness and improved film continuity. chipping or grinding and the first coat reapplied as a
Some coatings require that a first pass be applied as a fog touchup. If additional welding is required or i f the coating
or mist coat. This very thin but uniform film allows material is one in which the depth of anchor pattern is of
solvents to flash off quickly, and the coating will then real significance, then it becomes necessary to reblast
“hold” or “take” subsequent and relatively heavier, slower those areas and reapply that first coat.
passes. Well trained, experienced spray painters, with Proper mixing of a coating system is important and
proper supervision can work out the best spraying pro- the supplier’s instructions should be carefully followed.
cedure for any given material. The wet film thickness ob- His restrictions on material temperature, relative humidity,
tained can be measured with a wet film gauge. This should cleanliness of equipment, and proportion of activator are
be considered an estimate measurement because the important and in some cases are critical . Add only ingre-
solvents in the coating evaporate during the spraying proc- dients supplied or specified by the supplier and adjust
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 4 = 2 93 8627940 0003773 T8b 9
concern. Ovens provide a more controlled environment and

better heat distribution and are more economical for han-
dling small components.
Properly controlling the curing of high-bake systems
prevents overcuring on intermediate bakes which would
result in loss of adhesion, or undercuring of the final coat,
which would result in poor chemical resistance. Overcur-
ing on the final coat, short of charring, is not considered to
be detrimental. There is no correlation between air
temperature and metal temperature during the heating of a
tank. The only concern for proper cure is the temperature
of the lining. For practical purposes, the exterior metal
temperature and the lining temperature are identical. It is
most convenient, unless baking in an oven, to use the ex-
terior metal temperature as a control by using recording or
contact thermometers and heat indicating crayons. This
FIGURE 5
Two-hundred-foot diameter, open top tank being lined via rolling measurement of surface temperature allows the operator
scaffolding. to determine when minimum temperatures are obtained
Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp. and where cold or hot spots exist, thus assuring uniform
distribution of heat. With today’s technology the operator
with thinner as precisely as possible to the specified does not have an overall temperature but merely a group of
viscosity. readings on which he must rely. Using this information an
experienced operator can detect the hot or cold spots and
VIL CURING AND BAKING provide for the control of air movement throughout the
tank (Figure 7).
Coating materials are commonly classified as air dry,
force cured or baked. Force curing of even an air dry
material does improve its performance characteristics to a
degree, depending on the generic type. Force curing can
appreciably increase adhesion, improve crosslinkage, in-
sure that all solvents are removed and provide a more com-
plete reaction. When the lined tank is to be exposed to en-
vironments such as potable water, food, food packaging
materials or any other environment where odor or trace
chemical pickup could be of concern, force curing normal-
ly is necessary to insure elimination of all solvents and
products of polymerization.
For all force intercoat drying, an indirect fired heater
should be used whenever possible since coating systems
may be sensitive to products of combustion. If the fuel is
dirty or the fuel-air mixture is incorrect, an invisible film
may be deposited on the surface that would affect the
adhesion of the succeeding coats. The size of the tank and
the equipment available dictates the type of heat source.
For indirect heaters the common fuels are oil, steam,
natural gas or propane.
Curing of high bake coatings, where metal
temperatures of 350°F to 450°F (177°C to 242°C) are
necessary, usually requires the use of direct fired heaters.
Common fuels are natural gas or propane. To attain these
temperatures on large tanks the exteriors must be in-
sulated, but present capability limits the size of tank to
about 80 feet in diameter.
Smaller shop-fabricated vessels are usually force
cured andlor final baked in ovens. The prerequisite is an
even distribution of heat with reasonable temperature con- FIGURE 6
Lining being spray applied in railroad tank car for shipment of
trol. The source of heat can be electricity, gas, or oil, but clean chemical or food product.
again the products of combustion should be of primary Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
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326
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERxL4-2 9 3 8627940 0003774 912
NACE Chapter 3 TPC Publication No. 2 states, “The steel are best detected at this time and corrected before
factors necessary to complete proper cure of linings are the surface preparation is continued. Inspection for sur-
based primarily on knowledge and skills derived from ex- face preparation to specification should be made keeping
perience. The factors include proper BTU capacity, proper in mind that the actual surface preparation and its light
design, method, type and degree of insulation required, reflectant quality varies appreciably with the abrasive
ways and means of setting up ducting and curing time. used. The intensity and depth of anchor pattern can be
Still, curing must be considered an art rather than a rqeasured by a number of available instruments or by com-
science and proficiency is found principally with those few paring to previously prepared laboratory panels. The ac-
organizations specializing in the application of tank lining curacy of field instruments to measure anchor patterns
materials as discussed in this r e p ~ r t . ’ ’ ~ has not been proven.
Throughout drying between coats, force curing andlor Inspecting for coating application should be con-
baking, substantial volumes of air should be directed to ducted by observing for runs, sags, foreign objects,
ventilate all areas. Inadequate ventilation can result in in- craters, thickness, curing andlor drying between coats.
sufficient cure andlor a build up of solvent vapors until The dry film thickness should be determined by using a
runs or solvent wash occurs. non-destructive gauge, normally of the magnetic type.
Variations in readings may be attributed to anchor profile,
wall thickness or magnetic effects in an enclosure.
VI II. INSPECTION An extra coat or additional thickness may diminish
The common view of inspecting painting does not ap- rather than enhance the quality of the lining. Even the
ply to the inspection of coating that are applied as linings. most rigid tank moves appreciably as it is loaded or emp-
Adherence to this view can be detrimental to the perform- tied and as it is heated or cooled. Stresses exist or develop
ance of the lining and can greatly increase cost. For exam- in many of the materials used as linings; therefore, apply-
ple, commonly the word “inspection” means inspecting by ing the coating to the minimum thicknesses required
purchaser for acceptance of the workmanship. But while allows the film to maintain its adhesion and still have a
this is a perfectly acceptable technique when inspecting low permeation rate so that it performs effectively in the
workmanship which can be defined by “go” or “no-go” environment. The extra coat syndrome so common in
testing, it is not acceptable testing for the application of maintenance painting is a fallacy that creates many
coatings as linings. troubles inside a tank.
Ongoing inspection of linings provides assurances Inspecting for discontinuities (holidays) is extremely
that every phase of surface preparation, application and important when the corrosion rate of the solution involved
curing are properly performed. Variations in any phase isextreme. When the lining is used solely for protecting from
must be immediately recognized and corrective action contamination, isolated pinholes are not detrimental to
taken or performance of the lining can be adversely af- the lining, as when a bake phenolic system is immersed in
fected, even though the lining may not fail any acceptance con cent rated su If uric acid.
inspection test. The shortcoming of the lining industry is Continuity testing is accomplished by utilizing either
due partially to the limited number of instruments a high voltage or low voltage (wet sponge) tester. The wet
available for measuring the quality of coating work and the sponge tester is effective with coating films up to approx-
resultant over-attention to the few facets that can be imately 20 mils. Discontinuities in heavier films can be
measured. Instruments that are available must be located by a high-voltage detector. Little work has been
calibrated and used properly to be of significant value. done to determine what detrimental effects voltage has on
Any inspection requires a broad knowledge of the lining films. Unfortunately, when coatings are used as lin-
functions of coating work in order to evaluate the quality ings in severely corrosive environments, it is imperative
of work accomplished. Over-inspecting, like over- that every possible passageway be located and corrected.
specifying, can add extra costs, which do not always pro- Until some other way is found, high voltage spark testers
vide added life to the coating system. Nevertheless, every will be used, but they should be used judiciously. Voltages
single phase of the entire work must be inspected to be must be selected with consideration to the electrical
certain that all is as it was engineered to be, including resistance of the formulation and the total film thickness
design, fabrication, material, mixing, application and cure. applied. Consideration also must be given to the speed the
The design and fabrication of a tank should be in- detector travels over the surface, the number of passes
spected to insure that the welds are continuous, the splat- made over a surface and the minimum voltage required to
ter removed, and the heavy ripple ground. Internals having pass the air gap for a specific thickness.
sharp edges should be radiused as needed to allow for Throughout the inspection any instrument that is
coating buildup on edges. Nozzles leading into the tank destructive to the integrity of the coating should not be
should be of a large enough diameter to allow surface used for testing. If it becomes necessary to use such an in-
preparation and coating application. strument, the damage must be repaired.
Following surface preparation, the surface should be Inspection for cure of most coatings is extremely dif-
inspected for contaminants such as grease, oil, dust or ficult. Hardness tests and solvent softening tests must be
blasting abrasive. Visual laminates and defects on the used with considerable skill or either can be misleading.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 4 * 2 7 3 = 6627740 0003775 859 =
ing or abrasive blasting to obtain roughness and then wip-
ing with a solvent to remove the sanding particles. With
the high bake and most thermosetting materials the
overlap is kept to a minimum as the solvents will not wet
the completely cured coating.
X. CONCLUSIONS
Coatings are used as linings for various types of ap-
plications such as food containers, hot water tanks, tank
trucks, tank cars, storage silos, water treatment systems,
large chemical storage tanks, and stacks. The success of
a coating system depends greatly on proper design,
material selection, and proper application. The versatility
of carbon steel plus a coating as a lining gives it advan-
tages over other steel alloys which are extremely costly.
FIGURE 7 Time will advance the know-how, bring better quality
Metal temperature at many different areas during curing and bak- assurance techniques, and improve coating formulations.
ing of linings can be reviewed and recorded simultaneously. Possibly, supersonic cleaning to replace abrasive blasting,
Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
electrostatic deposition to replace spraying and induction
heating to replace hot air heating will reduce the time in-
For high bake coatings the degree of cure is well deter- volved in lining a tank to a few hours and eliminate possi-
mined by the change in color as compared to control ble errors involved with application.
panels.
IX. MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is just as important for coating systems
used in tanks as it is for exterior paint systems. But unfor-
tunately, because the economics differ substantially, so
do the maintenance programs. To obtain accessibility to
the interior of a process tank, the process must be shut
down, and the commodity must be transferred to another
lined tank. For exterior paint systems it is practical and
economical to inspect on some engineered schedule, such
as each quarter or each year, and touch up as needed. Con-
trarily, lining systems, to be economical, must be designed
to give maintenanyfree extended service life. A common
rule of thumb is-aminimum of three years, but in most en-
vironments a minimum of five years is required and readily
obtainable. The coating materials regularly used suc-
cessfully as linings have long maintenance-free service
lives. A typical, good grade, proprietary, high bake, thermo-
setting phenolic performs for five years in the most severe
instances and ten years in many more.
When designing a lining system, consideration must
be given to its ability to be touched up or repaired because
of physical damage, design change in the tank, industrial
accidents or shortcomings in application. Repair materials
should be selected for their compatibility and adhesion
with the original material, their adhesion to steel and their
resistance to the environment. Because there is seldom
any appearance requirement, there is little reason to use
the same material as the original.
The procedure for repairing a coating is normally iden-
tical to the procedure used in initial application. Where the
repaired coating intersects the existing coating, it is nor-
mally recommended that the existing coating be feathered
to accept the repaired coating. Feathering requires sand-
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328
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r 1 4 - 2 93 86279YO 0003776 795 =
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT REFERENCES
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active 1. Chapter 1 of TPC publication No. 2 of the National Associa-
participation of the following in the review process for this tion of Corrosion Engineers “Coatings and Linings for Immer-
chapter: T.A. Cross, Richard Drisko, Noel Duvic, Dan Gelfer, Tom sion Service” has compiled detailed safety information for
Ginsberg, Lewis Gleekman, Leonard Haynie, Harlan Kline, work inside tanks.
Howard Lasser, D.W. Metzger, John Montle, C. Munger, Bill Pear- 2. National Association of Mutual Casualty Company, 20 North
son, W.A. Severance, William Wallace. Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60606.
3. The American Gas Association, 1515 Wilson Boulevard, Arling-
ton, VA 22209.
4. “NACE Standard RP-01-78 Design, Fabrication and Surface
Finish of Metal Tanks and Vessels to be Lined for Chemical
Immersion Service.”
BIOGRAPHY 5. “NACE TM-01-74 - Laboratory Methods for Evaluation of
Albert L. Hendricks is Presi- Protective Coatings Used as Lining Material in Immersion
dent of Wisconsin Protective Service.”
Coating Corporation, Green 6. Bryan I. Zohn, “Protective Lining Performance,” Chemical
Bay, Wisconsin, where he has Engineering Progress, Vol. 66, No. 8, August 1970.
been employed since 1958. 7. See NACE TPC Publication No. 2, “Coatings and Linings for
His activities while em- Immersion Service.”
ployed at Wisconsin Protective
Coatings have been directly
related to coating work at vari-
ous levels including manufactur-
ing, testing, research, quality
control, application and
soecifvina.
-r-- ,
He häs been accredited as a Corrosion Specialist by the Na-
tional Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and is actively
involved on various technical committees within NACE, the Steel
Structures Painting Council, the American Society for Testing and
Materials, the American Concrete Institute, and the American Water
Works Association. He has been an officer at Section, Region and
National levels within NACE.
BIOGRAPHY
Wallace P. Cathcart is Tech-
nical Counsel, Trinity Industries
Inc. His technical efforts for more
than forty years have been in the
selection and application of coat-
ings and linings for industries in-
volved with storage and
transportation. He co-founded
and for 34 years was CEO of
Tank Lining Corp. He is accredit-
ed as a Corrosion Specialist by
the National Association of Cor-
rosion Engineers and is a
registered professional engineer
in the state of California. He was awarded a certificate of recogni-
tion from Steel Structures Painting Council as Paint Manual author,
author and editor of the JPCL and technical committee chairman.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S - O 93 8627940 0003777 b2L =
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CHAPTER 15
PAINTING HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

by
J. i. Kiewit
Steel in dams, hydroelectric plants and irrigation and OSHA foreshadow ‘the emergence of new coating
works is coated primarily to prevent corrosion and secon- materials and mandatory procedures. Unfortunately,
darily to improve appearance. The ideal of “permanent” answers have not yet surfaced in all potentially
preservation is rarely attained. Weathering and fresh water troublesome areas, such as a replacement for the critically
immersion exposures are less severe than many en- vital sandblast cleaning method. However, the best guess
countered in other industries, but hydraulic structures is that industry will develop water-based and solvent-free
are built to last a century or more. Time takes its toll. Cor- coatings to resolve the solvent emission dilemma. It would
rosion engineers must exercise skill in evaluating not be surprising to find that new methods and materials
deteriorative elements in each coating exposure to make do more things better than the old.
the best possible selections, and to accomplish each step The discussion mentions a few important coatings
in the process necessary to extract full service potential that are usually or always applied by shop processes.
from the chosen coatings. However, emphasis is placed on coatings applied in the
The design of hydraulic structures is performed by field and by conventional methods to in-place, large and
several kinds of engineers and architects, some of whom small piping, gates, cranes and diverse metalwork items.
are only peripherally knowledgeable about corrosion and
coatings. Trained corrosion engineers can contribute vital- I. SELECTION OF COATINGS
ly to design. For instance, an overview of the complete Before focusing on specific coatings for hydraulic
project may reveal the existence of bimetallic couples with structures, the overall objectives and a variety of factors
nonferrous metals such as copper grounding mats or elec- affecting the coating selection should be considered:
trolytic corrosion currents in the soil, which could pro-
foundly influence corrosion rates and coating perform- Related Factors Coating Requirements
ance. Design for painting Surface preparation
A corrosion engineer can recommend measures to Coordination with Specialist services
eliminate or reduce corrosion, such as the selection of construction activities Ambient conditions (temper-
noncorrosive materials where economically feasible, and Method of specifying ature, moisture, ventilation,
the installation of cathodic protection systems in conjunc- cost etc.)
tion with coatings for steel. Even though steel continues to Safety requirements Latitude (tolerance to adverse
be used widely, and protective coatings usually are the ma- conditions
jor means of protection and decoration, a corrosion Objectives
Item or Structure
engineer provides essential support to design engineers in Protection
the selection and use of materials. Location of applica-
Appearance tion (shoplfield)
Before the coatings for new structures are selected,
Durabi Iity
the ferrous metalwork should meet design specifications Size
Maintainability Surface configuration
for painting. For instance, specifications may require that
edges be rounded to minimize thinning of the coating and Accessi bility
that welds be ground and weid spatter removed. Back-to- Possible handling and
back angles with space between them or intermittent weld traffic damage
should both be avoided. Other failures attributable to Some or all of the above may present problems in a
faulty design are discussed in a separate chapter. Plan- given case, and problems easily resolved in new construc-
ning the sequence of painting operations can preclude the tion may become acute in maintenance painting.
difficulty of painting inaccessible areas or awkward Coatings will be categorized in terms of the ex-
scheduling situations, such as the excessive weathering posures for steel found in and around hydraulic structures,
of primed surfaces. and recognition of the major deteriorative elements in
While this review of coatings for hydraulic structures is these exposures becomes pertinent. A few of the more
not exhaustive, it presents descriptions of materials and common ones are:
methods that time has proved effective. Present federal re- Water Cavitation
quirements and others certain to come from the EPA, FDA, 9 Chemical attack (acids, Soil stresses and
bases, organics) punctures
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 5 - 0 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003778 5 6 8
Abrasion (debris in a Biodegradation acts as a sacrificial anode in immersion exposures).

water, windblown sand, Weathering Most of the coatings considered are of the barrier
ice) a Corrosion currents type, although the effectiveness of the barrier may vary
Erosion (waterborne Temperature variations considerably. Since World War II, the coatings’ industry
sand or gravel) a Freeze-thaw has presented corrosion engineers with a bewildering ar-
Impacts Vandalism ray of coatings with enhanced capabilities. But rather than
simplifying selection, this complicates it. In the absence
The engineer must identify deteriorative elements in a of time or facilities for lengthy laboratory and field investi-
particular situation and select a coating system proven gations, perhaps the best guide to selecting a coating is
resistant to all. The instances of coating failure from demonstrated performance under identical or closely
unanticipated causes underline the importance of care- similar service conditions. We cannot wait for 50-year per-
fully analyzing exposures. formance to verify coating serviceability; however, the
Coatings for hydraulic structures protect steel behavior of organic coatings in the Bureau of
primarily by three mechanisms: Reclamation’s Shasta field test3 may be instructive. In this
Barrier test, 70 percent of the organic coatings that were com-
The coating isolates the substrate from its environ- pletely defect-free at five years were also defect-free at 15
ment, as if the surface to be protected were wrapped years. Thus, some projection of coating serviceability can
in a completely inert and impermeable plastic bag be made - cautiously, and with high regard for the com-
(e.g., coal-tar enamel). parability of exposure conditions.
Inhibition Thick coatings usually serve longer than thin ones.
The coating modifies the environment in contact with Similarly, hot-applied, baked or chemically set coatings
the substrate. Concrete and cement mortar produce a generally outperform cold-applied, solvent-based type.
ph of 9-12, in which steel usually does not corrode in Performance depends, in part, upon the degree of cure ob-
the absence of high chloride concentrations. Some tained and the relative chemical inertness and resistance
paint pigments also tend to inhibit corrosion. of coatings to water permeation. In this context, shop
Substitution painting offers advantages of superior facilities and better
The steel is coated with a metal having different cor- control of the more sophisticated baked, hot-applied and
rosion resistance characteristics (e.g., zinc, which
FIGURE 1
Shasta Dam, part of the Central Valley Project, California, il. plant, switchyards, and a visitors center.
lustrates the many protective and decorative painting re. Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
quirements of hydraulic structures. Visible are penstocks, power
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U L S . 0 93 8627940 0003779 4 T 4
internal-set coatings. On the other hand, the large size of rust tuberculation that may sharply reduce the hydraulic
some equipment necessitates field painting, and durable efficiency of piping.
yet practical coatings must be provided. A field coating Proven immersion coatings expected to provide
with few rigid application limitations and great tolerance service approximating the life of the structure are
for unfavorable combinations of marginal surface prepara- limited to cement mortar and coal-tar pitch or enamel.
tion, temperature and humidity is much to be preferred Other common coatings holding high promise and
over one that might last longer but seldom is applied cor- awaiting the validation of sufficient history include coal-
rect ly. tar epoxy and fusion epoxy. These and others are grouped
Cost is a major selection factor. Corrosion engineers for the present in a second tier of materials expected to
are well aware that the per gallon price of paint materials last over 20 years, provided they are maintained regularly.
is a poor criterion of coating economics. Cost should be The role of rigorous surface preparation in the per-
based on the total applied cost divided by the expected formance of organic immersion coatings can hardly
service life. Clearly, the 50- to 100-year life of cement mor- be overemphasized. The tolerance of poorly cleaned
tar or coal-tar enamel coatings produces a coatings metal varies somewhat (e.g. low tolerance by vinyls,
bargain, particularly when the extraordinary costs of tak- better tolerance by coal-tar epoxies, fairly high tolerance
ing outages for maintenance of vital, revenue-producing by coal-tar enamel), and a slight concession in the
structures are included. intensity can be allowed. Experience shows blast cleaning
Space limitations and the vast number of coatings or the equivalent to be essential. Lesser methods, which
generated by the industry since World War II necessitate do not remove all contaminants and roughen the surface,
confining the discussion to the most common generic almost invariably lead to substantially reduced durability.
types of coatings. Coatings for which specifications Cement mortar alone tolerates truly superficial surface
are listed in Section V have performed well and are in cleaning.
wide use. Coating selection and practices of large organi-
1. Cernent mortar
zations concerned with hydraulic structures are described
Cement mortar is among the oldest and best pipe
in their manuals and reports (see references), which can
linings. Mortar reliably protects for over 50 years in
serve as a source of additional information.
water distribution systems by creating a corrosion-
inhibitive alkaline environment (pH-12) at the sur-
A. UNDERWATER EXPOSURES
face of the steel. The preponderance of linings,
Items fabricated of steel that are continuously ranging from x6
to 3h inch (4.8 to 19.0 mm) in
submerged in normal operation include high-pressure thickness, are plant-applied by the centrifugal
gates; roller gates; valves, trashracks and interiors of casting* (spinning) process to piping ranging from
water storage tanks; and pipe used for penstocks, outlets, 12 to about 60 inches (0.3 to 1.5 m) in diameter.
conduits, siphons, pump discharge lines and water Bends and other special shapes unsuitable for
distribution lines. In addition to continuous immersion, spinning are lined by handtroweling. An external
coatings may be subject to erosion, abrasion, andlor coating can be applied concurrently as discussed
cavitation. While protecting steel, coatings also prevent in section B.
An option to apply mortar linings to piping
already in place assumes great importance when
large-size pipe must be lined or an old line has
corroded and requires replacement or abandon-
ment. Piping as large as 21 feet (6.4 m) in diameter
has been lined, although the lining of sizes over 14
feet (4.3 m) in diameter is uncommon. Of course,
the lining thickness must be increased in propor-
tion to the increasing pipe size. Further, an in-place
lining plugs up and seals most small holes up to as
much as 3/4 inch (19.0 mm), restoring the integrity
of an old corroded line and restoring it to approxi-
mately its original carrying capacity. A major ad-
vantage of in-place motor lining lies in its tolerance
to only superficial preparation. Old lines can be
FIGURE 2
Soon after painting, rust (by knife) began draining from under a 'Centrifugal casting - a process in which the Coating
radial gate member secured by intermittent welds. For best material is introduced into rotating pipe and spreads to
design, the inaccesible space should be sealed by a continuous
weld or equivalent. a smooth, continuous lining of uniform thickness. Also
Courtesy U S . Bureau of Reclamation called spinning.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

332
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LS=O 93
cleaned sufficiently by pulling scrapers through

- 8627740 O003780 L L b
(spinning), which can be readily controlled to pro-

the piping. The alkalinity from water permeating vide a uniformly thick, 3/32 inch (2.4 mm), lining of
the coating to the metal surface nullifies further glass-like smoothness. This characteristic is ad-
corrosion. vantageous in achieving low friction losses with
Plant-applied water linings usually crack if resultant economies in design and operation. The
allowed to dry after curing. Most are hairline (less lining is most frequently applied in the pipe
than 1/32 inch (0.08 mm)) and close upon rewetting fabricator’s plant, but a few independent applica-
and expansion of the lining. Alkalinity stifles corro- tors are organized to apply the lining by hand at the
sion even in open hairline cracks and, in some jobsite. Pipe lined by the plant process has ranged
waters, the cracks “heal” (¡.e., build up a calcare- from 4 inches to more than 10 ft. (0.1 to 3.0 m) in
ous scale). Cement mortar linings depend on arch diameter, and the cost of mechanically applied
action to hold their position in piping, not on adhe- enamel, including blast cleaning, is moderate. By
sion in the usual sense. Thus, the small shrinkage using mechanical couplings, individual sections
cracks or slight gaps between the lining and the may be lined for the full length, and no hand work is
metal usually are not a concern. required. Coal-tar enamel with wraps can be ap-
Mortar linings afford good protection against plied to exterior pipe surfaces in the same plant
erosion by sand and gravel-laden water, by virtue of operations, as discussed in section B.
their thickness. They generally resist water For larger diameter, mechanically lined pipe in
velocities up to 20 to 25 feet per second (6.1 to which sections are joined by field welding, joint
7.6 mls). Although mortar exhibits considerable areas are lined after installation by hand daubing.
resistance to freeze-thaw action, gradual deteriora- Hand daubing must be used for irregular shapes
tion proceeds, and mortar lining above-ground not adaptable to spinning. For pipe under 27 inches
piping, which will be exposed and empty during
winters in cold climates, may not be advisa le.
Mortar-lined piping so exposed is best kept ful of
moving water or thoroughly dried during he
winters.
2. Coal-tar coatings
Coat-tar pitch as a principal constituent in
coatings has long been prized by the coatings in-
dustry, primarily because of economics and its
hydrophobic property. Suitably processed coal-tar
products absorb little water and are virtually unaf-
fected by long periods of water immersion. In this
respect, they are generally considered to be
superior to asphaltic compositions. They also are
toxic to most organisms and discourage biological
degradation. Thick, hot-applied versions of coal-tar
coatings afford the longest service. OSHA, EPA
and other regulatory agencies are currently
evaluating the carcinogenic effects of coal-tar as it
is applied and exposed in coatings. Obviously, this
could lead to specific or effective proscription of
one of the best coating constituents. It is hoped
the evaluation is unhurried and realistic.
3. Coal-tar pitch
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Hot-applied coal-tar pitch, applied by dipping, has

preserved submerged trashracks for nearly half a
century on Bureau of Reclamation projects. The ex-
tensive equipment required for dipping justifies
this excellent coating only for very large jobs, and it
has been seldom used in recent years.
4. Coal-tar enamel
Coal-tar enamel is especially appropriate for lining FIGURE 3
Rigorous sandblasting removed hard, tight, rust scale (right of
and coating steel pipe. Service records project a rivets) in 30-year old pipe. It also removed corrosion products from
life of 50 years or more. It is commonly applied to the bottom of pits preparatory to painting.
straight individual sections by centrifugal casting Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S = O 93 m 8627940 0003783 O52 m
FIGURE 4
Glassy smooth surface of shop spun coal-tar enamel provides low hydraulic friction in water piping.
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
(0.69 m) in diameter, it is necessary to employ 5. Cold applied, coal-tar coatings

mechanical couplings rather than welding because Coal-tar pitch also has been incorporated into a
of the difficulty or impossibility of hand daubing variety of cold-applied, relatively thin film coatings.
joint areas or of performing maintenance. Very Some are solvent cutbacks modified with various
large diameter pipe, over 15 ft. (4.6 m) in diameter, fillers and other constituents. In others, the coal tar
may have to be lined in its entirety by hand daubing has been used as an extender. Among the best and
even though the cost is much higher than for lining most widely distributed of these is the coal-tar
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
by spinning. epoxy paint.

Coal-tar enamel should be selected only Such paints afford more than 20 years of serv-
within its limitations. It is suitable for large, ice to metalwork in immersion exposures and are
essentially cylindrical surfaces such as piping, easily brush- or spray-applied to piping and the
but is very difficult to apply to complex shapes, irregular surfaces of bulkhead gates and trash-
such as bulkhead gates or items having beams or racks. Those suitable for potable water may be
girders. Enamel linings in empty piping are some- used above as well as below the minimum water
what susceptible to cracking and spalling in cold surface of tanks, since they are less susceptible
weather, and to bond deterioration and a different than coal-tar enamel t o cracking under the sun-
type of cracking where the pipe exterior is exposed induced heat in the top and sides of the tank.
to the sun in warm weather. It resists poorly the Because the combination of heat and condensate
erosive effect of sand and gravel in water, or the (essentially, distilled water) in the upper part of the
cavitation occasionally present in high-velocity above-ground tanks constitutes a severe exposure,
flows. It also degrades rapidly by hardening and a coating proven in this service should be selected.
cracking in direct sunlight. And, finally, enamel Coatings containing coal lar frequently are in-
must be applied by specialists with suitable equip- compatible with other coatings. Attempts to apply
ment and experience, backed up by knowledgeable other coatings over coal tar may encounter poor
inspection. adhesion. In fact, one vinyl resin paint bonded

334
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 5 . 0 93 8627940 0003782 T99
same resins remain in wide use and high esteem

for the simplicity of their handling, applications
and established service records. For example, vinyl
resin, phenolic and coal tar paints in various for-
mulations have protected hydraulic equipment
for 20 years with proper maintenance.
9. Temporary protection
When underwater protection is required for only a
few years in mild exposures, simpler surface
preparations and less expensive materials may suf-
fice. Cold- and hot-dip-applied asphaltic coatings
afford lower durability than the corresponding
coal-tar coatings. Galvanizing metalwork, such as
small slide gates, may be selected for high abra-
FIGURE 5 sion resistance and ease of recoating; however,
Coal-tar enamel applied by hand daubing in Shasta Dam
penstock presents a distinctive pattern. The slightly greater
while zinc has exhibited long life in some in-
roughness of daubed enamel is not considered significant in stances, it has succumbed quickly in more cor-
large piping. rosive waters and its durability in immersion is not
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
easily predictable.
1O. Other coatings
poorly to a surface formerly coal-tar coated, Many excellent coatings, based on relatively
even though that surface had been sandblasted new synthetic resins now in wide use, are estab-
thoroughly. In addition to affecting coating bond, lishing solid performance records in continuous
the coal-tar oils may bleed through and disfigure immersion. Prominent among these are epoxies,
the top coat. vinyls, phenolics and urethanes and, for the time
6. Coa/-tar epoxy being, it appears the most durable of these is the
Coal-tar epoxy paint came into wide use in the multi-component type. To the extent of their suita-
1960’s and serves as an example of the new breed bility to water works structures, certain powder
of two-component immersion paints. Epoxy resins (fusion) coatings also offer great promise. Eventu-
adhere well to several substrates and allow con- ally, a few of these coatings will provide durability
siderable latitude in the quality of surface prepara- on the same order as cement mortar and coal-tar
tion. Extending epoxy resin with economical, enamel.
water-resistant coal tar produces a high-solids Two Bureau of Reclamation tests2 illustrate
coating that has performed well for more than 15 the progress industry has made in developing
years in piping and on bulkhead gates, trashracks better immersion coatings. Twenty test linings
and spiral cases. It may be brush-, roller-, or spray- were installed in the Unit 5 penstock at Shasta
applied with or without a primer, and two coats pro- Dam in 1949. After 10 years, 32 percent of these
vide a thickness of about 16 mils (0.4 mm). The remained in defect-free condition. Just 10 years
chemical-setting mechanism imposes rigid re- later, 36 lining systems selected from the most
quirements for thorough mixing and adherence to promising materials then available were placed for
application and curing times and temperatures. testing in a siphon on the Collbran Project. Here, 70
Some prefer to apply coal-tar epoxy paints over percent survived 10-year exposure without defects;
epoxy- or zinc-pigmented primers for enhanced included were vinyls, epoxies, phenolics, neo-
adhesion and durability. prenes and coal tars, applied as solvent and
7 . Other epoxies catalyzed materials. Much longer exposure will be
Other epoxies contain no coal tar and may be ob- required to enable the selection of the best of the
tained in any color. Many cure to a tile-like gloss, Collbran linings.
are easily cleaned and are approved for potable
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
water tanks. A few are 100 percent solids, obviating B. UNDERGROUND EXPOSURE
problems with solvent-release regulations. Others Buried steel in hydraulic structures usually comprises
can be applied underwater, although usually with portions of penstocks and piping used in water irrigation
considerable difficulty. A similar diversity of and domestic water distribution systems. The importance
characteristics is represented among multi- of most buried structures and the difficulty of inspecting
component paints composed of other synthetic and maintaining them underline the value of quality and
resins or combinations thereof. durability in the initial coating selections and of perform-
8. Solvent paints ing the applications correctly. The exposure demands
Solvent-release paints formulated with some of the maximum coating permanence. Requirements for the ex-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER+LS.O 93 8627740 0003783 925
terior protection of such piping are essentially the same as ally reinforced with an embedded fibrous glass
for gas or oil piping. mat, and an asbestos felt rock shield is bonded to
Pipe corrodes in soil as a result of deteriorative the hot enamel. This coating is normally plant-
elements present in immersion exposures and the ef- applied to pipe in sizes up to about 10 feet (3.0 m) in
fects of soil stresses, punctures and bacteria. Water diameter. An equivalent application can be per-
leaches chemicals from the coil and becomes very formed in the field, but only with great difficulty
corrosive. Galvanic and electrolytic corrosion currents and by the most qualified personnel. When pro-
may dictate the dielectric properties of the coating. Conse- tected against handling damage during pipe in-
quently, a preliminary soil corrosivity survey is often con- stallation and backfilling, the coating effectively
ducted to reveal specific problems and possible need for and permanently isolates the steel from its soil en-
cathodic protection. vironment and thus provides a high level of protec-
Coatings for buried metal usually are relatively thick tion. The coating should be electrically tested for
films. If the coating is not inherently resistant to soil pinholes and impacted spots just prior to backfill-
forces, sturdy wraps must also be provided. Cement mor- ing, particularly if cathodic protection will not be
tar and coal-tar enamel are most commonly selected for added. The highly dielectric enamel is especially
buried piping, but a number of other materials offer attrac- compatible with cathodic protection. Since only
tive characteristics in some circumstances. the tiny bare metal areas in pinholes must be so
1. Cement mortar protected, current demand is small, and a small
Cement mortar inherently resists most soil forces cathodic protection installation often can protect
and requires no special wraps to prevent handling great lengths of piping.
abrasion. Mortar containing sulfate-resistant ce-
ment is adequate for most high sulfate soil waters 3. High Density Polyethylene
encountered in the United States. The threat to continued availability of coal-tar
Wire-reinforced mortar usually is plant-applied enamel has spurred interest in other coatings.
to the exterior of piping up to 84 in. (2.13 m) in Among a variety of plastics that may be suitable is
diameter, often in conjunction with mortar lining polyethylene; thick, tough, highly inert and dense.
application. It can also be pneumatically applied to The Bureau of Reclamation permitted applica-
larger piping in the field or to irregularly shaped tions of such a coating to several sections of
items. Unless strong electrolytic currents exist in the 66 to 102 in. (1.68 to 2.59 m) diameter line pip-
the area, cathodic protection rarely is needed with ing on its Southern Nevada Water Project. The
mortar-coated lines, which are properly isolated coating reportedly had been successfully in service
electrically from other structures. for over 5 years on piping with diameters up to 42
in. (1.1 m) elsewhere in the United States, display-
2. Coal-tar enamel and wraps
ing low and steady cathodic protection current de-
Coal-tar enamel for exterior pipe surfaces is usu-
mand. Experience with Southern Nevada bore out
this promise; current demand was significantly
lower than for coal-tar enameled pipe.
Plant application of the coating involved melt-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ing high density polyethylene beads at near 5OO0F
for extrusion over a thin butyl adhesive on the
rotating pipe. The wide spiral overlaps fused
together to produce a continuous coating with a
minimum thickness over 60 mils (1.5 mm). Under
tension, the coating shrank back 2 to 4 in. (5 to
10 mm) from the pipe ends and stabilized within 30
days of yard storage. The coating displayed ex-
treme resistance to handling and backfill damage
during installation. In this first application to large
diameter piping, a few problems developed. The
coating tended to neck down and developed voids
along high longitudinal welds, necessitating a filler
application to the weld prior to coating. The
coating also pulled away from the surface at cut-
outs for manholes, etc. These and the field joints
were taped with butyl adhesive-polyethylene back-
FIGURE6 ing plastic tape. The 12 in. (0.3 m) wide tapes
Three experimental lining areas can be seen in siphon piping
used for the “Collbran” test of pipe lining materials. proved difficult to tighten properly by hand
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation methods. While some plant and field refinements

at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R * L S * O 93 = 8627940 0003784 861
of future high density polyethylene coatings may C. ALTERNATING WATER AND AIR
occur, “virtually permanent” protection of buried EXPOSURE
metal piping is expected.
Low-head gates, trashracks and other fabrications of
4. Tapes steel used for controlling waterflow in spillways, checks,
Several tape coatings have performed well on canal turnouts, etc., are subjected to combinations of im-
buried piping. Hot-applied, double-wrapped, glass- mersion and atmospheric exposures. Portions of these
or fabric-reinforced coal-tar enamel tapes provide items may be completely submerged, others exposed to
about the equivalent of a coal-tar enamel and wrap continuous weathering and middle parts to a fluctuating
coating. Cold-applied polyethylene and polyvinyl water level. In some cases, structures may operate only
chloride tapes 10 to 30 mils thick with pressure- during the irrigation season and be dry during the winter.
sensitive adhesives have been spirally wrapped on Sand and gravel suspended in water erode coatings.
small diameter piping. Priming the surfaces Ice and floating timbers abrade them. In addition to
enhances adhesion. A shield against scarring and protecting metal, coatings now are expected to clothe visi-
puncturing the tape during backfilling often is ble structures in attractive colors that harmonize with sur-
essential. The industry appears to be developing roundings. In short, alternating exposure may be viewed as
heavier duty tape-coating systems with both high the most severe of all exposures, this being slightly
durability and resistance to soil and handling. mitigated by the accessibility of the metalwork for
5. Fusion coatings maintenance.
Certain plant-applied fusion coatings exhibit Coatings for this alternating exposure must resist
tenacious adhesion and extraordinary toughness deteriorative effects of both immersion and weathering.
as well as the durable corrosion-preventive Thus, the bituminous coatings that quickly embrittle,
characteristics essential to soil burial conditions. check, and degrade, and urethane, phenolic and epoxy
Thorough surface preparation by blast cleaning is paints that fade and chalk in direct sunlight do not per-
mandatory. Piping must be heated to a high form well without weather-resistant topcoats. Tough,
temperature, perhaps 350°F (177°C) for coating. resilient paints best minimize damage from scrapes and
The powdered coating melts, fuses and reacts impacts by floating debris.
chemically as it contacts the surface. Smaller Obviously, blast cleaning is recommended for
items, such as fittings for line piping, may be coatings in this exposure because they require the
coated (internally and externally) in a fluidized bed same high level of surface preparation as immer-
of the powder. Powders can also be spray ap- sion coatings, if long service is to be realized. Also,
plied to preheated metal by hand and plant proc- many items in this exposure include edges, rivets,
esses. bolts, welds and junctions of metal parts. All of
6. Unbonded sheet plastic these are points of weakness in a paint coating,
Ductile and cast iron piping is now being protected which should be reinforced by one or more “edge”
solely by an unbonded sheet polyethylene wrap. It coats.
will not be surprising i f some variation is de- 1. Vinyl resin paints
veloped for long-term protection of steel in the Paints based on formulations of vinyl resins have
ground. established solid records of service for more than
7. Joint Protection 20 years on radial gates. (See Figures 1 through 4.)
Joints present possibly the most difficult problem The several vinyl resins differ somewhat in prop-
in providing external coating protection. The princi- erties so they can be compounded to exhibit
ple is that the joint coating must equal that on the varying degrees of hardness, toughness and im-
rest of the piping, but irregular shapes and field permeability to water. Some vinyl resins adhere to
conditions often frustrate this standard. For exam- steel; others do not and may be used only in top-
ple, plastic tapes are suitable for field-welded coats over adherent vinyl primers. Some vinyl
joints and perhaps pipe couplings in small piping, systems include a special vinyl pretreatment called
but conform poorly over elbows, unions, tees, etc. a wash primer, intended to improve adhesion and
Hot-applied, coal-tar enamel tape conforms well, introduce a rust-inhibiting layer next to the steel.
but requires more time and care. Joints in mortar- The solids content of most vinyl paints is low,
coated pipe require field-placed mortar encase- usually necessitating application of at least four
ment complete with reinforcing wire mesh. Simi- coats. Five to ten mil (0.13 to 0.25 mm) thick
larly, mechanical couplings in coal-tar enameled coatings are usually specified to ensure protec-
piping may actually be encased by wrapping a tion, the thicker coatings providing enhanced abra-
“diaper” around the joint and pouring it full of sion resistance. Pigmentation allows a wide range
enamel. The coating may even have to accommo- of color selection, including aluminum.
date slight joint movement without rupturing. The 2. Galvanizing
variations are many, but full protection must result. If small equipment items may easily be removed for
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERmLS.0 93 = 8627940 0003785 7 T 8
D. ATMOSPHERIC EXPOSURE
Protecting steel in a purely atmospheric environment
against structurally critical corrosion ordinarily presents
much simpler problems than encountered in exposures
previously discussed. First, corrosion progresses much
more slowly. Second, coating inspection and maintenance
can usually be accomplished more readily on such ac-
cessible items, but this should not mean that atmospheric
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
painting can be regarded lightly because high standards of

appearance are demanded. Moreover, while properly main-
tained immersion coatings are expected to serve 20 years
or more, few atmospheric paints exposed outdoors retain
their highly attractive initial appearance much beyond 10
years. Cranes, exteriors of water and oil storage tanks and
piping, handrails, substation electrical equipment,
bridges, and exposed parts of pumps, turbines and gates
are highly visible. They reflect the public image of their
FIGURE 7
Sleevetype coupling in a coal-tar enamel coated pipeline has owners and, therefore, invite frequent cosmetic treatments
been completely coated with enamel. Workman is electrically in- even though the surfaces may not corrode for much longer
specting the coating for pinholes, thus assuring coating continu- periods. The wide diversity of items to be painted in a
ity and joint protection equal to that on the shopapplied pipe
coating. multiplicity of colors imposes surprising demands on the
Courtesy U.S.Bureau of Reclamation corrosion engineer’s time.
1. Outdoor Coatings
maintenance during an off-irrigation season and Using the best cleaning methods for atmospheric
appearance is secondary, galvanizing may be coatings pays dividends in extended coating life.
preferred. For example, galvanizing small turnout Blast cleaning should be considered in locations of
gates prevents the almost inevitable handling intense airborne industrial contamination where
damage to paints incident to gate installation and metalwork is known to corrode rapidly. However,
operation. They can be removed and regalvanized less rigorous methods that effectively remove all
at intervals, or, i f the water proves aggressively cor- grease or other contaminants and loose matter
rosive, a more resistant coating such as vinyl resin from surfaces are more commonly and success-
paint can be applied. fully used in rural environments. Rust-inhibitive
primers with strong wetting properties tend to
3. Abrasion-Resistant Coatings
neutralize the effect of residual underfilm con-
Sometimes coating properties other than ap-
taminants.
pearance and weathering resistance assume over-
riding importance. For example, the frames for (a.) Pigments - Aluminum-pigmented topcoats of-
moss collection screens are difficult to paint by fer maximum durability because they protect
conventional means, and these parts sustain the paint binder. Other pigmentations provide col-
severe abrasion. However, their small size permits ors required for aesthetics. Paint pigments vary
application of thick, tough fusion epoxy by the considerably in stability under weathering ex-
fluidized bed process. In another example, the faces posure. Bright blues and reds notoriously fade and
of eleven, 138 by 28 ft. (42.1 by 8.5 m) drum gates chalk, while most tans, browns and grays hold up
atop Grand Coulee Dam are scraped by metal seals, well. Further, different pigment combinations that
which have destroyed all coatings tried on the yield the same paint color may weather quite dif-
gates. Recently, a 25 mil (0.63 mm) thick, two- ferently. Durable colors and pigments can be
component urethane paint applied as a test on one selected to contribute years to the service of at-
gate survived two operating seasons in this severe- mospheric coatings.
ly abrasive exposure without significant damage. (b). Vehicles - The oil and alkyd vehicles, long the
Direct sun, which affects most aromatic staple bases of decorative topcoats, currently are
polyurethanes, does not reach the north facing being challenged successfully by a number of syn-
Coulee gates, and more of them have been coated thetic resins. Bonneville Power Administration
with the expectation that this vexing abrasion prob- (BPA) tests of topcoats for its electrical equipment
lem has been solved. revealed that silicone alkyd enamels retain color
and gloss up to twice as long as alkyd-base
materials, significantly reducing maintenance
costs. Combinations including acrylic resins may
be even more durable.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S - O 93 œ 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003786 634 œ
(c.) Water borne paints - Recognizing that the ex- furnished with attractive, highly cleanable finishes
pected severe limitations on organic solvent emis- of various resins applied by plant processes.
sions may virtually eliminate solvent-base paints, Further painting of such items not only is un-
the industry has developed a few waterborne paint needed, but would be unwise, since the plant-
systems for metal. BPA formulated a stainless applied finish often is superior to a field-applied
steel pigmented acrylic resin-based paint that out- coat i ng.
performed all other paints tested at the severest
seacoast BPA test site at Cape Blanco, Oregon. E. SPECIAL CONDITIONS
This material can act as the sole coating or as the
While coatings for previously mentioned exposures
primer for color-pigmented topcoats, either solvent
afford protection to most surfaces of hydraulic works with
or waterborne. Interestingly, this commercially
only infrequent attention, similar exposures may include
available paint can be applied directly to some
additional elements that may lead to rapid coating failure.
galvanized metal without pretreatments to insure
Cavitation, erosion, abrasion and impacts are grouped
adhesion.
together because all are forms of mechanical attack on
(d.) Zinc coatings - Galvanizing items of suitable the coating, even though the causes and mechanisms may
size and shape affords long-term protection in be quite different.
most rural atmospheric exposures. The zinc 1. Cavitation
coating is especially well adapted to steel, which High water velocities, usually well over 45 ft./s (14
receives extremely rough handling during mls), occur frequently in localized areas of
assembly and is costly to paint after erection. The hydraulic equipment, often without adverse effects
color and reflectivity of newly galvanized items are on coatings. When combined with surface ir-
objectionable in some settings. In an effort to regularities (coating roughness, offsets in the sur-
blend these items into surroundings, some users face, rapid changes in the direction of flow),
recently have treated galvanized steel with negative pressures create vapor pockets. The col-
phosphoric acid-base dulling solutions, which may lapse of minute vapor bubbles downstream from
enhance protection and paintability of the zinc. the surface irregularity rapidly destroys most
Painting galvanized items permits a full range of coatings and often the substrate metal; this is
color selection. Caution must be exercised, since called cavitation or cavitation erosion.
obtaining coating adhesion to zinc presents No coating withstands severe cavitation. In
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
special problems. this case, only weld repair with tough stainless
Zinc-pigmented paints have undergone ex- steels or other special metals can extend the life of
tensive development in recent years and now may
be obtained in a wide variety of inorganic or
organic vehicles. Those based on inorganic vehi-
cles have demonstrated especially good resistance
to atmospheric exposure when properly applied to
blast-cleaned surfaces. Others serve as corrosion-
resistance primers. Where structural steel must be
exposed outdoors for long periods after fabrication
and before erection and final painting, mill-applied,
weld-through, zinc-pigmented primers minimize the
surface preparation necessary before field paint-
ing. Intercoat adhesion failure experienced with
some zinc-pigmented primers prompts special care
in selecting compatible topcoats.
2. Indoor Coatings
Paints that need not resist severe weathering are
selected primarily for aesthetic purposes. Gloss or
semigloss finishes facilitate cleaning grease and
dirt from machinery and promote good housekeep-
ing. Suitable paints exist in a wide range of colors
to produce any desired decor.
Field painting of indoor metalwork can be per-
formed with the same enamels as outdoor exoo-
sures or any of many synthetic-resin, single or multi- FIGURE 8
Dry film thickness of a coating on the stay vanes of a turbine
component paints. Panelboards, enclosures and spiral case is measured using a magnetic gage.
other equipment for control rooms are commonly Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LS.O 93 = 8627740 0003787 570
an item such as a turbine runner. Tightly bonded, attain purity such as to attack coatings that may
highly elastomeric coatings may resist mild to perform well in lower elevations where water con-
moderate cavitation for sufficient periods to justify tains more solids. Condensing conditions occur
their use. To do so, the special neoprene or frequently in hydraulic structures. For example,
urethane materials apparently must be applied to water condenses on interior surfaces of tanks
substantial thicknesses, on the order of 70 mils above the waterline and on the exterior of water-
(1.8 mm). Thick, brittle coatings should be avoided bearing pumps and piping. The condensate is
since they cavitate readily and, once, cavitation essentially distilled water. The coatings discussed
starts, it tends to self-propagate, increasing in earlier for immersion exposure generally resist
intensity downstream from the original site. The ef- pure water. However, equipment that “sweats”
fectiveness of cavitation-resistant coatings can be frequently in an otherwise atmospheric exposure
proved quickly, within a year or less. Accordingly, should receive the same thorough surface prepara-
small-area testing of coatings proposed for this tion and coating selections for alternate atmos-
service is highly recommended. pheric and underwater exposure. A few soil waters
display unusual acid levels or sulfate contents,
2. Erosion
which may be deleterious to buried mortar coat-
Erosion from sand- and gravel-laden waters in
ings. Organic coatings or galvanizing that perform
siphons and pump impellers is best resisted by
well in rural areas may permit early corrosion in
elastomeric coatings, and lesser thicknesses suf-
industrial areas. Corrosion surveys or observations
fice. Inadvertently, the Collbran site3 provided an
of existing structures detect such conditions so
excellent field erosion test of lining materials, since
that appropriate surface preparation and coating
an unlined canal upstream fed sand and gravel into
selections can be made.
the water. Erosion wore through coal-tar enamel in
No organic coating is invulnerable to attack by
10 years, and a catalyzed phenolic paint fared only
all organic materials, but relatively few such
somewhat better. Only a six-coat, 30 mil (0.76 mm)
virulent exposures occur around hydraulic struc-
liquid-applied neoprene lining remained unaf-
tures. Most enamels resist grease and oil lubri-
fected. All other linings were gone or were showing
cants on the exterior of machinery, and their gloss
significant damage within the 10-year period in the
or semigloss finishes facilitate cleaning the equip-
siphon invert. The field performance of these lin-
ment. Vinyl and epoxy paints are essentially
ings agreed with a laboratory erosion test of
immune to grease and oil and, in fact, are recom-
si mi lar Iin i n g ~ . ~
mended for interiors of oil storage tanks, oil circuit
In other locations, ’A in. (3.2 mm) thick, bonded
breakers, and like items.
sheet neoprene was performing well at 9 years in a
large siphon subject to severe erosion where the
bedload included even small- to medium-sized II. QUALITY CONTROL OF COATINGS
rocks. In addition, rigid coatings with pigments
No attempt is made to suggest one best quality
such as aluminum oxide or coatings in which hard control procedure. This subject is covered in a sepa-
sands have been embedded have proved fairly
rate chapter. However, an observed failure rate of
serviceable. Cement mortar linings provide long
about 20 percent among tested paints points to con-
service partially by virtue of their great thickness.
siderable variability in the level of manufacturers’ control
3. Abrasion and impacts measures and, hence, the need for the purchaser to utilize
Thickness in excess of that required only for corro- the best available quality control methods. The cost of
sion resistance helps in minimizing the effects of testing and, indeed, the cost of the materials themselves
abrasion and impacts. Again, the coating proper- represent only a small part of the total investment. If
ties of strong bond, toughness and resilience pro- failure occurs prematurely as a result of poor materials,
long the life of the coating. the cost of protection multiplies.
4. Chemical attack In passing, it should be emphasized that a paint test
Chemicals find only incidental use in and around can be no better than the sample. The sample should be
hydraulic structures, although chlorine may be re- taken from the actual material t o be furnished, and the
quired in water treatment plants. Protection contents of the container must be thoroughly mixed to ob-
against chemical exposures is discussed else- tain truly representative material. All too often this seem-
where in this manual. Higher than normal concen- ingly obvious step is neglected and the test results are
trations of chemicals can shorten coating life and suspect or meaningless.
permit premature corrosion.
Distilled water is often used in short-term
laboratory tests of coatings. Unusually pure water
111. THE FIELD COATING OPERATION
constitutes a sort of chemical exposure that may Correctly selecting a coating and assuring its quality
deteriorate some coatings. Mountain waters may are essential first steps in providing coating protection.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
340
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S - O 93 m 8627940 0003788 407 m
However, coating engineers express the view that faulty dards. Used as an inspection tool on the job, these
application is a more common cause of failure. Failure plastic-encased panels preclude much controversy
diagnosis seldom conclusively pinpoints the painting as to when sufficient cleaning effort has been
operation because evidence is gone and a good coating expended. Photographic standards such as SSPC-
may be discredited undeservedly. Surface preparation Vis 1, “Color Photographic Standards for Surface
often suffers from neglect in the field operation, yet many Preparation”, serve the same purpose. These stan-
feel it contributes over half the durability of coating protec- dards cover lesser levels of cleaning as well as
tion. However dirty, costly and tediously unpleasant, sandblasting. Where specified, hand- or power-tool
cleaning the surface is an integral part of painting. All cleaning can be accepted when all contaminants
obstacles must be removed to provide a sound base for the and loose materials are removed. When painting
coating. begins, surfaces must not have rusted in the interim
Most field coatings are applied by a brush, roller,, and must be free of residual dust, ice or conden-
andlor spray, with some variations imposed by the special sate.
requirements of particular materials. Painting hydraulic Application of coating - Application should be
structures is industrial, not residential painting; equip- observed for proper materials storage, the ex-
ment and rigging must be equal to the task. Acceptable istence of acceptable ambient conditions, mixing
painting conditions are required, and specifications andlor and handling as instructed by the manufacturer,
manufacturer’s painting instructions should be followed. correct application techniques and conformance
to good painting practice. The coating can be
A. INSPECTION evaluated primarily on the basis of its properties.
Inspection records are kept to assure that standards Gauges monitor the wet film thickness of the
have been established for all phases of painting. Com- coating as it goes on. Dry film thickness may be
pliance will enhance the expected coating performance. measured nondestructively with any of several mag-
Instruments can quantify many coating properties. A netic gauges (SSPC-PA 2); taking many measure-
trained, experienced and somewhat hardnosed inspector, ments should confirm uniformity of workmanship.
supported by solid specifications, can contribute im- Destructive thickness gauges can be used to view a
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
measurably to the level of workmanship and the success scribed groove in the coating, measuring thickness
of the application. accurately in cases of doubt.
Inspection focuses on a few key aspects of applica- Adhesion - Surface preparation and application
tion: procedures should be sufficient for adhesion.
O Surface preparation - Inspection confirms that Unfortunately, adhesion tests are destructive
grease and weld spatter removal precedes the and require repair; nonetheless, a few such
mechanical cleaning. When blast cleaning is tests in representative areas may be justified
specified, NACE Standard TM-01-70 provides a set for critical coatings in severe exposures. Re-
of comparison panels that have been carefully pairs are easy after coal-tar enamel bond tests,
blast cleaned to reflect both the broad recog- which should be made frequently during field ap-
nized NACE and SSPC surface preparation stan- plications. Adhesion testing procedures for coal-tar
enamel are described in the AWWA Specification
C203.
Coating continuity - Pinholes, skips or voids in the
film must be prevented. When at least two coats are
applied, the frequency of discontinuities usually
decreases to a tolerable level for most purposes
and visual inspection for complete coverage of
each coat suffices. However, continuity can be con-
firmed by electrical holiday detectors with voltages
selected to match the coating type and thickness.
Detectors range from the six volt wet sponge for
thin films to the 10,000 volt dry detector for coal-tar
enamel.
Drying or curing - The final requirement is a com-
plete cure before the coating goes into service. The
inspector need only confirm, in most cases, that
FIGURE 9 curing times and temperatures are as instructed,
Near-white blast cleaning removes all contaminants prior to although specific tests exist for some coatings.
painting. Here a weld is properly cleaned, and blasting reveals
significant pits not evident before removal of an old coating. Minimum inspection of field painting requires a few
Courtesy U S . Bureau of Reclamation simple tools, some training and common sense. In addi-

34 1
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*LSmO 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003789 343
tion, the inspector is required to read pertinent topics is usually faster, cheaper and more satisfactory
and obtain a sense as to what constitutes “good painting than other methods for less crucial exposures.
practice” regarding many phases of the operation. It can 4. Hand or power fool cleaning
confidently be anticipated that even minimum inspection Power wire brushing, scraping, sanding and other
will markedly enhance final results. hand methods are usually permitted only for steel
exposed to the atmosphere. When done well, these
B. SURFACE PREPARATION methods are generally adequate for such ex-
It is well known that some types of paint tolerate posures, and are normally less expensive and
foreign matter on a steel surface better than others, and troublesome than blast cleaning. When cir-
the degree of cleaning varies. cumstances dictate hand tool cleaning in spite of
The method that provides the most nearly perfect the need for blast cleaning, the service life of the
base for painting is not always practical. In addition to coating may be extended somewhat by the careful
paint type, the size and shape of the object to be painted, application of the phosphatizing treatments which
its exposure, whether it is in a fixed position and whether attack residual contaminants, leave a paintable
it is to be painted in the shops or in the field are considera- deposit and may later retard underfilm reactions.
tions.
Other chapters in this volume deal in detail with sur-
fac preparation, and Volume 2 contains widely used sur-
:e
fac:e preparation specifications.
1. Surface repair
A first step in preparation of any surface for paint-
ing is correction of any metal deficiencies. It is
desirable, though not always feasible, to round
sharp edges and corners. Scabs and other metal
defects incident to the steel rolling and fabrication
operation should always be removed and the sur-
face smoothed. Field welds usually require the
most attention. The sharp projections on a weld
should be ground down and weld spatter removed.
2. Grease removal
It is best to remove any deposits of grease or oil
before beginning mechanical cleaning. Blast clean-
ing is often thought to remove these contaminants,
but this is not necessarily so. Prior removal is
recommended. Oil can be removed by washing with
a solvent. Mineral spirits, xylene and others are
excellent for this purpose; however, benzene,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
gasoline and certain other solvents are unsafe.

Cleaning solvent and rags must be replaced fre-
quently; otherwise, solvent cleaning can actually FIGURE 10
Electrostatic spray painting permits rapidly coating the complex
spread the grease contamination over a wider area shapes of a transformer, the paint even penetrating to coat in-
than it originally covered. If the abrasive in blast terior rows of the cooling pipes at right in the picture.
cleaning is to be reused, it must be oil free; steel Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
grit and shot require cleaning at intervals. Shaking
the abrasive a few seconds in a small vial of water 5. Dust removal
will determine the presence of oil. Regardless of the cleaning method, dust or grit
3 . Blast cleaning
should be removed from the surface just before
In addition to complete removal of all surface im- painting and painting should proceed before rust
purities, blast cleaning roughens the surface to forms on the cleaned surface. If the atmosphere is
provide keying for good bond. With some types of dry, rusting of blast cleaned surfaces may not oc-
cur for days; but under humid conditions, rust can
paint, blast cleaning is considered essential to pro-
per adhesion, and their use becomes contingent on be evident within an hour or so. A freshly painted
whether blast cleaning can be employed. Blast surface should be protected from dust, and any dirt
cleaning should be specified for coal-tar coatings, that collects between coats should be removed.
vinyls, phenolics, neoprene coatings, and in
general, for all coatings (except cement mortar) to C. APPLICATION OF COATINGS
be in buried or immersion exposures. This method Before field coating proceeds, favorable conditions

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S = O 93 8b279LlO 0003770 Ob5
one that sets and cures completely and at the

same rate over the entire surface.
3. Thinning - Few paints require thinning if ap-

plied at normal temperatures. The frequency of
excessive thinning is remarkable, particularly
since “stretching” the paint defeats the objective
of building coating thickness to a specified level in
a certain number of coats. When thinned, most cur-
rent industrial paints require quite specific sol-
vents and diluents or combinations thereof. The
wrong thinners may produce strange effects - in-
cluding unaccountably short coating life.
4. Application methods - Most paints for field ap-
plication are applied by conventional brush, roller
or spray methods. Contractors favor the high ap-
FIGURE 11 plication rates and greater film build attainable by
Roller gate in Rock Island navigational dam is in near-perfect con- spraying for prime coats as well as succeeding
dition after 12 years service. Threecoat vinyl system per CW
09940 specifications was used. coats. This point is debatable. It can be argued that
Courtesy U.C. Corps of Engineers and Gilbertlcommonwealth brushing or rolling stirs any residual dust away
from the surface and works the paint into better
contact, thus promoting better coating bond, par-
for the application must be guaranteed. Planning pro- ticularly if the paint has poor wetting properties.
motes satisfactory final results as well as minimizing Some paints, such as vinyls, are difficult to brush.
delays and various misfortunes during the work. It may Observing that dust removal is erratic at best,
become important to establish positive control over am- however, the Bureau of Reclamation has long
bient conditions. Application personnel should be ac- favored brushing of primers., Spraying is recom-
quainted with coating characteristics and specifications mended for topcoats. In special cases, electro-
andlor manufacturers’ instructions pertaining to them. static spraying produces more complete, uniform
They should also be provided with essential rigging and and rapid coating of complex and poorly accessi-
clean, operable equipment. Such precautions set the stage ble shapes, such as closely packed piping
for smooth field applications. Factors in paint application systems, than does conventional spraying.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
are covered in SSPC-PA 1 and SSPC-PA Guide 4. The term “good painting practice” covers,
1. Ambient application conditions - Specified among other things, accepted techniques for the
minimum painting temperatures are often around various application methods, and proper time
45OF (7°C)for conventional paints. Most chemi- between coats and for full curing; other chapters
cally set paints require at least 5OoF (10%). examine these matters in detail. Field painting
While maximum temperatures sometimes do should result in the specified coverages, thick-
not appear in specifications, problems may be nesses and conformity to the special requirements
encountered above 95OF (35OC).The best paint of each type of paint. Attaining the correct
working qualities and results are usually realized in minimum total dry film thickness is especially im-
the middle of this temperature range. High humid- portant for coatings to be in immersion exposures,
ity not only threatens freshly prepared surfaces but and extra edge coats are highly recommended
may affect some paints adversely. Good ventilation where the paint film thins out and fails early at high
protects the painters and hastens drying of most points of welds, over corners, and around rivets.
paints. Positive control of these ambient condi-
tions presents difficult problems in cool, damp
locations with adverse weather conditions. D. APPLICATION OF SPECIFIC COATINGS
2. Paint preparation - Prior to application, 1. Applying cement mortar
settled and stratified paints must be restored to A comprehensive description appears in Federal
their original uniformity. If pigments do not and American Water Works Association specifica-
disperse on thorough mixing, as often happens tions (AWWA C205 and C602)for applying and han-
with red lead primers, the material should be dling mortar linings and coatings. Such linings are
discarded. It is usually desirable to premix usually placed by specialized and skilled plant
separately the liquid parts of multi-component operators or field contractors. But some aspects of
paints before adding them together. Obviously, mortar inspection deserve comment. Some of the
thorough mixing of the combined components is criteria for organic coatings already mentioned
necessary to produce a uniform coating material, clearly do not apply to cement mortar. Mortar lin-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r L 5 - 0 9 3 m B b 2 7 9 4 0 0003793 T T L m
ings are not bonded in the ordinary sense, and 2. Applying coal-tar enamel
discontinuities in the form of narrow cracks are not AWWA C203 specifications provide ample instruc-
cause for alarm. Thickness should be as specified, tions on the application of this material, the largest
and proper curing is most essential to a sound quantity of which is now plant-applied. Special
coating. The curing procedures specified should be shapes and pipes so large they must be lined or
fully observed. The mortar, like concrete, develops coated in place require field application, and the
its full strength and soundness by reaction with the unusual features of such applications justify em-
mix water, and this process should not be inter- phasizing some critical points. Following blast
rupted. Water should be added during curing of cleaning, Type B primer should be spray applied at
plant-lined pipe and pipe sections sealed with a uniform thickness of 0.5to 1.0 mils (0.013 to 0.025
sheet plastic covers. Water can be retained in in- mm) and protected against dust, water and oil
place linings by blocking airflow through the fumes until enamel can be applied. To bond well,
piping, Maintaining moisture until the piping enamel must be at the correct temperature, about
fills is beneficial in minimizing or preventing crack- 450 to 500°F (232 to 260°C) when it contacts the
ing of the lining. Steam curing most conveniently primer. It should also have been heated and han-
and reliably accomplishes the curing of both plant- dled properly so as to retain good plasticity
applied linings and coatings. [penetration, ASTM Designation: 5-73 at 77 "F
The coating ordinarily shows little or no crack- (25"C)I.
ing because shrinkage is uniformly distributed by Inspection procedures for enamel are some-
the embedded reinforcement. However, transporta- what special and assume critical importance in
tion of plant-lined pipe sections usually results field work. The bond test described in the AWWA
in drying shrinkage and numerous cracks in the lin- specifications establishes in one step whether the
ing. Upon rewetting, the lining expands. Cracks not surface preparation, primer and enamel applica-
significantly wider than lL2 in. (0.8 mm) will usually tion have all been accomplished properly. Inspec-
close, and the corrosion-inhibitive alkalinity ex- tion for enamel bond, thickness, penetration and
tends somewhat into narrow gaps in the lining. The continuity are more fully described in Reference 1,
crack widths for which repair should be considered which is recommended reading if such work is in
vary with lining thickness and other factors, but prospect.
probably begin at about '/,e inch (1.6 mm).
Lining continuity at field joints is accom- 3. Applying vinyl resin paints
plished by filling the gap between pipe sections Paints composed primarily of vinyl resins are
with mortar. For pipe too small for workmen to characterized by low-solids content, high solvent
enter, the joint surfaces are "buttered" before the volatility and setting or curing solely by solvent
joint is made, and a prepositioned, pipe-size ball is volatilization. Their relatively low surface wetting
drawn past the joint area to smooth the mortar. The properties dictate a high level of surface prepara-
exterior of the joint likewise is filled with mortar by tion, not less than a near white blast, which ideally
grouting or encasement; this mortar must be rein- should not exceed a 2 mil (0.005mm) profile. For
forced so the protection at the joint area equals the same reason, brushing or rolling the first coat
that on the rest of the piping. promotes vinyl coating bond. The rapid solvent
loss during- application
. . requires some adjustment
of the ordinary brushing technique and also
unusual care to ensure that, in the following coats,
the spray gun is held close enough and normal to
the surface so a wet coat always is deposited.
Vinyl resin paint systems, both proprietary
and those conforming to standard specifications,
exhibit considerable differences. Some are com-
posed entirely of vinyl resins that are adherent to
steel. In others, only the primer is adherent, and
therefore must precede the nonadherent topcoats
that can easily be stripped off if applied directly to
metal. Other variations include hardness, pigment
loadings and dry times.
In general, the minimum thickness for immer-
sion exposures of vinyls should be about 5 mils
FIGURE 12 (0.13 mm), and one system for abrasive exposures
Debris pounds the roller dam gate. Vinyl coating system contains
garnet to help withstand the abrasion. calls for 10-mil (0.25 mm) thickness. For effective
Courtesy U.S.Corps of Engineers GilberUCommonwealth protection from such thin films, the specified
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S - O 93 m 8627940 0003792 938 m
nent paints may have a longer or shorter “pot life”.

Some may react so quickly as to require applica-
tion by means of a mixing head spray gun. A few re-
quire an induction period before the application
can begin. In any event, the manufacturer’s instruc-
tions must be followed strictly.
Application of coal-tar epoxy can be by brush,
roller or spray. Because the material is somewhat
heavy-bodied, it is difficult to brush to uniform
thickness, and brushing is limited to irregular sur-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
faces. Prior to the first coat, vigorously brush-
coating welds and rough surfaces is recommended
to ensure complete coverage free of pinholes; the
first general coat may then be applied over the wet
brush coat. Medium sized areas are often roller-
FIGURE 13 coated with spraying reserved for topcoats and
Cleaning and touching up a lock-gate in upper Mississippi River.
Vinyl system is in excellent condition after 17 years service.
larger areas. In any case, the application must be
Courtesy U.S. Corps of Engineers and GilbertlCommonwealth complete within the pot life of the material at the
prevail i ng temperature.
Some chemically set paints, when fully cured,
minimums must be met at all points on the surface.
produce a smooth, glazed surface so inert that
Multiple vinyl coats help to assure uniformity and
another coat of the same paint does not bond well.
minimize pinholes. Skillful spray techniques, in-
Poor intercoat adhesion, widely experienced with
cluding multipass cross spraying, should be exer-
coal tar epoxy paint, can be prevented by applying
cised to attain the desired per-coat thickness, and
topcoats well before a full cure develops. Again,
to maximize uniformity.
the manufacturer sets forth the necessary timing
Although highly volatile solvents for vinyl
in literature on the particular paint.
paints rapidly produce a surface-dry condition, the
Paint and metal temperatures must be within
last solvent leaves the film slowly. Thus, the speci-
specified limits during both the application and
fied cure time, usually 3 to 10 days, depending on
curing periods, otherwise incomplete or incorrect
conditions and the particular vinyl systems, should
curing results. A temperature of 50°F (2OOC) fre-
elapse to allow developing an adequate cure
quently is mentioned as a minimum, but a mid-
before placing them in service. The minimums not
range application temperature produces the best
withstanding, further curing enhances the
results, and a short cure at an elevated
resistance properties of film and clearly is desira-
temperature may enhance the cure and durability
ble wherever possible.
of some materials.
4. Applying multicomponent, chemically set coatings
This section focuses on the unusual application 5. Other coatings
characteristics of coatings prepared by mixing two Many metal primer and topcoat paints have been
or more components that react chemically to pro- successfully field applied for so long by conven-
tional means that they require little comment. The
duce setting and a final cure. The reactive resin
types usually are epoxy or urethane, but these may water-borne coatings increasingly replacing some
be combined with nonreactive resins or extenders atmospheric coatings present no new problems ex-
such as phenolics, vinyls, silicones or coal-tars. cept that they should not be exposed to freezing
Solvents may or may not be present. Regardless of before they dry.
the resin, the chemical reaction involved imposes 6. Applying temporary coatings
special constraints on the application process. Temporary protection may be required for ma-
Coal-tar epoxy paint, currently one of the most chined surfaces during transport and storage. For
widely accepted materials, serves as an example. this purpose a number of rust preventives are
The components are furnished separately in the ex- available to be applied by brushing, dipping or
act quantities necessary to produce the desired spraying. When the equipment is to go into service,
chemical reaction. Premixing the components they are removed with solvents. Since temporary
separately may be desirable. Obviously, thorough rust preventives may contain greases and tars,
mixing of the reactants is essential to producing a they should not be used on surfaces eventually to
material that will set uniformly and fully when ap- be painted. Some rust preventives are available
plied to steel. Once mixed, coal-tar epoxy paint that will accept paint.
must be applied within a limited time, about three Cast iron pipe, valves, fittings and some
hours at normal temperatures. Other multicompo- machinery may be received with a soft varnish or

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R t L 5 . 0 9 3 D Ab27940 0003793 874 W
tarry shop coating, which varies considerably in The need for surface preparation appropriate to the
thickness. The tar may bleed persistently through coating and exposure are just as great for maintenance as
paint applied over it, and the coating may not resist for new work i f the expected results are to be obtained; un-
impacts or distortion normally. The temporary fortunately, greater obstacles to good cleaning usually ex-
paint should be removed before any permanent ist. Blast cleaning remains essential for full durability of
paint system is applied. replacement immersion coatings and is preferable for
touch up. Where it is plainly not feasible for small areas,
surfaces can be cleaned to base metal and somewhat
E. MAINTENANCE OF COATINGS
roughened with tools such as the car body sander, or even
Maintainability is a factor in the initial coating selec- by hand sanding. This cleaning may be augmented with a
tion because all coatings require attention. The questions phosphoric acid, rust-inhibitive wash. Hand or power
are: how much, how often, by what methods and at what tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 2 and 3) will do for milder ex-
direct and indirect costs? Occasionally, the total cost of posures; however, the adhesion of the remaining coating
maintenance in locations such as turbine units may in- should be checked. Paint so poorly bonded that it might
clude the loss of revenue during outages, making actua¡ soon fail by lifting and flaking should be removed by scrap-
painting costs become negligible. Thus, indirect costs ing or other effective means.
may loom large, justifying coating that reduce main-
When an overall coat is to be applied to existing paint,
tenance to a minimum, even though at greater initial cost.
any obstacle to adhesion must be removed. Dirt, scum and
cost. oil commonly deposit in tightly adherent films on im-
Knowing the condition of a coating obviously is the mersed surfaces and must be scrubbed off. Weathering or-
first step in maintaining it. Its history provides some idea dinarily results in chalk, a layer of pigment loosely held by
as to how rapidly it is deteriorating. Adding to this, the type the degraded binder. For best results, any appreciable
of paint, age and application data such as surface chalk should be removed by abrasive scrubbing.
preparation enables more discriminating choices between Assuming that a good initial coating was satisfactor-
total replacement and maintenance procedures. Inspec- ily applied, repainting the affected area with the original
tion of a coating after a year’s service is recommended. At type of paint is usually best. This circumvents compatibil-
this time gross deficiencies iii application usually become ity problems between paints. A different repair paint
apparent and can be corrected. Thereafter, inspections should be tested for compatibility. Adhesion deficiencies
should be scheduled at 2- to 5-year intervals for coatings also may develop with the highly inert, chemically set
exhibiting normal behavior, with more frequent inspec- paints, as noted in the discussion of coal-tar epoxy paint,
tions being given to problem areas. whereby special measures would have to be taken to
It is important to know what to look for and what inter- achieve an effective repair.
pretation to attach to what is seen, because the evaluation
dictates the timing and types of maintenance painting. IV. SPECIFICATIONS
Chapter 23 on causes and prevention of paint failure ex-
plores this subject in detail. It suffices here to note that A. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
the condition of the steel is the primary concern. Corro-
sion, such as rapid pitting affecting the integrity of the Standard specifications are grouped according to the
metal, should prompt early attention to remedial action. exposures commonly found in hydraulic structures.
Corrosion uniformly distributed over the surface, which Generally, this listing does not repeat the applicable SSPC
actually consumes the same quantity of metal, may be painting systems in Volume 2 of the manual. Before select-
tolerated somewhat longer. ing any specification, the user should always obtain and
read the full specifications to ensure correct use of the
Coating repairs should be made before deterioration
material and to select the proper type, class and grade, if
has progressed so far that costly, thorough surface
any.
preparation and complete repainting become necessary.
Since deterioration in localized areas of a coating aged
UNDERGROUND EXPOSURES
several years usually indicates weakening of the entire
coating, it may be worthwhile to follow spot repairs with at Cement mortar shop American Water Works Asso-
applied (lining and coating) ciation (AWWA) C205
least one overall coat. For example, touch up repair and
Coal-tar enamel AWWA C203 (specify enamel
application of one or two topcoats are recommended after
Primer (Type 6) having 15-20 penetration at
10 years service for Bureau of Reclamation vinyl resin Enamel 77°F (25°C))
paint VR-3 in immersion exposures. Fibrous glass mat
If there is poor service, and reason to believe another Coal-tar saturated asbestos flat,
type of paint andlor a better application could produce bet- K:aft paper
ter results, it is often best to let repairs go and get all the Whitewash
benefit possible before the affected surfaces are com- Pipe coating, thermoplastic AWWA C 210
resins or thermosetting epoxy
pletely repainted.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S - O 93 8627940 0003794 700
UNDERWATER EXPOSURE
Cement mortar linings
Shop applied AWWA C205
In place AWWA C602
Coal-tar enamel AWWA C203 (specify enamel
having 15-20 penetration at
77OF (25OC))
High-Performance Low VOC Corps of Engineers, C200
Commercial Tar Epoxies (SSPC-Paint 16 and SSPC-Paint
System 11.01)
Pretreatment primer DOD-P-I5328
(wash primer)
Vinyl resin US Bureau of Reclamation
VR-3 (4 coats to 6 mils)
VR-6 (6 coats to 10 mils)
Corps of Engineers, V766 and
others
FIGURE 14
High-Performance Low VOC Epoxies, Urethanes & Polyesters
Painting gate during winter. Vinyl coatings must be applied.
Coatings Courtesy U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and
GilbertlCommonwealth
ALTERNATING WATER AND AIR EXPOSURE
Vinyl resin As above
High-Performance Epoxies, Urethanes, B. SPECIFYING COLOR
Low VOC Coatings & Polyesters
(Weathering Topcoat where Color serves purposes other than aesthetics, such as
required) pipe coding; organizations (e.g., telephone, gas, oil and
Aluminum paint auto companies) often standardize distinctive combina
Mixing varnish (phenolic) TT-V-119 tions of colors to represent themselves. Although they may
Aluminum paste for the above A-A-341
select proprietary paints and colors at a particular time,
AIR EXPOSURE these later may be discontinued, or the organizations may
wish to enable several suppliers to bid on furnishing the
Primer Coating, Alkyd, Corrosion TT-P-664
Inhibiting, Lead and Chromate
paints. Whatever the reason, it is often desired to specify
Free, VOC Compliant color with reasonable exactness according to a widely
Zinc dust chlorinated TT-P-I 046 recognized system. Several systems exist, but none has at-
rubber primer tained universal acceptance.
Zinc dust - zinc oxide primer TT-P-641, Type II Federal Standard 595A offers a moderate choice of ar-
Aluminum paint bitrarily selected colors displayed by small chips in a
Mixing varnish (regular) TT-V-81
loose-leaf book, and available as 3- by 5411. coupons. The
Mixing varnish (phenolic) TT-V-119
Aluminum paste for the above A-A-341
colors are identified by 5-digit numbers, the first digit of
Ready mixed TT-P-38 which denotes flat, semigloss, or gloss luster. This stan-
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Machinery enamels dard is fairly well known in the paint industry, but usually
Alkyd (gloss) TT-E-489 is not used in product lines. The Munsell color system
Alkyd (semigloss) TT-E-529 covers the full color range and precisely describes any
Silicone alkyd (gloss) TT-R-I 593
desired color in terms of a numerical system representing
Silicone alkyd (semigloss) TT-E-490
hue, value and chroma. The smallest possible color dif-
Acrylic emulsion paint TT-P-19
ferences distinguished by the Munsell system are so slight
Acrylic emulsion
coatings for steel as to be almost undetectable to the naked eye. This
Galvanizing ASTM Al23 enables specifying color precisely and establishing limits
on the acceptability of color matches. Paint manufac-
SPECIAL COATINGS AND TREATMENT turers are aware of the Munsell system, but find its cost
Rust preventive MIL-C-16173, Grades 1 and 2 and complexity to be limiting factors.
Metal conditioner MIL-C-10578
V. SAFETY AND HEALTH
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
local regulators are involved in the control of materials to
protect the environment and construction workers against
known or suspected health threats. Regulations governing
emissions, pollutants and toxic substances have already
affected coating development, and more profound changes

Provided by IHS under license with SSPC 34Document
7
Questions
provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
or comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LS.O 93 862791rO 0003795 b 4 7
clearly are in prospect. The safety and health of painters Finally, on-the-job safety training has a place in field
have become a primary concern at this time as data ac- painting. Each worker can be his own best safety device if
cumulate showing the toxic effects from inhalation or skin alerted to the hazards inherent in his occupation and the
contact with dusts or paint constituents. Limiting con- consequencbs of mishandled materials, unsafe equipment
centration values of solvents are being lowered, in- and faulty procedures. Ideally, a qualified safety engineer,
strumental monitoring is being promoted and protective experienced in painting operations, well versed in the
measure for personnel are being intensified. prevailing regulations and the reasons therefore, would
The rapid change in regulatory safety and health pro- counsel the workers, the object being to enlist their
cedures precludes discussing specifics here. support in assuring their own safety.
Many common paint marerials present little hazard if
handled sensibly; on the other hand, it is possible to ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
mishandle most with disastrous results. Ordinary care The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
calls for ventilating properly, keeping open flames or participation of the following in the review process for this
sparks away from flammable materials, avoiding ex- chapter:
AI Beitelman, James Foster, John Perchall and William
cessive inhalation of blast dust or any paint vapors and Wal lace.
minimizing protonged skin contact with coating materials.
Both workers and their supervisors should be alert for par-
ticular physical circumstances that hold the potential for BIOGRAPHY
a catastrophic event, such as painting in confined spaces. Mr Jack Kiewit, who is retired,
was the Head, Materials Science
See Chapter on Safety in this volume and Guide to Safety Section of the Applied Sciences
SSPC-PA Guide 3 in Volume 2. Branch in the Division of
Modern industrial painting tends to include more and Research, U S Bureau of Recla-
mation Engineering and Research
more sophisticated protective coatings that present new Center in Denver, Colorado He
hazards not readily apparent. The epoxy resins may be graduated with a 6 S in Chemical
taken as a familiar example of such paints. The consti- Engineering from the University of
Nebraska, after which he joined
tuents of two-component epoxy paints often cause allergic the U.S Bureau of Reclamation in
reactions, such as itching and rashes. Some people are February 1950 as a chemical en-
hypersensitive to these compounds and react promptly gineer in the Cement Unit He
transferred in 1953 to the Paint
and violently. In other cases the effects are cumulative; Investigations Unit as a materials engineer, and a coatings specialist
repeated exposures without apparent effect may produce In 1975 he was selected as Head, Materials Science Section, responsi-
sudden hypersensitivity with serious consequences. In- ble for Section research, quality, control, and technical assistance for
a wide variety of engineering materials for water-works structures
halation of the special solvents in industrial paints not on- He is a registered professional engineer and corrosion
ly may cause immediate discomfort, but may damage
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specialist (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) and co-author

organs of the body in ways not fully understood at this with P S Lewis of the Third Edition Revision of U S Bureau of Recla-
mation Paint Manual
time.
Prudence dictates caution in handling new materials.
Paint manufacturers usually provide detailed hazard warn-
REFERENCES
ings with products. Accordingly, an important first step in
1. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, “Paint Manual”. US. Government
the application of an unfamiliar coating is a careful Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, 3rd Edition, 1976.
reading of the manufacturer’s literature and making provi- 2. Corps of Engineers Specification CW-09940, “Painting:
sions for protective clothing, respirators and so on as in- Hydraulic Structures and Appurtenant Works”, January 1977.
3. J.L. Kiewit, “Field Tests of Water Pipe Linings”. U.S. Bureau of
dicated. The instructions may include any special Reclamation Lab Report REC-ERC-72-1,January 1972.
treatments to be used upon exposure to the material. For 4. H. Johns, “Erosion Studies of Pipe Lining Materials - Fourth
example, soap and water is recommended for removal of Progress Report”. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Lab Report
ChE-97, June 1969.
epoxy constituents; on the other hand, most organic 5. U S . Army Corps of Engineers, “Paint Manual - New Con-
solvents should not be used because they can carry the struction and Maintenance”. EM 110-2-3400, May 1967.
toxic chemicals deeper into the skin, thereby aggravating 6. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2, “Systems and
Specifications”, 1991.
the situation.
Ordinary construction hazards especially common to
painting operations include the rigging and scaffolding
necessary for access to awkward locations. The common
sight of a painter seemingly engaged in acrobatics to
reach the work is evidence of an unsafe condition in need
of correction. High work and steeply inclined piping often
require anchored rigging and heavy staging. The strength
and condition of welds, bolts, cables and ropes should be
evaluated by a qualified inspector. Lifting machinery
should be designed for fail-safe operation.
348
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERtL6.L 93 m 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003776 583 m
CHAPTER 16.1
COATINGS FOR PIPELINES AND

OTHER UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
by
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R.N. Sloan and A. W. Peabody
This chapter on coatings covers the fundamentals for II. DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF A
selection, application, and performance of pipe coatings PIPE COATING
used to prevent the deterioration of metals buried in earth
or submerged in water. A. EFFECTIVE ELECTRICAL INSULATOR
Regulations from Department of Transportation, Oc-
Since soil corrosion is an electrochemical process, a
cupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), and Department
pipe coating has to stop the current by isolating the struc-
of Environmental Resources (DER) have all had an impact
ture from the environment.
on the pipe coatings industry. The energy shortage and the
emphasis on energy conservation, along with other govern-
mental regulations, will continue to influence the selection B. EASE OF APPLICATION
and use of pipe coatings.
The coating material must be suitable and properly
And yet a twenty-six year old statement by Norman
applied to be effective. Many excellent pipe coatings re-
Peifer and Frank Costanzo is still the norm for corrosion
quire exacting application procedures that are difficult to
protection on underground structures: “Effective coatings
maintain. Consistent quality may be obtained with a
complemented with cathodic protection have been most
coating system that is least affected by variables. Coating
successful in arresting and in preventing corrosion
application specifications and good construction prac-
losses”’.
tices combined with proper inspection contribute to the
Asphalt and coal tar enamel coatings are the most
quality of the finished coating system.
widely used external pipe coatings.2
C. APPLICABLE TO PIPING WITH A MINIMUM
I. PURPOSE OF PIPE COATING OF DEFECTS
Pipe coating on underground structures isolates
This characteristic correlates with ease of applica-
metal from contact with surrounding environments. Since
tion. No coating is perfect, and that is why cathodic pro-
a perfect coating cannot be assured, cathodic protection
tection is required. Do not buy a pipe coating that has too
is used in conjunction with the coating system to provide
many holidays (voids in coating) even before it leaves the
the first line of defense against corrosion. And since a
mill.
properly selected and applied coating should provide 99%
of the protection required, it is of utmost importance to
D. ADHESION TO PIPE SURFACE
know the advantages and disadvantages of available
coatings. “The right coating material properly used will Coating adhesion is important to eliminate water
make all other aspects of corrosion control relatively migration between the metal substrate and the pipe
easy”.3 coating. The coating adhesion assures permanence and
The number of coating systems available necessi- ability to withstand handling during installation without
tates careful analysis of the many desired properties for losing effectiveness.
an effective pipe coating. The National Association of Cor-
rosion Engineers clearly defines the specific qualities that E. RESIST DEVELOPMENT OF HOLIDAYS
a pipe coating should possess in NACE Standard RP-01-69, Once the coating is buried, two areas that may
Section 5:Coatings4 destroy or degrade coatings are soil stress and en-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x L b - L 73 = 8627740 0003797 4 L T
vironmental contaminants. Soil stress, brought about in for undercutting or any discontinuities. Discontinuities are
certain soils that are alternately wet and dry, creates identified by an accumulated calcite deposit around them.
tremendous forces that may split or cause thin areas. Relative resistance of the coating to cathodic protection is
Adhesion, cohesion, and tensile strength are important determined by the number of unintentional holidays, by the
properties to evaluate in order to minimize this problem. amount or increase in current, and by the amount of
The coating’s resistance to chemicals, hydrocarbons, and cathodic disbondment or undercutting that has occurred
acidic or alkaline conditions has to be known in order to around the intentional holidays.
evaluate performance in known contaminated soils. The difference in reactions to this test by various
coatings is sometimes vivid. In some cases, such a
F. HANDLING, STORAGE, AND quantity of water is driven through the coating that the
INSTALLATI O N coating develops large water blisters around the sample.
The ability of a coating to withstand damage is a func- In other cases the cathodic disbondment around the inten-
tion of its impact, abrasion, and ductile properties. Pipe tional holiday is so great that the entire sample is dis-
coatings are subjected to a great deal of handling from ap- bonded from the surface. Some samples experience very
plication to backfill. While precautionary measures of frequent unintentional holidays, little water being driven
proper handling, shipping, and stockpiling are recom- through the coating, and almost no cathodic disbondment
mended, coatings vary in their ability t o resist damage. around the unintentional h ~ l i d a y . ~
Outside storage requires resistance to ultraviolet rays and
temperature changes. These properties must be evaluated I. EASE OF REPAIR
t o assure proper performance.
Recognizing that some damage may occur and that
the weld area must be field coated, compatible field
G. CONSTANT ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
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materials are required to make repairs and complete the
Since corrosion is an electrochemical reaction, a coating after welding. Manufacturers’ recommendations
coating with a high electrical resistance over the life of the should be followed. Variables in conditions influence
system is important. The percentage of initial resistance selection of materials.
drop is not as indicative of the pipe coating quality as the All nine of these characteristics (A-I) are important
overall level of electrical resistivity. when evaluating the selection of a pipe coating.
The following factors should also be considered when
selecting a pipe coating?
H. RESISTANT TO DISBONDING
1. Type of Soil or Backfill
Since most pipelines are eventually cathodically pro-
Soil conditions and backfill influence the coating
tected, it is necessary for the coating t o withstand
system selected and thickness specified. USDA
cathodic disbondment. The amount of cathodic protection
Soil Survey Manuals help determine soil types
is directly proportional to the quality and integrity of the
along the right-of-way. Soils are rated by their
coating. Considering interference and stray current prob-
shrink-swell factor (soil stress). High shrink-swell
lems, this becomes a most important requirement. Cath-
soils can damage conventional coatings. Ideally,
odic protection does two things. First, it drives water
trenches should be free of projections and rocks,
through a coating that would ordinarily resist penetration.
permitting the coating t o bear on a smooth sur-
It also may produce hydrogen at the metal surface where
face. When backfilling, rocks and debris should
current reaches it, and the hydrogen breaks the bond be-
not strike the pipe coating. The following ASTM
tween the coating and metal surface. No coating is com-
tests are recommended to measure resistance to
pletely resistant to damage by cathodic protection, but it
penetration of the pipe coating if set on stcnes in
is very important to choose a coating that minimizes these
the trench: ASTM D 785, “Method of Test for
effects. The ASTM G8 test for Cathodic Disbonding of
Rockwell Hardness of Plastics and Electrical In-
Pipeline Coatings, commonly known as the salt crock test,
sulating Materials,” ASTM D 5, ‘‘Method of Test
measure a coating’s resistance to damage by cathodic
for Penetration of Bituminous Materials,” and
protection. An intentional holiday is placed in the coating
ASTM D 2240, “Method of Test for Indention Hard-
and the sample is immersed in a 3% salt solution (1%
ness of Rubber and Plastics by Means of a
Sodium Carbonate, 1% Sodium Sulfate, and 1% Sodium
Durometer”.
Chloride). Then, when a negative electrical potential is ap-
The following ASTM tests are recommended
plied through the aqueous salt solution by an anode or rec-
to measure the resistance against damage by
tifier, an electrical current flows through the solution to
rock in back fill: ASTM G 13, “Limestone Drop
the bare metal surface.
Test” and ASTM G 19, “Falling Weight Test”. Soil
This test is run at ambient temperatures; the sample
stresses on pipe coatings may be evaluated by
is maintained at a constant potential; and the current drain
ASTM D 427, “Method of Test for Shrinkage Fac-
required to protect the sample is measured periodically.
tors of Soils”.
After 30 to 90 days the sample is removed and examined
350
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SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.L 93 8627940 0003798 356
require special consideration. On large projects in

remote areas, the economics may favor a railhead
or field coating site.
6. Handling and Storage
Handling, shipping and stockpiling are important
in the selection process. Some coatings require
special handling and padding. All require careful
handling.
Most underground coatings are not designed
for above ground use and are affected by ex-
cessive above-ground storage. Coal tar asphalt
enamel and mastic coatings are protected from
ultraviolet deterioration by whitewash or kraft
paper. In polyethylene, the addition of 2.5 percent
carbon black is the most satisfactory deterrent.
Stock should be rotated, first-in, first-out, to
minimize the potential problem. Long-term
storage requirements could determine coating
FIGURE 1 selection.
A good cleaning job coming out of the shot blast machine. 7. Costs
Courtesy: Irish Pipe Coating Co., Inc.
Evaluation of pipe coating properties with the
above considerations assists in selection. The
2. Accessibility of Pipeline most misunderstood factor is “costs”. In pipe
When a pipeline is inaccessible or in a marine en- coating economics the end has to justify the
vironment, the best system should be selected means. The added cost of coatings and cathodic
with less emphasis on initial cost. Experience protection has to pay for itself through reduced
under similar conditions for at least five years or operating costs and longer life. “True” protection
well-designed laboratory tests on new products costs include not only initial costs of coating and
are the best criteria for coating selection. cathodic protection but also installation, joint
3. Operating Temperature of Piping coatings and repairs’. Field engineering and
Surface temperature and environmental condi- facilities to correct possible damage to other
tions must be considered, because, once buried, a underground facilities may add costs, possibly
coating experiences a wet heat condition, which outweighing initial costs of the pipe coating.*
is more detrimental than dry heat and harms
coating effectiveness. A modified disbondment
test, ASTM G 8 “Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline 111. DESCRIPTION OF COATING SYSTEMS
Coatings”, determines resistance to elevated
temperatures. A. ENAMELS
4. Ambient Temperatures During Construction Bituminous enamels are formulated from coal tar
and Installation pitches or petroleum asphalts and have been widely used
Temperatures during construction and installa- as protective coatings for over sixty-five years. Coal tar
tion are often more critical than operating and asphalt enamels are available in summer or winter
temperatures. For instance, some thermoplastic grades. These enamels are the corrosion coating, com-
systems such as mastics, tapes, or enamels may bined with glass andlor felt to obtain mechanical strength
become brittle in freezing temperatures. for handling. These materials should meet requirements of
(Polyethylene coating systems, however, have the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, National
been field bent at - 40 “FI - 40 OC). Above recom- Association of Pipe Coating Applicators or The American
mended operating temperatures, thermoplastic Water Works Association. Enamel coatings have been the
systems may cold flow. Extra care in handling, workhorse coatings of the industry and provide efficient,
transport and storage is needed under extreme long-life corrosion protection.
conditions. Bituminous enamel systems may be used within a
5. Geographical and Physical Location temperature range of 30°F to 180°F ( - 1.1 “C to 82°C).
Pipe source and coating plant location often When temperatures fall below 40°F (4.4”C), precautions
determine the coating or are a cost factor in selec- should be taken to prevent cracking and disbonding during
tion. Severe environments, such as river cross- field installation. Enamels are affected by ultraviolet rays
ings, pipe inside casings, exceptionally corrosive and should be protected by kraft paper or whitewash.
soils, high soil stress areas and rocky conditions Enamels also are affected by hydrocarbons. A barrier coat
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at 303-397-2295.
~ ~
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.L 93 8b27940 0003799 2 9 2
The blast cleaned surface is primed (Figure 2), and

when dry, coating and wrapping is performed by the hot
application of a bituminous coating. The coating is
pumped from the coating machine through a spreader,
from which the coating flows in a flood coat onto the pipe
surface. Be sure that the coating material is melted proper-
ly and brought to application temperature gradually. This
is done in an agitated kettle.
Agitation maintains uniform heat and prevents
mineral fillers (25 to 35 percent) from settling out. Settling
fillers may develop hot spots, or carbon spots, on the ket-
tle bottom. These small carbon spots break down and get
into the coating and eventually cause jeeps or holidays in
the line. Carbon spots are cathodic to the metal and cause
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FIGURE 2 pits. Thus, the melting operation and mechanical agitators
A 30-inch pipe, shot blast-cleaned, with the primer being sprayed
on.
are of extreme importance.’z
is recommended when contamination exists. This coating

is available on all sizes of pipe. Recently, enamel use has
declined for the following reasons:9~1a
Reduced suppliers
OSHA, EPA, and FDA environmental and health
standards
Increased acceptance of plastic coating
Utilization of raw materials as a fuel.
Pipe should be bare and free of mill coatings for the
best surface preparation. Prior to blast cleaning, the pipe
is heated to drive off surface moisture and loosen mill
scale. Blast cleaning uses sand, steel shot, or grit or a
combination for the desired profile and cleaned surface.
“Blasting operations remove all rust, scale and other im- FIGURE 4
A pipe being holiday-detected.
purities from the surface, exposing base metal over all, Courtesy: Irish Pipe Coating Co., Inc.
which presents a grayish matte appearance between Steel
Structures Painting Council Standard SSPC-SP 6 and
SSPC-SP 10.” This is equivalent to NACE Standard TM-01, Asbestos felt has generally been used as the outer
Visual Standards, between NACE No. 3 and NACE No. 2” wrap, but with restrictions on asbestos as a carcinogen, it
(Figure 1). is being replaced by an asbestos free glass wrapper. The
glass wrap must be properly encapsulated with enamel to
prevent a wicking action of moisture from the environment
to the steel.
Mill wrapping with various specifications of
bituminous coating materials is applied to a nominal 3/2“
(.24 cm) thickness, followed by the glass or asbestos felt or
combination. Multiple enamel coatings are often applied
to build up thickness where greater protection is required
(Figure 3). An electrical inspection of completed coatings
is made in accordance with procedures established by
NACE Standard RP-02, Recommended Practice for “High
Voltage Electrical inspection of Pipeline Coatings” (Figure
4). For a more detailed treatment of this subject, the ANSI/
AWWA C203 American National Standard for Coal-Tar Pro-
tective Coatings is recommended (Figures 5 and 6).
FIGURE 3 B. ASPHALT MASTIC

Pipe going through the coating machine with a “rabbit” to keep
the enamel off the bevels. The “rabbit” travels through the Asphalt-Mastic pipe coating is a dense mixture of
machine at the same speed as the pipe. sand, crushed limestone, and fiber bound with a select, air-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b - L 93 m 8627940 0003800 834 m
blast cleaning, the pipe is heated to drive off surface

moisture and loosen mill scale. A combination of shot and
grit removes all rust, scale and other impurities, exposing
base metal, which presents a grayish matte appearance
between Steel Structures Painting Council Standard
SSPC-SP 6 and SSPC-SP 10 (NACE 2 - NACE 3). Pipe is
then spray coated with an asphalt primer prior to extrusion
of the hot mastic mix to the circumference of the pipe. The
extrusion forms a seamless coating bonded to the pipe.
Whitewash is applied to reflect the sun's rays and to
facilitate stockpiling (Figure 7). An electrical inspection of
the completed coating should be made in accordance with
the procedures established by NACE Standard RP-02,
Recommended Practice for "High Voltage Electrical In-
spection of Pipeline Coatings". Holidays are patched and
retested. Patching is relatively easy because the mastic is
thermoplastic and can be heated and worked with a trowel
to reseal.
FIGURE 5
Thermal oxidizer for air pollution.
blown asphalt. These materials are proportioned to secure

maximum density of approximately 132 pounds per cubic
foot. This mastic material is available with various types of
asphalt. Selection is based on operating temperature and
climatic conditions to obtain maximum flexibility and
operating characteristics. This coating is a thick, Y2 " t o X "
(1.27 cm to 1.6 cm), extruded mastic resulting in a
seamless corrosion coating. Extruded asphalt mastic pipe
FIGURE 7
coating has been in use for over fifty years. It is the Pipe exiting from extrusion process, forming a seamless coating.
thickest of the corrosion coatings and is cost effective for Whitewash is applied to reflect sun and facilitate stockpiling.
offshore installations. Its ability to dissipate heat while Courtesy: Bredero Price Co.
providing a relatively holiday-free coating has made it the
most used pipe coating for pipe-type cable installation^.^^
Asphalt mastic systems may be designed for installa- C. EXTRUDED PLASTICS - POLYETHYLENE
tion and use within an operating temperature range of AND POLYPROPYLENE
40°F to 190°F (4.4"C to 88°C). Precautions should be Extruded plastic coatings have been available since
taken when handling in freezing temperatures. Whitewash 1956. Their growth and acceptance have been remarkable.
protects i t from ultraviolet rays, and this should be main- Initial problems of stress cracking and shrinkage have
tained when in storage. This system is not for been minimized by better quality and grade of high
aboveground or in hydrocarbon-contaminated soils. This molecular weight polyethylene resins.
coating is available on 4% " t o 48"0.D. (11.4 cm to 122 cm) There are two systems available in the United States.
pipe. One is an extruded polyethylene sleeve, shrunk over a
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The application p r ~ c e d u r e 'is

~ as follows. Prior to 10-mil asphalt mastic. The other is a dual extrusion where
a butyl adhesive is extruded onto the blast-cleaned pipe
followed by multiple fused layers of polyethylene (Figure
8). The latter utilizes multiple extruders in a proprietary
method, which obtains maximum bond with minimum
stress.
The sleeve type is available on " through 24" O.D.
(1.3 cm through 61 cm) pipe, while the dual extrusion is

presently available on 2 % " through 103" (6.35 cm through
262 cm) pipe. The operating temperature range for
polyethylene systems is from -40°F to 180°F (-40°C to
FIGURE 6
Pipe in storage at plant. 82"C), and for polypropylene it is - 5 ° F to 190°F (-21 "C
Courtesy: Irish Pipe Coating Co., Inc. to 88°C). Polyethylene systems have been successfully
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.L 73 8627740 000380L 7 7 0
D. FUSION-BONDED THERMOSETTING
POWDER RESINS
Fusion bonded powder pipe coatings were introduced
in 1959 and have been commercially available since 1961.
These coatings are applied to preheated pipe surfaces
400°F to 500°F (204°C to 26OOC) with or without primers.
On some resins post-curing is required. This coating is ap-
plied in a 12 to 25 mil thickness. The fusion-bonded powder
coatings have good mechanical and physical properties
FIGURE 8 and may be used above or below ground. On above-ground
Dual side extrusion, butyl adhesive followed by polyethylene. installations, to eliminate chalking and to maximize serv-
Courtesy: Bredero Price Co.
ice life, topcoat with a urethane paint system. Of all the
pipe coating systems, the fusion-bonded thermosetting
field bent (1.9’ per pipe diameter length) at -40°F resin systems are the most resistant to hydrocarbons,
( - 40°C). Swelling may occur in hydrocarbon en- acids, and alkalies.
vironments. Polyethylene has excellent dielectric strength. Perhaps the main advantage of fusion-bonded powder
With proper selection of polyethylene resins and addition pipe coatings is that because they cannot cover up ap-
of 2 % % carbon black, a dual extrusion system has parent steel defects due to their lack of thickness, they
withstood long-term above-ground storage and above- permit excellent inspection of the steel surface before and
ground use. An electrical inspection in accordance with after coating. The number of holidays that occur is a func-
NACE Standard RP-02 is recommended practice for “High tion of the surface condition and thickness of the coating.
Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings”. A steel surface profile study by John D. Keane, Dr. Joseph
Application methods follow: Both methods preheat A Bruno, Jr. and Raymond E. F. Weaver17of the Steel Struc-
bare pipe prior to grit blast cleaning to a commercial tures Painting Council found the existence of abrasive-
(SSPC-SP6) blast clean. With the sleeve type coating, the formed “hackles” of steel that protrude up to 6 mils from
adhesive undercoating is applied by flood-coating the hot the surface. In SSPC three-dimensional photos, the hackle
material over the pipe before it passes through an ad- stands out in stark relief against its surroundings, but is
justable wiper ring that controls thickness. After mastic is barely visible in two dimensions.
applied, the pipe passes through the center of the Increasing the thickness of the applied coating by fu-
crosshead die where plastic is extruded in a cone shape sion bonding should minimize this problem. These
around the pipe. Immediately the plastic is water coatings are available in “-43“ (1.9cm-122cm) O. D. pipe.
quenched to shrink it around the undercoating and pipe. Thermal-bonded powder resins require great care to
Following electrical inspection, pipe ends are trimmed for apply them properly. Prior to cleaning, pipe is heated to
cut back, and the coated pipe is stockpiled. remove moisture and loosen mill scale. It is necessary to
In the dual extrusion system, the cleaned pipe is clean the surface to a near-white metal finish as defined in
rotated at a calibrated rate. The first of two extruders ap- SSPC-SP 10 (NACE NO. 2).
plies a film of butyl adhesive of predetermined width and The pipe is heated uniformly to the recommended ap-
thickness, fusing the film to the rotating pipe in two layers. plication temperature (400OF-500OF1204 OC-260“C). Each
While the butyl is still molten, high molecular weight material has its own requirements and tolerance level that
polyethylene is applied from the second extruder in multi- must be strictly adhered to. If primer is required, there are
ple layers of a predetermined thickness, producing a minimum-maximum overcoat times. Powdered resin is ap-
bonded coating 50 to 100 mils thick. Water quenching, plied by electrostatic deposition to a 12-25 mil thickness
electrical inspection, and cut back is completed prior to (Figure 9).
stockpi Ii ng. Certain resins require post-heat treatment for proper
Polyethylene systems have been in use in Europe for cure. Inspection by a minimum of 100 volts per mil of
approximately fifteen years with both crosshead and side thickness is recommended. Pipe requiring limited repair
extrusion methods. In addition t o the butyl adhesive or (to be agreed to between customer and applicator, perhaps
asphalt mastic adhesive, some systems use polyethylene one holiday per ten square feet) due to hackles, coating im-
copolymer adhesive. This system requires high temper- perfections and other minor defects is repaired by a heat
ature (200°C - 390°F) heating for application of the bondable polymeric hot melt patch stick. A 100% solids
a d h e ~ i v e ’ ~For
. more detail on extruded plastic pipe liquid epoxy repair material is recommended within 12” of
coating systems, read “Extruded Plastic Pipeline each end of pipe. Manufacturers’ recommendations for
Coat ings”16. field application of patching materials should be followed.
For more detail on “Fusion Bonded Thermosetting
Powder Resins”, read ANSIIAWWA Standard C215.
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354
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b = L 73 m 8627740 0003802 607 m
sisting of primer, corrosion preventive tape (inner layer),

and a mechanical protective tape (outer layer). This system
is available on 2 “ through 120” O.D. pipe and is recom-
mended for temperatures up to 140°F (60°C). This
temperature is a limitation imposed by AWWA, but there
are tape systems presently available for temperatures up
to 200°F (93°C).
The primer’s function is to provide a bonding medium
between the pipe surface and the adhesive or sealant on
the inner layer. The inner layer tape consists of a plastic
backing and adhesive. This layer protects against corro-
sion, so it has to provide a high electrical resistivity and
low moisture absorption and permeability, along with an
effective bond to the primed steel. It is always a minimum
thickness of 15 mils, with the total system a minimum of
40 mils. The outer layer tape consists of a plastic film and
FIGURE 9
Powdered epoxy resins, post-heating pipe following electrostatic an adhesive of the same types of materials used in the in-
deposition. ner tape, or materials that are compatible with the inner
Courtesy: Bredero Price Co. layer tape. The purpose of the outer layer tape is to provide
mechanical protection to the inner layer tape, and also to
be resistant to the elements during outdoor storage. The
E. LIQUID EPOXY AND PHENOLICS
outer layer tape is always a minimum of 25 mils. Pipe
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There are many liquid systems available that cure by diameter, wall thickness, and construction conditions
heat andlor chemical reaction; some are solvent types and determine thickness of the system.
others are 100% solids. Their use is mostly in larger Cold-applied, multi-layer tape systems are designed
diameter pipes where conventional systems may not be for plant coating operations and result in a uniform,
available or where they may offer better resistance to reproducible, holiday-free coating over the entire length of
operating temperatures in the 200°F (93°C) range. any size pipe. The multiple layer system allows the coating
Generally, epoxies have an amine or a polyamide cur- thickness to be custom-designed to meet specific en-
ing agent and require a near-white blast cleaned surface vironmental conditions. These systems have been
SSPC-SP 10 (NACE 2). Coal tar epoxies have coal tar pitch engineered to withstand normal handling, outdoor
added to the epoxy resin. A coal tar epoxy cured with a low weathering, storage, and shipping.
molecular weight amine is especially resistant to an Bare pipe is heated prior to blast cleaning to remove
alkaline environment such as occurs on a cathodically pro- moisture and loosen mill scale. Abrasive blast cleaning is
tected structure. Some coal tar epoxies become brittle used to obtain a NACE No. 3, Steel Structures Painting
when exposed to sunlight.18 Council Specification SSPC-SP 6, commercial blast finish.
For a mill-applied system the pipe is placed on A quick-drying primer is applied to the blast cleaned pipe
rotating rollers mounted on a tracked dolly that surface at a coverage rate of approximately one gallon per
automatically feeds the pipe into a grit blasting machine. eight squares of tape applied. The inner-wrap tape is ap-
It is cleaned inside and out. Then it is transferred into a plied over dry primer with proper mechanical equipment
spray booth where the interior and exterior can be that applies the inner layer to the pipe under tension (10
simultaneously coated with two separate spray coats to Ibs. per inch of width minimum), resulting in a tight,
provide a dry film thickness of 12 mils, after which the wrinkle-free coating. The spiral overlap should be approx-
coated pipe is subjected to hot air blowers for proper cur- imately one inch. The outer-wrap tape is simultaneously
ing prior to inspection at 100 volts per mill9. applied under tension (12-14 Ibs. per inch of width
minimum) to obtain a tight, wrinklefree coating. The laps
F. MILL APPLIED TAPE COATING SYSTEMS of the inner and outer wraps should not be on top of each
Tape systems have been in use for over 30 years on other, but should be staggered. Holiday detection should
pipelines. AWWA C209 Standard covers the manual ap- follow with a minimum of 6,000 volts, conforming to NACE
plication of cold-applied tape coatings for special sec- Standard RP-02-74.All holidays should be repaired. Coated
tions, connections and fittings. The Steel Water Pipe pipe should be handled carefully to protect pipe and
Manufacturer Technical Advisory Committee Task Group coating from damage. The weld seam of longseam welded
#10 has a standard in the final draft form that covers the pipe should not contact the adjacent pipe in pyramid
plant application of prefabricated cold-applied tape stacking, and spiral welded pipe should be separated by
coatings. stripping.
For normal construction conditions, prefabricated Polyvinyl, polyethylene, and coal tar tapes are widely
cold-applied tapes are applied as a threelayer system con- used for joint coating protection or for odd shapes or
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b . L 93 m Bb279'40 0003803 543 m
bends on mill-applied applications. The trend is to heavier reference on concrete coatings.

butyl-mastic type adhesives for better adhesion and Today, concrete as corrosion coating is limited to in-
elimination of water migration at the overlap. When tapes ternal lining. The external application is applied over a cor-
are applied at a coating plant, padding, or rockshield must rosion coating for armor protection and negative bouyancy
be provided to minimize shipping damage. Over the trench, in marine environments. A continuous reinforced concrete
field-applied tapes may be applied with tape wrapping coating has proved to be the most effectively controlled
machines. Coatings applied over the ditch are less suscep- method.
tible to physical damage because of reduced handling, but Materials including water, sand, andlor heavy ag-
they can be more affected by variations in ambient gregate and cement are mixed in the application plant. The
temperatures and h ~ m i d i t y ' ~Together
. with inadequate materials are conveyed by belt to the throwing heads
surface preparation, these are the main disadvantages of a where controlled-speed beltlbrushes throw the mixture on-
field-applied coating system. The important developments to the coated pipe surface. The rotating pipe is moved past
in plastic tapes have been an increase in their thickness, the throwing heads to receive the specified thickness of
use of stronger resins, and improved adhesion by the use concrete. Simultaneously, the galvanized wire reinforce-
of new types of adhesives and primers.21Mill-applied tapes ment is applied with an overlap (Figure 10). To increase
capable of service temperatures to 210°F (99°C) are tensile strength and to improve impact resistance, addi-
available. tional layers of wire or steel fibers may be specified24.
Welded wire cages are another alternate method of rein-
G. WAX COATINGS forcement. Other application methods include forming or
Wax coatings, in use for 48 years, are still used on a molding of concrete in place or applying it to the pipe by
limited basis. Microcrystalline wax coatings are usually means of a plastic film.
used with a plastic overwrap. Wax waterproofs the pipe
and the wrapper protects the wax coating from contact IV. AP PLI CATI0 N SPECI FICATI ON S
with the soil and affords some mechanical protection. The Because of the multiplicity and complexity of coating
most popular use of wax coating is the over-the-ditch ap- systems, the user should refer to manufacturers' recom-
plication with a combination machine that cleans, coats, mendations and applicable specifications from the Na-
wraps, and lowers into the ditch in one operation. Because tional Association of Pipe Coating Applicators, American
there are no objectionable or toxic fumes or smoke pres- Water Works Association, Department of the Navy25.26, and
ent, this system is more acceptable than some others.
H. POLYURETHANE FOAM INSULATION

Efficient pipeline insulation has become increasingly
important as a means of operating hot and cold service
pipelines. This is a system controlling heat transfer in
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above ground, below ground, and marine pipelines. While
generally used with a corrosion coating, if the proper
moisture vapor barrier is used over the urethane foam, ef-
fective corrosion protection is obtained. This is a plant-
applied process where the carrier pipe is centered within
the outer jacket, which contains and molds the foam as
well as provides effective moisture vapor barrier. Metered
quantities of foam components are rapidly introduced be-
tween the carrier pipe and the outer jacket. The foam is re-
strained by end caps and rises on a first-in basis forming a
uniform composite unit. When properly jacketed, usually
with polyethylene or coated steel, the system is moisture
and corrosion-resistant, sufficiently strong to resist
crushing, and flexible enough to permit allowable field
bending22.
I. CONCRETE
Mortar lining and coating has the longest history of
protecting steel or wrought iron from corrosion23.When
steel is encased in concrete, a protective iron oxide film
forms. As long as the alkalinity is maintained and the con- FIGURE 10
Application of continuous reinforced concrete pipe coating for
crete is impermeable to chlorides and oxygen, corrosion negative bouyancy and armor protection.
protection is obtained. See AWWA C205 for a detailed Courtesy: Bredero Price Co.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b = L 93 8627940 0003804 48T
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. B. INSPECTION PROCEDURES

The National Association of Corrosion Engineers
Once the coating system and applicator are selected,
Standard RP-02-75,“Application of Organic Coatings to the
an important part of a quality installation is good inspec-
External Surface of Steel Pipe for Underground Service,” is
tion. Inspection should begin with stockpile of bare pipe
a comprehensive standard prepared to assist users of all
through coating operations, load out, coated pipe
types of organic coatings in obtaining a satisfactory ap-
stockpile, field inspection, joint coating procedure and
plication of the selected coating system and is an ex-
back fill of coated pipe. Knowledge of the coating system,
cellent guideline in preparing a specification. This Recom-
plant facilities, quality control methods, shipping re-
mended Practice, issued by NACE Group Committee T-10
quirements, handling, joint coating, field conditions, field
on Underground Corrosion Control, was prepared by Task
holiday detection and repair are requirements for proper
Group T-10D-8 of Unit Committee T-1OD on Protective
installation(z8).Experience and common sense in inter-
Coating Systems. This Recommended Practice is included,
pretation of specifications and analysis of test results will
in Appendix A as a general guideline to be used along with
contribute to obtaining the best possible coating results.
sources listed previously.
A. SELECTION OF APPLICATOR C. COATINGS EVALUATION

A major cause of pipeline coating failure is improper The best criterion for coating selection is twenty
application. A quality material poorly applied is of little years without failure in ground. This method may be most
value and the quality of a pipe coating is only as good as expedient and least expensive if records show that the
the quality of application. To assist in the evaluation of an coatings’ performance has been satisfactory. However,
applicator, the following points should be consideredz7: because of increased demands on coatings’ performance
and availability of new materials, alternate methods of
i. Experience
coating evaluation are necessary. The American Society of
Research and trial and error have gone into the
Testing and Materials (ASTM), National Association of
development of every coating, with close coopera-
Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and the American Water
tion between applicator, coating manufacturer,
Works Association (AWWA) have developed standard tests
equipment manufacturer and customer. The tran-
for this purpose. Eleven standard test methods are now
sition from laboratory to production line is usually
available from ASTM, which were developed in conjunction
a costly experience, which should not be ignored.
with the American Gas Association. A summary of these
2. Reputation test procedures follow^(^^):
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This is an asset earned by consistent perform-
i.Physical and Mechanical Tests
ance. Not only good quality work but also solving
problems and correcting mistakes help to develop a. Abrasion Resistance of Pipeline Coatings,
a reputation. ASTM G 6 - An accelerated test that subjects
coated pipe samples to a controlled rate of abra-
3. Reliability
sion using a slurry of coarse aluminum oxide in
There are many variables in the application of
water. The specimens are revolved in the abrasive
coatings. A reliable work force, well maintained
medium until failure occurs. The failure point is
equipment and consistent quality performance
detected by an electrical monitoring circuit.
are prerequisites for an applicator.
b. Bendability of Pipeline Coatings, ASTM G 10 -
4. Conformance t o Coating Manufacturer’s
A method to determine the effect of short-radius
Specifications
bends on small-diameter, coated pipe. A bending
The manu fact urer’s establis hed min i mum
mandrel forms the pipe until the point of crazing,
specifications for application of materials should
cracking, or other mechanical coating failure is
be met.
reached.
5. Modern Automated Equipment
c. impact Resistance of Pipeline Coatings (Lime-
Capital expenditure on automated application
stone Drop Test), ASTM G 13 - A method for esti-
equipment is an important part of the success of
mating the effect of falling stones on a coating
plastic coatings. Elimination of human errors
surface. After a pattern of systematic exposure to
through automation and controls continues to be
a charge of classified limestone aggregate, the
an important factor in improved pipe coatings.
coating specimen is electrically inspected for pin-
6. Quality Control hole coating breaks.
Conformance to specifications has to be checked
d. Impact Resistance of Pipeline Coatings (Falling
regularly. Knowledge of applicator’s quality con-
Weight Test), ASTM G 14 - A method providing a
trol procedures on materials, application, and
systematic means for measuring controlled im-
finished product is essential in the selection of an
pact damage on a coating surface. A statistical
applicator.
calculation is used to compute the mean impact
strength at the point of coating failure.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.L 93 = 8b27940 0003805 3 L b =
e. Penetration Resistance of Pipeline Coatings, D. SUMMARY
ASTM G 17 - A static loading test to determine
It is not easy to select the best coating system to fit
the deformation-underload characteristics of pipe
any given environment or soil condition. Knowledge of
coatings. The test simulates concentrated point
operating and installation conditions is the beginning of
loading encountered in pipe stacking or in the in-
the process. Steel source and job location may limit the
clusion of rocks and debris in trench backfill.
coatings available to each project. Selection of a quality
2. Electrical and Electrochemical lests applicator is the most important consideration and fre-
a. Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline Coatings, quently is the most neglected. Following coating and ap-
ASTM G 8 - An accelerated test for measuring plicator selection, inspection at the coating mill and
the rate of coating damage and adhesion loss especially on the job site during construction will go far in
caused by the application of cathodic protection assuring that a high quality pipe coating system has been
to holidays in coated pipe, useful for the initial installed.
screening of new materails. The method provides
for both the visual and electrical monitoring of
holiday propagation. APPENDIX A:
b. Water Penetration into Pipeline Coatings, NACE RP-02-75 “Application of Organic Coatings to the
ASTM G 9 - A method for measuring the rate and External Surface of Steel Pipe for Underground Service”
approximate depth of water absorption by a (Reprinted with permission)
coating. The test uses differential capacitance Section 1: General
and power factor measurements to monitor the 1.1 The scope and purpose of this Recommended Prac-
degradation of coatings’ dielectric properties. tice are t o set minimum acceptable requirements
c. Test for Joints, Fittings and Patches i n Coated for the application of organic coating materials to
Pipelines, ASTM G 18 - An adaptation of the pipelines for underground service.
Water Penetration Test, ASTM G 9 to evaluate 1.2 The purpose of the coating is to prevent corrosion
patch and joint performance. Capacitance and of steel pipe by isolation from the surrounding en-
power factor measurements monitor water ab- vironment.
sorption into the patched areas. 1.3 This Standard describes the practices common to
d. Disbonding Characteristics of Pipeline the application of pipe coatings, care and handling
Coatings by Direct Soil Burial, ASTM G 19 - A of materials, surface preparation, field joints, in-
field version of ASTM G 8, using soil as the elec- spection for defects, repair of coating defects, and
trolyte. Disbonding is measured over an 18-month the handling of coated pipe prior t o and during in-
test period. Results are more representative of stallation.
operating conditions but subject to greater 1.4 Plant application and field application are con-
variability among specimens. sidered separately, when necessary, to account for
the capabilities of available plant and field equip-
3. Chemical and Atmospheric Tests
ment.
a. Effects of Outdoor Weathering on Pipeline
1.5 The selection of specific coating materials is left to
Coatings, ASTM G 17 - A standard procedure for
the user’s discretion and is therefore not con-
exposing coated pipe samples to local at-
sidered.
mospheric conditions. The controlled exposure
1.6 Detailed instructions for applying a specific coating
period permits subsequent evaluation for ul-
are not included since these are furnished by
traviolet deterioration, disbondment, loss of im-
material suppliers.
pact resistance, or other pertinent
1.7 Good technical judgment should determine the
characteristics.
degree to which the minimum requirements should
b. Chemical Resistance of Pipeline Coatings, be exceeded in compensating for unusually severe
ASTM G 20 - Provides a standard method for environments, such as river crossings, rocky or ex-
evaluating the deterioration of coating properties ceptionally corrosive soils, and pipe inside casings.
after exposure to chemical liquids and their
vapors. The method includes a check of dimen- Section 2: Cafe and Handling of Materials
sional stability and coating bond loss at inten- 2.1 All pipe coating materials must be kept free from
tional holidays. The success of any test program contamination or damage prior to and during ap-
is contingent on many variables, one of which is plication. Material with limited storage life should
the objectivity of test personnel. Selection of pro-
be examined for deterioration prior to use and
duction samples, adequate sampling and unifor-
discarded or exchanged for fresh material if the
mity of test procedures and interpretation makes specified life is exceeded.
data comparisons more meaningful.
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358
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b * L 93 8627940 0003806 252 D
2.2 All cartons or containers should be plainly and per- with hooks or be thrown from trucks.
manently marked with the name of the manufac- Materiais showing evidences of damage or
turer, product identification, and batch or lot deterioration must not be used.
numbers. 2.6.4 Prolonged exposure of tape to sunlight
2.3 Primers must be avoided.
2.3.1 Primers are to be stored in tightly sealed 2.7 Thin-Film Coatings
containers and only that portion required 2.7.1 In this category are fusion-bonded powder
for immediate use shall be drawn from con- coatings - either thermoset or ther-
tainers. moplastic, and liquid coatings, usually
2.3.2 Storage must be at temperatures within thermoset (with or without solvent) and
manufacturer’s recommended range, and catalyzed coatings, such as the coal tar
exposure to extreme temperatures should epoxies.
be avoided. 2.7.2 Materials must be stored unopened in the
2.3.3 Primers are likely to be volatile and flam- original cartons or containers in adry place
mable and must be kept away from open at temperatures within the range specified
flame or other sources of ignition. by the manufacturer, and should remain
2.3.4 Primers must be mixed thoroughly prior to under cover until ready for use.
use and agitated during use, if required, to 2.7.3 Materials containing volatile and flam-
prevent settling. mable solvents must be stored in a
2.4 Hot Applied Enamels, Mastics and Waxes selected area away from sources of igni-
2.4.1 Materials must be stored unopened in the tion and identified as flammable. Only that
original containers within temperature portion required for immediate use should
ranges specified by the manufacturer. be drawn from containers, which should
2.4.2 Hot-applied materials must be heated then be resealed.
within the manufacturer’s recommended 2.7.4 Powdered coatings must be handled so as
temperature range to assure proper ap- to exclude the introduction of foreign
plication. When required, the heating and materials, solvents, or excessive moisture.
agitation of hot-applied materials must be 2.8 Plastic Sleeves
properly controlled to prevent settling of 2.8.1 In this category are heat-shrinkable field-
fillers, decomposition, excessive loss of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
applied joint materials and mill-applied ex-

light ends, and foaming. truded sleeves which may or may not be ex-
2.4.3 Melting pots that have been used for other truded over mastic materials.
materials must be drained and cleaned 2.8.2 Materials must be stored unopened in the
before use. original cartons or containers in a dry
2.4.4 Melt and transport hot-applied materials in place.
a manner to prevent contamination by
foreign materials. Section 3: Surface Preparation
2.5 Cold-Applied Mastics, Waxes, and Greases. 3.1 Surface Condition and Storage
2.5.1 Materials must be stored in the original 3.1.1 Pipe must be purchased with instructions
containers. Those containing volatile to omit all types of oil, lacquers, or varnish.
solvents must be stored in sealed con- 3.1.2 Identifying markings must be made with a
tainers at a temperature within the range material either removable or compatible
recommended by the manufacturer. with the coating to be used.
2.5.2 Materials containing volatile and flam- 3.1.3 Primer applied at the pipe mill must be
mable solvents must be kept away from compatible with the final protective
open flame or other sources or ignition. coat i ng.
2.6 Tapes and Wrappers 3.1.4 When pipe is temporarily protected in
2.6.1 In this category are pre-formed tapes in- storage, a material compatible with the
cluding heat applied, cold-primer applied, final coating must be used.
pressure sensitive tapes, and overwrapping 3.2 Over-the-Ditch
or supporting materials, such as felt, 3.2.1 Prior to cleaning, foreign materials, weld
fiberglass, and paper. slag and burrs, excessively high weld but-
2.6.2 Tapes and wrappers should be stored as tons, oil, grease, and moisture must be
directed on the cartons, in a dry place, and removed from the pipe.
should remain under cover until ready for 3.2.2 The pipe must be machine or blast cleaned
use. prior to coating application.
2.6.3 Tapes and wrappers should not be handled

at 303-397-2295.
3.2.3 The cleaning machine must be properly uniform coat. Curing or drying time must be
centered on the pipe to insure uniform rota- i n accordance with manufacturer’s
tion of the cleaning head. Allcleaning tools specifications.
must be properly tensioned against the 4.3.2 Coating materials for field joints must be
pipe. equal in quality to, and compatible with,
3.2.4 Machine crawlers or cleaning tools that coating on the pipeline.
will burr or scar the pipe must not be used. 4.3.3 Coating materials must be applied
3.2.5 Rust, mill scale, and dirt must be removed substantially free of voids, wrinkles, and air
from the pipe. or gas entrapment. This may require the
3.2.6 When primers are used that must dry use of materials that will conform to the
before coating is applied, all moisture, shape of irregular appurtenances, such as
dust, and dirt must be removed from the valves.
primed pipe before coating. 4.3.4 A new coating must overlap and adhere to
3.2.7 Cradles for the coating machine must be of existing material. The overlap must be suf-
a type that will not make track marks or ficient to allow for shrinkage of both new
remove the primer. and existing coatings.
3.3 Coating in the Plant
3.3.1 Unless otherwise recommended by the Section 5: Repair of Coating Defects
coating material manufacturer, as a 5.1 After the coating has been applied, inspection
minimum, the pipe must be grit or shot should follow. Any defects discovered should be
blast cleaned to SSPC-SP 6, NACE No. 3 repaired.
Test Method entitled “Visual Standard for 5.2 Procedure
Surfaces of New Steel Centrifugally Blast 5.2.1 A sufficient portion of the coating must be
Cleaned with Steel Grit and Shot” (Com- carefully removed from defective areas of
mercial Blast Cleaned Surface Finish). pipe to ensure that the remaining coating
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3.3.2 Pipe must be dry and free of oil, grease, is satisfactory and well bonded. Edges of
and blasting grit or shot. the area should be tapered to increase the
3.3.3 If used, the primer must be applied to strength of the patch.
freshly cleaned surfaces within five 5.2.2 Foreign matter must be removed from the
minutes after cleaning. area to be repaired.
3.3.4 For surface preparation of field joints and 5.2.3 Primer applied to the area, if required, must
repair of coating defects, see Sections 4 be allowed to dry properly before the
and 5. coating is applied.
5.2.4 The coating material used for patching
Section 4: Field Joints must be such that proper adhesion will oc-
4.1 Coated pipe sections connected by welding andlor cur between the existing coating material
and the patching material.
mechanical coupling by means of valves or other
underground appurtenances will be considered
field joints. Coating of field joints must be equal to Section 6: Handling Coated Pipe
or better than the coating on the pipeline. 6.1 Coated pipe should be handled in a manner to
4.2 Surface Preparation minimize damage.
4.2.1 In removing coatings to make tie-ins, care 6.2 Handling equipment
must be taken to avoid the disbonding of 6.2.1 Equipment which is injurious to the coating
the adjacent coating. Edges of thick film must not be used.
coatings must be tapered and enough of 6.2.2 Belt slings must be sufficiently wide and
the wrapper removed to ensure adhesion of free of protruding rivets or bolts to prevent
the new coating to the existing coating. damage to the coating.
4.2.2 Surfaces to be coated must be thoroughly 6.2.3 Skids and racks must be of sufficient
cleaned with solvents to remove all oil and width, or must be padded, to prevent the
grease. All dust, dirt, rust, mill scale, loose edges from cutting the coating and should
shop coating, dead primer, welding slag, be arranged to permit the coated pipe to
slivers, and burrs must be removed with bear on the full width of the skid.
wire brushes or scrapers. Nicking the bare 6.3 Storage and Shipping
pipe surface must not be permitied. 6.3.1 Coated pipe that is t a be stacked should be
4.3 Materials “nested” so that adjacent pipe lengths
4.3.1 Where materials requiring primer are used, bear equally against each other throughout
the primer may be hand applied in a their coated lengths, or should be suffi-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x L b . 1 93 W 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003808 025 W
ciently padded. Excessively. high - stacking- BIOGRAPHY

of coated pipe must be avoided. A W Peabody worked as a
Consulting Engineer in Corrosion
6.3.2 Devices used to secure pipe during ship- Control Until 1980, he was the
ping must not cause damage to the Director of Corrosion Engineering
coating, pipe, or pipe bevels. for EBASCO Services, Inc in New
York and Houston, where he was
6.4 Installation
involved with assignments related
6.4.1 Pipe which is not placed in the ditch im- to electric utilities, underground
mediately after coating should be sup- pipelines, industrial plants, and
marine facilities For EBASCO he
ported on skids sufficiently wide andlor
also served as Supervising Corro-
adequately padded to prevent damage of sion Engineer and Principal Cor-
the coating. rosion Engineer He was a ; !
member of the State DeDartment
6.4.2 Foreign objects which could damage the Cultural Exchange Delegation on Corrosion to the Soviet Union in 1962
coating must be removed from the bottom and recipient of the Frank Newman Speller Award in Corrosion Engineer-
of the ditch before the pipe is lowered into ing by the National Association of Corrosion Engineers in 1979. He was
recipient of the Col. G. C. Cox Outstanding Award in 1979. He has pub-
position. When rocks or other items cannot lished numerous articles on corrosion, and a book on pipeline corrosion
be removed, sufficient padding must be control.
used to prevent coating damage. Mr. Peabody graduated from the University of Maine in Electrical
Engineering, and did graduate study at Brooklyn Polytech-
6.4.3 When the coated pipe is lowered in the nic Institute. He is a registered professional engineer, and a Life Mem-
ditch, care must be exercised to prevent ber of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and of
the pipe from swinging against or rubbing the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. He was elected a
fellow of NACE in 1993.
on the sides of the ditch. If coating damage
occurs, it should be repaired according to
Section 5.
6.4.4 When the ditch is backfilled, care must be REFERENCES
1. Norman Peifer and Frank Costanzo, “Protection of Pipelines
exercised to prevent damage to the pipe and Other Underground Structures”. Steel Structures Paint-
from rocks, clods, and similar objects. Pad- ing Manual, Vol. 1, Chapter 3, pps. 323-349, 1954.
ding or shielding material may be 2. Industrial Writing, Inc., “Coal Tar Enamel Leads in Pipeline
Coatings”. Pipeline Digest, p. 9, March 16, 1981.
necessary to prevent such damage.” 3. A.W. Peabody, “Coatings”. Control of Pipeline Corrosion,
Chapter 3, pps. 9-18, 1954.
4. National Association of Corrosion Engineers Standard,
NACB RP-01-69, “Recommended practice - Control of Ex-
ternal Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Piping Systems”. Sections 5.1.2.1 and 5.1.2.2, p. 5, 1969.
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active 5. S. Boysen, Jr., “Coating Fundamentals”. NACE 19th Annual
participation of the following in the review process for this Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, May 1974.
chapter: Leonard Choate, S.C. Frye, W. Kemp, Donald King, Dr. 6. NACE RP-01, p. 5, 1969.
Howard Lasser, Henry R. Stoner, Rupe Strobel and William J. 7. Jack T. Kiuchi, “Plastics for the Protection of Underground
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Wallace, Jr. Pipe”. Purdue University 6th Annual Underground Corrosion
Course, March 1, 1967.
8. O.W. Wade, and J.F. Gosse, “A Study of Test Methods for Ex-
ternal Coatings for Underground Pipelines”. American Gas
Association Distribution Conference, 1966.
BIOGRAPHY 9. Dean M. Berger, “Selecting Coatings for Underground Steel
Richard N. Sloan, a grad- Pipe”. Plant Engineering, p. 105, September 30, 1976.
uate of Drexel University Eve- 10. R.W. Horner, “Extruded Plastics”. NACE 18th Annual Ap-
ning College with a B.S. degree palachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, May, 1973.
in Industrial Administration, is 11. Kiuchi, “Plastics for the Protection of Underground Pipe.”
Vice President - Marketing ot 12. K. Channing Verbech, “Protective Coatings”. New England
Ameron Price, Fontana, Cali- Gas Association, June 19, 1969.
fornia. He is an active member 13. R.N. Sloan, “Present Trends in Coatings to Protect Pipe Type
of NACE and AWWA Societies. Cable in the Utilities Industry”. Materiais Performance, 18,
Sloan has been employed by NO. 7. PPS. 27-30, July, 1979.
H.C. Price Company for twenty- 14. R.N. Sloan, “Asphalt Mastic Coatings”. NACE 15th Annual
eight years after starting as a Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, 1970.
Clerk in 1952. He has held posi- 15. N. Schmitz-Pranghe, “Mannesmann’s Approach to Extruded
tions as Office Manager, Sales; PE Mill Coating”. Pipe Line Industry, p. 40, March, 1976.
Sales Manager; Assistant Re- 16. R.N. Sloan, “Extruded Plastic Pipeline Coatings”. NACE
gional Manager; and Regional Manager at their Pennsylvania pipe Southeast Regional Engineering Conference, October 21-24,
coating plant prior to transfer t o Bartlesville, Oklahoma, as 1979.
Marketing Manager. 17. John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F.
Weaver, “Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints”. Steel
Structures Painting Council Report, 165 pps., October 25,
1976.
18. Richard W. Drisko, “Introduction to Protective Coatings”.
Western States Corrosion Seminar, California State
Polytechnic University, Session No. 6, Paper No. 7, May 6-7-8,
1980.
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTERtL6.L 93 = 8627940 0003809 TbL
19. Linden Stuart, “Modern Pipe Coating Techniques and Equip-

ment in the Mill and Field”. NACE Corrosionl78, Paper No. 65,
1978.
20. Emil Senkowski, “Materials Specifications and Evaluation”.
NACE 15th Annual Liberty Bell Corrosion Course, 1977.
21. Peifer and Costanzo, pp. 323-349.
22. Prilo-K Bredero, “Polyurethane Foam Insulation Bulletin”.
Mfg. Literature, Bredero-Price, Inc.
23. John G. Hendrickson, “Internal and External Concrete
Coatings for Corrosion Control”. NACE 15th Annual Ap-
palachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, p. 358, 1970.
24. Anonymous, “Steel Fibers Toughen Coating for Offshore
Pipelines”. Pipeline and Gas Journal, Staff Report, May 1975.
25. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, NAVFAC Specifica-
tion TS-15057, “Coal Tar Coating Systems for Steel
Surfaces”, April, 1974.
26. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, NAVFAC Specifica-
tion TS-09809, “Protection of Buried Steel Piping and Steel
Bulkhead Tie Rods”, September, 1975.
27. Verbech, ”Protective Coatings”.
28. Wade and Gosse, ”A Study of Test Methods for External
Coatings for Underground Pipelines”.
29. Emil Senkowski, “Standard Laboratory Tests for Pipeline
Coatings”. Materials Performance, Vol. 18, No. 8, pps. 23-28,
August, 1979.
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362
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L b = 2 93 m 8627940 00038LO 783 m
CHAPTER 16.2
CATHODIC PROTECTION
by
A.W. Peabody
I. INTRODUCTION may be unique design considerations when planning a

cathodic protection system for pipeline interiors, such a
Since Volume 1 of the SSPC Manual was first pub-
system can work very effectively.
lished, general knowledge of cathodic protection and
Cathodic protection current must be able to reach all
its practical application have increased greatly. Its impor-
of the pipeline's exposed metal. If, for example, a coating
tance can be seen in the federal regulation that all new
material is not bonded to the pipe surface, it may permit
construction for hazardous pipelines must include the use
water to reach the metallic pipe surface under the disbond-
of effective coatings and cathodic protection.
ed coating around coating holidays.
Because a comprehensive discussion of cathodic pro-
Where the disbonded coating has a high electrical
tection would be voluminous, this chapter presents only a
resistance, cathodic protection current cannot flow
general introductory account. Other sources provide more
through it to reach the pipe surface, and active corrosion
specific treatment',*.
may result.
While cathodic protection current can enter the space
II. HOW CATHODIC PROTECTION
between the disbonded coating and pipe surface, the
COMPLEMENTS A COATING
thin water film there may prevent the protection current
Coatings used on pipelines and other underground from penetrating in sufficient quantity for adequate pro-
structures frequently need to protect very large areas of tection.
underground metal, especially with major cross-country If the space between a disbonded coating and pipe
pipelines. For instance, only 10 miles (16.09 km) of 48" surface remains dry, there will normally not be a corrosion
(1219.2 mm) diameter steel pipeline has an exterior surface
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
problem. If water does enter the space, however, an elec-

area of approximately 15.2 acres (6.2 hectares). trically insulating coating acts as an "electrical shield"
Such large areas, when coated and buried, cannot re- preventing the effective cathodic protection of the pipe at
main permanently free of all pinholes, developed defects, that location. Electrical potential measurements may in-
or outside damage. Even though the coating may, initially, dicate that the pipe is cathodically protected in accord
be free of holes in the film, pipe movement with with an accepted criterion at the disbonded area, whereas
temperature variations, soil stresses, and damage from it may, in fact, be corroding.
outside sources (such as excavation work on other proj- The pipeline operator will normally find that a top
ects) will ultimately expose bare metal to the corrosive ef- grade coating will give the best practicable corrosion con-
fect of the surrounding environment (soil or water). The trol for his metallic pipe when it is complemented by a
amount of metal exposed will be determined by the quality cathodic protection system which has been properly
of the coating used and the severityof the hazards working designed, installed and maintained.
to damage the coating.
Even though 99.9999% of the surface area might re-
main fully and effectively protected by the coating, the re- 111. RELATION BETWEEN COATING
maining 0.0001 YO could be a problem. On the 10 miles of CHARACTERISTICS AND CATHODIC
48" pipe mentioned earlier, this represents some 0.6635 PROTECTION
square feet of exposed metal. Serious damage could occur The characteristics of a coatings system determine
on this much exposed surface if corrosive effects are not the requirements for cathodic protection.
controlled. To put the 0.6635 square feet in better perspec- If a coating on a buried or submerged pipeline forms a
tive, it represents in the order of 50 one-half-inch diameter high electrical resistance barrier between the pipe and sur-
holes in the coating for each mile of the 48" diameter pipe. rounding earth or water, the electric current needed to pro-
A lot can happen at these locations. vide cathodic protection will be less than with a coating
Although the coating-cathodic-protection combina- barrier having a lower effective electrical resistance, and
tion is used widely on pipeline exterior surfaces, this work- lower current requirements for cathodic protection mean a
ing team can also be used on the interior surfaces of lower investment for the cathodic protection system.
pipelines carrying electrically conductive materials such The designer and operator of the cathodic protection
as water or other conductive solutions. Although there system for a coated pipeline are concerned with three ma-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*16.2 93 8627740 0 0 0 3 8 1 1 bLT
jor coating characteristics: turn, in parallel with the 5148.2-ohm coating resistance
1) Effective coating resistance; would give a net resistance across the ten-mile (16.09km)
length of 229.8 ohms which is equivalent to an apparent
2) Bond between coating and protected structure as
discussed in the preceding section; coating resistance on the ten-mile (16.09km) section of
114.3 x lo8ohms per average square foot. Although this is
3) Coating stability.
still a high resistance figure (and indicates a very low elec-
Of these three, “coating stability” is perhaps the most trical energy requirement for cathodic protection), it never-
important. A stable coating has effective resistance and theless represents a 95.5 reduction from the “perfect
bond for a long period of time. coating” condition.
A coating with a high effective resistance will be Coating bond also effects resistance particularly ad-
chosen for pipeline application. This effective resistance jacent to any pinholes or holidays in the in-place coating.
per average square foot depends upon the basic resistivity Any lifting of the coating because of disbondment at such
of the coating material itself, the coating thickness, openings in the coating increases the amount of pipe metal
number and size of holidays in the coatings, deleterious exposed to the surrounding environment, reduces the ef-
effect of the environment on the coating, the resistivity of fective coating resistance, increases the electrical current
the conducting environment in which the pipeline is buried requirements for cathodic protection and introduces
or submerged, and the bond between pipe surface and the possibility of under-film corrosion that is electrically
coating. If effective resistance is unstable, the electric cur- shielded from the beneficial effects of cathodic protection.
rent needed for cathodic protection may double every few It doesn’t take much disbondment to double the area
years, causing increased costs for installation of new of exposed metal at the usual small coating defect. For ex-
cathodic protection facilities, maintenance, and energy. ample, doubling the exposed metal area at the base of a
Resistance almost always declines as additional
” (6.35mm) diameter hole in a pipe coating involves a
coating defects are generated through environmental ef- disbondment lifting of only approximately 52 mils (1.32
fects. While the cathodic protection engineers are able to mm) from the edges of the hole. Disbonding effects can be
measure the effective resistance of a coating on a far worse than this.
pipeline, this measurement can be misleading i f the
pipe has been installed in dry earth and not given time
enough for the backfill to settle and for moisture to IV. BASIC THEORY OF CATHODIC
permeate all existing coating pinholes and holidays. PROTECTION
Measurements made under these conditions will normally To understand how cathodic protection works, it is
indicate a higher effective resistance (possibly much necessary to understand corrosion. On a pipeline, corro-
higher) than what actually exists. Thus, experience is re- sion causes a flow of direct current between the elements
quired to judge the validity of coating resistance of a corrosion cell on the pipeline or between the pipeline
measurements and to use them for calculating the design and some external entity which may be affecting the
of cathodic protection systems. pipeline. Fig. 1 illustrates this. As shown by the figure,
There is a great difference between the resistance of areas where corrosion is occurring are called “anodic”,
a perfect pipeline coating and one with even just a very few which means that they are discharging corrosion current
small pinholes. To illustrate: the resistance across a 3/32“ to a conductive electrolytic environment, earth or water.
(2.38mm) thick completely pinhole-free coal tar enamel When direct current leaves the surface of pipe metal to
coating having a volume resistivity of 1013 ohm- enter such an electrolytic environment, it takes the metal
centimeters on a ten-mile (16.09km) length of 36” (914.4 with it, and the pipe suffers corrosive deterioration. On the
mm) diameter pipeline in a 1000 ohm-cm environment
would be approximately 5148.2 ohms. This is equivalent to Anodic Areas
(Pipe
an effective coating resistance of 2.56 x lo9 ohms per
average square foot. However, i f there were just one
(1.59mm) diameter pinhole filled with the 1000 ohm-cm en-
vironment, the resistance across the 3/32“ (2.38 mm)
length of the pinhole would be 12,026 ohms. This resis-
tance in parallel with the 5148.2-Ohmcoating resistance
would be approximately 3605 ohms, which is equivalent to
an apparent coating resistance on the ten-mile (16.09km)
Corrosion Current
section of 1.79 x lo8 ohms per average square foot - a (Represented by Arrows)
30% reduction from the “perfect coating” condition. Flows & the Surrounding
Under practical conditions, the chances are that there E a r t h or Wuter
would be many more than one pinhole in a ten-mile t h e Anodic Areas on he
Pipeline and Removes M e t a l
pipeline section. Assuming there were fifty pinholes of the at These 1ocat ions.
size stated in the example, the parallel resistance across FIGURE 1
the fifty pinholes would be 240.52 ohms. This figure, in Typical Components of Pipeline Corrosion Cell.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
364
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb-2 73 8627740 0003832 556
( U eCurrent
t u r n - Through
Flow ~~ Previously
Anodic
V. CRITERIA USED FOR EVALUATING
Pipeline t o Source Are as CATHODIC PROTECTION
of Direct Current
Criteria have been developed to determine that a
structure has been made completely cathodic, or in other
words that it is fully protected from corrosion. These
criteria are set forth in National Association of Corrosion
Engineers (NACE) Standard RP-01-69(use latest revision)
titled, “Recommended Practice - Control of External Cor-
rosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping
Systems.” These criteria are also contained in Section I,
Corrosion, of Part 192 (Transportation of Natural and Other
Gas by Pipeline: Minimum Federal Safety Standards), Title
49 of the Code of Federal Regulations, which was prepared
following the passage by the Congress of the Natural Gas
Source of Pipeline Safety Act of 1968.
Dirac t
Current Probably the most used criterion is the one based on a
LAuxiliar Connection simple measurement of the electrical potential between
(ü8Udy 7’e r mGround
c d ”Ground B e d ” ) the pipeline and adjacent earth or water. The wording of
FIGURE 2 this criterion is as quoted below from the NACE Standard
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Basic Concept of Cathodic Protection. RP-01-69:

A positive indicator for steel and cast iron structures
is “A negative (cathodic) voltage of at least 0.85 volt as
other hand, when direct current flows from a surrounding measured between the structure surface and a saturated
electrolytic environment onto the pipe surface at cathodic copper-copper sulphate reference electrode contacting
areas, there is no corrosive damage. the electrolyte. Determination of this voltage is to be made
If there were a way to convert all anodic areas on a with the protective current applied.”
buried or submerged pipe surface to corrosion-free This is all based on the fact that when a pipeline is
cathodic areas, corrosive damage would be eliminated. under cathodic protection, direct current flows from the
This is exactly what is accomplished with a properly conducting environment onto the pipeline as shown by
designed, installed and maintained cathodic protection Figure 3. This current flow through the environment and
system. Basically, this is done by using some external coating resistance forces the pipeline to assume a
source of direct current to neutralize and counteract the negative electrical polarity with respect to the environ-
natural corrosion currents discharging from anodic areas. ment. The question, then, is just how negative the pipe
Figure 2 illustrates the concept of cathodic protec- should be to serve as an indication that full protection has
tion. The figure shows a ground connection established been attained. The value of -0.85 volt is used for steel
separate from the pipeline. A source of direct current pipe as measured using a standard copper-copper
metallically connected between the pipe and ground con- sulphate reference electrode to contact the environment. If
nection forces the ground connection to discharge cur- other types of reference electrodes are used, the values
rent. The system is designed to regulate the amount of cur- will be different.
rent discharged (cathodic protection current) so that it Figure 4 illustrates how the protective potential is
eliminates the flow of corrosion cell current from anodic measured. The reference electrode (used to assure stable
areas by converting them to cathodic areas. A net flow is and repeatable readings) is normally placed on the earth
established from the conductive environment onto the surface directly above the pipeline as shown. This position
previously anodic areas.
Because the cathodic protection system ground con-
nection (also known as “ground bed” or “anode bed”) is
discharging current to do its job, it is subject to corrosion.
Thus, a ca!hodic protection system, although it Arrows Designate
Cathodic Protect ion
renders a protected structure surface free of corrosion, Current Fiow Onto
does not eliminate corrosion - it transfers the corrosive t h e Pipeline
effect from critical operating structures such as pipelines
to known locations (the ground connections) where
replacements may be made periodically (10 to 15 years or
more) without making it necessary to take the protected
+‘
operating pipeline out of service.
+ I
FIGURE 3
Current Flow Pattern at Cathodically Protected Pipe.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b - 2 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003833 492
Electrical D i r e c t Current V o h n e t e r W i t h
Test Station /W9h internal Resistance
___) Buried Coated Pipeline
FIGURE 4
Measurement of Pipeline Protective Potential.
tends to be a neutral zone where there is the least net con- steel surface. Hydrogen bubbles may cause mechanical
centration of cathodic protection current flow between the lifting of paint around defects, increasing the current re-
electrode and the pipe surface. When working with sub- quirements for cathodic protection. This effect is most
merged pipelines, suitable submersion electrodes may be likely to occur in environments of low resistance.
lowered to a position just above the pipeline. Avoiding coating damage by excessive cathodic pro-
Potentials on steel pipe which are less negative than tection is best accomplished by avoiding over-protection
- 0.85 volt to copper-copper sulphate electrode indicate in the first place although coatings that are resistant but
less than full cathodic protection. On the other hand, po- not immune to this effect can be selected.
tentials more negative than -0.85 volt to copper-copper Normally, cathodic protection design engineers will
sulphate electrode indicate wasted energy - since once strive to keep the polarization potential on their protected
corrosion is stopped at -0.85 volt, there is no real need to pipeline below the hydrogen over-voltage potential,
carry more negative potentials at a given point as far as corro- which is the point at which free hydrogen starts to evolve.
sion control at that point is concerned. In actual practice, The “polarization potential” is the potential measured be-
however, it is usually necessary to maintain more negative tween the pipe and adjacent earth immediately (within a
potentials at drainage points of cathodic protection cur- fraction of a second) after cathodic protection current flow
rent along a pipeline in order to maintain the minimum of to the pipe is interrupted. The reading must be taken very
- 0.85 volt at locations remote from the drainage points. quickly because the polarization potential decays very
This is primarily a result of attenuation - voltage drops rapidly at first. Although its rate depends upon en-
caused by cathodic protection current on the pipeline flow- vironmental conditions, free hydrogen evolution on steel
ing through the longitudinal resistance of the pipeline pipe can be looked for when the polarization potential ap-
steel in order to return to the drainage point. In this proaches a value in the order of - 1.2 volt as measured to a
respect, large diameter coated lines are much easier to copper-copper sulphate reference electrode.
protect cathodically than are small diameter coated pipes Other accepted criteria for steel (and cast iron) struc-
because the larger cross sectional steel area in a large tures which may be used are given below based on the
pipe means lower longitudinal electrical resistance with NACE Standard RP-01-69 and are supplemented by ex-
resulting lower attenuation. planatory notes as appropriate.
Where there are more negative than necessary 1) A minimum negative (cathodic) voltage shift of at
cathodic protection potentials on coated pipelines, least 300 millivolts, produced by the application
gaseous hydrogen is generated at coating defects in the of protective current. (Notes: The “voltage shift”
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERr16.2 93 8627940 0003814 3 2 9 W
is from cathodic protection current ON to the working tools used by pipeline corrosion engineers to
value read immediately - within a fraction of a evaluate the effectiveness of their cathodic protection
second - after turning the cathodic protection systems, the ultimate criterion is whether or not the
current OFF. Does not apply to all structures; development of pipeline corrosion leaks has been effec-
not applicable to structures in contact with tively stopped.
dissimilar metals. Used where -0.85 volt to
copper-copper sulphate electrode not readily at- VI. TYPES OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
tained. Not always feasible to simultaneously in- There are two general types of cathodic protection
terrupt all cathodic protection current sources on systems widely used on pipeline facilities. These are:
a protected section of pipeline.) galvanic anode systems that generate their own electrical
2) A minimum negative (cathodic) polarization energy for protection and impressed current systems
voltage shift of 100 millivolts measured between that require energy from an outside source. These two
the structure surface and a saturated copper- systems are discussed below.
copper sulfate reference electrode contacting the
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
electrolyte. (Notes: This is a measurement of the A. CATHODIC PROTECTION WITH GALVANIC

cathodic protection-OFF decay in the polarization ANODES
potential. This decay must be t o a point at least
A particularly troublesome source of corrosion
100 millivolts less negative than the polarization
damage can be the dissimilar metal corrosion cell. If, for
potential measured immediately - within a frac-
example, copper and steel are in electrical contact with
tion of a second - after first turning the cathodic
each other and both are in contact with a corrosive (low
protection current OFF. Full decay may take ex-
resistivity) earth or water, the steel is anodic and corrodes
cessively long on some pipelines. Not always
faster than is the case if the copper is not present. The
feasible to simultaneously interrupt all cathodic
copper in the case cited, being cathodic, shows little or no
protection current sources on a protected section
attack.
of pipeline.)
But the negative effect of dissimilar metal corrosion
3) A structure-to-electrolyte voltage at least as cells can be reversed if the “right” material is in contact
negative (cathodic) as that originally established with the steel pipe. The “right metal” is higher than steel in
at the beginning of the Tafel segment of the the electromotive series of metals and, as a result, anodic
E-Log-I curve. (Notes: The E-Log-I curve is while the steel in the dissimilar metal corrosion cell
developed, using specific techniques, by applying becomes cathodic and is thereby protected from corro-
increasing increments of cathodic protection cur- sion.
rent to an initially unprotected pipeline and Materials used for galvanic anodes include zinc,
measuring the pi pel i ne-to-reference electrode magnesium and (in certain applications) aluminum. The
potential at each value of applied current. These material is usually cast into various commercial shapes
potentials are plotted against the logarithm of ap- (called “anodes”) with lead wires attached. Particularly for
plied current. Typically, starting from the anodes to be buried in earth, they are commonly pur-
minimum applied current value, the plot will ap- chased with a “package” of a compatible chemical
pear as initial and final straight line portions con- backfill surrounding the anode. This permits more uniform
nected by a curved section or “break.” It is the in- performance and better anode efficiency.
dicated pipeline-to-reference electrode potential Galvanic anodes generate their own current through
at the begining of the final straight line portion “galvanic action’’ or “battery action” when they are in
that is used as the criterion of protection. Effec- electrical contact with the pipe metal. This permits a sim-
tive, but a slow procedure.) ple construction method which is illustrated in its simplest
4) A net protective current from the electrolyte into form by Figure 5. The two dissimilar metals of the anode
the structure surface as measured by an earth and the pipe, when electrically connected with a wire as
current technique applied at predetermined cur- shown, constitute a simple battery causing current to flow
rent discharge (anodic) points of the structure. from the anode through the earth to the pipe and back to
(Notes: Simplest evidence of compliance is a the anode through the interconnecting wire.
definite indication that reference electrodes Anodes may be installed individually or in groups.
placed on each side of the pipeline opposite the Their size, material, intervals between installations along a
previously anodic spot are electrically positive pipeline, and other details are designed by the corrosion
with respect to a reference electrode placed engineer. Design determinants include pipe material and
directly above the pipeline at the previously- physical size, type and condition of the coating, resistivity
anodic spot. This indicates that direct current is of the earth or water surrounding the pipe, presence of
flowing onto the pipeline from the environment on stray earth currents from other sources, available con-
each side.) struction sites, weather, and other similar factors.
While the criteria discussed above are the accepted Although galvanic anodes can control pipeline corro-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.2 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 00038L5 2 6 5
and (2) the large amounts of galvanic anode metal needed

--
8 rade 1 for reasonable life in high current applications. While
neither of these limitations is insurmountable, the use of
galvanic anode installations in high resistivity en-
vironments (where the low driving voltage becomes a prob-
lem) for high current output at a given location may not be
economical.
An “impressed current” system can overcome the
limitations described above. In this system direct current
from an outside power source is impressed between the
pipe metal and a ground connection (or “ground bed”)
making electrical contact with the earth or water surround-
I
ing the pipe. This is illustrated in simplified form by Fig. 6.
Porous Container Of the several possible sources of direct current
(Pa kage) Contoi n ing
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Chemical B a c k f i l l shown on the figure, that most frequently used is the a-c to
d-c rectifier which converts a-c power from commercial
FIGURE 5
Cathodic Protection Using Galvanic Anodes. power lines to d-c power of the desired voltage and current
rating for a specific application. Rectifier units are typical-
ly furnished with adjustable d-c output voltage and current
sion, they are themselves corroded and consumed in the giving the corrosion engineer substantial flexibility in the
process of supplying the necessary cathodic protection design of his cathodic protection systems.
current to the pipeline. The cathodic protection system When commercial power is not available where im-
designer takes this into account by providing enough pressed current installations are needed, one of the other
anode material to give a reasonable operating life. The d-c power sources shown on Fig. 6 may be selected. These
following figures are practical allowances of galvanic units likewise have the advantages of flexibility in d-c out-
anode material required for one ampere of current flow for put voltage and current.
one year. These alternate power sources can be briefly de-
scribed as:
1. Engine generators
TABLE 1 Internal combustion engines or turbines (usually
fueled from the protected pipeline) powering a d-c
GALVANIC ANODE MATERIAL ALLOWANCE generator of appropriate size or an a-c alternate
PER AMP-YEAR feeding a conventional a-c to d-c rectifier.
2. Thermal-electric generators
Anode Weight of Anode Material,
Generators directly converting heat (from
Material in Pounds
DiDeline-fueled flame) to d-c electricitv.
I I
Zinc 30.8
3. Solar-powered generators
Magnesium 20.6
Using sunlight in a direct conversion process for
Aluminum (in 8.5 generation of d-c electricity. Requires storage bat-
sea water)
teries to provide steady current output through
dim and dark periods.
4. Wind-powered generators
Using figures such as these (which are based on typical ef-
Windmills drive d-c generators. Storage batteries
ficiencies and replacement of anodes after they are 85%
are required to provide steady output current
consumed), the designer can, by straight proportion, deter-
through periods of little or no wind.
mine the minimum amount of anode material for any given
amount of average current discharge and for any given 5. Fuel cells
planned installation life. Devices which depend on the combining of
gaseous fuel materials to produce d-c electricity.
B. CATHODIC PROTECTION WITH Flame is not involved.
IMPRESSED CURRENT The ground connection, or “ground bed,” discharges
Although galvanic anodes are a simple and reliable current to earth and therefore corrodes just as galvanic
source of cathodic protection current and are almost anodes do. But an impressed current system can use
foolproof, they are limited in their application. The prime relatively inert materials for ground bed anodes. Because
limitations are (1) the fixed low driving voltage between the these materials corrode at very low rates compared to the
pipe metal and the galv?nic anode metal being used - corrosion rates of galvanic anode materials, it is possible
this is the “battery voltage” between anode and pipe - to design long-life, high current-output ground beds with

368
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SSPC CHAPTERaLb.2 93 8b279'iO 00038Lb L T L B
reasonable quantities of ground bed materials. VII. DATA REQUIREMENTS PRIOR TO

Materials used include the following: DESIGNING CATHODIC PROTECTION
a) Graphite (carbon) SYSTEMS
b) High-silicon cast iron Before designing a cathodic protection system, the
c) Magnetite (iron oxide - Fe,O,) corrosion engineer will need the following information:
d) Platinized metals 1) Data on the pipe itself in the pipeline section to be
e) Steel protected. This would include length, diameter,
Of these, the first three are consumed at rates ranging wall thickness, resistivity or metal analysis, and
from a fraction of a pound to around two pounds per type of joint (if other than welding).
ampere per year depending on material used, current 2) Data on the pipeline protective coating. Includes
discharge density, and the nature of the environment. type, thickness, application specifications and
Platinized metals are used in special applications conditions, and (particularly)the effective in-place
where the cost is justified. Platinum corrodes at an ex- coating resistance after backfill stabilization.
tremely low rate. For ground bed use, it is normally plated 3) Data on weight coating for applications where
in a thin layer on a substrate such as titanium or colum- used over a protective coating. Type and
bium. Because these materials resist the discharge of cur- thickness of the weight coating should be known
rent once the platinum plating is consumed, the substrate as well as the nature of metal reinforcement in the
material is not severed by local corrosion. weight coating and how it is installed.
Steel corrodes at a rate of about 20 pounds per 4) Expected pipeline operating life.
ampere per year but can be useful in some applications 5) If the pipeline is already equipped with electrical
because it generates less gas at the anode surface than test stations for evaluating cathodic protection
the other materials. and, i f so, details on the number, type and loca-
Where a backfill can be used around the impressed tion of all existing test stations.
current anodes, carbonaceous materials (coal coke,
6) Details of cased crossing installations: size of
calcined petroleum coke, crushed man-made graphite, or
casing, whether or not casing is coated and (if so)
natural graphite flakes) can extend anode life even further.
with what material, how casing is insulated from
Much of the anode current is carried to the backfill through
carrier pipe, how casing ends are sealed, and
direct contact. Actual material consumption, then, tends
details of vent pipe or pipes (if any).
to be concentrated in the outer layers of the carbonaceous
backfill where the discharge to surrounding earth occurs. 7) Information on all other pipelines which cross or
I . I . I .
(Coated
Pipeline
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Current
Source o f Direct Eorth From
Current Power Ground Bed
Such as: t o Pipeline
A-C t o D-C Rectifiers
Engine - Generators G ro u nd Con nect ion
Thermul- Electric (or "Ground Bed'')
G encra tors Throuqh Which
Solar Powered - Current is forced
Generators
Wind - Powered Various Designs and
Generators Materials Possi &le.
.Fuel Cells Circles Represent
Ground Bed Anodes.
FIGURE 6
Basic Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb=Z 73 m 8b27740 0003837 038 m
are closely parallel to the pipeline section to be a protected potential of -0.90 volt to copper-
protected. Data needed includes exact location, copper sulphate electrode and the usual galvanic
ownership, bare or coated, whether or not anode materials would be approximately:
cathodically protected, and availability of test 0.15 volt for aluminum (in a sea water
points. environment)
8) Current required for cathodic protection. This may 0.20 volt for zinc
be estimated using data from items 1 and 2, but is 0.65 to 0.90 volt for magnesium
preferably determined using field current require- (depending on alloy)
ment tests. These voltages will be higher or lower with
9) Availability of commercial electric power for im- changes in the protective potential obtained on
pressed current cathodic protection installations. the structure at the anode installation site.
10) Evaluation of suitability of other impressed cur- Knowledge about the driving voltage of a given
rent power sources i f commercial power is not anode material and about the amount of current
available. required for protecting a structure, will determine
requirements for the electrical circuit resistance
11) General data on soil resistivity distribution along
needed for the proper amount of current flow.
the pipeline section - high, low and average
figures. 2. Soil Resistivity
The resistance to earth of a galvanic anode is pro-
12) Data on stray current activity. Can natural telluric
currents of serious magnitude be expected or are portional to the electrical resistivity of the sur-
there man-made sources of stray current (d-c tran- rounding earth or water. If the resistivity is very
sit systems, d-c mining operations, d-c welding high, the anode resistance will likewise be high.
operations, cathodic protection installations on With a fixed low driving voltage as discussed
adjacent systems, or other such sources) that above, the current output may be too low to be of
must be compensated for in the overall cathodic practical value unless unusually long anode life is
desired or only a limited amount of pipe is to be
protection system design? Specific data is needed
on the magnitude and time duration (where cyclic protected. These considerations illustrate why
detailed knowledge of the resistivity at a pro-
effects exist) of the stray current interference.
posed galvanic anode installation is essential if it
13) Decision on type of system to be used - galvanic
is being designed to produce a specific value of
anode or impressed current cathodic protection.
current output under design conditions.
14) Detailed soil resistivity data at locations selected
3. Life
for installation of cathodic protection facilities.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Galvanic anode life is proportional to the amount
15) Pipeline route features which may affect the con- of anode material available at a given current out-
struction of a cathodic protection system - dif- put. When the designer has established the
ficult terrain, weather problems, access restricted desired installation life (say 15 years) at a specific
by land owners, possible crop damage, etc. protective current output, he can calculate the
amount of anode material needed to attain that
VIII. FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE DESIGN OF life. To do this, he needs to know (1) the
CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS theoretical maximum ampere hour content per
This section reviews design considerations for the pound of the specific anode material to be used,
two general types of cathodic protection system. It is not (2) the anode efficiency which determines the
intended, however, to be a guide to detailed design pro- ampere hours per pound available for useful out-
cedures. Those wishing to pursue the matter further are put (some anode material is used up in self-
referred to more detailed texts in the Reference section of corrosion; there is a wide variation in efficiency
this chapter. depending on material used and design condi-
tions), and (3) the point at which replacement will
A. DESIGNS USING GALVANIC ANODES be necessary, such as when 85% of the anode
The following affect the design of a galvanic anode material has been used up.
system expected to develop a predetermined protective 4. Circuit Resistance
current output to a buried structure. The principal elements of the circuit resistance
1. Driving Voltage are (1) the effective resistance to earth of the
As has been discussed earlier in Section F, coated pipe or structure at the point where the
galvanic anodes generate their own electrical galvanic anode installation is to be made, (2) the
voltage through “battery action’’ when electrically resistance of wires interconnecting the galvanic
connected to a cathodic metal in a pipe or other anodes used and connecting the anode instaila-
structure. These voltages are quite low. The driv- tion to the pipe or structure, and (3) the resistance
ing voltage between, for example, a structure at to earth of the galvanic anodes themselves. Of

370
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S S P C CHAPTER*Lb=2 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 00038L8 T 7 4
these, item (1) is not controllable but can be deter- pipelines. Such areas often require only small
mined by electrical measurements in the field. amounts of cathodic protection current. These re-
Items (2) and (3) are controllable and subject to quirements are met easily and economically with
design. galvanic anodes.
Knowing the soil resistivity at the galvanic
anode site and the physical dimensions of the
anodes being used, the resistance to earth of 8. DESIGNS USING IMPRESSED CURRENT
various numbers of anodes connected in parallel The following paragraphs describe some of the fac
can be determined using design curves or pro- tors that must be considered when designing an im-
cedures set forth in other source material. The pressed current cathodic protection installation,
designer can select the appropriate number and 1. Current Required for Protection
size of anodes to create the desired circuit. Determining the amount of current needed for
There are definite limits to the amount of cur- cathodic protection at a given location will help
rent that can be obtained from a galvanic anode the corrosion engineer choose either an im-
location. If, for example, the resistance to earth of pressed current installation or a galvanic anode
a coated pipe or structure was found to be 5 ohms installation. Unless considerations such as stray
at a given installation site, the maximum current
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
current effects dictate otherwise, galvanic anode
which could be obtained using galvanic anodes installations tend to be the most economical for
(assuming a driving potential of 0.9 volt) would be small current requirements up to an ampere or
less than 180 milliamps no matter how low the two for anode installations in soil. This should be
soil resistivity or how many anodes are used. It is taken as a generalization only and final decisions
quite probable, however, that this much current made only after a complete consideration of all
would not be needed to gain an adequate level of factors.
protect ion.
2. Commercial Power Availability
5. Anode Shape Information must be obtained on the location of
A long, slender anode permits a lower resistance
commercial low voltage power lines in the areas
to earth in a given environment resistivity than
where impressed current cathodic protection in-
does a short thick anode shape. This fact can
stallations are contemplated. The easy availabil-
be used to advantage when designing anode in-
ity of commercial power permits use of the
stallations for placement in high soil resistivity
reliable a-c to d-c rectifier as the source of
locations. cathodic protection current.
6. Stray Current Effects 3. Alternate Current Sources
Stray current effects (see Section J) on a pipe or If commercial power is not available, considera-
structure must be evaluated to determine if pipe- tion has to be given to the relative practicality and
to-earth potentials vary so much (as a result of the cost of alternate current sources such as engine-
stray current effects) that adequate protective alternator-rectifier units, direct thermal-electric
potentials cannot be maintained using galvanic generators, fuel cells, solar-electric units, and
anodes. This is normally done with recording in- wind-powered generators.
struments which permit a permanent record of all
4. Current Source Rating
variations occurring during the observation
One of the significant advantages of impressed
period.
current systems is the freedom to select (par-
7. Meteorological Data ticularly when using rectifiers as the current
The effect of weather can be significant. For ex- source) a very wide range of direct current and
ample, if galvanic anodes are installed in soils voltage output capacity. This makes it possible to
subject to extreme dryness during parts of the accommodate large or small installations as well
year, the circuit resistance will go up as the soil as low resistivity or high resistivity ground bed in-
dries, and anode current output may drop below stallation sites. The design consideration is to
the minimum necessary to maintain cathodic pro- select a current source with an output rating con-
tection on the pipe or other structure. Or another sistent with the requirements of the specific in-
example: if anodes are installed in an area where stallation site - and normally including some
the earth surrounding the anodes will freeze dur- reserve capacity for possible future increased
ing the winter season, the high resistivity of the cathodic protection requirements. The amount of
frozen earth can likewise cause anode current reserve capacity to allow is a matter of engineer-
output to drop to ineffective levels. ing judgment based on knowledge of the system
8. “Hot Spot” Protection to be protected. In general, however, the percen-
Galvanic anodes are widely used for protecting tage allowance on a newly coated and buried
small actively corroding areas, particularly on pipeline or other metallic structure would be
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.Z 93 8b279LiO 0003819 900
substantially greater than on an older long- designing the ground bed to be used with the im-
stabilized system. pressed current system. More anode and backfill
5. Soil Resistivity materials are usually needed for the longer-lived
Having detailed data on soil resistivity makes it installations.
possible to design a ground bed with the proper 9. Stray Current
resistance. When considered with the remainder Variations caused by stray current in pipe- or
of the circuit resistance external to the current structure-to-earthpotentials may result in the loss
source, the ground bed resistance should form a of full cathodic protection from an impressed cur-
reasonable match with the rating of the im- rent system. Where higher variations are involved,
pressed current source to be used. creating problems, automatic potential-controlled
6. Power Requirement or automatic constant-current rectifiers may be
Where a-c to d-c rectifiers fed by commercial used. These are more expensive than the conven-
power lines are used, the power requirement is tional, manually controlled units but have much
not necessarily a controlling factor. For the larger greater compensating capabilities. In more severe
installations, however, it becomes increasingly instances of stray current effect, specific stray
important to use rectifiers with the highest prac- current compensating measures (such as reverse
ticable efficiency can reduce power costs. This current switches in drainage bonds, for example)
may involve using three-phase rectifiers rather may be needed in addition to the cathodic protec-
than single-phase units, preparing the overall tion system.
design so that the rectifier used will be operating 1 o. Variable Circuit Resistance
at the peak of its efficiency curve, and using If it is known that an impressed current source
filters in the rectifier output circuit. will be forcing current into a variable circuit
On the other hand, small rectifier installa- resistance caused by variations in weather,
tions may not require enough a-c power to come automatic potential-controlled or constant-
up to the minimum monthly bill at certain loca- current rectifiers may be considered as a means
tions. In this event, highly efficient equipment will of maintaining a reasonably constant level of
not reduce costs. cathodic protection on protected structures.
Where commercial power lines are not
available to supply rectifiers, the selection of an
alternate current source can be affected by the IX. CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES FOR
amount of output power required. For the larger CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS
power needs, engine-alternator-rectifier units may Assuming that a cathodic protection installation has
be the best choice, while the use of thermal, solar been properly designed for a given environment, practices
and wind generators or fuel cells will usually be followed during construction of the system can have a
restricted to smaller direct current output re- considerable effect on its long-term performance.
quirements. The actual selection should be based
on a study of economics, maintenance needs, A. IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEMS
reliability, and other factors.
Probably the most susceptible to damage and the
7. Maintenance most difficult to repair is the underground (or underwater)
Maintenance requirements for impressed current ground bed assembly connected to the positive terminal of
systems can be costly. Impressed current installa- an impressed current source. Being positive to earth, cur-
tions must be inspected at prescribed maximum rent will discharge through any imperfection in cable in-
intervals on federally regulated pipelines. Does sulation or in field-installed insulation on cable splices.
this create a physical hardship at some loca- This will cause corrosion and failure of the cable system.
tions? How about the operating reliability of the Good construction practice calls for great care in han-
direct current power source selected; is it apt to dling all ground bed system cable (anode leads and header
require frequent visits by a repair team or to in- cable) to avoid damage to the cable insulation. One hun-
volve expensive component replacement? dred percent inspection is essential to locate and repair in-
Depending on the specific application, such ques- sulating, inspecting, and repairing (if necessary) field
tions may have a direct bearing on the type of im- splices between anode leads and the header cable or in
pressed current selected or may result in the the header cable itself.
use of a galvanic anode system that can be more necessary) field splices between anode leads and the
expensive to install but more economical over the header cable or in the header cable itself.
life of the installation. When installing separate anodes and carbonaceous
8. Life backfill, particularly in vertical holes, care must be taken
The desired life of an impressed current installa- to compact the backfill around the anode to entirely fill the
tion will be a prime factor considered when space between the anode and the sides of the hole.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*Lb-2 93 W 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 8 2 0 622 W
Likewise, where “packaged” anodes are used (anode and because the effects of stray current can be worse than the
carbonaceous backfill prepacked in a sheet steel canister), “normal” corrosion caused by contact with the environ-
care must be taken to entirely fill the space between ment. Where stray current exists, additional cathodic pro-
canister and sides of the hole with compacted backfill tection or special and sometimes rather sophisticated
earth. Voids can cause an increase in anode-to-earth countermeasures may be needed.
resistance and thereby reduce anode life. If stray currents exist and are not properly taken into
Another area of concern is the connection between a account, they can at least partially nullify the beneficial ef-
steel pipeline, or other structure, and the copper cable fects of a cathodic protection system designed to protect
returning current to the impressed current power source. a steel pipeline or other structure against the corrosive ef-
The connection is a copper-steel dissimilar metal corro- fect of the environment.
sion cell that can result in corrosion of the steel i f not prop-
erly waterproofed and insulated. An inadequate water- A. STEADY-STATE MAN-MADE
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
proofing job under a layer of tape or coating material may STRAY CURRENT
permit water to reach the copper-steel junction (activating
The most prevalent sources of this type of stray cur-
the corrosion cell) while the overlying insulating tape or
rent are cathodic protection systems on structures other
coating will act as an electrical shield preventing cathodic
than the one which the corrosion engineer is trying to pro-
protection current from reaching the corroding steel.
tect. This can be a particular problem, for example, on
The impressed current power sources must be in-
pipelines in areas where they are closely paralleled by
stalled in accord with good construction practices for elec-
other systems or where cathodic protection impressed cur-
trical equipment. Any applicable codes must be observed.
rent power sources on lines of other ownership (“foreign”
The equipment must be installed so that it will be accessi-
lines) are close to the pipeline at points of crossing. The
ble for maintenance and periodic tests. The installation
problem (normally termed “interference”) is usually con-
should be planned to protect it from natural hazards such
fined to relatively small areas which are fixed as to loca-
as high water, for example, which could put the installa-
tion and can be readily identified by field test.
tion out of commisison.
B. GALVANIC ANODE SYSTEMS B. CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE MAN-MADE

STRAY CURRENT
For most installations in earth, galvanic anodes are
obtained in packaged form so that the anode and its Current sources contributing to this stray current
special chemical backfill material can be installed as a category include direct-current-powered electric railway
single unit. When installing such anodes in augered holes, systems (surface and subsurface), mining operations us-
particularly, it is important that they be so backfilled that ing d-c power, electric welding facilities, etc. A corrosion
no voids are left around or under the anode package. If engineer can usually identify this type of stray current by
voids exist (and after the anode package container taking recordings of any stray current effect on his steel
deteriorates), the chemical backfill can fall away from the structure. Typically, there will be continuous (and often ex-
anode and cause an increase in anode resistance, drop of treme) variations in the recorded effect over a 24-hour
anode output current, and loss of anode operating efficien- period or more. Where the source is man-made, however,
there will normally be a pattern characterized (if the source
CY.
As was the case with impressed current systems, the is an electric railway) by more intense stray current activity
connection between a steel structure and the copper wire during hours of peak railway usage. If the source is
from a galvanic anode (or group of anodes) needs to be industrially-oriented (such as mining or welding opera-
carefully waterproofed and insulated. This is to eliminate tions), the thing to look for on the recording is a reduction
problems with a steel-copper dissimilar metal corrosion in the stray current activity at work shift changes or
cell at the structure surface. periods of no work.
Man-made stray current of this type, can cause major
X. STRAY CURRENTS corrosion problems i f not kept under close control at all
times.
The term “stray current” is an all-inclusive expression
used to cover a variety of situations that result in the
presence of direct current flowing in the earth. Where, C. NON-MAN-MADE STRAY CURRENTS
such current is free to enter an underground steel struc- The earth’s magnetic field is subject to variation from
ture (particularly pipelines), follow it for a distance, and effects such as sunspot activity. As the intensity of the
then discharge to earth in order to continue its journey, magnetic field increases and decreases, direct current, in
corrosion can occur at the point of current discharge. In effect, is generated. When such current, often referred to
severe cases, the corrosion rate can be catastrophic. as “telluric current”, gets onto underground pipelines, it
Knowledge of any stray current conditions affecting a can create corrosion problems.
pipeline or other steel structure is essential for the The effects of telluric current on underground
designer of a cathodic protection system, especially pipelines are typically without any consistent pattern. The

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x L b - 2 93 8627740 0003821 569
areas of current pick-up and discharge from a pipeline The basic corrective measure is to install, where
tend to change continually. The direction of current flow possible, a heavy copper drainage cable to the d-c power
also reverses its direction. Except in unusual situations, supply causing the problem. Where there are periods of
the effective amount of current flow seldom renders nor- time when current flow is such a bond reverses (with
mal cathodic protection systems ineffective. Unusual resulting increased corrosion of the structure being pro-
situations, however, can occur; and this possibility needs tected) automatic equipment or devices are necessary to
to be evaluated when planning cathodic protection block the reverse current flow. In instances where drainage
systems on major structures. cables to the d-c source are impracticable, use of rectifier-
During periods of magnetic storms, variations in powered, current drainage installations may be utilized
pipeline protective potentials can make it difficult to prop- with automatic potential-controlled or automatic constant-
erly evaluate the level of cathodic protection on pipelines. current rectifiers to maintain the structure at a reasonably
Short-term magnetic forecasts (1 to 3 days in advance) can constant level of protective potential as the stray current
be obtained by contacting the Space Environment Service effect varies. In still other instances, it may be possible to
Center (SESC) duty forecaster by telephone at (303) cooperatively arrange for bonds to structures or pipelines
499-1000, Ext. 3171, (Boulder, Colorado) from 7 a.m. to 12 of other ownership which pass more closely to the power
p.m. MST seven days a week. Additionally, after-the-fact in- source and are bonded thereto.
dices of magnetic activity (based o n data at Stray currents of magnetic origin (telluric currents)
Fredericksburg, Virginia) are published in the National are normally not considered to be serious enough to war-
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) publication, rant special action i f the affected pipeline or other struc-
“Materials Performance.” ture has an adequate cathodic protection system. But in
some instances telluric current can discharge in a limited
D. CORRECTIVE MEASURES area for enough of the time and to such a degree that it can
be a matter of serious concern. When this is the case,
Steady-state, man-made stray current can normally be
forced drainage installation (using automatic rectifier
handled by (1) placing cable bonds between the structures
involved so that the stray current will harmlessly discharge equipment) can be used to remove the current during
periods of telluric current activity.
through the metallic path rather than discharge to earth
with resulting corrosion, by (2) installing galvanic anodes
at established points of discharge, or by (3) coating bare XI. PIPELINE SYSTEMS IN PERMAFROST
pipe (or upgrading the coating on older poorly coated pipe) Increasing activity in arctic environments warrants
to reduce the amount of interference current interchange comments specific to cathodic protection for pipelines
to the point that normal cathodic protection will handle it. and other steel structures located in these environments.
If, however, there are situations where one operator’s Small steel structures, other than pipelines, that are
pipeline passes close to an impressed current cathodic completely buried in permafrost (permanently frozen
protection ground bed on another operator’s system, the earth), and are themselves below freezing temperature, will
interfering stray current may be of such magnitude that normally have such a low rate of corrosion that cathodic
none of the corrective measures cited above can be ap- protection may not be required.
plied economically. Adequate correction may then require If, however, such structures are partly in permafrost
deactivating or moving the installation causing the stray and partly in thawed earth (permanently or seasonally),
current. that part in thawed earth will be subject to corrosion and
Where interference stray current conditions exist be- may require cathodic protection to supplement protective
tween adjacent structures (primarily pipelines), they are coatings.
best solved by cooperative tests made by corrosion The pipeline industry has to deal with two distinct
engineering representatives of the two operators so that conditions in an arctic environment. These consist of
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mutually acceptable corrective procedures can be worked “cold” and “hot” lines. Cold lines (such as pipes carrying
out. In the underground pipelining industry, there is a net- gas chilled to below the freezing point) will be solidly
work of “electrolysis committees” which are industry- frozen into permafrost. Hot lines (such as pipes transport-
sponsored groups of people dealing with corrosion that ing hot crude oil) develop zones of thawed earth surround-
help to recognize and solve problems of stray current in- ing the pipe.
terference in their designated area. A list of electrolysis The corrosion problems on cold lines in permafrost
committees currently active can be obtained by writing to can be expected at non-frozen inclusions in the permafrost.
NACE, P.O. Box 21830, Houston, Texas 77218. Non-frozen inclusions can exist under deeper rivers or
In areas where continuously variable, man-made stray lakes, can be a result of geothermal heat from below the
current is a problem, developing corrective measures can permafrost, or can be interspersed between “islands” of
be difficult and involved. Where intense and damaging cur- permafrost on the southern edges of arctic permafrost
rent discharge exists, sophisticated field tests are re- areas. At any rate, the non-frozen inclusions tend to be
quired to locate points of maximum current discharge and anodic to the pipe that is solidly frozen in. Where the inclu-
to determine the source of the stray current where it is not sions are small, the effect is that of small-anode-large-
obvious. cathode that can be expected to result in rapid corrosion
at 303-397-2295.
~- ~
SSPC C H A P T E R U L b - 2 9 3 A b 2 7 9 4 0 0003822 4T5
in the small anodic areas, or smelled once it is installed, a cathodic protection

Warm pipelines, on the other hand, have a corrosion system is often forgotten. But, as with any electrodynamic
control problem throughout their buried length. The sever- system, a cathodic protection installation has to be
ity of the problem will be a function of the corrosivity of the operated and maintained effectively if it is to provide cor-
thawed earth mass surrounding the pipe. The elevated rosion control.
temperature, which may be well in excess of 100°F (38°C)
also increases the severity of the problem. A. GALVANIC ANODE SYSTEMS
Cold pipelines may be protected by a combination of Operating practices for cathodic protection installa-
coatings and cathodic protection. Current requirements
tions using galvanic anodes should include, as a
are very low for coated pipe solidly frozen into the per- minimum, the following:
mafrost. The necessary current can be forced into the
earth from remote ground beds installed in the permafrost. 1. Annual measurement of structure-to-reference
At any non-frozen inclusions, however, the current re- electrode potentials to determine whether or not
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quirements for protection may be so high that it is difficult full cathodic protection is being maintained.
or impractical to force enough current to flow through the 2. Annual measurement of galvanic anode current
high resistivity permafrost to these locations from remote output to permit an annually updated forecast of
cathodic protection installations. In these instances, anode life.
galvanic anode material may be used. Additionally, if If the potential measurements of item 1 indicate loss of
telluric currents are present (and they tend to be a problem protection, the reason for such loss should be ascertained
on arctic lines), current may tend to discharge to earth at promptly. Typical reasons could be:
the relatively low pipeline-to-earthresistance at non-frozen 1. Contacts with other structures resulting in
inclusions; with galvanic anodes at each non-frozen inclu- overloading the cathodic protection system.
sion, the brunt of the corrosive effect of the discharging These could be failure of insulating devices or in-
current will be borne by the anodes. advertent electrical bypassing or could be
Warm pipelines in permafrost are also protected with direct underground metallic contact between the
a combination of coatings and cathodic protection. The protected structure and foreign structures.
cathodic protection application, however, is quite different 2. Breakage of underground wiring connecting the
’
from that used on cold pipelines. With a continuous warm galvanic anodes to the protected structure as a
thaw bulb along the entire buried length, current needed result of construction activity or other reasons.
for cathodic protection may be higher per unit area than 3. Increase in current requirements for full protec-
comparably sized ambient temperature lines (with similar tion of the protected structure as a result of
quality coating) in the temperate zones. It may be a prob- coating damage on the structure from construc-
lem getting sufficient current to flow from remote cathodic tion activity, gradual and normal deterioration of
protection installations through the high resistance per- the coating with time, additions to the structure
mafrost to the pipeline and attain uniform protection along itself resulting in an increased total surface area
the line. An approach that has worked well consists of in- to be protected, increases in stray current activity,
stalling continuous strip zinc anodes along the entire and other similar reasons. Depletion of galvanic
length of buried line as illustrated by Fig. 8. This same type anode material (end of their useful life).
of protection can be utilized through non-frozen inclusions Good maintenance practice calls for prompt correc-
on cold pipeline in permafrost. tion of deficiencies found as a result of annual inspec-
Zinc is used because of its optimum anode potential tions. Prompt action is necessary since corrosion is a
and high operating efficiency, both of which are favorable function of time. If loss of protection is allowed to exist for
to the longest practicable life. Bare strip zinc anode long periods, unnecessary corrosion failure may be ex-
material has been used where it can be placed in the pipe perienced. This means that the full advantage of the initial
trench bottom (during construction) so that it will have the expenditure for the cathodic protection system is not be-
least subsequent oxygen availability. ing realized.
The continuous strip anode protection system results
in uniform protective potentials along the pipeline. Addi-
tionally, it serves to accommodate the major part of B. IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEMS
telluric stray current discharge wherever it tends to occur Operating practices for impressed current cathodic
along the line. protection installations should include, as a minimum, the
following:
XII. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF 1. Scheduled inspections of the d-c power source at
CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS nominal intervals of two months or less. Includes
The major cause of problems with cathodic protection verifying that the installation is operating proper-
systems is failure to exercise suitable practices of opera- ly, logging operating data, and determining if
tion and maintenance. Because it can’t be heard, seen, felt there has been a change from past inspections

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b * 2 93 8627740 0003823 331
which could indicate possible problems with level ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

of protection. The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
2. Annual measurement of structure-to-reference chapter: Vic Chaker, John F. Fitzgerald, E.G. Haney, L. Liszczyn-
electrode potentials to determine protection level. sky, Bill Mitchell, David C. Pearce, R.N. Sloan, L.P. Sudrabin, Bill
Wallace, E.N. Steinmann.
3. Inspection at nominal monthly intervals where im-
pressed current equipment is used for stray cur-
rent control of a critical nature. BIOGRAPHY
If the potential measurements of item 2 reveal that full A portrait and biographical sketch of A.W. Peabody appears
following the chapter entitled “Coating of Pipelines and Other
protection has been lost, the reason(s) for such loss Underground Structures”.
should be determined at once. Typical reasons include the
following:
1. Contacts with other structures as listed under REFERENCES
galvanic anodes. 1. NACE Standard RP-01-69 (latest revision), “Recommended
2. Breakage of underground wiring (at test points, Practice - Control of External Corrosion on Underground or
Submerged Metallic Piping Systems” National Association of
crossbonds, etc.) as a result of construction ac- Corrosion Engineers, P.O. Box 218340, Houston, Texas 77218.
tivity or other reasons. Underground wiring 2. A.W. Peabody, Control of Pipeline Corrosion, National Associ-
associated with impressed current ground beds is ation of Corrosion Engineers, Publication No. 51011.
3. Designing Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems with
subject t o corrosion damage as described in Sec- Durco Anodes. The Duriron Company, Inc., P.O. Box 8820, Day-
tion t. Such damage, when it results in cable ton, OH 45401-8820.
failure prior t o the end of ground bed life, will nor- 4. J.E. Wright, Practical Corrosion Control Methods for Gas Utility
Piping, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Publica-
mally be apparent from data logged during tion No. 51012.
periodic power source inspections. 5. A.W. Peabody, “Corrosion Aspects of Arctic Pipelines,” Materi-
als Protection, May, 1979, pp. 27-32.
3. Increase in current requirements as discussed
under galvanic anodes.
4. Reduction in current output of the impressed cur-
rent power source. This can be either problems in
the power source itself or increased ground bed
resistance as the ground bed anodes approach
the end of their design life (apart from ground bed
cable breaks which are repairable).
The principles of good maintenance practice as
described for galvanic anode installations apply to im-
pressed current installations as well.
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376
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CHAPTER 17
PAINTING OF INDUSTRIAL PLANTS

by
William F. Chandler
The subject “Painting Industrial Plants” can be mind the objective is difficult. Coating material costs rarely run
boggling. Take the number of substrates, add the above 20% and usually average only 10-15O/0 of the total
multiplicity of operating exposures, stir in the problem of coatings job cost. Yet, after all the money is spent for
choosing among the various available types of protective engineering, specifying, surface preparation, application,
coatings - and the complexity is clear. inspection and clean-up, it is the integrity of a few mils of
But engineering sense can be made out of this com- the protective coating that determines the service life of
plex subject. The following series of chapters illustrates the structure.
how the level of efficiency can be raised in the choice and Choice of the proper coating for each major surface
use of protective coatings on steel in typical plants in in- and exposure is critical to efficiency. I t follows that
dustries such as waste treatment, coke, petroleum, coating materials cannot be chosen on a per gallon or a
chemicals, paper, food and power. mil foot per gallon cost basis. Only by developing the ap-
plied cost for desired mil thickness and factoring in serv-
I. A CALL FOR EXCELLENCE ice life expectancy can a sound judgment be made. There
Business managers are finding it ever more difficult are three ways to choose materials.
to sustain adequate net profits. Likewise, deciding to com- 1. Going it alone
mit funds for new production capacity is an ever more Some large, sophisticated, multi-plant, industrial
speculative undertaking. What is the relationship between companies have the inclination and facilities to
these problems and painting steel in industrial plants? Ex- plan the coatings program completely and run
actly this: there is no room for excuses or half-way evaluations of available coatings within their own
measures. Only by combined professional efforts, strong organization.
specifications, carefully chosen coatings systems, precise 2. Reliance on an independent consultant
surface preparation and application, rigid inspection and Some companies retain a competent, independ-
good communications can managements contain year-to- ent consultant and rely on the consultant to sup-
year painting costs. plement its own coatings program or to develop
the entire program, including choice of materials.
II. PLANNING THE COATINGS PROGRAM 3. Reliance on coatings supplier@).
Management can win the cost control battle by prop- Other users find it practical to rely more and more
erly planning and administering coating programs for new on their coatings supplier(s) in choosing painting
construction and maintenance. The ultimate goal is that systems. Leading coatings manufacturers often
maintenance will include removing surface dirt and adding carry on active research for development of better
an occasional touch-up and single finish coat to maintain materials and protective coatings systems.
film thickness and appearance.
In addition to setting up details of surface and ex- B. CHOICE OF COATINGS SUPPLIERS
posure identification, types of coatings, specifications, Choice of coatings suppliers is of prime importance
costs, and records, a properly planned program and should be made only after careful search on the basis
establishes minimum standards for surface preparation, of reputation for quality, service, and integrity;
application, film thickness and appearance for each type demonstrated technical proficiency; and capability,
of surface and coating system. It requires all estimators, availability, and desire to assist management and its
applicators, supervisors, and inspectors to meet minimum specifying engineers. Assistance is required in detailing
standards. specifications; interpreting specifications to bidding
fabricators, contractors, or in-house crews; training in-
A. CHOICE OF MATERIALS spectors and cooperating at fabricating shops and job-
The objective in choosing materials is simply to find sites in pre-job conferences and in setting up standards.
for each type of substrate and exposure the paint coatings When management does a good job in choosing its
system that is most efficient in terms of dollars per square coating supplier(s), it relies on the supplier(s) in an on-
foot per year. While the objective is simple, accomplishing staff, on-call relationship to assist in selecting materials
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at 303-397-2295.
and solving problems. Often, the client on a new construc- F. THE BOTTOM LINE
tion project instructs his design engineer to work with a It may not always be the best procedure to insist on a
preselected coating material supplier. Most engineers ap- coating system known to project lowest costs per square
preciate that such instruction expedites and smooths out foot per year. Certainly, a project designed for limited life
the work. span could properly be specified with a cost saving Coat-
ings system.
C. GOOD SPECIFICATIONS In nearly all cases, management should insist on the
The bid package for contract painting on new con- most efficient coatings systems for new construction. The
struction or maintenance is a vital communications link. slightly higher initial costs are returned in long-term
Information shall include the following: dividends through reduced maintenance charges and
Clear identification of surfaces to be painted minimal disruption of plant operation. Rarely is there
a Access, storage of materials and services justification for using a system other than the most cost-
available effective for maintenance.
Possible complications with other trades or
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operating plant conditions
Surface preparation clearly referenced to
recognized standards ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Materials - brand name, type, number of coats The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
Maximum and minimum allowable wet and dry chapter: T.A. Cross, S. Frye, Dan Gelfer, R. Klepser, Marshall
film thickness of each coat McGee, John Montle, Dan Nemunaitis, William Pearson, Warren
Stanford, William Wallace, Tom Wilhelm.
Required color differential between coats
a Application methods and tools
Inspection and approval of surface preparation,
application and finished appearance - when,
by whom, how, and with what tools BIOGRAPHY
a Safety The late William F. Chandler
was a consultant and former
Clean up president of Porter Paint Compa-
a Communications ny. Mr Chandler held a B.A.
from Washington and Lee
D. PRE-JOB CONFERENCE University and an L.L.B. from the
University of Louisville. He was
Anticipating problems and solving them before they a charter member of the
start is good for all concerned. The pre-job conference Kanawha Coatings Society, a
National Association of Corro-
prevents aggravation and is a sign of good management. It sion Engineers Corporate
is highly recommended for inclusion in the specification. Representative, and a member
of its Publications Committee.
The project manager or engineer in charge should call a He also lectured on protective
pre-job conference of interested parties including coatings for the University of Wisconsin.
representatives of owner, specifying engineer, general
contractor, painting contractor andlor steel fabricator,
material supplier and inspector. The purpose of the con-
ference is to establish clear communications, interpret
specifications, agree on inspection and arrange for job
standards.
E. JOB STANDARD
In addition to the pre-job conference, the following or
a similar statement regarding job standards is excellent in-
surance against misunderstandings, controversy or re-
quests for extras: before starting any work, the painting
contractor, at the direction of the project manager and
under supervision of a technical representative of the
material supplier, will apply the specified materials on
sample test surfaces to establish the minimum acceptable
standard of quality for the project.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27-2 9 3 8b27940 000382b 040
CHAPTER 17.1
WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS

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by
Thomas P. Delany
Since the signing of the Clean Waters Act in 1966 and and easy maintenance.
the classification of most of America’s waterways accord- The corrosion engineer or specification writer carries
ing to the type of effluent that can be discharged into a great deal of the responsibility. He must prepare
them, there has been a tremendous increase in construc- specifications that include coating system, number of
tion of new water pollution control plants and in upgrading coats, film thickness, surface preparation, application and
and enlarging existing plants. inspection procedures. The engineer often relies heavily
At the same time, the country has been undergoing an on the cooperation of coatings suppliers with many years
environmental and ecological revolution. The community of experience in protective coatings.
is more aware of treatment plants and has made demands Whether for new construction or maintenance paint-
regarding the plants’ appearance and function. Conse- ing, a good protective coating system begins with a p r o p
quently, water treatment and water pollution control erly written, well conceived painting specification. A com-
plants have changed rapidly and radically in design. plete paint specification covers every phase of the project.
Modern treatment plants can be beautifully designed and It helps assure uniform bidding, effective job timing and
efficiently run. Between the influent and effluent channels, compatibility of shop- and field-applied coatings. It spells
extremely complex physical, biological and chemical proc- out to fabricators, equipment manufacturers and the paint-
esses are conducted. They create some of the most severe ing contractor the surface preparation, number and types
conditions encountered by any mechanical equipment. of coatings, dry film thickness of systems and application
Thus, these plants have needs for corrosion protection requirements. In determining dry film thickness for a
rarely found in other types of construction. coating system, the corrosion engineers must consider:
The ever-increasing role of complex chemicals in in- Service requirements and environmental condi-
dustry and the regulation of their discharge, together with tions
household detergents and municipal biological wastes, Type of surface to be coated
have created new problems for water pollution control Type of coating system being used
plant designers. Coatings that were accepted for many Volume solids content of the coating
years to protect submerged surfaces in water pollution Number of coats
control plants are outmoded because of increasingly Surface preparation
harsh sewage. During these years, coal tar epoxy coatings Method of application
have come of age because of their high degree of chemical Economics
resistance. Recently, because of advantages in function, Physical Limitations
application and esthetics, the colored high build epoxies
have found favor in submerged applications and are
replacing coal tar epoxies in many instances. II. SELECTION OF THE COATING SYSTEM
Large, complex treatment plants take from two to four In selecting the proper coating system for a water
years to build and can treat anywhere from one million to pollution control plant, the project engineer has three
100 million gallons or more of wastewater per day. The prime objectives:
equipment and steel fabrications required can come from
Long term protection
dozens of manufacturers and fabricators from various
Pleasing appearance
parts of the country. They often sit around at the construc-
Ease of maintenance during operation
tion site for months before being used.
The type of coating system selected should be dic-
tated by service requirements and environmental condi-
I. SPECIFICATION tions of the unit, the substrate to be protected and
Putting together a good protective coating job in large economics. In this application, economics means long-
and complex water treatment and water pollution control term economy. The high performance coating systems re-
plants is not easy. It certainly is not a one-man operation. quire sophisticated and expensive surface preparation and
A good protective coating requires teamwork. The are often the most expensive; however, they represent the
engineer, applicator, coatings manufacturer and inspector best value because they withstand severe service re-
must cooperate. Working together, they can produce max- quirements, provide long-term protection and create con-
imum benefits, long term protection, pleasing appearance siderably longer repaint cycles.

at 303-397-2295.
The best time to prepare and coat submerged service Functionally, high build epoxy coatings offer certain
areas is during construction. When taken down for service advantages regarding recoat limitations and intercoat
at a later date, which can be extremely difficult and costly, adhesion, when compared with coal tar epoxy coatings.
painting conditions are almost never as favorable as dur- Coal tar epoxy coatings, when cured, are very slick and sol-
ing construction. This is particularly true of interiors of vent-resistant; consequently, they have intercoat adhesion
concrete process tanks. problems. Most coating manufacturers place a recoat
Recently, coating specifications have been simplified limitation of 24 to 72 hours, depending on the formulation.
by greater use of high performance coatings. Engineers Top coats of coal tar epoxy applied after that time cannot
are trying to make specifications simple by using as few be expected to yield optimum intercoat adhesion. Many
coating systems and thinners as possible. Fewer product engineers specify that coal tar epoxy be top coated within
classes simplify inspection and application and minimize 48 hours. If this time is exceeded, all surfaces must be
compatibility problems. There have even been a few sug- sweepblasted to provide “tooth” before top coating.
gestions that an entire facility be coated with high build Because of the complexity and size of today’s plants, the
epoxy on both submerged and non-submerged areas. This recoat limitation presents serious problems. It also
might be carrying simplification to extremes and slightly eliminates the use of coal tar epoxy as a shop coating and
limits good color selection and long-term appearance dictates using a catalyzed epoxy inhibitive primer as the
because of early chalking and loss of gloss of epoxy shop primer with top coats applied later in the field.
coatings from sunlight exposure. More recently, high build, high solids coal tar epoxy
coatings have been offered that can build films of 15 to 20
111. SUBMERGED EXPOSURE mils dry in a single coat. This one coat high build potential
There has been a growing use of colored, high build would certainly eliminate the intercoat adhesion and
epoxy coatings on submerged steel and concrete sur- recoat limitations of multi-coat coal tar epoxy systems.
faces. They are frequently used in process tanks in place High build epoxy coatings, because of their
of the coal tar epoxy coatings. The colored high build pigmented matte finish, generally do not present the inter-
epoxy coatings offer functional and esthetic advantages. coat adhesion problems and time limitations for recoating.
Esthetic advantages are obvious. Coal tar epoxy is a They can be used as shop primers or as fully shop-applied
black coating while high build epoxy is available in a range systems since they are easily repaired and recoated. Often
of colors. Light greens and tans are most popular for im- a thin, two mil dry film thickness coat of high build epoxy
mersion. It is more pleasing to see a treatment plant with is applied in the shop to abrasive blasted steel. The same
its large screw pumps, grit chambers, clarifiers, aeration coating can then be applied as two additional five mil
tanks, chlorine detention tanks and other large process coats at the job site during construction. The time lapse
tanks coated with attractive and durable pastel colors in- between shop primer and field coats could be several
stead of a drab black coating. months or even years with no serious intercoat adhesion
problem.
Another esthetic drawback of coal tar epoxy coatings
is that they blush when applied or cured during periods of
high humidity or if a condensate forms on the coated steel
during curing. This leaves a streaky, mucky brown ap-
pearance that is not pleasing to the engineer or client,
even though this blushing has no harmful effect on the
coating system. Coal tar epoxy coatings lose gloss and
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can become dull in prolonged sunlight. It is not unusual for

coated steel and equipment to be sitting at the job site for
many months before being put into service.
Many high build epoxy coatings have the necessary
approvals for use in potable water and are a major lining
system for water storage tanks. This facilitates selection
of coatings for a water treatment plant since the coating
system can be identical to the wastewater plant.
The role of coal tar epoxy, despite its limitations, con-
tinues to be very important in waste treatment plants.
These coatings- are excellent for applying
. . . - to the backfill,
Courtesy International Paint Company, InCa below grade surfaces of process tanks and buildings.
FIGURE 1 Coal tar epoxy coatings perform an important service
Bio-disc filter. Primed with high-build epoxy, topcoated with tan in protecting concrete pipeline and manholes from the OX-
epoxy gloss finish. Steel surface preparation SSPC-SP 10, Near
White Blast. idation of hydrogen sulfide, which takes place mainly or
exclusively above the water line. A two coat, 16 mil dry film
380
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*17=1 9 3 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003828 913 m
Courtesy International Paint Co., Inc.

FIGURE 2
Bio-sorption unit. Exterior tank shell coated with three-coat acrylic emulsion system in tan finish. Stairs, handrails and bridge over tank
coated with light green epoxy system. Interior immersion area painted with two coats of coal tar epoxy.
thickness, coal tar epoxy system should be specified for system in these applications offers the water and
concrete pipe carrying raw waste to the treatment plant. chemical resistance required for the service conditions
Polyvinyl chloride sheet linings have also been used exten- and at the same time gives the esthetic benefits of good
sively and successfully to protect concrete pipe carrying gloss and color retention.
raw sewage. The vinyl sheet liner is mechanically built into
the pipe when the pipe is constructed. V. SUNLIGHT AND WEATHER EXPOSURE
IV. NON-SUBMERGED - SEVERE EXPOSURE The selection of coatings for outside exposure is
similar to selection in a normal industrial environment ex-
Catalyzed epoxy enamels are used extensively for cept for sewer gas. This is usually an esthetic problem
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moist atmosphere, non-submerged service conditions on since the sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, can discolor
steel surfaces, machinery and equipment in indoor areas. coatings, particularly those containing lead. Although the
Wherever wastewater surfaces are exposed, moisture con- concentration of gas is not sufficient to affect coating in-
denses on cool steel surfaces and unites with gases to tegrity, lead-free coatings should be specified and used in
create highly corrosive conditions. These conditions are this service environment. Items to be painted under this
frequent in wet wells, grit and screen chambers, chemical service condition include exterior plant structures, piping,
mixing rooms, pump stations and dry wells. The enamel valves, ramps, doors, sash, handrails, motors, fences and
epoxy coatings are used because of the high gloss finish other similar structures.
and broad color selection rather than the high build epoxy. The coatings system generally used for outside ex-
High builds can certainly be used in this service area, par- posure is the alkyd. The same vinyl coatings used in non-
ticularly if a satin sheen appearance is preferred and if submerged severe conditions could also be used if the in-
simplification of the specifications by fewer product lines tent is to use as few products as possible. But alkyd
is desired. Epoxy coatings should not be used in exterior systems usually offer much broader color selection than
moist atmosphere, non-submerged, severe service condi- do vinyls and have fewer problems of compatibility with
tions because they lose gloss rapidly and chalk early. The shop primers and other coatings. In addition, the alkyd
chalking is non-progressive and film integrity is good; the coating offers simpler application properties t o the con-
problem is essentially an esthetic one. tractor. Vinyls, because they dry quickly, cannot generally
For this service area, the vinyl coating systems per- be applied by brush or roller.
form well on exterior applications. In many cases bridges, The newer acrylic emulsion coatings make an ex-
catwalks, handrails and other steel equipment over cellent choice for this service in place of the alkyd system
clarifiers and aeration tanks are painted with a vinyl or over alkyd shopcoats. The acrylic emulsions offer better
system in a color that matches the high build epoxy used color and gloss retention than the alkyds, although their
on the submerged surfaces. The top sides of fixed and initial gloss is not so high as that of the alkyd system. The
floating digester covers and floating gas holders can also newer acrylic emulsion coatings meet all air emission
be painted with a colored vinyl coating system. The vinyl regulations and present no discoloration problems. These
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R * L 7 * L 73 86279qO 0003827 8 5 T
The above-grade walls, which are often concrete

block, are filled with a latex block filler and often top-
coated with a two coat catalyzed epoxy enamel t o
simulate an inexpensive tile-like finish. Ceilings are
generally painted with two coats of a latex flat white. For
sewage plant service, exterior latex coatings are preferred
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to the interior type because of the lower pigment volume

and higher binder content.
There is a trend to use many of the emulsion type
coatings for inside dry areas, particularly the new acrylic
emulsions on walls. The acrylic emulsion coatings are
single-package, tough, attractive coatings that become
hard and serviceable. Since acrylic emulsions are water-
thinned, there are no strong solvent odors to irritate the
other trades working near the painting operations. Since
they contain no solvent, they present no problems regard-
ing environmental regulations for air emissions. They dry
quickly, permitting more than one coat to be applied in a
day and minimizing movement of staging and rigging. They
are very easy to use for both new construction and
maintenance painting.
These attractive and convenient semi-gloss and gloss
acrylic coatings are replacing chlorinated rubber and
epoxy coatings as wall coatings in buildings where sur-
faces stay dry most of the time and the service condition is
normal industrial exposure. Today’s modern waste treat-
ment plants are generally weil ventilated and heated, so
there are many more areas where acrylic emulsion coating
systems can be used.
Below-grade, poured concrete walls and ceilings are
Courtesy International Paint Co., Inc. usually painted with latex emulsion flats, either vinyl
acetate, vinyl acrylic or straight acrylic emulsions. Two
FIGURE 3
Auger screw pumps coated with two coats light blue high build
coats of the same product are generally sufficient.
epoxy system, i 0 mils dry film thickness over SSPC-SP 10 Near- Concrete floors are another area of concern for paint-
White Metal Blast. ing inside the buildings in a water pollution control plant.
They are generally painted for appearance and plant
housekeeping, which is complicated by substantial abra-
coatings can, however, present weather-related applica- sion and abuse in addition to spills of chemicals and
tion problems. If applied below 50°F they do not coalesce water. The catalyzed epoxy enamels perform best because
properly and film integrity is weakened. This can be a of their toughness, abrasion resistance and resistance to
serious shortcoming in new construction because painting water and chemicals. A three coat system is usually ap-
cannot always be carried out under ideal conditions. plied with the first coat thinned at least 25% t o increase
penetration and promote adhesion. A non-skid additive is
VI. INSIDE DRY EXPOSURE frequently added to the last coat to minimize slipping, par-
This service condition includes laboratories, ticularly when the floor is wet. Care should be taken to
workshops, pump rooms, blower rooms, control rooms and properly prepare the concrete floor either by acid etching
similar facilities. Items painted include walls, ceilings, or sweepblasting.
concrete floors, doors, frames, sash, control boxes, Some water pollution control plants may have equip-
pumps, motors, handrails, piping, etc. The main reason for ment with hot surfaces to be painted while in opera-
painting is generally for appearance and improved tion. It is important to know precisely the metal
housekeeping. Hydrogen sulfide gas should not normally temperature involved. Heat resistant coatings require a
be present, but the possibility exists for minimal amounts good surface preparation, at least an SSPC-SP 6 Commer-
that might cause discoloration in some coatings, so lead cial Blast and preferably an SSPC-SP 10 Near White Blast
free coatings should be selected. for the higher temperatures. There is a great variety of heat
The alkyd coating systems are generally used on resistant coatings available and each manufacturer has
metal surfaces and on piping and equipment to provide his own approach regarding temperature ranges. Instruc-
color coding. tions should be followed carefully. Generally, a silicone

382
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 . L 73 8627740 0003830 5 7 1
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FIGURE 4
In the foreground coated steel shows typical coal tar epoxy blush. Concrete channels coated with two coats of coal tar epoxy. Handrails
and bridges have epoxy gloss finish.
alkyd can be used for temperatures in the range of 300" to a wastewater plant will, in a similar exposure, give good
5OO0F, and straight silicone aluminum should be used in service in a water treatment plant. The reverse may not
the 800" to 1000°F range. Inorganic zincs have been used always be true because certain gases, acid, oils, greases
successfully up to 900°F. and soaps are present in the wastewater plant exposure
that are not normally found in water treatment plants.
Following is a comparison of service conditions in
SERVICE CONDITION TABLES
water and waste treatment plants to which protective
Although water and wastewater plants are alike in coating systems are subjected. Also included in summary
many ways, they are quite different in their effect on a fOrm are appropriate coating systems, System film
coating system. The wastewater plant is generally far thickness, surface Preparation and major equipment or
more difficult to protect with a coating system. Generally tanks to which we might expect to apply Protective
speaking, any coating system that will give good service in Coatings.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.L 93 D 86279YO 0003831 Y08
TABLE 1: Typical Submerged Senrice Conditions

SERVICE CONDITIONS
1. Submerged Exposure Water Plant Wastewater Plant
a Water Yes Yes

b. Dissolved Oxygen Yes Occasionally (at water level)
c. Hydrogen Sulfide present No Small amount in raw sewage
d. Carbon Dioxide present Not generally Usually
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e. Oils, greases & soaps No Yes
f. Floating matter No Yes
g. Chlorine Yes Yes
h. Alum present Yes No
STEEL Surface Preparation: Minimum SSPC-SP 10 Near White Blast
Coating System & Dry Film Thickness
High Build Epoxy (color) 2 coats 10 mils total
Coal Tar Epoxy 2 coats 16 mils total
High Build Coal Tar Epoxy 1 coat 16 mils total
CONCRETE Surface Preparation: Sweepblast preferred, usually only stiff brushed
High Build Epoxy (color) 2 coats 10 mils total
First coat thinned 25%
Coal Tar Epoxy 2 coats 14-16 mils total
First coat thinned 25%
Oils, greases and soaps in wastewater coat the sur- system be applied to a given level above and below the
face below the waterline, preventing easy passage of oxy- waterline, usually about two feet, while others coat the en-
gen and acids, and offer some protection toconcrete. Most tire wall and floor surfaces of concrete process tanks.
destruction of concrete and damage to coating systems in Examples of equipment and structures most frequent-
process tanks is at the waterline. It is here that the coating ly coated in this service condition are screw pumps; grit
system is subject to damaging cyclic effects: hotlcold, chambers; screens; sluice gates; weirs; baffles; clarifiers;
weffdry, freezelthaw and sunlight, in addition to the settling tanks; digesters; underside of digester covers;
abrasive effects of floating matter, all of which contribute aeration tanks; chlorine detention tanks; aerating, scrap-
to the destruction of the concrete and the coating system. ing, and mixing equipment in process tanks; and trickling
Thus, some engineers specify a protective coating f i Iters.
TABLE 2 Typical Moist Atmosphere Conditions

2 Moist Atmosphere Exposures Water Plant Wastewater Plant
a Moisture and Oxygen present Yes Yes
b. Hydrogen Sulfide present No Yes
c. Carbon Dioxide present Not Often Yes
d. Sulfur Dioxide present Not Often Not Often
e. Carbonic Acid present Not Often Yes
f. Sulfur Acids present Not Often Yes
g. Cyclic changes (hot to cold,
etc.) Yes Yes
h. Alum present Yes No
STEEL Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast
Epoxy Primer & Epoxy Enamel 3 coats 6 mils total
Epoxy Primer & High Build Epoxy 2 coats 6 mils total
Vinyl Primer & Vinyl Finishes 3 coats 56 mils total
Chlorinated Rubber Primer &
Chlorinated Rubber Finishes 3 coats 56 mils total
For exterior exposures, a vinyl system would be preferred to an epoxy system since epoxies chalk early
and lose gloss on sunlight exposure.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7-L 93 8627740 0003832 344
TABLE 2: Typical Moist Atmosphere Conditions (continued)

This is non-submerged severe exposure and unites with gases t o create highly corrosive conditions.
represents the most difficult service conditions for Also included in this service condition is all equipment
coatings in a wastewater or water treatment plant. These subject to moisture, chemicals and condensation, par-
conditions prevail in wet wells, enclosed grit chambers, ticularly on below-grade surfaces that are constantly wet.
screen chambers, equipment inside buildings, manholes, This also includes ferrous metals in the vicinity of or adja-
exterior of closed steel tanks or wherever wastewater sur- cent to chlorine delivery, storage and evaporation
faces are exposed in an enclosed area. Moisture con- facilities. Also included here are exterior surfaces such as
denses on cool steel surfaces, including pumps, motors, catwalks, bridges, handrails and equipment over process
handrails, etc. as well as masonry surfaces. The moisture tanks and the top side of digester roof covers.
TABLE 3 Typical Weather E x p u r e s

3. Outside Sunlight 81
Weather Exposure Water Plant Wastewater Plant
a Actinic light & radiant heat Yes Yes
b. Hydrogen Sulfide present No Yes, sufficient to discolor
certain coatings.
c. Sulfur Dioxide present Sometimes enough Sometimes enough to discolor
to discolor. certain coatings.
d. Carbon Dioxide present Small amount Yes
e. Salt Air (seacoats) Occasionally Occasionally
f. Abrasion from blown sand Yes Yes
g. Cyclic physical changes Yes Yes
STEEL Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast, SSPC-SP 3 Power Tool Clean, SSPC-SP 2
Hand Tool Clean
Coating Systems i3 Dry Film Thickness
Steel: Alkyds, acrylic emulsions, chlorinated rubber, 5-6 mils, 3 coat
systems
Polyurethanes for maximum gloss & color retention, 5-6 mils,
3-coat systems
Concrete: Vinyls, latex emulsions, chlorinated rubber, 5-6 mils, 3-coat
systems
This service condition is similar to the normal industrial cient to affect coating integrity.
environment of the area except for the presence of sewer Areas to be coated in this service condition are ex-
gas. This is usually an esthetic problem since the sewer terior plant structures, piping, valves, motors, pumps,
gas can discolor some coatings, particularly those con- doors, sash, handrails, ramps and fences.
taining lead. The concentration of sewer gas is not suffi-
-
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7-L 93 m 8b27940 0003833 280
TABLE 4 Inside Exposures

A Inside Dry Atmosphere Exposure Water Plant Wastewater Plant
a Moisture Very little Very little
b. Oxygen Yes Yes
c. Hydrogen Sulfide present No Often enough to discolor
certain coatings.
d. Sulfur Dioxide present Very little Very little
STEEL Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast; SSPC-SP 3 Power Tool Clean, SSPC-SP 2
Hand Tool Clean, SSPC-SP 1 Solvent Clean.
Alkyds, acrylic emulsions, dry film thickness 4-5 mils, 3-coat system
CONCRETE FLOORS Surface Preparation: Acid etch with 15-20°/0solution of muriatic acid to
produce texture of fine sandpaper or sweep sandblast.
Epoxy enamels, dry film thickness 5-6 mils, 3-coat system
Chlorinated rubber coatings, 5-6 mils, 3-coat system
CONCRETE, MASONRY Walls & Ceilings

Latex emulsions, epoxies, chlorinated rubber, dry film thickness 3-4
mils, 2-coat system
Latex block filler added for block or porous surfaces
WOOD Oil, alkyds, latex emulsions, two finish coats over wood primer.
Included in this service condition are offices, painting here is appearance and plant housekeeping.
laboratories, workshops, storerooms, pump rooms, blower Hydrogen sulfide gas should not normally be present here;
rooms and control rooms. Surfaces include pumps, however, the possibility does exist for minimal amounts
motors, control boxes, handrails, doors, frames, sash, that might cause discoloration in some coatings, so care
walls, ceilings and concrete floors. The main reason for should be used in selecting lead-free coatings.
VII. SURFACE PREPARATION regarding the degree of surface preparation t o be

specified, the engineer or specification writer must con-
The performance of every paint job is dependent on
sider the nature and conditions of the surface t o be
the condition of the substrate. When making a decision
coated, the type of coating system that is t o be applied,
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the environment, service conditions, economics, physical

limitations and other facts. Some coatings have greater
bonding or surface wetting properties than others and are
more tolerant of minimal surface cleanliness. The
engineer must know the limits of rust, oil and soil that the
coating system tolerates. Generally speaking, high
performance coatings used in the most severe conditions,
submersion or moist atmosphere and chemically corrosive
environments, require the most careful and thorough sur-
face preparation.
The best surface preparation for steel is removal of all
rust, mill scale and surface contaminants. This is most ef-
FIGURE 5 fectively accomplished by abrasive blasting either in the
Floating digester roof cover coated with Vinyl System for gloss field or shop with centrifugal blast equipment. Abrasive
and color retention. Underside coated with two coat, high build
epoxy. blast cleaned surfaces should be coated the same day as
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R W L L 93 m 8627740 0003834 117
over the interior submerged surfaces of concrete process

tanks with nothing more than a stiff brooming of the con-
crete surfaces.
Concrete floors must be especially well prepared
because of the abrasion involved. “Sweep” abrasive blast-
ing is a good preparation on concrete floors; however, it is
often impractical in a treatment plant because the project
is fairly well along the way before the floors are painted.
The accompanying abrasive grit or sand cannot be
tolerated where equipment or instrumentation may be in
place. Consequently, the preparation often used for con-
crete floors is an acid etch. First coats in multi-coat
systems applied over concrete, particularly concrete that
has not been acid-etched or sweepblasted, should be
thinned at least 25% with the appropriate thinner to
penetrate and promote adhesion.
B. GALVANIZED SURFACES
Oil or alkyd coatings applied directly to zinc can allow
moisture and oxygen to reach the metal surfaces. Moisture
combines with zinc to form normal corrosion products
such as zinc oxides and zinc carbonates. These salts can
react with oils or fatty acids in the paint binder to form a
chemical soap film that destroys the paint bond. Non-oil-
bearing coatings should be used on galvanized surfaces.
Courtesy International Paint Company, Inc. Properly formulated high build epoxies adhere well as do
FIGURE 6 oil-free acrylic latex metal primers. Zinc dust-zinc oxide
Two coat, light blue high build epoxy system on steel centerpiece primers serve well under oil or alkyd top coats. The vinyl
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and submerged steel in clarifier. Two-coat, high build epoxy
system in same color on sidewalls of concrete tank. Vinyl system wash primers also perform well as a pretreatment on
applied to bridge and handrails for improved gloss and color galvanized steel to promote adhesion. Galvanized sur-
retention. faces must be free of all oil, dirt, grease and other foreign
matter before coating. The painting of galvanized surfaces
blasted. Properly cleaned steel provides an excellent is discussed in detail elsewhere in this volume.
painting surface and also provides the base for superior,
long lasting protection. C. ALUMINUM
Abrasive blasting is generally specified according to All surfaces must be free of all oil, dirt, grease
the standards established by the Steel Structures Painting and other foreign matter. After cleaning, painting may
Council and is covered in detail in other sections of this be carried out with the coating system that is appropriate
volume. for the service condition to which the aluminum will be
exposed. Vinyl wash primers and acrylic latex metal
A. CONCRETE primers make excellent primers for aluminum surfaces.
Concrete should be permitted to age at least 28 days
D. WOOD SURFACES
under good conditions prior to applying a coating system.
Paintable curing compounds may be used to permit Wood surfaces are not very common in water and
coating in seven days. To prepare masonry and concrete wastewater treatment plants, but they should be
for painting, the same caution should be exercised for the thoroughly cleaned and free of all oil, grease, dirt and
complete removal of all surface contaminants. “Sweep” other foreign matter. All cracks, nail holes and other sur-
abrasive blasting is the most effective method of surface face defects should be properly filled and sanded to a
preparation. There should be no evidence of laitance on smooth finish. All sanding dust must be wiped away
the concrete surfaces before coating, and all soft or loose- before painting.
ly bound surfaces should be cleaned down to a hard Canvas insulation covering should be cleaned free of
substrate, preferably by abrasive blasting. dirt, dust and other foreign matter, then primed with two
Catalyzed epoxy and coal tar epoxy coatings provide coats of a high solids latex primer-sealer.
excellent adhesion t o concrete surfaces; vinyl and
chlorinated rubber coatings are also used. In construction VIII. APPLICATION
of water and wastewater treatment plants, it is not uncom- Coatings must be applied in accordance with the
mon to apply a high build epoxy or coal tar epoxy system engineer’s detailed specifications and the approved con-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERmL7.L 93 = 8627940 0003835 053
tractor’s submittals that become part of the project coats within a maximum time interval to develop proper in-
specifications when accepted by the engineer. In addition, tercoat adhesion, for example, the coal tar epoxy dis-
coatings should be applied in strict accordance with the cussed earlier. Temperature and humidity limitations must
paint manufacturer’s recommendations and should be be followed. Many catalyzed coatings do not cure properly
subject to inspection at all times by representatives of the below 50°F (10°C) or above 85% relative humidity. Water
owner, engineer andlor manufacturer. reducible coatings also have temperature limitations;
Deviations from specifications or manufacturer’s usually a minimum of 50°F (10°C) is specified. Coatings
recommendations can be considered and approved or re- should not be applied when temperature is below the dew
jected at the pre-job conference among the engineer, point. With the exception of very fast dry coatings, such as
general contractor, coating supplier and painting contrac- vinyls, coatings should not be applied i f a 20 F ” (11 Co)
tor. In the absence of such recommendations, SSPC-PA 1, drop in temperature is anticipated within four to six hours
“Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting”, may be followed after painting.
in storage, handling, and application. Painting in confined spaces having inadequate ventila-
Careful and proper application is necessary to obtain tion such as a tank interior or below ground chambers can
the specified protection. Protection of the properly have an adverse effect on both safety of the workers and
prepared surface is dependent upon film thickness; the film formation and integrity of the coating. Solvent fumes
minimum dry film thickness specified for service areas are heavier than air and collect at the bottom of a tank. A
must be achieved. Films must be of uniform thickness solvent vapor layer retards curing of the coating. Solvents
without low spots, pinholes or holidays. Particular atten- trapped in the coating can seriously affect the usefulness
tion must be paid to edges and angles to be certain that of the coating by causing pinholing and blisters which
these vulnerable areas are adequately coated. create avenues for water and other corrosives to reach the
The contractor’s equipment, brushes, rollers, ladders substrate. Fumes must be removed, either by blowing
and other equipment must be in good, clean, workable through bottom openings or exhausting through the top by
condition. Compressors and spray equipment must be in means of air ducts extending to the bottom. The safety
good condition with proper moisture traps, regulators and aspect is a most important consideration of the applica
gages in place. tion procedures. Appropriate measures should be taken to
Spray application is generally preferred and required prevent the confinement of explosive solvent vapor-air mix-
tures. Explosion-proof lights and nonsparking tools and
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
for the high build coatings to attain high film build proper-
ties in the number of coats specified. However, high build equipment should be used to provide added safety. OSHA
epoxy coatings are being successfully applied in heavy Material Safety Data Sheets are available from coating
films with long nap rollers and in many instances provide suppliers. The information should be kept on file at the job
adequate protection on the concrete surfaces. To attain site first aid section or in the paint superintendent’s
the specified film build, without excessive sags, most office.6 Tank painting is discussed in greater detail in
materials should be applied by the double-pass, cross- another chapter of this volume.
spray method. The second pass should be at right angles
to the first. Excessive atomization can cause a “dry spray” IX. INSPECTION
condition, as can failure to hold the spray gun perpen- Inspection is the means by which the corrosion or
dicular to the surface or holding the spray gun too far from project engineer reinforces instructions detailed in the
the surface. Films formed with excessive dry spray may be specif ¡cations.
permeable t o corrosive agents and provide inadequate pro- Thorough and adequate inspection of a treatment
tection. plant should be an ongoing process - and the inspector
A spray technique can be developed at the inception should be representing the design engineer and the owner.
of the coating job by taking wet film readings immediately The owner or engineer should have a competent inspector
after application and calculating the resulting dry film on the job. Some engineering firms have their own inspec-
thickness from the volume solids of the coating. In this tion crews or specialists.
way, the applicator can determine the technique that best The engineer should require the general contractor to
produces the wet film required to attain the specified dry arrange a pre-job conference involving the engineer, paint-
film thickness. On ferrous metal surfaces, the dry film ing contractor, coating supplier and general contractor. At
thickness can be measured with a magnetic film thickness this meeting, the involved parties can go over the
gage. However, by using the wet to dry technique, the ap- specifications and definitions to make certain everyone
plicator can minimize “surprises” in the form of low film understands what is expected. Inspection is discussed in
thickness that would require additional coats. On concrete greater detail in another section of this volume.
surfaces, knowing the wet-to-dry ratio and the maximum
spreading rates allows the applicator to control and attain X. CONCLUSION
specified film build. For the modern treatment plant to be adequately and
Recommendations for drying times must be followed. properly protected and decorated with a protective coating
Some coatings require the application of succeeding system, provisions must be made for a well written paint-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7-L 93 8627940 O003836 T 7 T
ing specification defining the proper coating system ap-

plied expertly over a thoroughly cleaned and prepared sur-
face that receives regular and careful inspection. This re-
quires the cooperative efforts o f all parties: owner,
engineer, general contractor, coatings supplier and equip-
ment manufacturer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Wally Cathcart, Bill Chandler, S. Frye, Dan Gelfer,
Howard Lasser, Marshall McGee, I. Metil, Chuck Munger, J.
O’Connor, W.S. Rosenthal, Henry Stoner, Bill Wallace, Tom
Wilhelm.
BIOGRAPHY
Thomas Delany retired from
the Valspar Corporation in 1993
after twenty years of service,
most recently as Industry
Manager for both the water and
waste industry and the power in-
dustry. Mr. Delany had been ac-
tive in the coatings industry for
46 years in sales, technical serv-
ice, sales training and sales
management. Mr. Delany is a
graduate of the Wharton School
of the Universitv of Pennsvl-
vania. He is a m6mber of the Steel Structures Painting Council, the
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National Association of Corrosion Engineers, American Water Works

Association, and the Water Environment Federation.
REFERENCES
1. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2, “Systems and
Specifications”, John D. Keane ed. Steel Structures Painting
Council, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA
15213-3728, 1991.
2. Surface Preparation Specifications. Steel Structures Painting
Council, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA
15213-3728, 1991.
3. M.A. Vivona, and T.P. Delany, “A Simplified Guide for Select-
ing and Using Protective Coatings in Wastewater Treatment
Facilities”, Presente% at the New England Water Pollution
Control Association Meeting, October 24, 1979 (Portland, ME).
4. M.A. Vivona and T.P. Delany, “Selection and Use of Protective
Coatings in Water and Wastewater Treatment Facilities,”
Wafer and Sewage Works, June, 1980.
5. M.A. Vivona and T.P. Delany, “The Role of Protective Coatings
in Water Treatmbnt Plants and Storage Tanks”, Presented at
the New York Section of the American Water Works Associa-
tion Meeting, April 23, 1980 (Binghamton, NY).
6. D.M. Berger, “Liquid Applied Linings for Steel Tanks”,
Chemical Engineering, Dec. 22, 1975 and Jan. 19, 1976.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERxL7-2 9 3 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003837 926 m
CHAPTER 17.2
PAINTING OF COKE AND STEEL PLANTS

bY
Arthur R. Thompson and S. C.Frye
Protection and preservation of buildings, equipment A. PRIMER PAINTS

and machinery is a major responsibility of the steel in- The pigment should be rust inhibitive and can be zinc-
dustry. Maintenance painting includes not only anti- rich, basic lead silico chromate, zinc chromate, iron oxide,
corrosion painting of building exteriors, outdoor equip-
zinc dust, borates, phosphides or phosphates or aluminum
ment and machinery, but also interiors, equipment,
complexes. Such pigments have a sacrificial, inhibiting or
machinery and, in some cases, even concrete. Proper in-
passivating effect on steel surfaces so rusting is retarded.
terior palnting has a beneficial effect on employees. Good
For power-tool-cleanedsurfaces, SSPC-SP3, the paint
housekeeping and better lighting are apparent in a newly
vehicle should be able to wet the steel surface for max-
painted building interior.
imum penetration. After drying, the vehicle should be
With the current emphasis on safety, good house-
relatively impermeable to moisture and compatible with
keeping and improved lighting, improvements like clearly
the finish paint. Long oil alkyd, certain vinyl copolymers
marked passageways, neat parts storage and extensive
and certain catalyzed epoxy vehicles provide good results
safety color use have gone a long way toward improving
over power-tool-cleaned surfaces. Primers specified in
the appearance of steel plants. Maintenance painting has
Volume 2, “Systems & Specifications” of the SSPC Paint-
greatly contributed to this aspect of good management.
ing Manual, have been used successfully. They are the
To control costs, it is necessary to use appropriate
result of extensive testing; however, many proprietary for-
coating systems applied in accordance with the manufac-
mulations have also been evaluated and may provide equal
turer’s instructions. Experienced painters, using proper
or superior performance. Careful choice must be made to
painting and safety equipment, are expected to perform select the appropriate primer. SSPC-Paint 11 (zinc
the coating work. Good inspection and adequate records
chromate primer) has been used for both initial and
should be maintained. One important cost control
maintenance priming with good results. Be aware of limita-
measure is to recoat before the old coating must be com-
tions of the vehicle in the plant surroundings when select-
pletely removed and primer replaced as per SSPC-PA
ing a primer. Relative resistance of some vehicles is shown
Guide 4. This minimizes costs by permitting a single coat
in Table 1.
of paint to be applied over existing cleaned paint. Priming galvanized steel can be difficult. One system
is to reprime degreased zinc-coated steel with a vinyl
I. SURFACE PREPARATION butyral wash primer conforming to DOD-P-15328and then
For steel subject to severe corrosion where maximum apply an appropriate coating. This eliminates premature
paint life is desired, abrasive blasting, according to SSPC- peeling and failure of paints on galvanized surfaces. Other
SP 10, Near White Blast Cleaning, is the minimum cleaning systems are described in the section on roofs.
required. In non-acid corrosive areas, where a corrosion-
In mildly corrosive areas, steel surfaces can be resistant topcoat is required, inorganic zinc-rich coatings
prepared according to SSPC-SP 3, Power Tool Cleaning. conforming to SSPC-PS Guide 12.00 are recommended.
Better paint system service life results if abrasive blast Abrasive blast cleaning to minimum SSPC-SP 10 is
cleaning to minimum SSPC-SP 6, Commercial Blast Clean- required.
ing, is specified.
In noncorrosive or dry interior areas, steel surfaces
B. FINISH PAINTS
can be prepared in accordance with SSPC-SP 3, Power Tool Finish paints should provide good appearance, im-
Cleaning. permeability to moisture, primer protection, and
recoatabiIity.
II. PAINTS Federal Specification TT-E-489 and SSPC specifica-
tions for alkyd finish paints, including aluminum paint,
and the vehicleare the two main should be the minimum quality for alkyd, general weather-
tuents of most paint compositions. ing finish paints. They can be used only in mildly corrosive
areas. In severely corrosive areas, epoxy polyamide, epoxy
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 . 2 93 8b27940 0003838 862
Table 1
Resistance To Environment
Vehicle Weathering Salt Water Acid Caustic Solvent
Long Oil Alkyd Excellent Fair Good Poor Fair Fair
Epoxy Ester Very Good Good Good Fair Fair Good
Vinyl Copolymer Very Good Excellent Very Good Excellent Excellent Fair
Catalyzed Epoxy Excellent (Chalks) Excellent Excellent Very Good Excellent Excellent
Inorganic Silicate Excellent Excellent Very Good Very Good Excellent Excellent
(Use topcoat)
inch and heavier films can be built. Coal tar mastics are
usually applled at dry film thicknesses of 0.04 inch to 0.1
inch, and usually are not effectlve In heavier films.
Heavier coal tar mastics have a tendency to crack or
“alligator” when exposed to direct sunlight. In such cases,
the coal tar mastic should be coated with a coal tar emul-
sion.
Blast cleaning should be the method of surface
preparation for application of mastics. If blasting is not
feasible, another method of surface preparation can be
used, but the coating performance may be inferior.
It is common to apply primer before application of
asphalt mastics. A fast-dry primer can be used if the sur-
face is blasted. The primer should be dry before applying
asphalt mastic. Coal tar mastics soften and destroy the
bond of conventional primers to the steel surface, so
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
primers are not used under coal tar mastics. There are,
however, coal tar primers available if a primer is
necessary.
111. EXTERIOR PAINTING

In exterior painting, the general aim is to repaint
FIGURE 1
Good surface preparation, application and coatings contribute to before the coating has completely failed. (See SSPC-PA 4
the appearance and the life of blast furnaces. “Guide to Maintenance Repainting”.) With little primer
touch-up and a complete coat of finish paint, costs can be
amine, epoxy polyester, vinyl and aliphatic acrylic minimized and the out-of-service time of outside equip-
urethane coatings over an inorganic zinc-rich primer or ment can be minimal.
their generic primer are recommended. Inorganic zinc-rich
primers should not be used in an acid exposure without A. BLAST FURNACES
topcoati ng. Repainting before the coating fails is difficult for
Black, aluminum and iron oxide red finish paints are blast furnaces, since they cannot be painted while in
the major exterior colors used in steel plants, but are by no operation. Painting can be done only when the blast fur-
means the only ones. Many mills use more stable and nace ls down for relining, whlch may occur between four
colorful pigmented paints on exteriors and interiors. and six years after the previous reline (Figure 1). After such
a service period, complete abrasive blast cleaning is usu-
C. MASTICS ally necessary. The blast furnace stack, top, uptake, stove
Bituminous coatings such as coal tar and asphalt bodies, gas mains, skip hoist and dust catcher are coated
mastics have traditionally proved effective in protecting with two coats of silicone acrylic. Temperatures of the
steel against severe corrosion. Protection is afforded by stove tops and downcomer can exceed 400°F (204°C).
thickness and inertness to corrosive attack. Asphalt They should have the surfaces prepared to SSPC-SP 6,
mastics are applied at a minimum dry film thickness of 118 “Commercial Blast Cleaning”, be primed with an inorganic
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER+L7*2 93 W Ab27940 0003839 7T9
vironmental conditions. However, these areas are still ag-

gressively corrosive. Primers, if left exposed, and finish
paints used without primer in “non-corrosive” areas of
steel plants will still fail prematurely. The service life of
such paints is often measured in months rather than years.
While black is the most common color in coke oven
plants, there are areas where another color is better. Col-
ors must be chemically resistant and vehicles such as
phenolics, chlorinated rubber, urethanes and epoxies -
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
both air dry and chemically-cured types provide good -
protection.
Coal tar epoxy is being used on new types of quench-
ing stations because of its moisture resistance.
FIGURE 2
Hot stacks require high temperature coatings carefully applied in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
zinc-rich primer and finished with a heat resistant silicone

coating system.
Alternatively, after commercial blast cleaning, all high
temperature surfaces are coated with silicone-zinc dust
primers of an appropriate temperature range. Steel sur- FIGURE 3
faces with operating temperatures between 200°F (93°C) Precoated corrugated siding shown on a coke battery pre-heat
and 450°F (232°C) are finish coated with modified silicone- tower.
based coatings. Steel surfaces with operating tempera-
tures above 450°F are coated with heat resistant, silicone-
aluminum coatings.
B. COKE OVEN PLANTS

Problems in maintenance painting of coke oven plant
buildings, equipment and machinery have lessened
because of the installation of apparatus to improve en-
at 303-397-2295.
~
SSPC C H A P T E R * L ? . 2 93 W 8627740 0003840 410 W
C. HOTSTACKS
Hot stacks present an interesting painting problem.
Stacks can be divided into two classes: those with stack
temperatures from 450°F (232°C) to 900°F (482°C) and
those with stack temperatures below 450°F (232°C).
Temperatures refer to exterior steel surfaces and not to
gases inside the stacks (Figure 2).
Stacks should be cleaned and painted when out of
service. Surface preparation should be abrasive blast
cleaning, in accordance with the coating manufacturer’s
recommendations. Two coats of heat resistant paint are
usually applied. One coat can be applied to low
temperature stacks, i f recommended by the manufacturer.
If a top coat is desired with inorganic zinc-rich coatings, it
FIGURE 4
can generally be applied the day following application of The attractive appearance of this major mill motor is evidence of
the primer. the meticulous maintenance that it receives.
Stacks with temperatures below 450°F (232°C) may
be painted with heat resistant oleo-resinous or silicone andlor asphalt-modified polyurethane elastomeric coat-
paints, or with inorganic zinc-rich coatings. ings have been used for recoating weathered, built-up
Two coats of aluminum-pigmented silicone resin give roofing.
excellent protection at stack temperatures between 450°F Stainless steel and 12% chromium steel sheets have
(232 OC) and 900 OF (482 OC). also been used for roofing and siding on mill buildings.
Premature coating failure of hot stacks should be in- Practically no maintenance Is required, and generally they
vestigated before repainting. Vibration and stress in are not painted if used in mildly corrosive areas. However,
stacks are major causes of premature coating failures. if stainless steel sheets are installed in highly corrosive
Poor surface preparation and failure to follow manufac- areas, such as those involving hlgh chloride or sulphate
turer’s application directions also cause failures. concentrations, painting extends service life.
D. ROOFS E. SIDING
Corrugated, galvanized steel sheets are a common Galvanized corrugated steel sheets have long been
type of roofing. Critical areas of the roofing are laps where used as siding. Precoated corrugated galvanized steel
moisture collects, causing more corrosion than on the rest coils, protected with high quality coatings, are now being
of the sheet. This problem can be corrected by coating lap used extensively for siding.
areas with zinc dustlzinc oxide (TT-P-641, Type li) paint
before joining, by applying a butyl tape at the joint or by ap- F. OUTSIDE EQUIPMENT
plying a fillet bead of sealant meeting Federal Spec The coating and surface preparation for painting out-
TTS-1543. Other procedures for painting roofs are to use side equipment, such as tanks, towers, condensers,
proprietary “self-priming” aluminum-pigmented epoxy coolers, piping, etc., may depend on the time allowed for
mastic coatings or asphalt-base, fibrated roof coatings outside service and the environment. Alkyd resin paints
(non-asbestos). with hand tool cleaning are often used in non-corrosive
If painting galvanized sheeting the usual primer is areas. In corrosive areas, the type of coating systems used --````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
zinc dustlzinc oxide or vinyl butyral wash primer. Pre- in coke oven plants should be specified.
painted sheets now supplant field painting because p r e
painted sheets are often less costly and provide a higher IV. INTERIOR PAINTING
quality finish paint. Coatings used on pre-painted galvan-
Appearance is the primary reason for indoor painting,
ized sheets include: inorganically pigmented 70%
although corrosion protection can be a factor. Colors
polyvinylidene fluoride; chromate-bearing epoxy prime
should be visible and distinguished from each other and
coat finish-coated with urethane; epoxy primer finish-
the background. Ease of cleaning is a factor in choosing
coated with silicone-polyester; and epoxy primer finish-
the type of coating. Standard safety colors must be used
coated with vinyl plastisol.
where applicable. Light colors, such as aluminum, light
On older buildings, “built-up” roofs with layers of tar
green, light gray and tan, are widely used in contrast to
paper coated with coal tar are common. After careful ex-
black, dark brown, and dark gray used in the past.
amination for blisters, water pockets and paper tears,
Re-painting should be done before the old finish fails.
which must be repaired, the roof can be recoated by spray-
Surface preparation is recommended by solvent cleaning
ing or mopping. Use the same coating as the original,
or a mild detergent wash using a non-Ionic detergent
since coal tar and asphalt are not compatible. Coal tar
followed by a water rinse.

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SSPC CHAPTER*37=2 9 3 m 8627940 0003893 357 m
A. INTERIOR OF BUILDINGS V. TANKS

Old mill buildings were usually constructed of brick, There is a wide variety of tanks in steel plants. Some
masonry or “protected metal” siding, usually black. When are in non-corrosive service where contents would not
using colors other than black, the siding must be sealed, seriously impair the finish coat. The finish can be an alkyd
usually with an aluminum paint such as SSPC-Paint No. synthetic resin paint, an acrylic latex or many others of the
101. Aluminum pigment in a shellac vehicle is also good. desired color. Surface preparation requires a light wire
An aluminum pigmented paint can be the finish coat or the brushing, a solvent or water wash.
base for a color coat. There are tanks and towers in very corrosive service
Galvanized sheet steel should be primed with zinc containing acids or other corrosive materials. These tanks
dustlzinc oxide or a vinyl butyral primer, prior to applying a are usually lined with highly resistant linings that have a
color coat. relatively long service life. Prior to lining, white metal blast
Brick, masonry and block walls are collectors of dirt cleaning, in accordance with SSPC-SP 5, is required.
and dust and should be washed before painting. They can Chemical-resistant coatings applied to the exterior of
be primed with a sealer and finish-coated; or they can be tanks may be epoxy-phenolic, polyester, vinyl, chemically
coated with a high build modified epoxy or an acrylic cured epoxies or coal tar epoxies, depending upon the
coating, which allows some vapor transmission. chemical exposure.
Concrete floors, where being attacked, must be When repainting is necessary, surface preparation is
cleaned and neutralized to pH 7-8 and washed before paint- important. Solvent cleaning and water rinsing must be
ing. If the attack is chemical, the floor should be leveled or thorough to be sure all contaminants are removed from the
smoothed and painted with a material that withstands the old surface. Abrasive blast cleaning should be done to the
chemical attack and traffic. degree necessary under the prevailing circumstances.
Wooden buildings are not common in steel plants.
However, old mill buildings may have wood roof decking, A. SAFETY COLORS
which may have been painted with standard paints for non- The use of safety color paints is a requirement in
corrosive conditions. There is a problem of fire protection maintenance painting and is a part of plant safety pro-
for wood areas. The use of intumescent fire-retardant
grams. Where hazards exist, the American National Stan-
paints has increased materially because of this problem.
dards Institute safety colors must be applied.
B. MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT Pipelines must be at least circumferentially striped to
denote the material being carried. Care must be taken to
Machinery and equipment like rolling mills, motors,
prevent abuse of the use of safety colors. It is advisable
machine tools, cranes, crane hooks, etc., are handled like
that the plant Safety Department be involved in the selec-
buildlng interiors. Practically all machinery and equipment
tion and the application of safety colors.
is primed prior to installation; cleaning and application of
a finish paint is all that is needed. Cleaning is usually by
wire brushing (SSPC-SP 2) with some spot priming. For r e VI. RECORDS
painting, good cleaning by solvent washing or steam Written records are the best way to collect informa-
cleaning is necessary before applying finish paint. If tion on paint system performance. Records should in-
chemical resistance is needed, reprime with “universal” clude:
primer then apply epoxy or urethane top coats (Figures 4 what was painted
and 5).
date of painting
Functional painting to distinguish moving parts of the
surface preparation
machines must be clearly delineated. Standard safety col-
ors are required. quantity, type of paint and manufacturer
application equipment
FIGURE 5
Visibility is the most important function of the coating system on
this yellow coil carrier.
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394
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SSPC C H A P T E R + L 7 . 2 9 3 8627940 0003842 273 W
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This chapter is a complete update of that by S . C. Frye which
appeared in the first edition of this volume.
chapter: William F. Chandler, Seymour K. Coburn, R. Dashner, W.
E. Kemp, James R. Lopata, Bruno Perfetti, H. R. Stoner, William R.
Wright, and William J. Wallace, Jr.
REFERENCE
Anonymous, “Heat-Resistant Coatings Help Huge Mill Extend
Periods Between Shutdowns,” Plant Services, page 51, July 1981.
BIOGRAPHY
Arthur R. Thompson was a
project engineer for the Inland
Steel Company. He obtained his
BSIM and MSIM from Purdue
University and worked with the
Inland Steel Company starting in
1964. He was in the Industrial
Engineering group from
1964-1973 and in Engineering-
Standards and Specifications as
a project engineer beginning in
1973.
Seymour C. Frye was a

representative to the SSPC start-
ing in 1952 and is a former Vice
Chairman of the Research Corn-
mittee. He is a Chemical En-
gineering graduate of Drexel
University and was employed by
E.I . du Pont de Nemours & Co.,
inc. Paint Division for 16 years,
last serving as laboratory super-
visor on paints, enamels and
varnishes.
He joined Bethlehem Steel
Corporation in 1946 as a
research engineer specializing in the specification and use of paints
both in the plants and on structures built by Bethlehem Steel
Corporation. He was promoted to Staff Engineer, Research Depart-
ment, and later to Manager of the Organic Coatings and Corrosion
Section at Bethlehem.
He has developed specifications for Bethlehem and for the
SSPC.
He has been a member of the American Iron and Steel Insti-
tute, American Society for Testing and Materiais and the American
Water Works Association; Chairman of the subcommittee on, and
former Director of, the Steel Water Pipe Manufacture? Technical
Advisory Committee of the AWWA; director of the National Associa-
tion of Corrosion Engineers; and an accredited corrosion specialist.
Mr. Frye has presented papers on the cleaning and painting
of structural steel to many organizations and published papers in
the American Paint Journal, Transactions of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, Materials and Corrosion Prevention, Factory, and
the Journal of the American Water Works Association.
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395
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 3 93 8627940 0003843 1 2 T m
CHAPTER 17.3
PETROLEUM REFINERY COATINGS

by
W. E. Stanford
I. INTRODUCTION sibilities for maintenance coating to people already over-

burdened or unqualified, emphasis on coatings and corro-
Protective coatings are one of the primary means of
sion protection is reduced. Low priority given to coating
controlling corrosion in refinery exposures. For this
work can result in a series of rushed projects, poor
reason, costs for maintenance painting can account for as
specifications, poor vendor selection, improper surface
much as 15-25 percent of the maintenance budget. Ade-
preparation, hasty choice of materials, and, of course,
quate interest return is expected for every dollar invested
eventual higher costs.
in painting. Production outages should also be reduced
and life expectancy of key process equipment extended. IV. COATING SCHEDULES
Important by-products include improved appearance and
A coating program for the maintenance of refineries
better morale and community relations.
should begin with an audit. The audit should include
Refinery painting, which includes process equipment,
verification of existing and new coating records and an up-
storage tanks, piping, etc., presents a broad spectrum of
to-date appraisal of coating conditions in all areas of the
exposures that involves a variety of physical and chemical
refinery. It is also important to note causes of coating
conditions. Because of this, coating procedures and
failure. With this data, assessment of coating material re-
materials selection change from area t o area. Although all
quirements, scheduled timing costs, manning, and equip-
areas cannot be covered in this chapter, some of the most
ment can be determined for the maintenance coating pro-
common ones will be discussed to aid the refinery
gram. This audit and planning of refinery coating can be
engineers in creating an effective maintenance program.
handled effectively through inspection departments within
the refinery. In dayto-day activity, appraisal of progress in
II. HISTORY OF REFINERY COATING
coating application and general conditions of existing
The evolution of coating technology in the past 20 coatings can be recorded for reference in program plan-
years has resulted in more efficient materials performance ning.
than was previously obtained from oil-base aluminum and
other similar coating formulations. With earlier coating V. TECHNOLOGY
materials, painting was an annual occurrence. Today, Careful consideration must be given to “normal” and
coating systems that will perform for up to 25 years are not “upset” operating conditions before coating materials are
uncommon. A typical high performance system is organic selected for a specific refinery painting job. The data
or inorganic zinc-rich primer with suitable topcoats. Th’e should reflect temperatures (high and low), cycling,
total dry film thickness of such high performance systems chemical exposures and mechanical conditions the
should be 8-10 mils in atmospheric exposure. These coating will be subjected to. Also consider whether the
systems can be applied on new construction and are vir- equipment is indoors or outdoors and its geographical
tually maintenance free for the expected life of the equip- location. The coating engineer must also know how the
ment. Economics and investment return can be improved equipment will be used in the refining process. For exam-
significantly with properly administered maintenance ple, tanks are used to store finished volatile products. In
coating programs. order to decrease product loss from vaporization, storage
tanks are often painted white to reflect solar heat and
111. PERSONNEL decrease vapor pressures.
Individuals in charge of maintenance coating must Coating requirements often encountered in refineries
work effectively with the entire organization. The coating (from a technical and operational point of view) are resis-
engineer is called upon to be organizer, manager, corro- tance to chemicals (including crude oils), permeability,
sion engineer, record keeper, performance analyst, and tolerance of temperature extremes, abrasion and impact,
budget salesman, with a knowledge of materials composi- resistance, flexibility, and weather resistance. Other prop-
tion, selection, application methods, and equipment. erties, such as heat emissivity and solar heat reflectance,
Administration of good maintenance programs is ahould be considered where insulating qualities or heat
paramount to success and overall performance of transfer is important. With this background as a guide,
coatings. However, when management delegates respon- desired coating properties can be established.
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396
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S S P C C H A P T E R * L 7 = 3 9 3 D 8b27940 0003894 Obb m
A. RESISTANCE (CHEMICALS AND coated parts into place. Because of these conditions,
CRUDE OIL) coatings must have properties that will resist abrasion
and impact. The coating selected should be a fast-cure
Petrochemicals produced in refineries deteriorate
that will form a hard film within several hours. For these
coating films if proper materials are not selected. Crude
applications, self-cure, ethyl silicate based, inorganic
oil, for instance, can cause extensive corrosion damage,
zinc-rich primers and other similar fast cure primers
especially when water separates from oil onto the bottom
are used. In some areas, where pH ranges are between
of storage tanks. High concentrations of hydrogen sulfide
6.0-9.0, the primer is not topcoated. Where top-coating
in crude oil also result in corrosion damage. For these
is necessary, epoxies, vinyls, acrylics, urethanes and
problems, applications of inorganic zinc-rich primers with
other fast-dry coatings are used to coat equipment after
epoxy polyamide topcoats, coal tar epoxies and polyesters
installation.
have performed satisfactorily. These coating systems are
effective on exposures that can range from fumes, splash,
and spillage to total immersion. E. FLEXIBILITY
Wind, temperature or process pressures can cause
B. PERMEABILITY materials to flex. For example, in large floating roof stor-
age tanks, roof sections can flex as much as 10 inches un-
The rate at which water or solvents penetrate dry
der high wind velocity. In process operation, the heating
coating film varies greatly among generic types of
and cooling of thin shell vessels produces flexing as well
coatings, seriously affecting service life of some systems
as contraction and expansion. Materials that will meet flex
in operations where moisture condenses on equipment
requirements are, generically, epoxies (flexible), vinyls,
during heating and cooling cycles and permeability
urethanes, neoprene, and other similar materials. Each pa-
through the coat ing increases. Si mi larly, the permeabi Iity
rameter should be investigated before a coating system is
rate increases in humid weather. Some coatings used to
selected.
control these conditions are aliphatic urethanes and ïn-
organic zinc-rich primers with epoxy polyamide or vinyl top-
I
coats at a dry film thickness of 6-8 mils.
F. W EATHERABILITY
Weather resistance of coating materials varies wide-
C. TEMPERATURE ly. Close to the Equator, coatings must withstand intense
solar radiation. Close to the Arctic Circle, coatings must
High and low temperature resistance is often re-
withstand intense cold. In hot, humid and cold climates,
quired in refinery coating. Temperature may be ambient
vinyls, epoxies, acrylics, alkyds, urethanes, chlorinated
or steel skin temperatures of process equipment. In at-
rubber, and similar generic types are good candidate
mospheric temperatures the range can be from -40°C
materials.
(-40°F) in northern climates to 54°C (130°F) in southern
climates. The process temperatures will range from
- 4O"ClF to a high of 648°C (1200°F).Temperatures as low G. HEAT EMISSIVITY
as -40°C will be found in refrigeration systems and on As the need to conserve energy increases, emissivity
boiler breaching as high as (648°C) in the typical limits of becomes important. Coating materials can be used to
the refinery. Coating materials selected for this broad decrease or increase heat transfer to save energy. Con-
temperature range include epoxy, modified epoxy, sider compression areas where gases are passed through
phenolics, modified phenolics, acrylics, silicone acrylics, piping to storage under pressure. In this case, compres-
urethanes, inorganic zincs, silicones, and heat inducting, sion requirements can be decreased i f process equipment
glass-fil led inorganics. temperatures are decreased using solar-reflective
To obtain accurate steel surface temperatures, the materials. In other applications, heat can be absorbed to
skin temperature of equipment surfaces should be assist in raising the temperature of a tank's contents for
measured, since it can be higher or lower than operating pumping, such as with some crude oils. Where reflectance
temperatures. Significant energy savings can result if the of solar energy is required to conserve volatile finished
proper coatings are selected. products, white coatings can be used advantageously.
Heatllight reflection of black is near O, aluminum and
D. ABRASION AND IMPACT medium gray 40-50, and white above 80.
In a refinery coated surfaces can be damaged by air-
borne abrasives such as sand, coke dusts, andlor products
H. COMPOSITION
containing particulate matter. In daily maintenance opera- To select coating materials that will provide the per-
tions and during refinery turnaround, coated equipment is formance expected, the material's generic composition
bumped together when new piping or vessels are installed. must be known. The binder, pigments, fillers, emulsifiers,
During maintenance repair, heavy wrenches and tools are and other additives contribute to film properties and sub-
often dropped on coated surfaces. Another source of sequently to film performance.
damage is steel cables and slings that are used to hoist When referring to materials on coating specifications,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L ï . 3 93 8b27940 0003845 T T Z
the exact name of the generic materials coating formula- details. They will not be reviewed here because of their
tion should be given. It is not good practice to specify by complexity.
broad generic names alone, such as “epoxy”, because of
the considerable difference among epoxy coatings. The VI. SPECIFICATIONS
performance of epoxy polyamide and epoxy amine can vary To assure satisfactory coating performance, clear, ac-
widely. There are areas where they should or should not be curate specifications for coating application should be
used. For example, when the application of an uncured written. A coating manual prepared by the combined ef-
coating is subject to condensation or high relative humid- forts of research engineering and inspection departments
ity, an epoxy amine may not cure properly. The amine cata- would make the job of writing specifications easier. The
lyst can be leached out of the coating by moisture and manual will include information on surface preparation,
thus not be available to react with epoxy resins. Epoxy coating materials, areas to be painted, exposures, and
polyamide should be used in such cases because cure will special applications. In Appendix A is a typical form used
continue even though moisture is present, although cure by refinery management to initiate bids on work and pro.
may be at a slower rate. Other materials, such as self-cure vide a definitive coating specification. Other similar forms
inorganic zincs and moisture-cured urethanes, can be are used for coating stationary and on-stream process
used under moist conditions. equipment. Whatever system is used, all specifications
Paint and coating materials are manufactured by a should clearly establish the following items as they relate
batch process. Components in a formulation can vary. To to scope and objectives:
assure consistent quality and composition, coating mate- Type and grade of surface preparation, abrasives,
rials should be “fingerprinted”, using infrared methods de- and anchor pattern.
scribed in ASTM Reference “Paint Testing Manual”. These Generic type of primer and finish coats.
methods require little time but are very effective in Wet and dry film thicknesses of primer and finish
monitoring quality of materials. Other methods, such as coats.
pyrolytic gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy are Number of primer and finish coats.
useful in identifying components of dry films or liquid Equipment to be used for applying materials ~
samples. In critical projects requiring large quantities of (airless gun, spray gun parts such as nozzle, hoses,
coating materials, samples from each production lot etc.).
should be tested. Lots should be scanned by infrared to Safety precautions to be observed.
establish and ensure consistent material composition. Weather limitations such as high relative humidity,
For coating applications in refineries, the generic rain, cold temperatures, etc.
materials most frequently used are alkyds, acrylic latex, Inspection, type of tests to be performed, by whom,
coal tar epoxy, epoxy, epoxy phenolic, chlorosulfonated and results to be expected; instruments required.
polyethylene, inorganic zinc-rich primers, mastics, organic The manufacturer’s coating instructions, noted
zinc-rich primers, polyester, silicones, silicone acrylics, and referenced.
urethanes, vinyls, and vinyl latex. Spot repair procedures.
When specifications are complete, they are used to
I. REGULATIONS obtain contractor bids on the coating application. During
Federal, state and local regulations control abrasive negotiations of the contract, any changes or additions to
and solvent materials used to clean or coat equipment sur- the specifications should be agreed upon. From this point
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
faces. The regulations that apply include those written by until the job is completed, the specifications should be
the National Fire Prevention Agency (NFPA), Occupational closely followed to achieve optimum coating performance.
Safety Health Administration (OSHA), Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA), Department of Defense Fuel Con- VII. LABORATORY TESTING
tainers List (DOD), California Air Resources Board (CARB), An effective program for materials research and new
Texas Air Control Board (TACB) Regulation 1, Philadelphia product evaluation should be maintained to update
Regulation V, and similar local controls. technology and coating performance i n refinery
In coating internal storage tanks for military fuels, the maintenance. Research projects provide guidance in se-
coating material should be approved and included on the lecting materials and improving coating service perform-
DOD list. If zinc or other extraneous liner material is found ance. The data provides a basis for projecting economic
in jet fuels, the product will not be purchased by the costs and service life expectancy, and ultimately, for mak-
government or by some domestic customers. ing decisions on coating system investment. At the same
Other regdations are directed to controlling solvent, time, materials that are not adaptable to refinery condi-
dust and emissions of other materials into the environ- tions are screened, eliminating early and costly mainte-
ment where they are hazardous. The limits and federal reg- nance coating repairs and replacement.
ulations can be obtained from the Federal Register. State Laboratory screening tests should employ a series of
and local regulations can be obtained from respective gov- viable tests using simulated refinery conditions and ASTM
ernment offices. These documents reference regulation procedures. This approach can project what might be ex-

398
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 * 3 93 8627940 0003846 939
pected in service environments. Test parameters for physi- agreement will result. To accomplish this a panel scriber
cal and chemical exposure must be accurately established equipped with a metal saw is used. With this equipment
before testing can proceed. These parameters should in- scribes are uniformly and easily cut to the desired depth
clude skin temperatures of equipment, surface irregulari- (Figure 1).
ties, chemical concentrations, adjacent process effluent,
contamination drift, weather conditions, thermal shock or
cyclic conditions and other pertinent history available
from engineering and operations. With this background,
screening tests can proceed. Tests most often used are
Abrasion - ASTM C-190

a)
Cathodic Disbonding - ASTM G8-69T
b)
Drying Time - ASTM D-1640
c)
Exterior Exposure (Coastal & Inland) - ASTM
d)
D-1014
e) Flexibility - ASTM D-6222
f) Synthetic Seawater Spray (4%) - ASTM B-117
g) Fresh Aerated Water Immersion - ASTM D-879
h) Synthetic Seawater Immersion Aerated -
ASTM D-870
i) Solvent Resistance - ASTM 0-2792
j) Temperature Resistance - ASTM D-2488 FIGURE 1
k) Weatherometer - ASTM D-822 Panel Scriber
I) Heat Emissivity - ASTM E-307-68T Courtesy Gulf Oil
m) Permeation - ASTM D-1653
To substantiate laboratory data, as much in-service
data as possible should be obtained. D-ocumanted VIII. FIELD TESTING
evidence, such as case histories of materials in similar
Once initial screen tests are complete, field evalua-
refinery conditions, should be considered. To reduce the
tion will substantiate laboratory results. This phase will
risk of making errors in the application of paint to test
generate in-service data to assist management when mak-
panels in the laboratory, arrangements should be made
ing investment decisions on coating systems. Personnel
with the manufacturer to provide first-coated test panels.
making the field tests also have an opportunity to evaluate
Usually, the coating manufacturer will supply coated
film forming, handling, and drying characteristics. Field
panels andlor wet samples. Other manufacturers should
test applications on exterior and interior tank surfaces
be excluded from test information. After the first series of
yield beneficial data that can be effectively used to deter-
screen tests, some in-house panels should be coated to
mine expected performance of a coating system.
establish material workability, ease of clean up, drying
times, hiding power, and other data. If some of the tests To evaluate coating materials for internal use on proc-
are suspect, panels can be prepared for retesting. ess vessels, test racks are used. Racks are designed t o
Of current interest are rapid laboratory instrument hold about 10 to 12 (size 3“ x 5 “ x IL”) coated panels and
test methods and procedures using the scanning electron two mild steel Corrosion coupons. Metal frames and sup-
microscope (SEM), pyrolytic gas chromotography (PGC), port rods used to construct racks are made of Monel or 316
infrared spectrophotometry (IR), emission spectroscopy stainless steel. When racks are assembled, support rods
(ES), and ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV). Methods and pro- are insulated from the frame with Teflon tubing; each
cedures for these tests are available from ASTM Reference panel is separated from the other by one-half inch Teflon
“Paint Testing Manual”, STP-500, Thirteenth Edition, and spacers. Metal corrosion coupons are accurately tarred to
other sources. These procedures can be used to determine measure corrosion loss in the vessel. From field test data
coating film generic composition, mechanisms of film suitable materials and necessity for coating can be
established (Figure 2).
deterioration, coating composition comparison with
similar products, and to control quality by infrared “finger- At the refinery, test records are usually developed by
printing” coating materials. the Inspection Department. At regular intervals a report of
In laboratory tests of maintenance coating systems, test items is compiled. This background and data is then
scribing is used to determine how effectively a coating will filed for future reference.
protect metal after it has been abraded, chipped and ex-
posed. A scribe inch wide is cut in an “X” shape across IX. SURFACE PREPARATION
the coated test panel to a depth sufficient to expose the In all refinery coating applications, proper grade of
metal substrate. Edges of the coating along the scribe surface preparation is vital in obtaining satisfactory
should not be damaged when the scribe is cut, or poor test coating performance.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 3 93 D 8627940 0003847 875
poor intercoat adhesion. Galvanized surfaces should

be permitted to weather for several months to improve
paintability. Where neither approach is possible,
special primers can obtain proper bonding of the top-
coat. Vinyls, epoxies, latex base coatings and wash
primers are widely used on galvanized surfaces.
Copper
Copper and its alloys are not coated since they form
their own protective oxide film. However, should
FIGURE 2 coating be necessary, copper should be allowed to
Typical Test Rack Assembly For Internal Vessel Testing weather until dark oxides appear or roughening of the
surface develops. The primer used should be conven-
Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Prepara- tional alkyd or oleoresinous materials. Where coating
tion Specifications and Photographic Standards (SSPC- is not possible and discoloration of copper is objec-
Vis 1) are used to establish conditions and degree of tionable, the use of lead coated copper should be con-
coating deterioration. With these procedures, we can iden- s idered.
tify specific surface preparation requirements. Other Aluminum
conditions that should be observed for surface preparation Aluminum can be cleaned and etched by using a solu-
are tion of water containing about lo/dwt. caustic or by
General Cleaning brush blasting (SSPC-SP 7). Effective proprietary solu-
All surfaces must be free of condensation or moisture tions are also available for preparing aluminum to
prior to surface preparation or coating. receive coatings. Surfaces should be coated with zinc
Steel chromate-base primer or other lead-free materials. If
lead is present, it will promote pitting of an aluminum
Where millscale is present, shop blasting and pickling
and blasting are effective and practical. When re- surface.
quired, on-site blasting is preferred to hand cleaning. Wood
On-site pickling is unsatisfactory due t o problems Before painting, wood surfaces should be tested with
with handling acid solutions and safety. In field a moisture meter to be certain the wood is dry. Where
blasting, the first coat of paint should be applied the new wood is finish coated with water dispersed latex
same day that steel is blasted to prevent rust from systems, the test should also be made, since primers
forming on the blasted surfaces (free of chromates or are usually oil base. Previously painted wood can
other toxicants). often be painted, even though some moisture is pres-
Dry Blast Cleaning ent, if water soluble latex coatings are used and prim-
Abasives used in blasting should be selected from ing is not required.
materials of mesh size to produce the anchor pattern Masonry
required for the coating to be applied. Abrasives may New plaster, concrete, and brick should be allowed to
be sand, steel shot, grit and others that will not con- cure before coatings containing solvent are applied.
taminate the etched surfaces. When new water soluble coatings are used, complete
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Coordina tion cure is not essential. It is advisable to acid etch con-

crete with a muriatic acid solution 10 to 20% by
Operations of sandblasting and painting should be
coordinated to avoid embedding sand or other debris
in tacky or wet paint films. Lack of coordination can
cause coating problems, particularly when internally
coating tanks where dust from blasting can ac-
cumulate on surfaces to be coated.
Hand Cleaning
When hand or mechanical cleaning (SSPC-SP 2) is
used to remove weathered miliscale and other con-
tamination, the proper primer should be selected. The
primer should have good wetting and slow drying
properties and should be followed by compatible top-
coats.
G alvan k i n g
New galvanized surfaces should be cleaned by oil
dissolving solvents, detergents, brush blasting or FIGURE 3
chemicals before coating to avert disbonding and Typical Refinery Tank Farm

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.3 93 8627940 0003848 7 0 1
surfaces, detergents and steam generators are effective.

Final clean-up of bottoms can be accomplished using
mops and rubber squeegees to remove water and other
residue from low areas. Surfaces should be allowed to drv
=6 can be used. When oil is present, the oil will fluoresce

under the black light. When no fluorescence is noted, oil
FIGURE 4
has been effectively removed.
The Storage Tanks in Background are Large Floater Roof Type. In
the Foreground are Typical Roof Birdbaths That Fill With Water.
volume. The surface should then be neutralized with

ammonium carbonate, washed with clear water and
allowed to dry.
In refinery coating, costs for surface preparation will
vary widely on the U.S. labor market. For example in 1981
typical costs of white metal blast ranged from $0.60/sq. ft.
in Gulf coast states to $1.2O/sq. ft. in northern states. Sur-
face preparation costs normally represent much of the
cost for coating.
Removal of oil, grease, and residue from tank bottoms
will be necessary before surface preparation can proceed
in many refinery applications. On the exterior, this can be
accomplished by using solvent (SSPC-SP l), detergents,
caustic cleaning, and brush blasting (SSPC-SP 7). Interior
removal is more difficult. For example, removal of sludge FIGURE 6
collected on the bottom of a crude oil tank is a big prob- Naphtha Feedstock Storage Tank in Figure 5 After Seams Were
Sealed With Flexible Epoxy.
lem, particularly when the tank is a large floating roof (250
m bblslcap). The sludge is usually a heavily caked or
viscous residue, difficult to shovel and expensive to
In recent years, hydroblasting has been used to clean
remove using other cleaning methods. The most effective
exterior storage tanks and other equipment in areas where
approach is to pump residue using a vacuum tank truck,
airborne dusts are not permitted by regulation or where
then haul it to a disposal area. Remaining wax or dirt-filled
equipment cannot be exposed to dust. When hydroblast is
residue can then be broken manually into chunks and
used, the water should be inhibited to prevent surface
removed by shovelling. If the tank structure permits, a sec-
rusting.
tion of the shell can be removed so that a front end loader
can remove the residue. To remove residual oil on steel
X. COATING APPLICATION
Coating materials are often applied in refinery opera-
tions by qualified contractors in the area. Contractors han-
dle all provisions related to materials, personnel and
equipment. Large jobs, such as exterior storage tank
coating, are usually let out for bids. At the refinery,
maintenance painting crews are also employed for special
coating applications on process equipment and smaller
projects.
Application equipment commonly used at the refinery
are paint spray guns (airless and conventional), rollers
(with proper roller composition), brushes, and specialized
guns. The type of equipment to be used for application is
given in coating manufacturer’s instructions. Specialized
spray equipment with intermix spray caps and fiberglass
choppers are sometimes used to apply fiberglass rein-
FIGURE 5
Naphtha Feedstock Storage Tank of Riveted Construction. Note forced coatings on storage tank bottoms and shells. They
Seepage at Seams. are also used to apply some type of fireproofing using
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x L 7 - 3 93
When storage tanks or other refinery equipment are

coated, two general areas should be considered. They are
(1) new equipment, and (2) maintenance coating repair on
existing structures. The most effective and economical ap-
proach on new storage tanks and process equipment is to
shop blast and prime coat at the mill. This provides protec-
tion for steel tank plate while in outdoor yard storage prior
t o construction. When storage tanks are erected, weld
seams can be blasted and primed, and damaged areas can
be spot primed with portable equipment. Process equip-
ment is usually coated by the manufacturer where it is
FIGURE 7 fabricated. With minor touch-up, coatings retain their ap-
View of Refinery Stocks and Areas Where High Temperature
Coatings are Required.
pearance and protective qualities.
The second approach t o new storage tank painting is
to acid pickle the steel at the mill to remove millscale. The
fiberglass filler. Where heavy monolithic materials are tank is then field constructed, blasted, and coated by con-
used, the gunnite process is also implemented. tractors. This can be more expensive and time consuming
If certain factors are overlooked, a good application tRan mill coating and can cause delays on process equip-
will not be achieved. Follow these guidelines to ensure a ment in short turnaround schedules. Weather and at-
good coating. mospheric conditions can present difficulties when work
1. The primer must be compatible with the sur- is done outdoors. For these reasons, shop coating is
face preparation and topcoat. Primers such as in- preferred over field application, particularly when large
organic zinc-rich will not perform well over wire brush- surfaces are involved.
cleaned surfaces and cannot be topcoated with alkyd
or other oleoresinous materials, since saponification
of the topcoat will result.
2. All coatings should be applied in strict accord-
ance with manufacturers’ instructions, observing
minimum application temperatures, catalyst type and
addition rates, thinners and amounts allowed.
3. Internal tank bottom coatings and buried
pipeline coatings should be checked for defects in the
coating using a suitable holiday detector. The holiday
detector specified in AWWA Specification C-203 is
satisfactory.
Voltages should never exceed the dielectric strength
of the coating film, or damage of the film will occur.
The greatest amount of steel surface to be coated in
refineries is contained in steel storage tanks. These tanks
range in capacity from 1 to 250,000 bbls. Figures 3 through FIGURE 9
9 are typical refinery tank farms and battery limits ex- Color Coding Used to Identify Refinery Chemical Storage Tanks.
posures.
When deciding whether to repair or replace existing
coating, consider economics, coating compatibility with
existing films, surface preparation of existing coating film
and the type of spot repair needed. As a guide to appraisal
of coated surfaces, reference is made to SSPC (Pictorial
Standard Vis 2.) to establish what course of action is re-
quired. NACE Standard TM-01-70is also an excellent guide
to follow. The criteria for recoating is the percentage of
coated area that is unprotected, such as the exterior of a
storage tank. When the unprotected area is 75% or greater,
the coating should be replaced. If the unprotected area
is below 75%, attempts to repair the existing coating
should be considered, unless the failures at lower percen-
FIGURE 8
Spheres and Storage Tanks Painted White to Reduce Recompres- tages are widely dispersed, in which case full replacement
sion Required and Vapor Loss. may be more economical than sandblasting and priming
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 . 3 93 H 8627940 0003850 3bT
the entire area. When internal linings are involved, condi- 12” x i/g“ mild steel panel to specified thickness. Cure
tions that exist for specific equipment must be deter- for the specified time and temperature. Test the hard-
mined. When corrosion rates are low, repair intervals may ness of the system with a portable hardness tester
be extended. When corrosion rates are high and equip- (Rockwell C or other). Obtain the average hardness
ment failure is imminent and critical, repairs should be from 10 readings until maximum hardness is in-
made as soon as possible to avoid pitting damage and pro- dicated. The average hardness can be used as an in-
duction loss. dex number to determine when final cure of the film is
To maintain the coating, regular inspections should reached.
be performed and the entire coated surface tested with a c) A quick test for cure is t o briskly rub the
holiday detector, properly adjusted. Defects should be coating with a clean, white cloth dampened with sol-
marked with chalk and repaired by established repair pro- vent. If the coating is not softened and does not rub
cedures. off, the cure is complete.
Coating process equipment on-stream has been in-
creasingly used in refinery operations. To accomplish this,
XII. SAFETY
detailed procedures relating t o safety and protection of
sensitive equipment components have been developed To avoid accidents, all safety regulations must be
(See Appendix B). In this approach, production interrup- strictly observed and should be included in coating
tions are avoided and better corrosion protection is ob- specifications. Before coating materials are mixed and
tained. sprayed, cleaner and solvent composition should be
Tables 1 and 2 summarize surface preparations and established. From this data proper safety equipment
coating systems suggested for refinery application. selection (air masks, etc.) can be made. When coating
the inside of tanks and other confined spaces, atmos-
phere should be tested with gas and explosive meters
XI. INSPECTION to determine if toxic or explosive concentrations from
In refinery coating operations, competent inspections process vapors exist. As work progresses, intermittent
can yield big dividends. Adequate inspection averts pro- gas tests should be performed to ensure that ventila-
duction losses and improves materials performance and tion is adequate to keep solvent vapor at concentrations
operational efficiency. The three most critical periods for below explosive or hazardous limits. The reference en-
inspection on coating application work are: titled “Threshold Limit Values (TLV) of Airborne Con-
1. When quality of surface preparation is critical, taminants for 1982 (revised annually) for Chemical Sub-
particularly when immersion conditions require a stances and Physical Agents in the Workroom Environ-
white metal blast (SSPC-SP5). ment” can be used to determine hazardous limits. This
2. When coating materials are sprayed, par- document can be obtained from the American Conference
ticularly when work starts, so that standards of work of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
expected from the spray gun operator are clearly During application of coatings reinforced with
establ ished. polyester fiber that require peroxide catalysts, fires may
3. When final tests on coating films are con- occur, unless materials are handled carefully. It is impor-
ducted, and when repair of holidays is made. tant to dispose of old containers properly in specified
areas. To avoid fires from catalyst oxidation or spon-
As work progresses, the inspector should record ap-
taneous combustion, used containers with residual
plication data and comment daily. These records can serve
aluminums and other pigment should not be emptied in
as valuable future references.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the vicinity of the storage tank farm. A checklist of some
The inspector should have test instruments available
safety concerns is given in SSPC-PA Guide 3, “A Guide to
and in good working order. Instruments should include a
Safety in Paint Application”, and in a separate chapter in
pocket knife, wet film paint thickness gauge, dry film
this volume.
thickness gauge, high and low voltage holiday detectors
(portable), magnifying glass with light source and a port-
able vapor-proof spotlight. With these it is possible to per- XIII. ECONOMICS
form nearly all the initially required tests. In refinery coating operations, economics and invest-
The inspection must determine proper cure time on a ment returns should be considered for costs involved in a
coating material. Following are some tests used to deter- project. This is a complex task for some operations, but
mine cures. fortunately, for refinery coating cost comparisons, it is a
a) A coin is used to strike the surface of in- straightforward procedure. The one often used by the
organic zinc-rich primers. If no zinc metal is removed Refinery Engineering Economics Section for coating
from the surface, cure is adequate to topcoat. systems is “Discounted Cash Flow”. This can be effective-
b) Most coating systems attain a definite hardly applied when making performance cost comparison
ness when cure is complete. To determine cure, between extended service life and nominal life protective
prepare a standard with the coating system on a 6 “ x coating systems. However, when determining investment
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*37-3 93 ab27940 0003853 2Tb W
CRUDES HIGH IN H,S CRUDES LOW IN H,S

FLOATING ROOF T A N K S CONE ROOF T A N K S
SURFACE PREP COATING SURFACE PREP COATING
INSIDE BOTTOM Sandblast t o

( A N D UP 15'Á Near White, Epoxy 16s
ON SHELL) SSPC SP-10 mils rnin.
~~
I
Sandblast t o I 1 Coat of Same as for Floatinq

White Metal I Zinc-Rich Roof Tanks
White Metal, I Zinc-Rich
SSPC SP-5 Inorganic SSPC SP-5 Inorganic
INSIDE SHELL I @ 3-5 mils; - _ - - - _ - - or
-- -- No Coatinq
1 I I
,
(UPPER RINGS) Plus 4 mils Sandblast t o Coal Tar-
I Catalyst- Near White, 1 Epoxy.@ 16B I
Cured Epoxy SSPC SP-1o I mils min.
I
~
INSIDE SHELL
(MIDDLE AND No Coating No Coating No Coating No Coating
LOWER RINGS)
INSIDE ROOF No Coating C No Coating No Coating
OUTSIDE ROOF
Sandblast t o
White Metal, I 1 Coat of
Zinc-Rich Same as Exterior
Sandblast t o
White Metal,
'I 1 Coat of
Zinc-Rich Same as Exterior
SSPC SP-5 Inorganic Tank Shell SSPC SP-5 1 Inorganic Tank Shell
1 @ 3-5 mils @ 3-5 mils
A - This recommendation i s for new tanks. For repairing old bottoms, glass-reinforced polyester and epoxy coatings are recommended.
E - T o be applied in number of coats t o achieve this dry f i l m thickness, but in n o case should this be less than t w o coats.
Coating t o then be checked with a Holiday Detector, normally at 1000 t o 2000 volts depending o n coating manufacturer's
recommendation.
C - For corrosion protection, it is advisable t o apply same coating system as on upper rings. F r o m a practical standpoint, however,
it is often not economically possible t o coat the underside of the roof because of structural supports, etc.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 = 3 93 m 8627940 0003852 132 m
Table 2
REFINERY PAINTING SYSTEMS
SCHEDULE FOR STEEL SURFACES
R ECO M ME ND E D SCHEME
I SURFACE
SURFACE
PR EPAR AT ION PRIMER FINISH
Coal Tar Primer + 2 Coats Hot Coal Tar Enamel with

COMMENTS
Buried Piping Sandblast

(NearWhite) 1 Glass & 1 Felt Wrap & Finish Coat of White Wash
(see AWWA Spec C-203)
Buried Structures, Sandblast Coal Tar-Epoxy (16 mils min.)*

other than piping (Near-White)
Docks (Above Water) Sand blast Catalyst-Cured Epoxy (8 mils min.)* If black coating i s acceptable,
& Mooring Buoys (Near-White) the alternate is lower cost and
just as effective.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
~~
Docks (Below Water) In addition to the coating,

& Sheet Piling, ( Near-Whitel cathodic protection should be
Before Driving considered for maximum
protect ion.
I Fence Fabric, Chain Link Galvanize or Aluminum Coat
(Uninsulated) Exchangers,
Vessels, Heaters, Stacks,
Above Ground Piping, Etc
- -- _ _ -- -
To 200°F
In relatively non- Sandblast 1 or 2 Coats 1 or 2 Coats Epoxy
corrosive areas (Commercial) Inorganic Zinc-Rich (2-112 mils min.)
(2-1/2 mils min.)
----- ___-_ - -- _ _ - - - -- - -----
In seacoast or Sandblast 1 Coat Zinc-Rich (1 1 With some items galvaniz-
corrosive areas (White Metal) inorganic (3-5mils) ing may be considered instead
of coating.
(2) Compatibility of topcoat
with zinc-rich primer must be
determined before application.
__ ----_- ----- -- - ----_ --- _ - ~_ _ _ _ - - -
_
Sandblast 1 Coat Heat-Resistant 1 or 2 Coats Heat (1 I These are not perfect
(White Metal) Primer Resistant Topcoats materials but are probably the
(normally modified best available recommenda-
silicone) tions for hot surfaces.
Sandblast 2 Coats Straight Silicone; Inorganic Zinc-Rich, (2) The zinc-rich inorganics do
(White Metal) Zinc-Dust Gray preferred, aluminum is acceptable. a good job of corrosion protec-
(Paint must be cured at 400" F within two weeks tion but some coating suppliers
of application 1. may be able to furnish a suit-
able silicone topcoat, where
color is important.
~~
Insulated Surfaces - Sandblast Coat Tar-Epoxy (8 mils min.)

Under Insulation if (Commercial1
Metal Skin Operating
Temperature will be
under 2 5 6 F
Prepainted Items Number of coats depending on

(Compressors, Pumps, None n o r m a l l y required hiding required.
Motors, Etc.)
Structural Steel
-- - -- - -- - - --- -- - - - - - -- - --- - - - -
In relatively non-
corrosive areas
- - ----- - -
In seacoast or
corrosive areas
Sandblast
(Commercial)
or mill pickle plus
brush-off blast in
field
IHot Dip Galvanize
(2-1/2 mils min.)
_----_---------
Galvanize If galvanized or shop-coated
---
with zinc-rich inorganic, clean

and blast welds and touch-up
with compatible zinc-rich
coating after erection in field.
Note: Film thicknesses shown are to be measured dry.

Color of finish coat to be selected by owner.
All coatings t o be applied strictly in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.
"To be applied in number of coats required t o achieve this film thickness, but in no case less than 2 coats.
405 at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERxL7.3 73 m 8627740 0003853 079 m
Table 2 (Cont'dI

SCHEDULE FOR STEEL SURFACES
RECOMMENDED SCHEME
SURF ACE
SURFACE PREPARATION PRIMER FINISH COMMENTS
Walkways, Handrails, It is recommended that

Ladders, Line Supports, micarta blocks (or similarly
Nuts, Bolts, and effective materials) be cement-
Miscellaneous Hardware ed and sealed under pipeline
where they rest on supports.
~
Tanks, Interior Sandblast On entire interior, 1 Coat Zinc-Rich Inorganic (1 1 Even if tank is not to be
Clean Petroleum (White Metal) (3-5 mils) plus Topcoat Bottom and up 15" on coated, it i s recommended that
Products Shell with Catalyst Cured Epoxy ( 8 mils min.)" steel be sandblasted or pickled
(Finished Products) to remove millscale. This is a
good protection against pitting.
(2)All coating formulations
should appear on Department
- -_ - -- - - _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ --- of Defense Acceptable List.
-
Brine or Waste Water Sandblast Coal Tar-Epoxy (16 mils min.)* If for any reason slight dis-
( Near-Whit e 1 coloration of brine i s objec-
tionable, follow recommenda-
tions for clean water tanks.
- _- -- - - - __________ ------ - --- - _ -- -- -
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Clean Water, or Sandblast Catalyst-Cured Epoxy-Phenolic (1 2 mils min.)" If potable water, coating
Condensate (White Metall should be FDA approved.
-_----- -__-___-___---- -_----_--- ~
Crude, Bottom & Sandblast Coal Tar-Epoxy (16 mils min.)'

Up 18" on Shell (Near-White)
- -- - - - - - ------
Crude, Lower & Sandblast
Middle Shell ícommerciaiì or
Mill Pickle
Plates, and Roof
- --- - --. __-_-- -------- - - - - - - --- - - - - -- -
Crude, Top Ring Sandblast Catalyst-Cured Epoxy (8 mils min.)" Use alternate only if crude
(Floating Roof Only) (White Metal) not sour.
Tanks, Exterior
Above Grade, Shell
& Cone Roof
-_ --- ---- - -_ - - - - -- -
In relatively Sandblast 1 or 2 Coats Rust 1 or 2 Coats Alkyd Finish For light products,a chalking
non-corrosive areas (Commercial1 Inhibiting Alkyd Primer (2-1 /2mils min.) white finish is preferred to
(2-1/2 mils min.) minimize evaporation losses.
- - -- -- - - . - - - - -- - ------- - - - - - - -- -- -
In seacoast or Sandblast 1 Coat Zinc-Rich 1 or 2 Coats: Hi-Build Where pickup of dirt in the
corrosive areas (White Metal) inorganic (3-5mils) Vinyl or Catalyst-Cured atmosphere i s a problem on
Epoxy Amine (4 mils min. light colored finish, overcoat-
ing with a soil retardant solu-
tion should be considered.
------ ----------
Sandblast 1 Coat Inorganic Zinc-Rich For alternate, if postcured
(Near-White) (3-5miis) zinc-rich inorganic is used,
make certain curing agent is
----_--
Below Grade Shell
-- ------
Sandblast
-- - _ _ -_--
Coal Tar-Epoxy (16 mils min.)*
- ----- - - ______----
removed before topcoating.
In addition to coating,
(Near-White) cathodic protection should
also be considered for max-
¡mum protection.
_______
Sandblast Apply cathodic protection Set tanks on sand, pulverized
limestone, or concrete pad
slightly above grade where
possible.
Note: Film thicknesses shown are to be measured dry.

Color of finish coat t o be selected by owner.
All coatings t o be applied strictly in accordance with manufacturer's recommendation.
"To be applied in number of coats required t o achieve this film thickness, but in no
case should this be less than 2 coats.
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Table 2 (Contd)

SCHEDULE FOR STEEL SURFACES OTHER THAN
RECOMMENDED SCHEME
SURFACE
SURFACE PREPARATION PRIMER FINISH COMMENTS
Aluminum None Normally Do Not Use Lead Base

Required Primers on Aluminum
~
Concrete, Interior Clean 1 or 2 Coats White 1 or 2 Coats 2-Package Number of Coats depends on
Walls Latex Block Filler Polyester, or Catalyst- hiding required.
(Until Voids are cured Epoxy (an alkyd,
f i Iled) vinyl latex, or acrylic For previously painted walls,
latex may be substitut- check with block filler man-
ed where washability is ufacturer on possibility o f
not important) adhesion problems.
- -- - - - - -.
Clean 1 or 2 Coats White 1 or 2 Coats 2-Package
Latex Block Filler Polyester (an alkyd, Ext.
(Until Voids are filled) Vinyl Latex, or Ext.
Acrylic Latex may be
substituted.
--_ - -- -
2 Coats Catalyst-Cured (1 ) Preferred System cannot
Urethane be applied over conventional
allow t o dry alkyd or Oleoresinous Paints.
(2) Consideration should also
be given t o tile, other flooring
materials, and t o tinted
concrete.
-- - - - - ----
Tanks, Brine & Clean & Dry Coal Tar-Epoxy (16 Sandblasting or acid-etching
Waste Water may be required.
Copper None Normally Required

~
Galvanized No Coating Normally Required for Several Years
Plastered Walls, Clean 2 or 3 Coats Latex (Acrylic or Vinyl)

Offices, Halls, etc.
- - -- ---- ______-
Washrooms, etc. Clean 1 Coat Emulsion-Type 2 Coats, 2-Package (1 With Catalyst-cured
Prime-Sealer Polyester or Catalyst- Epoxy, wall sealer may or may
cured epoxy not be required, depending on
manufacturer.
(2) Topcoat should be mildew-
resistant for humid areas.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Wood, General Clean & Dry 1 Coat Wood Primer 2 Coats AI kyd or
- ----- Oleoresinous
- -- - -_ - - Topcoats should be mildew
resistant for humid areas.
Outside Walls Clean 81 Dry 1 Coat Wood Primer 2 Coats Latex House Paint
for Latex
-----
Sanded, Clean & Dry I 3 Coats Urethane Floor Varnish
i
Insulation Coverings, Clean 2 Coats Emulsion-type Fire-
_
Canvas
_ -__-_
L _- - -- -
Retardant Insulation Sealer
- -- -- - -- -- - - - - - - -
F iretard Clean & Dry 1 or 2 Coats Fire-Retardant Paint
-- - - - -- - - ---
Bit u men N o t Normally Required unless color i s important
Mastics
-- -- -- - - - - -
Urethane Foam In accordance with Foam Manufacturers Recommendations Elastomeric Coating most
usef u I.
Note: Film thicknesses shown are t o b e measured dry.

Color of finish coat t o be selected by owner.
All coatings t o be applied strictly in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.
*To be applied in number of coats required t o achieve this film thickness, but in n o case should this
be less than 2 coats.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L i . 3 93 8627740 0003855 941 m
return, there are shortcomings related to dollar value and tween laboratory and field exposures, with a good ex-
time. For example, on extended service life coating change of data between personnel.
systems, it may be as long as four years from the time of d) Preparing coating specifications that clearly
initial application before savings or returns are realized. specify proper surface preparation grade, materials
Even the poorest coating system will last four years, and selection, and application procedures.
progressively less as severity of exposure increases, e) Inspecting and testing coating application,
before repair or replacement is necessary. Therefore, the safety provisions and regulation conformance.
higher cost justification for extended service-life coating
f) Evaluating economics to establish viability of
systems must be based on performance derived in excess
coating invest ment.
of four years after the initial application.
To make a simplified comparison of any two coating g) Planning a maintenance coating program that
systems, the following items are required; assures quality coating application on every project.
When these provisions are followed, corrosion protec-
a) In the year of capital expenditure, the cost for
tion is increased and overall annual costs for maintenance
initial application, which includes surface prepara-
can be reduced. In addition, longer equipment service life
tion, materials, labor, etc., for coating system X and Y;
and fewer production interruptions will be achieved. The
b) Cost for touchup at third year X and Y; trend in refinery coatings is to use the higher performance
c) After five years the cost t o recoat X and systems on long term projects (15 years and up) due to bet-
touchup Y; ter return on investments and reduced maintenance costs.
d) Cost for touchup at seven years for X and for The need for the old standard coating systems and
applying cosmetic coat to Y; materials will continue for projects where service life up to
e) After ten years the cost t o repaint X and 10-12 years is expected.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
touchup Y;
f) Cost for touchup at 12 years for X and Y.
By determining the difference (X - Y) between these
costs, the savings possible will be indicated for a period of
12 years. With this data, calculations for discounted cash
flow can proceed. When this method is applied by the
economics engineers, if the sum including the initial in-
vestment is O or greater, the project will have the desired
return on investment. If the sum is negative, the decision
t o use the coating system should be negative.* Details
relating to discounted cash flow require lengthy definition.
Typical economic comparisons of alternative painting
systems are given in a separate chapter.
With continued changes in the national and interna-
tional economy, each investment in materials should be
closely scrutinized before decisions are made.
XIV. SUMMARY
Topics discussed in this chapter are believed to be
primary elements that are part of all successful refinery
coating programs. When proper coating materials and
systems are selected and properly applied, corrosion in
refineries is controlled. The guide t o effective refinery
maintenance programs should include the following items:
a) Selecting qualified personnel to supervise
work.
b) Establishing coating schedules based on an
accurate refinery coating audit.
c) Initiating cooperative programs for testing be-
'Another way to look at it; any combination of paint system, sur-

face condition, and environmental condition creates a repaint cy-
cle that yields a minimum average annual painting cost. Deter-
mining and using this cycle will result in minimizing painting
costs versus protection.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 3 * 3 93 m 8627940 000385b 888 m
APPENDIX A
SURFACE PREPARATION AND PAINTING RECOMMENDATIONS
To Zone Area WO No. WO Date

Tank Dia. Ht. Area: Roof- Shell- Grounded
CODE DESIGNATION
Surface Preparation
1 Completely sandblast to white metal
2 Spot sandblast to commercial grade
3 Completely sandblast to commercial grade
4 Completely scatter sandblast (brush blast)
5 Tool clean
Coatings
Coat Material Application Thinner Cleaner
Name Cat. Method Sq. Ft. Wet Name Cat. Pt./ Name Cat.
No. /Gal. Mils No. Gal. No.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
RECOMMENDATIONS
Surf ace Coating -
Preparation
First Coat Second Coat Third
~-
Coat Fourth Coat
Ex terior Spot Complete Spot Complete Spot Complete Spot Complete

Entire Tank
Roof
Roof Accessories
Roof Stairway
Shell
Stairway
Stair Runners
Stair Tread (Btm)
Stair Tread (Top)
Stair Railings
Platform
Platform (Top)
Platform (Btm)
Shell MW Covers
Foam Lines
Service Lines
Interior
Roof & Rafters
Shell
Bottom
Corrosion Control Section 1. Paint Tank No. and date on shell with
n
L.
BY 3.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 3 93 W 8627940 0003857 714 =
APPENDIX B B. Tanks in this category may be sandblasted and
painted. The products of the tanks may be at any
GENERAL SAFETY PROCEDURE level during that time. They may be pumped out of,
but shall not be pumped into, during actual prepar-
PREPARING AND PAINTING EXTERIOR OF
ing or painting operations.
TANKS CONTAINING PRODUCTS
C. The roof on both cone roof and floating roof tanks
I. GENERAL in this category, as well as the shell, may be sand-
blasted.
A. This procedure covers the preparation for painting
and the painting of the exterior of refinery storage D. When floating roof tanks are gas tested to deter-
tanks while they contain products. mine i f they belong in this category, tests shall be
made at the following places on the roof: inside the
B. The following items apply to all tanks which are to pontoon hatches, behind the shield covering the
be prepared or painted while they contain prod- seal, in the open sleeves which hold the adjustable
ucts. In addition to these, further specific items for legs, at the lower slots of the slotted gauge pipe,
different categories of tanks appear later. and around the roof hatches.
1. The Inspection Engineering Department shall in-
spect all tanks prior to any preparing or painting 111. TANKS WITH VAPOR SPACE IN EX-
operations. It will be their responsibility to PLOSIVE RANGE
decide when tanks containing products may be
A. For the purpose of this procedure, tanks contain-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
safely prepared for painting from the standpoint

ing vapors which test between 50 percent of the
of tank condition. This would include conditions
lower explosive limit and the upper explosive limit
such as leaks, weak spots in the metal, holes in
as defined in Section IV shall be considered to be
the roof, etc. Results of the inspection shall be
in the explosive range.
reported t o the department in charge of the
tank. B. Cone roof tanks must not be sandblasted, hand
cleaned, or painted while they remain in the ex-
2. A hot work permit issued by the department in
plosive range category. If the vapor space is en-
charge of the tank shall be required before start-
riched by being blanketed with inert or flammable
ing the preparing and painting operations. The
gas t o raise it above the upper explosive limit as
permit must be renewed at the beginning of
defined in Section IV, a tank may then be handled
each day.
under the procedures outlined in Section IV.
3. An explosibility gas test shall be required at the
(Blanketing can be by either inert or flammable
beginning of each work day. Tests for toxic
gas for the following reasons: It has been found
gases shall be made where appropriate, as re-
that introducing a stream of inert gas into an ex-
quested by the department in charge of the
plosive vapor space above a flammable liquid
tank.
will not have the effect of reducing the vapor
4. The planner responsible for the tank to be space test to a smaller percentage of the lower
prepared or painted shall request the Fire Pro- explosive limit. On the contrary, it has the ef-
tection Section to provide a minimum of one fect, by reducing the oxygen content, of even-
30-pound dry chemical extinguisher at the tank tually making the vapor space test above the up-
site and to inspect the tank t o see that foam per explosive limit. The same test result is ob-
chambers and fire screens on conservation tained when a flammable gas is added to the
equipment are in good order. The department in vapor space. Therefore, either an inert or a flam-
charge of the tank shall not issue the hot work mable gas, when added in sufficient quantities,
permit until those things have been done. will change an explosive vapor space into one
5. Painting operations mentioned in this pamphlet that is too rich to burn.)
may be by any method (brush, spray, etc.). C. Floating roof tanks which test in the explosive
6. Hand cleaning operations mentioned in this range category shall be handled under the same
pamphlet refer to hand tools only, and not hand- procedures as outlined in Section IV-C. (See test
held power tools. locations specified for floating roofs in Section I I -
D.)
II. TANKS WITH VAPOR SPACE BELOW EX-
PLOSIVE LIMIT IV. TANKS WITH VAPOR SPACE ABOVE
A. For the purpose of this procedure, tanks contain-
UPPER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT
ing vapors which test between zero and 50 per cent A. For the purpose of this procedure, a tank shall be
of the lower explosive limit shall be considered considered in this category when an explosimeter
below the explosive limit. test of a vapor space sample, when mixed with an
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 41 O provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100,
Document 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U L 7 . 3 9 3 H 8627940 0003858 650
equal amount of fresh air, indicates the mixture to 4. There should be no movement of products while
be above the upper explosive limit. these tanks are being prepared and painted. The
B. Cone roof tanks which test in this category shall be roof may be kept at any level. However, it must
handled as follows: be afloat, and not resting on its legs.
1. Sandblasting shall be done only on the shell. D. Spheres, spheroids, and LPG storage tanks shall be
The roof shall be hand cleaned. hand cleaned only, and not sandblasted, while in
2. Tanks should be filled to the point where the service. They must not be pumped into or out of
vapor space is reduced to a minimum. They during the cleaning or painting operations.
must not be pumped into or out of during any In special cases it may be impractical to conform to the
cleaning or painting operations. above procedures. In those cases, minor deviations may be
3. Gas tests shall be made around the gauge hatch, agreed upon by the Operating and Maintenance Depart-
roof manholes, and conservation equipment to ments and the Accident Prevention Division as long as the
check for escaping explosive or toxic gases. If the safety of personnel and equipment is not affected. Such
gauge hatch or manholes leak gas, they shall be deviations, however, are not to be considered permanent
modifications of the outlined procedures.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sealed with masking tape or similar material. If

the conservation equipment shows escaping gas,
exhaust ducts at least eight feet high shall be
placed over it so as to carry the gas vapors away ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
from the work area. The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this chapter:
4. A grounding and bonding system shall be Emil Bereczky, William Chandler, T.A. Cross, D. Koenecke,
required when sandblasting tanks in this category Marshall McGee, R.L. Merritt, William Milek, John Montle, C.
to avoid the accumulation of a static charge and Munger, David Neill, J. Peters, L.M. Sherman, Rick Sline,
possible sparking. The bonding system shall William Wallace. In addition special thanks goes to the Com-
munications Processes Department of Carnegie-Mellon University.
include: (1) grounding of the tank to the ground,
(2) bonding of the hose, and (3) grounding of the
sandblasting equipment to the ground. The total
grounding system shall not have more than 5 BIOGRAPHY
ohms resistance. The required hot work permit W.E. Stanford, who has re-
shall be countersigned the first day of work by tired, served as a representative
of the American Petroleum Insti-
the maintenance foreman as well as by the tute lo the Steel Structures
operations foreman to indicate that the ground- Painting Council Prior to his
ing and bonding system has been installed. retirement he was a Sr Project
C. Floating roof tanks which test in this category shall Chemist in the Technology and
Materials Department of Gulf
be handled as follows: Science and Technology Com-
1. Sandblasting of the roof or the inside of the shell pany, Pittsburgh, PA. He gradu-
shall not be done. ated from Kansas State College
with a B.S in chemistry and
2. Sandblasting and painting may be done on the attended the same school for
outside of the shell. The same grounding and graduate work. He has also
bonding system shall be required for the sand- attended other universities for SDecialized trainina in other materials-
blasting as outlined in Section IV.B.4. In addition, oriented fields. He provided technical assictake and counsel to
a check shall be made to be sure that the bond- strategy centers throughout Gulf Oil Corporation on corrosion con-
trol and protective coating materials. He was active in several profes-
ing from the roof to the are sional societies and in corrosion control activities.
3. Hand cleaning and painting may be done on the
roof and the inside of the shell as long as frequent
gas tests of the immediate work area show it to
be free of gas.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 41 1 Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERa17.4 93 m 8627940 0003859 597 9
CHAPTER 17.4
PAINTING CHEMICAL PLANTS

by
J. Roy Alien and David M. Metzger
I. INTRODUCTION tenance finishing. Further, reliable input is needed on

Chemical plant exposures represent a highly varied, coating performance, expected life of project, level of
and in most cases, demanding technical challenge to the protection and appearance expected, and initial and con-
design and application of effective protective coating tinuing costs.
systems. These exposures are characterized by a generally The initial cost of painting alone should not be the
high level of chemical activity in the immediate environ- overriding factor in the analysis of economic considera-
ment and potential corrosivity to metal (carbon steel) tions. Rather, it is evaiuated in the context of continuing
repair costs estimated to maintain a desired level of pro-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
substrates. Properly selected coating systems for use in
chemical plants should minimize metal loss by protecting tection and appearance for a stated period of time at a
substrates from attack by an environment that may con- minimum cost per sq. ft. per year (Figure 1).
tain, for example, any of the following: The key to sound long-term economics consists of
Mineral acids adequate original painting followed by a continuing main-
Organic acids tenance program. For example, painted steel surfaces in
Alkalis chemical plants should be inspected immediately and be-
Corrosive salts tween 6 and 12 months after painting. At that time touchup
Solvents repairs should be made to correct damage or defects in the
Gases original job.
Weather Establishing priorities and scheduling is very impor-
The wide variety of exposures, often combined within tant. Touchup and repair or repainting at the right time,
the same processing area or plant, necessitates proper before excessive failure occurs, can provide substantial
selection of painting practices and systems. Such condi- savings. Maintenance of painted steel surfaces should be
tions have spurred the development of many specialized executed before coating failure reaches the point where
chemically resistant coatings, formulated for use in cleaning and priming more than twenty percent of the
systems at general total dry film thicknesses of 7 mils surface area would be required (Figure 2). Another rule-of-
(175 pm) or greater. thumb is to re-paint before Rust Grade No. 8 of SSPC-Vis 2
The recommended chemical plant painting concept is reached as outlined in SSPC-PA Guide 4.
involves a systems approach that combines the elements Not all painted surfaces in poor condition requiring
of material selection, surface preparation, application and complete cleaning, priming, and finishing should receive
inspection to produce the desired level of protection for top priority. Delaying some of these does not significantly
structural steel and equipment in a corrosive environment. increase the cost of repainting. A portion of the main-
Following is a synopsis of current guidelines and prac- tenance painting budget should be allocated for repair and
tices recommended for painting metal surfaces in chemi- maintenance of painted surface with less extensive
cal plants. The systems and elements described should be failure. The objective is to maintain adequate protection
regarded in the context of atmospheric exposure and and appearance at minimum average annual cost.
resistance to chemical splashes, spills, and fumes only.
Excluded from this discussion are linings or coatings in- 111. SURFACE PREPARATION
tended for immersion service. They are covered elsewhere While coating systems must meet certain require-
in Volume I. ments in the performance evaluation formula, surface
preparation, representing a significant part of total coat-
II. ECONOMICS OF PAINTING ing system cost, is considered by many to be the single
Economic evaluation of maintenance practices, can- most important factor influencing performance. Since it is
didate coating systems and alternate materials of con- often in this area that applicators will attempt to save time
struction are key ingredients in the cost analysis of main- and cost, surface preparation deserves close attention.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 41 2

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERxL7.4 93 m 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003860 209 m
-- A-SSPC,SP2,ALKD,6 MILS -
A 16.5 c/sq.ft./yr,
3 - - B - SSPC ,SP6,ALK D (6MI L S

IB 14.5 c/sq.ft./yr.
C UMULAT 1VE
COST 2
*.
-
C- SSPC,SP-6, INORGANIC ZINC/
EPOXY(8 MILS
J-- Í--
................ I
I c 10.5$/sq.ft./yr.
10.5 $/sq.ft./yr.
$/sQ.FT. 1 - 04
- -I r
........................
L
0
0
I - d--
t
d
d
-0
I
Non-metallic abrasive blast cleaning is considered In maintenance painting, where painting previously
the best field surface preparation. There are situations in painted surfaces is involved, careful consideration should
which it is not practical, permissible, or economically ac- be given to deciding whether full or spot blasting should
ceptable. However, from a costlperformance point of view, be specified. Factors influencing this judgment include
it is more often justifiable to devise a means for making the extent and distribution of paint failure, previous sur-
blasting feasible in chemical plants than for applications face preparation, type and condition of paint, and com-
in less severe environments. Chemical-resistant coatings patibility of a newly specified coating with the existing
depend on adequate surface preparation to optimize their one. If paint failure is as high as 50 to 60 percent of the sur-
system performance properties. face, and especially i f the steel has not been previously
How a surface is prepared depends on several fac- blast cleaned, full blasting is advisable.
tors, among which are compatibility with the environment, Where paint failure isless than 50 percent of the sur-
the coating system to be used and, of course, economic face and the existing coating is sound and tight over
considerations. There is a variety of methods and equip- previously blast cleaned steel, spot blasting is recom-
ment available for surface preparation. Dry abrasive blast- mended. Except in cases of highly corrosive- exposure,
ing, wet blasting, water blasting, steam blasting, and high temperature or immersion, blasting to a commercial
power water cleaning are the most efficient methods. standard (SSPC-SP6) is the recommended surface prepara-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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SSPC C H A P T E R x L 7 - 4 73
cleaner additions neutralize acid contaminated surfaces.

Steam and pressure water methods are frequently used in
conjunction with other methods of surface preparation.
These methods, with the addition of selected clean-
ers, effectively remove dirt, oil, grease, and paint chalk
from metal surfaces. When cleaners or chemicals are
added to the steam or water, the metal surface must be
thoroughly rinsed with clean water to ensure proper ad-
hesion. The effect of residual surface contaminants on the
life expectancy of coating systems has been demon-
strated.’ Trace amounts of sulfur and chlorine compounds
remaining on the surface of chemically-exposed steel,
even after stringent surface cleaning and abrasive blast-
FIGURE 2 ing, can measurably degrade the performance of organic
Maintenance is being executed before coating failure on these
tanks reaches the point which would require cleaning and priming coatings. The use of these cleaners prior to hand or blast-
of more than 20% of the total painted surface. cleaning, frequently necessitated by the relatively high
level of surface contamination, differentiates chemical
from general industrial plant painting (Figure 4).
tion for atmospheric exposures.
Adequate and properly adjusted blasting equipment
is necessary for efficient cleaning. Frequent blasting IV. SELECTION OF CHEMICAL-RESISTANT
errors, which are detrimental to efficiency, include inade- COATING SYSTEMS
quate air pressure or volume at the nozzle and excessive Resistance to a variety of types and concentrations of
abrasive flow rates. Another important factor is the chemical exposure and good overall durability are primary
abrasive used (type, particle size and shape). It should be considerations in selection of a coating system for
clean, hard and of a particle size that will produce 1-2 mil chemical plant service. Because they have a proven track
(25-50pm) surface profile on the steel surface. If heavy, record in chemical environments, several generic types of
tight rust or thick paint is to be removed, a coarserabrasive high performance coatings are being used in chemical
with angular particles is suggested. plant maintenance and new construction painting:
When regulations or operating conditions prevent ab- Chlorinated Rubbers
rasive blast dust from being released into the atmosphere, Epoxies
wet blasting or high pressure water containing a pressure- Polyurethanes
injected abrasive should be considered. To limit flash Silicones (high temperature only, not highly
rusting, inhibitors are available for addition to the water corrosion resistant).
stream or to the surface after cleaning, but this treatment Vinyls
must be compatible with the primer to be used. When Zinc-rich (as primer)
water-abrasive blasting is used as the only cleaning Combinations of these generic classifications are
method, the rust inhibitor is promptly applied to the possible when primer and topcoat are incorporated into a
freshly blasted surface after cleaning. This cuts down con- system. The system choice depends on the type@) of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sumption of the chemical inhibitor and improves its chemical resistance desired, the relative importance of ap-
effectiveness. pearance and the quality of surface preparation needed
When surface or environmental factors prevent ab- before priming.
rasive blasting, hand or power tool cleaning is often Since conventional alkyds and most water-borne
recommended. While these methods are sometimes coatings are not as effective as those listed above in harsh
necessary, experience has shown that they are not as ef- chemical environments, they will not be discussed here for
fective as methods that create a higher level of surface chemical plant application. However, they have been
cleanliness. For example, when hand or power cleaning is generally acceptable for use in the peripheral areas of
used, coating performance over chemically corroded steel chemical plants, such as tank farms, where severe
is greatly reduced (Figure 3). These methods are ade- chemical exposure is not usually encountered. Future
quately covered in SSPC specifications. Excessive power development of water-borne technology is expected to pro-
wire brushing can produce burnishing - a common mis- vide coatings that will more fully meet the demands of
take which, i f left uncorrected, is detrimental to paint chemical plant exposures while providing environmentally
performance. acceptable levels of solvent emissions.
Steam and pressure water cleaning, usually with the Paint systems designed for chemical environments
addition of cleaners or chemicals, are effective when sur- are generally applied at heavier total film thicknesses than
faces are contaminated with alkali, acid, dirt or paint those intended for milder exposures. Typically, for moder-
chalk. Acid cleaners, such as phosphoric acid, neutralizes ate to severe chemical exposure, a dry film thickness of
alkaline contaminated surfaces. Detergents or alkaline 7.0 mils (175pm) or greater is required to counteract the ef-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R s L 7 - 4 9 3 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 O003862 081 =
TABLE I
RESISTANCE CHART
Max.
Cure Oxidizing Temp.
Generic TvDe Mechanism Acid Acid Alkali Salt Solvent Weather (dry heat)
Chlorinated Rubber solvent evap. VG VG G VG P G 150°F
Epoxy (polyamide) chem. crosslinking E G E E VG G 250°F
Polyurethane
chem. crosslinking VG G VG E VG E 250°F
(aIipathic)
Silicone (Alum.) solventlheat P P F G F G 1000°F
Vinyl solvent evap. E E VG E P VG 15OOF
Zinc Rich
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Inorganic hydrolysis E' E* E* E E E 75OOF"
Organic chem. crosslinking VG* VG * VG * VG VG VG 3OO0F'*
Rating Scale:
(E) Excellent - no effect, best selection where performance and appearance retention are desired.
(VG) Very Good - no effect on performance, very little appearance degradation.
(G) Good - little effect on performance, some appearance degradation.
(F) Fair - performance and appearance affected by exposure.
(P) Poor - not suitable, coating attacked.
'Results indicate zinc rich coating performance when topcoated. Use of these coatings untopcoated in chemical environ-
ments is not recommended.
**Limited by topcoat in the system.
fects of the environments and the substrate roughness

characteristics (blast profile). These systems generally in-
clude a primer, an intermediate and a topcoat, or a primer
and a high-build topcoat to achieve desired film thick-
ness, in Table 1 the relative strengths and weaknesses
(resistance) of some generic classes of coating are in-
dicated for various chemical exposures (including weather
and temperature). The cure mechanism operative for each
of these classifications is also shown.
Generally, the type of exposure and surface character-
istics govern selection of the primer and topcoat system.
Component compatibility of a multicoat system is essen-
tial to achieve adequate performance. Compatibility can
usually be assured by using the same generic types of
coatings throughout the system. For example, the use of a
polyamide epoxy enamel over a polyamide epoxy primer
constitutes a compatible system, provided exposure
criteria are met by the system. Under certain conditions,
however, it is not practical to adhere to this guideline. For
example, when painting hand-cleaned steel prior to ex-
posure in a chemical environment, use of an alkyd primer
may be warranted with characteristics providing good wet-
FIGURE 3 ting of the adhering rust and mill scale. Chemical
The coating on the hand-cleaned and painted portion of this pipe
(above weld) totally failed after two years of service in a chemical resistance Of the can then be achieved by
Diant. The coatina on the lower oortion which was sandblasted using a compatible intermediate and topcoat. Sufficient
prior to being painted did not fa¡¡. drying time must be allowed between each coat.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a L 7 . 4 9 3 8627940 0003863 T L B =
re-priming and re-painting. Normally, thorough cleaning
and application of chemical-resistant topcoats may be
all that is required for system maintenance (Figures 5A
and 5B).
In maintenance applications, if the old coating
system is not completely removed, compatibility with the
previous paint system may be a deciding factor in system
selection. In this situation, it may be necessary to use a
special barrier coat to prevent lifting of the original film.
Lifting can pose a problem when recoating alkyds or some
chemical-resistant coatings, which dry by solvent evapora-
tion. If the original topcoat is unknown, or if lifting is
suspected, primers and new topcoats used for spot repair
should first be patch-tested to ensure that lifting or attack
of the old coating will not occur (See SSPC-PA Guide 4).
One key to effective corrosion control through the use
of high performance coating systems in harsh chemical
environments is simplicity - keep the number of selected
systems, adequate for the job, to a minimum. This reduces
chances of failure due to confusion and misuse of systems
or system components. Because the requirements for
coating chemical plants are demanding, a specialist or
FIGURE 4
reputable coatings supplier should be consulted prior to
The upper portions of the two panels were abrasive blast cleaned
to white metal prior to 24 hours of outdoor exposure. Panel on the maintenance painting. Cooperation and consultation with
right was steel corroded in a chemical plant. Rusting was rapid a coatings manufacturer will help assure selection of an
and extensive on the corroded panel due to the presence of
residual chemicals after blasting. Little rusting occurred on the
optimum system.
new steel (on left). An important element in selection of coating systems
for corrosive environments is experience, which can be
gained only over relatively long periods of time. Testing of
An effective guideline for primer selection for
proposed or candidate coating systems with anticipated
chemical environment is: i f the steel surface to be
surface preparation on tests panels provides an important
painted (in a moderate-to-severe chemical environment)
source of this experience. When panels are exposed to en-
can be abrasive blast cleaned to SSPC-SP 6 commercial
vironmental conditions on test racks located at chemical
blast or better, the highest level of system performance
plant sites, the results of controlled tests can be excellent
can be obtained by using inorganic zinc-rich primers.
real-time indicators of coating system performance. When
While these primers must be topcoated when subject to
panels are prepared, as in the accompanying photographs,
chemical environments, their ability to be topcoated with a
performance can be objectively compared on flat surfaces,
wide range of chemical-resistant finishes (e.g., epoxies,
edges, and damaged (scribed) areas. This testing over-
polyurethanes, vinyls, etc.) and the level of protection that
comes the limitations of laboratory evaluations as the
they afford steel substrates make them sound economic
ultimate test for prediction of field performance.
choices. The galvanic protection that zinc-rich primers pro-
vide is generally not matched by organic coating alterna-
tives and thus pays dividends in the extension of coating V. APPLICATION
system life and reduction in the frequency and degree of The method of application affects the quality and
FIGURE 5
New steel sandblasted, primed with inorganic zinc and finished (right) was sandblasted and finished with an alkyd paint system.
with a polyamide epoxy topcoat. No failure at scribe (rusting) Failure noted after six years chemical plant exposure.
after six years chemical plant exposure (left). The new steel panel
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 = 4 73 8627740 0 0 0 3 8 6 4 954
order.
Higher production rates are possible with airless
spray when compared to conventional air atomization
spray. Spray application normally provides better film
build on round edges than brushing. Regardless of which
method is selected, film build on sharp edges requires
great care and often additional coats.
For proper spray application, the spray equipment
must have adequate controls, be large enough for the job
and capable of spraying the coating material. Information
is available from reputable manufacturers of coating mate-
rials and spray equipment and from the chapter on paint
application in this volume. Spraying should be done by
qualified people who will execute proper spray technique
to meet the specifications. When it is not possible to
spray, a roller should be the second choice, especially for
large surface areas. While application by spray or roller is
preferred, brushing is often necessary as a complementary
method. It serves well for cut-in, trim, and touch-up
(Figure 6).
FIGURE 6 Specifications for protective painting in chemical
Roller application to this storage tank is the method of choice plants should clearly define the required film thickness
when circumstances dictate against overspray.
and accepted methods of measurement. Adequate film
thickness is necessary for hiding and protection. The ap-
economics of painting. Therefore, its selection should be plication must provide desired film thickness, uniformity,
based on the type, nature, and size of the surface to be and continuity. To this end, each coat in a paint system
painted; the application characteristics of the coating(s); should be a different color than the preceding coat thick-
and the location of the item or structure to be painted. ness less than the critical minimum, which varies depend-
Brush, roll, and spray are the most commonly used ing on the type of coating and exposure, results in a
methods of application. Spraying usually results in lowest drastic reduction in the protective life of a coating system.
costs and highest application rates. Unless otherwise indi- SSPC-PA 2 is a specification for measurement of dry film
cated, the general order of application preference is spray, thickness. Careful inspection must be exercised through-
roll, brush. Application rates usually decrease in this out the application toensure that all specifications are met.
FIGURE 7
Surface preparation (abrasive blasting) and painting of sub- costs, improves quality of application and results in improved
assemblies on-site prior to installation reduces initial painting system performance.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a L 7 - 4 93 8627940 0003865 890
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Environmental conditions, such as atmospheric tem- As much cleaning, priming, and coating as practical
perature, substrate temperature, humidity, wind, precipita- should be done before installation. Cleaning, priming and
tion, and chemical contamination, can have a significant sometimes applying the intermediate coat at the fabri-
effect on performance of a coating system. The desirable cator’s shop or at the site before erection is sound prac-
atmospheric temperature range for coating application is tice. This practice is economical and provides the best
60 to 90°F. Unless specifically formulated, coatings should application conditions. Proper care in handling during
not be applied when the atmospheric temperature is below shipping and erection results in little touchup before the
40°F (50°F for epoxy) or above 100°F. Temperatures below final coats are applied (Figure 7).
45OF may retard curing or drying. High temperatures will Design has a significant influence on cost and per-
accelerate both. Substrate temperatures above 100°F may formance. Protective coatings should be included as one
also cause rapid solvent release from some coatings and factor in design considerations. Features such as back-to-
result in bubbling and pinholing. Substrate temperature back angles, skip welds and inaccessible areas should be
does not have much of an effect on spray application of avoided. Vents and overflow arrangements should be
slow drying materials. located to minimize the effect on coated surfaces.
Relative humidity, substrate characteristics, and am- It is difficult to obtain off-the-shelf items such as
bient temperatures all affect the application. To avoid con- pumps and motors with chemical-resistant coating sys-
densation, most protective coatings should not be applied tems. Special coatings for these items are prohibitively ex-
to steel unless the surface temperature is, and remains, at pensive, and obtaining them unpainted may also be expen-
least 5 OF above the dew point. sive. For critical exposures, it may be necessary to blast
When materials containing solvents with high evapo- clean and paint these items. A compromise is to obtain the
ration rates are sprayed, the material and surface manufacturer’s coating system with the best surface
temperatures may be reduced considerably. For example, preparation offered and coat it with a compatible chemical-
i f the temperature drops below the dew point, moisture resistant finish or a barrier (tie) coat prior t o topcoating.
condensation will occur on the surface and in the coating,
1
affecting adhesion and subsequent film integrity.
Relative humidity also affects drying and curing times
of coatings. High humidity generally slows drying time for PROTECT ION
coatings that cure by air oxidation. High humidity ac-
celerates, and a certain level may be required, curing
certain types of polyurethanes and inorganic zinc coat-
ings. Information on the effects of temperature and
humidity and combinations thereof on drying and curing
should be obtained from the coatings manufacturer.
Coatings should not be applied outdoors when high
winds can (a) carry dust, dirt, etc., which become embed-
ded in the coating causing pinholes and poor appearance;
(b) interefere with spray painting; (c) carry overspray to
areas where it is not tolerable; or (d) cause dry overspray.
Coatings should not be applied outdoors during precipita-
tion or when it is imminent.
In chemical atmospheres, the coating system should
be completed within the shortest possible time, consistent
with proper drying and curing of each coat, t o avoid
chemical contamination between coats. If contamination
U
occurs, it should be removed, usually by washing with
FIGURE 8
detergent and water followed by thorough rinsing. Unlike the “chicken and the egg”, proper protection provided by
One means of specifying paint application in accor- painting has a definite beginning and end. All elements must
dance with good practice is to cite SCPC-PA 1, “Shop, work together to achieve this fragile balance. Failure of any one
of these four elements results in a loss of corrosion protection.
Field and Maintenance Painting.”
VI. NEW CONSTRUCTION PAINTING VII. SUMMARY

The easiest and best time for painting steel is at con- The importance of specifying and using the proper
struction. Efforts to minimize capitalized costs and project paint system cannot be overemphasized. While initial ex-
budgets frequently compromise the quality of original penditures for properly engineered, high performance
coating systems. The quality of original painting has a coating systems may seem high, this investment pays off
lasting influence on performance and cost of subsequent in considerably reduced long-term maintenance costs.
maintenance painting, as well as on the life of the facility. Once the best decision has been made on selection of

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 4 93 m 8627940 0003866 727 m
the coating system, clearly detailed specifications are re- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

quired to communicate and execute that decision. Paint- The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
-~system sDecifications. such as those of the SSPC.
ing I
.
should indicate all of the following: chapter: Darre1 Campbell, T. ArCross, Randy Fuikerson, Marshall
McGee, John Montle, C. Munger, William Pearson and William
Coating description, including product numbers or Wallace.
specificat ions;
Surface preparation description;
Special mixing andlor application instructions, ap-
plication conditions; BIOGRAPHIES
Minimum (maximum) dry film thickness per coat; J. R. Allen has retired from
Minimum (maximum) dry film thickness of total E.I. du Pont de Nemours and
Co., Inc. He served as a mem-
system. ber of the Research Committee
To be effective, detailed specifications should be sup- of the Steel Structure Painting
Council. He graduated from the
ported by thorough inspection to ensure that ali elements Georgia Institute of Technology
of the coating system specification are followed. Many in 1943 with a B.S. in Ceramic
coating systems, properly selected and painstakingly Engineering. After service in the
U S . Army, he joined the staff
specified, have prematurely failed because inadequate in- at the Engineering Research
spection permitted improper application (Figure 8). Laboratory of du Pont and Co.,
Specification and inspection should take safety into Inc., where he was engaged in
research and development of
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account. Worker protection during rigging, surface nonmetallic materials of construc:tion for chemical plants and eauiD-
preparation, paint application and clean-up are paramount ment. From 1975 until his retirement, he worked with the Engineer-
Any special precautions to be observed in ing Service Division as an engineering materials consultant,
specializing in protective coatings and thermal insulation.
operating or processing areas should be included in the
specifications or should be a topic of discussion before David w. Metzger is a mem-
ber of the SSPC Research Com-
J
placement of the painting contract. Painting a chernical mittee, He received his B.S.
plant should always be considered from a Systems stand- degree in Business Manage-
point. Attention to all elements of the system provides the t-f~entfrom Lehigh University in
best opportunity for economical and effective long-term 1968. He joined DuPont that
same year in the company,s Fin-
protection of steel. ishes Division of the Automotive
Products Department. Since that
time, he has held various tech-
nical sales and marketing posi-
tions, including Senior Product
Specialist with Maintenance Fin-
ishes Sales.
REFERENCES
’C. Calabreseand J. R. Allen, “Surface Characterization of Atmos-
pherically Corroded and Blast Cleaned Steel”. Corrosion Vol. 34,
No. 10, October, 1978.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r L 7 . 5 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003867 663 m
CHAPTER 17.5
PAINTING PULP AND PAPER MILLS

by
C.Edwin Wilkins and William F. Chandler
This chapter provides the engineering and mainte- information based on operating experience with protective
nance departments of pulp and paper mills with coating coatings.
systems effective for construction and maintenance. Following are some of the functions and respon-
Substantial monetary and productivity rewards are sibilities of the Protective Coatings Committee.
derived from a good coatings program. The coatings
material and technology are available. The problem is how
1. Corrosion Survey
The purpose of the survey is to identify the sur-
to combine available materials and technology into work-
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faces to be coated, taking into consideration the

ing protective coatings programs that provide corrosion
following:
protection, safety and appearance at the lowest cost. The
results of ineffective programs are lower productivity and Location
morale together with higher maintenance and replacement Chemical nature of the environment
costs. Operating temperatures
Practical surface preparation methods and
I. SCOPE materials
Condition of existing coatings and their generic
This chapter deals primarily with protection of mild
~
composition (for maintenance painting)

steel, galvanized steel and other metallic and non-metallic
Safety requirements
substrates exposed to the corrosive environment of pulp
Physical factors involved such as abrasion
and paper mills. For mills exposed to additional corrosive
resistance.
elements produced by neighboring plants, good protection
2. Selection of Coatings Systems
can usually be attained by minor upward adjustments in
Choice of exact coatings systems, including sur-
system film thickness or by wider use of bleach area
face preparation, number of coats, film thickness,
systems.
etc. for each substrate and exposure should be
Special attention is directed to the concept and im-
worked out through cooperation of the Committee
plementation of the protective coatings program as it
with one or two selected coatings manufacturers
relates to construction and to maintenance. New facilities
or with the help of an independent coatings con-
and additions are covered under New Construction. Work
sultant. Also consider:
by plant painting crews and by outside painting contrac-
Length of service
tors is covered under Maintenance.
Ease of maintenance
Compatibility of selected coatings with any ex-
II. THE PROTECTIVE COATINGS PROGRAM isting coatings (for maintenance painting)
Conformance with applicable environmental
A. MANAGEMENT SUPPORT NEEDED regulations
To be effective, the program for construction and Special appearance requirements, e.g., color
maintenance needs to be professionally conceived and ad- stability, chalk resistance.
ministered. It certainly needs management’s support and 3. Color Selection
interest. Here again, close cooperation with the coatings
supplier is recommended for selection of colors.
B. PROTECTIVE COATINGS COMMITTEE When selecting colors full consideration should
While there are several ways of developing a sound be given to OSHAIANSI safety requirements and
protective coatings program, one choice is to assign corporate color standards.
authority and responsibility for the program to a Protective 4. Specifications
Coatings Committee headed by a qualified coatings A vital connecting link between concept and
engineer and made up of selected personnel from finished work is the coatings specification. There
Engineering and Maintenance Departments. While the are four basic types of specifications: new con-
primary concern of this Committee will be maintenance struction shop painting (see Appendix A), new
coatings work, it can assist design engineers by providing construction field painting, contract maintenance

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 5 9 3 8627940 0 0 0 3 8 b 8 5 T T
painting and maintenance painting by in-house 111. NEW CONSTRUCTION

crews. Each of these specifications vary
somewhat in content, but should cover all or most A. STRUCTURAL AND MISCELLANEOUS
of the following: STEEL
1. The Case for Surface Preparation and Multi-
Identification and location of project Coating in the Fabricator Shop
Scope of work - surfaces to be painted Surface preparation of structural and most
Services available, storage facilities, utilities, miscellaneous steel by efficient centrifugal
etc. blasting equipment and application of primer in
Definitions fabricating shops earned early acceptance for
Schedule of work new construction of pulp and paper mills. More
Shipping instructions recently, the benefits of adding a second, and in
Work by others some cases, a third coat in the shop have been
Specified systems and coating materials recognized.
Surface preparation - Excellent surface Per ton costs of multi-coating in the shop are
preparation procedures are outlined by S.S.P.C. substantially lower than in the field. Time and
and should be referenced. The life of a coatings money are saved in surface preparation, applica-
system is directly related to the degree of sur- tion and inspection. Problems of intercoat con-
face preparation. tamination are practically eliminated, which is
Application especially important for additions to operating
Pre-job conference and job standards - See plants.
Chapter XVII Cost differences between b Iast ing, priming
Introduction and coating in the shop versus blasting and prim-
Inspection parameters, equipment and respon- ing in the shop and finishing in the field can be
sibility readily established by taking alternate bids on
Special conditions each.
5. Inspection and Spot Repair 2. Advantages of Cleaning and Coating in the
There is no better way to insure cost efficiency of Fabricator Shop
a coatings program than by instituting and main- Advantages in the shop are as follows:
taining a rigid program of inspection and spot a. Blasting is more uniform and less costly.
repair. No matter how well a coatings job has b. There is less chance of contamination before
been engineered and applied, its performance priming or topcoating.
cannot be taken for granted. A systematic pro- c. Primer application is easier, more uniform and
gram of inspection and spot repair within six less costly.
months of completion and every 18-24 months d. Intermediateltopcoat application is easier,
thereafter is good insurance. Very aggressive en- more uniform and less costly.
vironments, such as bleach areas, may need in- e. Inspection of surface preparation and coatings
spections every 6 months. application is easier and more effective.
6. Approval f. No areas are inaccessible for painting.
Final approval and acceptance of the coatings 3. Advantages at the Job Site
work is the responsibility of the Protective a. Less painting to be done.
Coatings Committee or its representative. b. Less conflict with other trades.
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7. Cost Estimates for Budgets c. Lower painting costs.

Making realistic estimates of coating mainte- d. Lower inspection costs.
nance costs projected for the coming year is a e. Higher probability of a more durable, longer-
proper responsibility of the Committee. lasting coatings system.
8. Cooperation with Design Engineers 4. Multi-Coat Coatings Systems for Application in
Based on close working experience with coatings Fabricator Shop (Figure 1)
performance in existing plants, the Committee Coatings systems that have been successfully
can assist its own in-house engineering depart- adapted for multi-coat work on structural and
ment or the contract design group by recommend- miscellaneous steel in fabricating shops include:
ing coatings specifications for new construction. Epoxy Zinc RichlHigh-Build Epoxy
9. Reports and Records Inorganic Zinc RichlHigh-Build Epoxy
Systematic reporting and recording of worker Inhibit ive EpoxylHig h-Build Epoxy
hours, materials, and unit costs for all coatings Gloss seal coats of epoxy, vinyl or aliphatic
work in each area is of continuing help in planning polyurethane are often selected as a third coat for
and controlling costs of future work. use in more aggressive environments, such as

at 303-397-2295.
bleach plants. Gloss epoxy seal coats can be ap- first coat is to be thinned for better penetration.
plied in the fabricator shop. Vinyl seal coats are Slab rebar should be galvanized or coated with an
normally applied at the job site because of sen- inhibitive epoxy primer.
sitivity to abrasion damage. 5. Salt Cake Silo (exterior)
a. Shell - Use normal system for the environ-
ment, but add an extra gloss coat to bring the
total D.F.T. to 10 mils.
b. Flat Roof - Use inhibitive epoxy primer and
topcoat with 16 mils D.F.T. of coal tar epoxy.
Special attention should be given to welds,
edges, bolts and other sharp surfaces.
6. Conveyors
Back-to-back angle braces, skip welds and
difficult-to-reach areas are hard to protect. Back-
to-back angle braces should be sealed. Open
welds should be caulked. Three coats, including a
zinc rich primer, should be used to develop ade-
FIGURE 1 quate thickness. lt is advisable to have idler arms
Multi-coatingin the fabrication shop. l h e conveyor at left brings galvan i zed.
the steel from the centrifugal blaster. Then the steel is loaded on-
to bucks by overhead crane. 7. Chip Blow Line
Courtesy Linc York A white or light colored finish coat reduces pipe
and air temperature.
B. SPECIFIC STRUCTURES (See Table i for typical 8. Storage Tanks for Hot Liquor, Etc. (exterior)
painting systems used on specific structures) When expensive insulation is not justified, a cork-
1. Field Erected Tanks filled asphalt mastic may be used. This should be
Field erected tank sections should be blasted and applied over SSPC-SP 6 blasted steel and primed
exterior sides primed. When fabricating and with 2 mils D.F.T. of an inhibitive epoxy primer to
coating tank sections in a shop, a weldable minimize underfilm corrosion. The flat roof of the
preconstruction primer should be applied. When tank should receive one coat of coal tar epoxy at
tanks have been erected, bare steel exteriors and 12-16 mils D.F.T. Handrails and ladders should
welds can be blasted and primed prior to applica- also receive 12-16 mils D.F.T. of coal tar epoxy. It
tion of a finish system. Interior steel tank sur- is good practice to blast and prime the entire
faces are to be specifically treated after erection, tank and then apply the finish coats.
depending upon use (Figure 2). 9. Concrete Pipe and Pits Carrying Effluent to
2. Steel Gratings Clarifier, Etc.
Steel gratings are difficult to blast clean and cost- Severe corrosion andior erosion can be controlled
by applying 18-20 mils D.F.T. of coal tar epoxy.
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ly to paint. Most new construction utilizes

galvanized steel gratings, which can be de- The concrete must be sweep blasted and a coal
greased and acid etched prior to applying the tar epoxy primer applied prior to application of the
selected coatings system. Gratings are best coal tar epoxy topcoat.
painted prior to erection. FRP grating is also find- 1o. Steel Stacks -
Maximum Operating Temperature
ing use in the industry. No painting is required. of 7OOOF
3. Handrails All surfaces must be sandblasted to SSPC-SP 5.
Aluminum or galvanized handrails are often used Apply 1.5-3.0 mils D.F.T. of an inorganic zinc rich
in new construction. Aluminum handrails are coating. An unmodified heat cured silicone
usually not painted. Galvanized handrails should aluminum finish may be applied, if desired, at 1.5
be degreased and then acid etched or sweep mils D.F.T.
blasted prior to coating. Some mills defer painting
on new galvanized. C. NEW EQUIPMENT
4. Concrete slab roof over wet end of machine The protective coatings system applied on original
For all surfaces except top surface, which gets equipment may not be suitable for service in aggressive
roof coating, remove laitance by brush blasting or environments. When ordering equipment for critical or
by acid etching (followed by a rinse); apply 4 mils severely exposed areas, it is good to request a description
D.F.T. of a high build, non-gloss epoxy. of the coatings system the manufacturer intends to sup-
The above can be done most efficiently prior ply. If this system is not adequate for the projected service,
to erecting the slabs. If two coats are used, the request a cost estimate for special finishing to conform

422
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 7 * 5 73 W 8627740 0003870 158 W
TABLE I
TYPICAL PAINTING SYSTEMS FOR PULP & PAPER MILLS
GENERAL PLANT AREA
Wood Preparation Digester Area Liquor Evaporators 81 Waste

Handling & Washing IL Preparation & Bleach Plant & Recovery Process Water Treatment
SURFACE TO BE COATED Chipping Screening Storage Pulp Storage Boilers Plant Plant
Steel or Iron Submit Details
3.2 or
Structural Steel 3.1 (1) 1.2 1.1 3.3 1.1 1.1 1.1
Convevor Steel 3.1 II1 1.2
3.2 or
Carbon Steel Pipe 3.1 (1) 1.2 1.1 3.3 1.1 1.1 1.1
Steel Tanks (Lining) 36 34

1 1 or 1 1 (Hot)
Steel Tanks (Outside) 1.2 3 5 (3) 1 4 (Cold) 11
Stacks, Ducts, Breechings, Kiln When specification detail furnished - Inorganic Zinc with Silicone Topcoat Optional will be used i f painting required.
Handrails B Gratings (7) 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
Pipe Hangers: Brackets 3.1 (I) 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.1
Steel Doors, Windows, Frames 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2
Machinery; Equipment B Motors 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2

Paper Machine - Large
Process Equipment 1.2 1.2 3.3 1.2 (A) 1.1 1.2
Wood Surfaces 2.2

Masonry Surfaces
Exterior Concrete Block 4.1 4.1 4.1
Interior Concrete Block 4.2 I A ì 4.2 I A ) 4.2
Exterior Concrete (Dry)
Interior Concrete (Dry)
Concrete Basin
Concrete (Weti 5.3 5.2 3.4
Concrete Floors (Wet-Chemical) 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3

Brick, Plaster, Stucco
Pump & Equipment Bases (Wet) 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4
Shops, Warehouse PAPER MACHINE BUILDING

& Maintenance Finish Goods - Control Rooms Administration
Areas Stock Preparation Roll Finishing Stores Change Houses Office Areas Power Plant
Steel or Iron
2.1 or
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 (2) 1.1 (2) 2.3 1.1 Structural Steel
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 Conveyor Steel
2.1 or
1 .I 1.1 1.1 1.1 2.3 1.1 Carbon Steel Pipe
Steel Tanks (Lining)
3.6 Steei Tanks (Outside)
Stacks, Ducts, Breechings. Kiln
1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 Handrails B Gratinas
2.1or
6.1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 2.3 1.3 Pipe Hangers, Brackets
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7=5 8 b 2 ï î Y O 0003871 ow m
TABLE 1 (Continued)
TYPICAL PAINTING SYSTEMS FOR PULP & PAPER MILLS
GENERAL PLANT AREA
Shops, Warehouse PAPER MACHINE BUILDING

8 Maintenance Finish Goods - Control Rooms Administration
Areas Stock Preparation Roll Finishing Stores Change Houses Ollice Areas Power Plant
2.1 or
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 2.3 1.3 Steel Doors, Windows, Frames
2.1 or
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 2.3 1.3 Machinery; Equipment & Motors
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Paper Machine - Large Process

Equipment
6.2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 Floors 6.7.1 (4) Wood Surfaces
Masonrv Surfaces
6.4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 Specify Specify Exterior Concrete Block
~ ~~
641 42 42 41 42 when detail is when detail is interior Concrete Block
42 available from available from Exterior Concrete (Dry)
4.2 architect. architect. Interior Concrete (Dry)
5.2 5.2 Concrete (Wet)
5.3 5.3 (6) 5.3 Concrete Floors (Wet-Chemical)
5.1 5.1 Brick, Plaster, Stucco
3.4 5.3 Pump & Equipment Bases (Wet)
STEEL System 3.3 (A) CONCRETE

1 CI. Vinyl Primer
System 1.1 1 ct. High Build Vinyl Coat System 5.1
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Zinc Rich 1 ct. Vinyl Seal Coat 2 cts. Acrylic Latex Masonry Coating
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build
System 3.4 System 5.2
System 1.1 (A) 2 cts. Coal Tar Epoxy Coaling 2 cts. Chlorinated Rubber High Build
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1 CI. Inorganic Zinc Rich
1 ci. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build System 3.5 System 5.3
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Zinc Rich 1 CI.
Epoxy-Polyamide Clear
S y r t m 1.2 1 ct. Bituminous 1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
I. Clear
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Primer
2 cts. Epoxy-Polyamide Finish System 3.6 System 5.3 (A)
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Tank Lining Primer 1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine Concrete Sealer
System 1.2 (A) 1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Tank Lining 1 cl. Epoxy-Polyamine Surfacer
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Primer 1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Tank Lining (Opt.) 1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine Finish (opt.)
1 ci. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Gloss System 6.1
WOOD White or Yellow Traffic Marking Paint
System 1.3
1 ct. EpoxyEster Primer System 6.2.1 System 7.1
2 cts. Epoxy-Ester Finish 1 cl. Epoxy-Polyamide Clear
1 ct. Alkyd Primer
2 cts. Alkyd Enamel 2 cts. Moisture Cure Polyurethane Varnish
System 1.4
1 ct. Epoxy.Polyamide Primer System 2.2
1 ct. EpoxyPolyamide Semi-Gloss
1 ct. Alkyd Undercoat
1 cl. Aliphatic Urethane Gloss
2 CIS. Epoxy Ester Enamel
FOOTNOTES
System 3.1
System 6.2.3
1 CI.
Epoxy-Polyamide Zinc Rich (I) Epoxy-Polyamide Finish for easy
1 ct. Alkyd Primer
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
I. High Build repair of damage.
1 ct. Acrylic Latex Exterior Paint
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
I. Finish (2) Structural steel may be separated by
job lot for mild areas - Interior only.
System 3.1 (A) (3) Insulation coating depending on r e
MASONRY
1 CInorganic
I. Zinc Rich quirements based on heat, location,
1 cl. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build System 4.1 and color specification.
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
I. Finish (4) Sand between coats.
1 ct. Acrylic Latex Concrete Filler
2 cts. Acrylic Latex Masonry Coating (5) Where equipment is primed with
System 3.2
epoxy primer omit Universal Primer
1 ci. Inorganic Zinc Rich System 4.2 from system.
1 ct. Wash Primer or Tie Coat
1 ct. Acrylic Latex Concrete Filler (6) Apply under Paper Machine to permit
1 ct. High Build Vinyl
2 CIS. Epoxy Ester Enamel cleaning and waste removal.
System 3.3 (7) If galvanized. substitute acid etch for
System 4.2 (A)
primer.
1 CUniversal
I. Primer
1 ct. Epoxy-Ester Cementitious Filler
1 ct. High Build Vinyl Coat
1 ct. Epoxy TiieLike Coating
1 ct. Vinyl Seal Coat
1 ct. Epoxy TileLike Coating
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 7 * 5 93 8627940 0003872 T20
with your system. If this cost is too high, as it may w.ell be, B. MAINTENANCE BY PLANT PERSONNEL
the only alternative is to have the equipment delivered and Suggestions for increasing effectiveness of the pro-
then finished according to your own system. tective coatings program:
1. Awareness
IV. MAINTENANCE PAINTING PROGRAM From top management to the newest painter,
everyone must feel that the coatings program is
While protection needs are essentially the same for
important to the operation and profitability of the
construction and maintenance, some variances in
mill. Management’s skill in organizing and
specifications and procedures are necessary.
motivating a competent plant painting crew pays
substantial dividends in efficiency.
A. VARIANCES
2. Training
1. Surface Preparation
A training program should be established for
It is often difficult to isolate selected areas so
everyone involved, covering instructions on
sandblasting can be done without danger to per- coatings, rigging, equipment, application and in-
sonnel or equipment. Yet there is no adequate spection. Training programs should be set up by
substitute for sandblasting. Even so, blasting is
the Committee with cooperation from the tech-
seldom used inside machine buildings. In some nical departments of coatings and equipment
cases, areas andlor equipment can be sectioned suppliers or by a consultant. The training ses-
off with polyethylene so steel can be blasted. In
sions should include lecture, discussion and on-
others, the compromise of hand-tool cleaning the-job demonstrations. All persons involved
with power wire brush, disk sander, needle gun or should understand what is expected of them, and
other similar equipment can suffice. Careful use
why their work is important and be challenged to
of power wire brushes and needle guns may be
develop a sense of accomplishment, professional
the most effective surface preparation short of competency and pride in the finished work.
sand blasting.
3. Specifications
2. Drying the cleaned steel is essential but can be Should be well defined, measureable and en-
difficult
forced.
Heat lamps andlor hot air blowers can be useful.
4. Personnel
Do not use oil-fired heaters.
Capable and motivated planners, supervisors,
3. Protection of edges is extremely important and inspectors should be designated by and
Pulp and paper mills are ever more relying on report to the Maintenance Coatings Committee.
epoxy zinc rich primers, intermediates and finish They should spend substantial time where the
coats because of their superior edge build, corro- work is being done and require that the work
sion resistance and fast recoat characteristics. meets specifications.
Even with the best available materials, painters
5. Records
need to pay special attention to application on
An effective system should be created for record-
edges, welds and irregular shapes. An additional
ing the work done and detailing the area, worker-
brush applied coat of the finish coat improves
hours, materials, equipment and the application
edge protection.
conditions.
4. lntercoat contamination
6. Inspection
Salt cake and other “fallout” can cause pre-
A systematic program of inspection and spot
mature paint failures. To combat this, main-
repair should be instituted and maintained by the
tenance coating systems for pulp and paper
Protective Coatings Committee.
mills should perform well when applied almost
“wet-on-wet.” Some evaporation of solvent is
V. MAINTENANCE BY OUTSIDE
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
necessary before the succeeding coat is applied.

CONTRACTOR
Complete drying should not be a requirement ex-
cept in special cases. The heavier the rate of salt The Protective Coatings Committee is responsible for
cake “fallout”, the sooner the entire system coordinating work with outside contractors. Many mills re-
should be applied. This consideration is important ly on outside contractors for jobs requiring critical rigging
when planning and scheduling work. In selecting and for tight schedule work during shutdowns. The follow-
specific coatings materials, credit should be ing areas should be considered:
given to those demonstrating superior film and i.Planning
edge build characteristics and fast recoatability. Carefully implement the work with good specifica-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.5 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003873 967
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 2
Coatings for structural and miscellaneous steel. Usually struc- can be blasted and coated more successfully after erection.
tural steel can be coated successfully and at lower cost (all coats) Courtesy of Linc York
in the fabricator’s shop. Tanks insulated and non-insulated - -
tions, time and safety requirements and a descrip- the owner, and the contractor should work
tion of possible conflicts with plant operating re- together in a cooperative, professional relation-
quirements. ship for the best possible finished jobs.
2. Screening 8. Conclusion
Screen and invite no more than three or four At the conclusion of all major jobs by plant or
qualified contractors to bid based on their record contract personnel a program of inspection and
for integrity, professional competence, reliability spot repair will serve as a strong preventive
and financial stability. maintenance measure.
3. Bids
Arrange for pre-bid meetings (preferably with one VI. SUMMARY
bidder at a time) so all bidders can ask questions. Rewards for conceiving, implementing and ad-
Arrange to have necessary drawings available. A ministering an effective and professional protective
representative of the Committee, the coatings coatings program are substantial in terms of yearly costs
supplier and contractor should inspect areas to and production continuity. Collateral benefits include im-
be coated. Bidders should be made aware of the proved working conditions, employee safety, morale and
owner’s concern for the work and the owner’s in- enhanced public image. The stakes are high. Affirmative
spection plans. management action is recommended.
4. Testing
If blasting is a major requirement, encourage bid- APPENDIX:
ders to test blast a representative area to
TYPICAL COATING REQUIREMENTS FOR
establish the rate of production possible and
STRUCTURAL AND MISCELLANEOUS STEEL
understand owner’s interpretation of specifica-
COATED AT FABRICATOR SHOP*
tions.
5. Quality Scope
At start-up of work, a job standard for quality ac- These requirements detail the surface preparation,
ceptance should be set, with a representative of coating, and handling of structural and miscellaneous
the owner and of the materials supplier present. steel in the fabricator shop. These specifications cover
(See chapter on Job Standards.) service at operating temperatures up to 200°F. Also includ-
6. Selection ed are details on inspection, transfer of coated steel and
Some owners select and supply coatings on the touch-up and repair in the field.
premise that by doing so they are more likely to
get the specified coatings thicknesses.
7. Cooperation ‘Alternatively, application may be based upon SSPC-PA 1 ”Shop,
The Protective Coatings Committee, representing Field and Maintenance Painting”.

426
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.5 73 8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003874 8 T 3
Surface Preparation
All surfaces shall be blasted so as to meet the SSPC-SP 6
“Commercial” standard or better.
All blasted steel shall be coated within 10 hours of
blasting and before there is visible rusting.
Coatings
Observe minimum and maximum limits for Dry Film
Thickness (DFT). Five readings out of 50, at least 6 inches
apart, on one piece of steel will be the basis of requiring an
additional coat (if below minimum) or reblasting and
recoating (if above maximum).* All areas where the primer
FIGURE 3
Transfer and handling of coated steel. The proper use of dunnage thickness is below 2.0 mils or above 5 mils shall be cor-
helps minimize damage to coatings in transit. rected. All areas where the two-coat system is below 5 mils
or above 12 mils shall be corrected.
Intent Surface temperature of steel to be coated shall be
It is the intent of this specification to prescribe first-class 50°F minimum and at least 5°F above wet bulb air
workmanship in all phases of coatings work. The following temperature reading.
important details shall be considered as a part of the
Coatings can be applied by airless or conventional
spec if ¡cat ions:
spray equipment.
The use of cutting oils shall be such that a minimum
of oil is deposited on the steel so as to minimize solvent System No. 1 Average DFT Mils*’
cleaning. Primer - Epoxy Zinc Rich 2.5
All contact surfaces connected by bolts shall be Topcoat - High Build Epoxy 5.0
-
blasted and primed before being shop-bolted. Faying sur-
7.5
faces should be primed but not topcoated. Most inorganic
zinc rich coatings are suitable for use on faying surfaces. System No. 2
Where mild steel bolting (not cadium-plated or galvanized) Primer - Inorganic Zinc Rich 2.5
is used in the shop, the boltheads and nuts shall be Topcoat - High Build Epoxy 5.0
-
blasted and coated. 7.5
The cleaning of abrasive before reuse shall be such
that the blasted steel is free of smudge. System No. 3
All back-to-back angles shall be blasted and primed Primer - Inhibitive Epoxy
before assembly or designed out if possible. Po Iyam ide 2.5
Weld spatter shall be removed before priming. Topcoat - High Build Epoxy 5.0
__
Slivers and laminations shall be ground smooth 7.5
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
before priming.
All sharp, rough, or burred edges shall be ground Primer: DFT Mils
Minimum DFT 2.0
round.
Maximum DFT 5.0
All abrasive shall be removed before priming.
No bleed through materials shall be used for ID mark- Full System - 2 Coats:
ings. Minimum DFT 6.5
Bucks shall be cleaned of foreign paintslcoatings so Maximum DFT 12.0
as to avoid contamination of the coating system.
Paint hoses shall be cleaned of dried paint to avoid Allow the primer to cure prior to application of second
loose paint falling into wet coatings. coat until it remains intact using the following test. Press
Special care shall be used by painters to assure prop- thumb onto coating using 10 pounds of pressure and
er thickness on flanges - inside and out. rotate 45”. If primer is not damaged, proceed with top-
If identification tags are welded to the steel, the weld coating. Allow coatings system to dry prior to handling un-
shall be continuous to avoid corrosion underneath the til there is no damage to substrate when applying
tags. moderate cutting pressure with the thumbnail.
Dunnage shall be used carefully to minimize damage
to coatings in loadinglshippinglunloading. Use of nylon *Alternate - Specify SSPC-PA 2 ”Measurement of Dry Paint
slings will minimize coatings damage. Thickness with Magnetic Gages”.
At the jobsite the steel shall be unloaded so as to **Thickness in accordance with manufacturer’s recommenda-
minimize coating damage. In stacking the steel at the job- tions. Many recommendations, including those of SSPC, for
site, ample dunnage shall be used. Again, nylon slings will example, specify 3.0 f 0.5 mils for zinc-rich primers. Measure
minimize coatings damage. according to SSPC-PA 2 unless otherwise specified.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 . 5 93 = 8627940 0003875 73T
BIOGRAPHY
Inspection C. Edwin Wilkins has a B.S. in
Adequate inspection of surface preparation and coatings Chemistry from the University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Un-
application should be provided during the job. Full-time in- til his retirement, his entire bus-
spection isdesirable, but with intermittent work schedules, iness career (42 years) was
this is not always possible. Full-time inspection is needed concerned with high-perform-
ance coatings, the first 14 years
at the job start and until work is progressing smoothly, as a laboratory chemist. He has
then as required to assure specifications are being met. performed technical service in
most of the United States, also
in South America, Europe, and
Transfer of Coated Steel (Figure 3 ) Near and Far East. For 27 years
Handling, shipping and unloading procedures, if not prop- he was involved in protective
erly executed, can seriously reduce the effectiveness of coatings salesíservice with
even the best high performance coating systems. Coated Mobil Chemical. After 1972 he served as Technical Sales Represen-
tative with Porter Coatings, Division of Porter Paint Co. He was a
members must be handled with care t o avoid damaging long-time member of the Technical Association of the Pulp & Paper
the coating system - particularly the edges. Industry, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, the Ameri-
can Chemical Society and active on many committees.
Field Touch-Up of Coatings Damaged in Loadinglirection
All areas damaged to bare metal shall be prepared in ac- William F. Chandler - A biographical sketch and portrait of
William F. Chandler can be found at the end of Chapter 17.0.
cordance with SSPC-SP 3.
Spot prime all cleaned areas with Epoxy Zinc-Rich
Primer to 2% mils DFT. Dry to thumb-shear hardness. REFERENCES
Apply High Build Epoxy intermediate coat to primed Paul E. Weaver, Industrial Maintenance Painting: National
areas: 7 mils DFT (primer + intermediate coat). Dry to Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Texas. 1976
NACE Standard RP-01-78. Design, Fabrication, and Finish of
thumb-shear hardness. Metal Tanks and Vessels, 1977
Apply Gloss Epoxy Topcoat if specified, to total DFT L. W. Gleekman, “Preparation, Application, and Inspection (P-A-1)
of 9 mils, (2 mils DFT of topcoat). for Coatings Systems,” Pulp and Paper Industry Corrosion Prob-
lems: NACE, 1974
DFT Mils Martinson and Sisler, industrial Painting - The Engineering Ap-
System proach, Reinhold Publishing Company, 1961
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Minimum 8.5 “Economics of Chemical Plant Maintenance Painting,” NACE Pub-
Maximum 12.0 lication 6D461. National Association of Corrosion Engineers, P.O.
Box 218340, Houston, TX 77218-8340.
“Industrial Maintenance Painting Program,” NACE Publication
Once steel has been erected, damage from handling
6D160.
and welding should be repaired as soon as possible. The “Contract and Plant Force Painting: Advantages and Disadvan-
sooner the damaged areas are corrected, the less surface tages,” NACE Publication 6D168.
preparation will be required. Field touch-up and repair pro- “Industrial Painter Education,” NACE Publication 6D361.
cedure should be part of overall specification along with a
clear definition of exactly whose responsibility it is to per-
form the touch-up and repair.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special assistance in the preparation of this chapter was
provided by Linc A. York.
chapter: Jim Baker, Noel Duvic, Randy Fulkerson, Lewis
Gleekman, Marshall McGee, John Montle, John Perchall, Dave
Roberson, L.M. Sherman, Bill Wallace, J.N. White.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERkL7.b 93 8627940 O003876 b7b =
CHAPTER 17.6
PAINTING FOOD PLANTS

by
Steven L. Schmidt
Food processing plants are primarily concerned with types within each generic classification.
converting, producing, packaging and preserving edible There is no place for lead, mercury or any other toxic
foods. There are hundreds of types of food processing pigmentation in food plant coatings. The subject of USDA,
plants - beverage, brewing, distilling, canning, dairy, beef FDA and other regulations will be dealt with in some detail
and poultry packing, bakeries, flour mills, grain storage later. With the conditions prevalent in most food process-
and many others. ing plants, only the best high performance coatings stand
This discussion, therefore, concerns painting food any chance of long-term survival and resultant per-square-
processing plants from a “condition and environment” foot-per-year cost efficiency.
standpoint rather than from the standpoint of specific Since coatings material costs are usually less than
products and processes.‘ New construction and one-fourth of the total painting cost, it is essential to go
maintenance painting are included as well as coatings “first class”. The design or maintenance engineer who ap-
selection, surface preparation, application, inspection and proaches protection and sanitary maintenance with cost
touch-up and repair. cutting in mind does so at the risk of classical “penny
Coatings must be resistant to physical, bacterial and wise, pound foolish” results.
chemical exposures including varying levels of moisture,
condensation, steam, mold growth, organic wastes, clean- I. NEW CONSTRUCTION
ing solutions and abrasion. Floors, walls and machinery
are subject to chemical and moisture attack and usually A. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR NEW
abrasion. Many areas are wet and warm while others are PLANTS
cold and damp. Some may cycle from hot to cold causing A universally accepted objective of food plant design
condensation and also exerting physical stress on protec- is to assure economical, sanitary maintenance. The ideal
tive coatings and their underlying substrates. Exterior sur- food processing facility would be constructed completely
faces are subject to the hazards of the weather as well as of corrosion-resistant materials with a minimum of cracks,
the destructive effects of ultra-violet light on protective edges, corners and inaccessible areas. Plant sanitation
coatings. could be easily performed with no adverse effects on the
One of the most common problems in food process- appearance of structural integrity of the facility. This plant
ing plants is the growth of mold, mildew and other fungi. does not exist because it would be prohibitively expensive
These air-borne spores multiply and feed on food particles, and time-consuming to build.
attaching themselves to a surface. They usually spread But many things can be done with common materials
and can actually digest coatings with a free oil nature. of construction to design plants that are easy and
Therefore, alkyd and epoxy ester coatings for use in food economical to maintain. Some of these are
plants should contain effective and approved fungicides
Design the plant to accommodate the process
and bactericides.
and afford ease of access for maintenance and
Ideally, a food plant coating would be USDAIFDA ap-
cleaning;
proved, hard, tough, impervious to water vapor, resistant to
Avoid edges and crevices and design for
a wide variety of acids and alkalis, and prohibit the growth
smooth, pin-hole free surfaces in all process
of mold, fungi and mildew. It would be a self-priming, high-
areas;
build, high-gloss finish that could be brushed, rolled or Provide ample drains with sloped floors to per-
sprayed in a variety of temoeratures over steel, concrete,
block, aluminum, galvanized metal and any other number
of substrates. It would withstand high temperature,
.
mit rapid removal of wastes and wash water;
Avoid bar joist and deck construction in proc-
ess areas;
caustic rinses and be available in hundreds of decorator
Avoid materials that have poor moisture
colors while possessing unlimited gloss and color reten-
tion when exposed to ultra-violet light.
Of course, no such miracle coating exists. A coatings ‘A separate treatment of painting food plants, written by Harry
specification for a new food processing plant may call for Howard and emphasizing flow charts of process areas, is
six or more different generic types of coatings and several available through SSPC.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.6 93 W 8627940 0003877 502 W
items should be included in the specification for

shop painting:
a.The use of cutting oils should be kept to a
minimum and grease and oils removed from
steel before blasting.
b. All contact surfaces connected by bolts should
be blasted and primed before being shop
bolted. Faying surfaces should be primed with
zinc-rich primer but not topcoated. Where steel
bolting is used in the shop, the boltheads and
nuts should be blasted.
c. All abrasives should be kept clean.
d. Back-to-backangles should be designed out or
at least blasted and primed prior to assembly.
e. Weld spatter should be removed before prim-
ing.
f. Slivers and laminations should be ground
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
smooth before priming.

FIGURE 1
Processing room with high moisture content in the air is coated g.All sharp, rough or burred edges should be
with a water-based epoxy system. ground smooth before blasting.
Courtesy of Carboline Company h. All abrasives must be removed before priming.
i. Painting bucks and paint hoses must be kept
resistance (drywall, plaster, plywood, etc.) in clean to minimize contamination.
process areas; j. Welded identification tags should be con-
Enclose structural steel when possible; tinuously welded to avoid corrosion underneath
Use high-quality, chemical, abrasion and the tags.
moisture resistant protective coatings for all k. All blasted steel should be primed within 10
steel and concrete in process areas; and hours of blasting and before there is visible
Comply with FDA, USDA, OSHA, state and local
rusting.
regulations.
I. Dunnage should be used carefully to minimize
Proper design and use of high-performance coatings
damage to coatings in loading, shipping and
go a long way toward producing the “ideal” plant - one
unloading. Use of non-metallic slings will
that is functionally efficient and easy to maintain. There is
minimize damage to coatings.
only one time to achieve this condition: when the plant is
constructed. This requires extensive study and careful m.At the job site, the steel should be unloaded
selection of construction materials. These in turn must be carefully to minimize damage. The steel should
woven into the design with an eye towards corrosion con- be stacked off the ground, and ample dunnage
trol, sanitation and plant maintenance. These steps should should be used.
lead to the generation of tight, well-written specifications. n. Primers and topcoats should be applied in
The work must follow specifications under tight inspection strict accordance with manufacturer’s instruc-
before the new plant is accepted by the owner. tions.
With such a conscientiously designed and built facil- If the job calls for a second coat in the shop, applica-
ity, the maintenance engineer stands an excellent chance tion details should be spelled out. These include mixing,
of controlling maintenance costs. Unfortunately, not application and temperature parameters. The specifier
enough projects go this way from start to finish. should provide a table for film thickness, time intervals
between coats and all inspection procedures and handling
times. A job standard should be established prior to begin-
B. SPECIFICATION FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL ning to identify minimum acceptable standards for surface
Whether steel is shop or field painted, or both, a preparation, application, film build and final appearance.
detailed specification is necessary to insure maximum
2. Field Topcoating
performance of the coatings system.
A separate specification is required for field top-
1. Shop Painting coating work that takes place after erection of the
Specifications for shop painting must detail sur- steel. Careful inspection of the steel is necessary
face preparation, coating and handling of the to determine surfaces requiring touch-up paint-
steel. Inspection, transfer and field touch-up ing. Washing may be required to remove dirt and
should also be explained in detail. The following contamination. Power tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 3)

430
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L ï - b 9 3 m 8627940 0003878 4 4 9 m
two-coat shop systems because not all coatings

manufacturers can supply them. Often two coats
do not provide adequate protection.
b. Top Coats - In addition to the polyamide and
polyamine epoxy finish coats, several other
generic types work well in food processing plants.
Aliphatic urethane, like polyamine epoxy, pro-
vides extra toughness and chemical resistance
for aggressive areas and is usually of very high
gloss. It does not yellow like the epoxy coatings
and has better caustic resistance than epoxy
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
polyester.
Acrylic-epoxy is recommended in place of the
solvent-based polyamide epoxy where a water-
reducible, low-odor coating is needed. It performs
in a manner equivalent t o solvent-based
polyamide epoxy once fully cured. This topcoat is
FIGURE 2 not suited for humid areas.
The walls in this cold meat storage room are held at 45-48OFyear
round. Resurfacing with a water-based epoxy system is now a Gloss epoxy polyester coatings (catalyzed, two-
routine matter every four years or more, whereas previously the component and not to be confused with epoxy
room was repainted every two years.
Courtesy of Carboline Company ester) may be selected if a white finish is needed.
Unlike epoxies, it does not yellow with age. Do not
use in areas where caustic is present because it
has poor caustic resistance.
followed by touch-up with polyamide epoxy rust-
inhibitive primer and finish coat works well. The All of the above finish coats require a
minimum of 50°F (10°C) to achieve cure except
polyamide epoxy primer is compatible with epoxy,
urethane and acrylic finish coats. the aliphatic urethane which may be applied at
temperatures down to 35°F (2°C).
C. COATING SYSTEMS BY SUBSTRATES 2. Galvanized Metal Decking
1 . Structural Steel - Interior Process Areas Metal decking can be very difficult to coat suc-
a. Zinc-Rich Primers - In most cases the logical cessfully.
choice for protection of structural steel is a zinc- a. Factory finishing - The first recommendation
rich primer with appropriate topcoat(s). This may is to specify the metal decking to be galvanized
be achieved in several ways: and factory finished with baked-on coating suited
Method One: Shop prime, Field topcoat to the service area. This requires careful handling
Method Two: Field prime, Field topcoat during transportation and erection. Any damage
Method Three: Shop prime, Shop topcoat, Field can be spot primed and touched up.
touch-up 6. Field finishing - The galvanized decking
The price depends upon many factors such should be specified to be phosphatized (pre-
as job location, shop location, amount of fabrica- etched) or wash-prime treated by the fabricator.
tion and size of plant. After erection it should be thoroughly cleaned and
If Method Three is chosen, the primer and top finished with 4.0-6.0 D.F.T. semi-gloss polyamide
coat are applied in the fabrication shop; the epoxy (Appendix B, #D).
coated steel is shipped to the job site and erected, 3. Structural Steel - Exterior
and bolts and damaged areas touched up. Method Gloss epoxy finish coats are not recommended
Three saves 10-40% over Method Two and makes for structural steel exposed to the weather, due to
sense even if a third coat is to be field applied. If chalking. They require acrylic emulsion or
only two coats are specified, Method One is less aliphatic urethane finish coats to insure gloss and
expensive and a better method. It is also better color retention. The preferred system is SSPC-SP
because uniform appearance of the finish coat is 6 (Commercial Blast Cleaning) followed by a
assured. system of zinc-rich epoxy primer and high-build
With the three-coat systems, Method Three polyamide epoxy intermediate coat applied in the
should be specified with the third coat field ap- fabrication shop. After erection of the steel,
plied after proper touch-up has been completed. touch-up of damaged areas and bolts can be per-
Considerable cost savings and higher quality formed with zinc-rich epoxy primer or rust-
work results. Care must be exercised in selecting inhibitive polyamide epoxy primer. The third coat
at 303-397-2295.
in operation. Dealing with contaminated floors
will also be addressed.
New concrete should age a minimum of 28
days and have a maximum moisture content of
8-10%. It is important to install vapor barriers
under ground level concrete floors to prevent
adhesion problems due to hydrostatic pressures.
Concrete floor surface preparation includes brush
blasting, centrifugal blasting and power tool
cleaning. As with ceiling panels, this may be ac-
complished by wet or dry methods. If wet blasting
FIGURE 3 is performed, !horough rinsing with fresh water is
New structural steel in cool, damp storage area to be enclosed; necessary to remove “blasting mud”.
epoxy zinc-rich primer over SSPC-SP 6, “Commercial Blast Clean-
ing”; coated at the fabrication shop and touched up in the field; Two other commonly used methods are scari-
no topcoat to be applied. fying and shot blasting. Both achieve the same
Courtesy of Porter Coatings results with no dust or water. Scarifiers remove up
to inch of concrete surface with rotating sharp
knives in a self-contained unit resembling a plant
of aliphatic urethane can then be applied. This sweeper. Portable shot-blasters designed for flat
system (Appendix B, #A) provides maximum steel surfaces also work well on concrete. The
chemical and abrasion resistance and long-term steel shot is centrifugally hurled against the floor
gloss and color retention. The alternate system is and blasted with no dust. While units have
SSPC-SP 6 (Commercial Blast Cleaning) followed vacuum attachments to pick up loose concrete
by application of an inorganic zinc-rich primer in dust, it is good practice to follow with a thorough
the fabrication shop. Bolts and damaged areas vacuuming using an industrial sweeper.
are touched up with zinc-rich epoxy or rust-
Scarifying, shot blasting and sandblasting
inhibitive polyamide epoxy primer. Once touch-up
remove laitance, curing compounds and surface
has been completed, the steel should be finished
hardeners. For best results and long-term savings,
with two coats of acrylic emulsion.
one of these should be specified and used on new
4. Concrete Ceilings construction floors.
Properly prepared and coated concrete ceilings b. Floor Toppings - For toughest process areas
are economical to maintain and to sanitize. in food plants, an 8-15 mil paint system is not
Careful surface preparation is essential. Curing enough protection. At the base of machinery
compounds, form-release agents and surface where constant spills occur, on floors that stay
hardeners can be removed by brush sandblasting. wet with organic acids, and in areas where
Where dust is a problem, a water ring adjustment forklifts drag, drop and push large steel pots, the
or wet blasting is recommended followed by a floors need maximum protection.
thorough rinsing to remove any “blasting mud”. In these very rough service areas, heavily ag-
Filling holes is important. Holes of ” diameter gregated, trowel-applied Y4 inch floor toppings
or more should be grouted. Smaller holes should provide the best protection. These are usually
be filled with water resistant cementitious filler. 100% solids epoxy or polyester materials that are
Ceilings in aggressive areas should be fin- so heavily loaded with inert aggregate that they
ished with 8-10 mils D.F.T. of gloss epoxy (Appen- require mixing in rotating drum mixers. They are
dix B, #G).An alternate system for less aggressive usually classified two ways - food and chemical
service can be one or two coats of high build grade. Food grade toppings are USDA approved
polyamide epoxy semi-gloss (Appendix B, #D). and able to take most process area conditions.
Two coats are needed to insure gloss uniformity. Chemical grade floors are expensive and de-
5. Concrete Floors and Toppings signed for areas where concentrated batch
a. Concrete Floors - No other areas in a food chemical spills take place, such as concentrated
processing facility present more challenges to acids and alkalies. They are also designed to
protective coatings than do concrete floors. There withstand steam impingement, while food-grade
are few areas in food processing plants where toppings soften under the same circumstances.
concrete floors survive unprotected. Concrete is 6. Concrete Walls - Block, Poured, Precast
readily attacked by acids, strong alkalis, nitrates, Walls are usually constructed from concrete
chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, sugars and some block, concrete poured in place or tilt-up panels.
fats and oils. The best time to insure protection is New food plants should not have plaster, drywall,
at the time of construction and before the plant is stucco or wood walls in process areas. Ceramic
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - b 93 8627740 0003880 OT7
tile is often specified, but the mortar joints even- the specification should call for degreasing and
tually erode from washing and chemical attack solvent cleaning (SSPC-SP 1) followed by hand or
and support growth of mold and mildew. Glazed power tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 2 and SSPC-SP 3)
ceramic tile walls cost 4-6 times more per square and treatment with a phosphoric-acid-based
foot than walls using the best coatings available. metal pretreatment.
a. Concrete Block Walls must have expansion 8. Piping
joints to prevent cracking where the block meets Ideally, carbon steel piping should be blasted to
structural steel, lintels and corners. Without block SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast and have 2.0-3.0
fillers, coatings flow into pores and a rough finish mils zinc-rich primer applied before reaching the
with pinholes results. job site. This insures that no unprotected and in-
The only surface preparation requirements accessible areas are formed when the pipe is
for concrete block is that it be clean and dry. Con- welded.
crete block is steam cured during manufacture Once these steps are taken, the pipe should
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and has no laitance. The block may be slightly be cleaned, and damaged areas touched up
dampened prior to application of water-based before topcoating. Use the same topcoat options
cementitious block filler, but should not be over the zinc-rich primer as listed for structural
dampened for any solvent-based material. steel. If piping is inside the plant, gloss epoxy
The preferred system of 8.0 mils D.F.T. finish coats work well. Outside, however, the
polyamine epoxy over the flush-fill block filing aliphatic urethane works best over 3.0-5.0 mils
system combines maximum chemical resistance polyamide epoxy because it holds its gloss and
and washability with maximum epoxy attrac- color. Epoxies are a poor choice for exterior ex-
tiveness. Polyester should be avoided because of posure due to their chalking in the presence of
its poor resistance to caustics. uItraviolet Iight .
b. Poured and Precast Concrete Walls - They Operating temperatures of pipes must be
should be treated like concrete ceiling panels. identified so that the coating system can be
Surface preparation should be wet or dry sand- specified. Following are temperature tolerances
blasting. Under no circumstances is acid washing of various systems for pipes.
an acceptable method of surface preparation. Below 225°F - Epoxy primer and aliphatic ure-
For heavy process areas, the dry film thane finish coat (Appendix B,
thickness of the system should be at least 8.0 #X).
mils. Any damaged areas must be repaired follow- 225"F-3OO0F- Silicone-acrylic or silicone-alkyd
ing evaluation. The proper use of a wet film nish coat (Appendix B, #W).
thickness gauge during application can be helpful 300°F Plus - Inorganic zinc-rich primer untop-
to ensure proper dry film thickness. coated or silicone-based high-
7. Equipment heat coating (Appendix B, #W).
Structural steel, ceilings, floors and walls of a If the temperature of the piping is above
food plant are often well protected, while 225"F, the surface preparation should be blast
machinery and equipment are not. cleaned.
Protective coatings applied on original equip- All piping operating at less than 250°F to be
ment may not be suitable for service in aggressive insulated can be coated with an alkyd red oxide
environments. When ordering equipment for primer. Pipes operating above 250°F to be in-
critical or severely exposed areas, request a sulated require no coating.
detailed description of coatings the manufacturer 9. Tank Exteriors
supplies. If this system is not adequate, request a Exteriors of carbon steel tanks should be blasted
cost estimate for special finishing to conform and primed at the shop and finish-coated at the
with your selected system. If this cost is exorbi- job site. If the tank is inside the plant, blast the ex-
tant, the alternative is to have the equipment terior to SSPC-SP 6 and apply a zinc-rich primer at
delivered and finished at the job site, according to 2.0-3.0 mils D.F.T., followed by 3.0-5.0 mils of
your own selected system. polyamide epoxy or vinyl. Finish the job with a
If field welding is to be done during installa- suitable gloss finish coat of either polyamide
tion, it is best to specify that it be primed at the epoxy, vinyl, polyamine epoxy or aliphatic
manufacturer's shop and field topcoated after urethane depending upon conditions (Appendix B,
welding. Damaged areas have to be cleaned, #A).
prepared and coated. The rust-inhibitive If the tank is outside and exposed to sunlight,
polyamide epoxy primer works well as a touch-up use the system above with the aliphatic urethane
primer. finish coat. If there is no strong chemical environ-
If the equipment manufacturer cannot blast, ment, a system of SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast,

at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*37.6 93 = 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003883 “33
11. Painting Non-Ferrous Surfaces

a. Copper - Copper to be painted should be
sanded and a coat of polyamide epoxy applied at
3.0-5.0mils. Do not use a rust-inhibitive primer,
since the inhibitor may react with copper. Use a
topcoat product. Finish with a thin coat of gloss
epoxy or aliphatic urethane.
b. Aluminum - is only difficult to coat if the layer
of aluminum oxide is not removed. This is ac-
complished by acid etching after detergent and
solvent cleaning. Once dry, apply a coat of
polyamide epoxy at 3.0-5.0mils dft and finish
with gloss epoxy or aliphatic urethane.
If aluminum is outside and is in a non-
aggressive area, two coats of acrylic emulsion
works well after the proper surface preparation,
FIGURE 4
Structural steel in wet processing areas. Epoxy zinc-rich primer as outlined above.
and high-build epoxy intermediate coat applied in the fabricator c. Galvanized Steel - If there is no chemical en-
shop. Gloss epoxy finish applied after erection.
Courtesy of Porter Coatings vironment, galvanized metal should not need
coating, except for color. But there are very few
areas in food processing facilities that are “nor-
mal” environments.
2.0-3.0 mils inorganic zinc-rich primer and two
Surface preparation is the key to successful-
coats of vinyl or gloss acrylic emulsion finish coat
ly painting galvanized steel. Solvent and
works well (Appendix B, #C).
detergent cleaning removes all greases, oils, dirt,
1o. Tank Linings emulsions and waxes. The metal must be etched
a. Dry Food Linings, such as grain hoppers or with a proper etching compound. Vinegar washes
flour bins, should have a USDA and FDA approved and other household remedies do not work. Etch-
system for food contact surfaces. Steel should be ing can be eliminated by ordering pre-etched
blasted and coated with two coats polyamide galvanize, but the solvent and detergent cleaning
epoxy or polyamine epoxy in an FDA approved for- must still be performed. For details, see the
mulation. Total D.F.T. should be 10.0 mils chapter on painting of galvanized steel.
minimum. For dry food lining, concrete tanks and
silos, a three-coat system with 12.0 mils D.F.T.
minimum is recommended over a brush-sand-
D. THE MAINTENANCE PAINTING PROGRAM
blasted surface. The extra coat is necessary to It is much easier to apply first class coating systems
compensate for the sealing action of the first when a plant is under construction than after it becomes
coat. operational. Once a plant is built, operational maintenance
b. Linings For Liquid Foodstuffs require highly painting becomes a continuing and expensive problem. A
specialized materials and application. This sub- well conceived maintenance painting program is worthy of
ject is covered in the chapter on steel tank lining. management attention and pays for itself through savings
Since potable water is a foodstuff and may and reduced downtime.
be a direct food additive, use the same systems The maintenance engineer, with professional help
as specified for dry food. The lining must be FDA from a qualified coatings supplier, can work out practical
approved and should be acceptable under current specifications for preparing and coating various surfaces.
EPA guidelines. The coatings supplier should be Good specifications detail surface preparation, exact
able to certify FDA compliance and have accept- coatings, number of coats, film thickness, application and
ability letters from the EPA and approval letters inspection procedures.
from the State Health Departments. Outside painting contractors and plant maintenance
No coal-tar based coatings or coating con- crews appreciate management’s recognition of their con-
taining heavy metals or toxic materials are tributions to successful plant operation.
acceptable for potable water service. Most rust- Cooperative scheduling ensures that maintenance
inhibitors fall into this latter category. coating can be done without interfering with plant opera-
Since the dependence is on a barrier coat in tions.
potable water service, internal coatings systems 1. Selecting Maintenance Coatings
in all steel tanks should be checked for pinholes Use coatings recommended in the New Construc-
with a suitable holiday detector. tion section of this chapter. Tie-coats of alkyd
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
434
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERbL7.b 93 8627940 0003882 97T
primer or polyamide epoxy should be used on old Wherever possible, blast cleaning should be
and new coatings. Zinc-rich primers should be specified. Dust and contamination can be con-
used on steel surfaces whenever possible. trolled by wet blasting, vacuum blasting, cen-
Aliphatic urethane fihish coats work best in proc- trifugal shot blasting or scarifying techniques.
ess areas. Thermoplastic coatings, such as Whole areas can be secured by using plastic bar-
acrylic, alkyd, vinyl and chlorinated rubber, should riers.
be avoided in process areas. Alkyd and acrylic Power-tool cleaning and other marginal sur-
finishes do not have the necessary chemical face preparation techniques are labor-intensive
resistance and do not stand up to washing and and therefore costly. Additionally, the service life
sanitation rinses. They also develop mold and of maintenance coatings depend on the effec-
mildew unless specifically formulated with tiveness of the surface preparation. New power
fungicides and bactericides. They may blister in tool devices are promising in dust control, cost
very wet environments, characteristic of many and quality of surface.
food processing plants. 3. Application
Vinyl and chlorinated rubber have good acid Film thickness of the coating system is a key fac-
and alkali resistances, but are not without prob-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tor in the success of maintenance (See SSPC-PA

lems. Both require meticulously clean surfaces to
2). All prominent points, such as bolt heads, sharp
avoid adhesion problems. Both have low volume edges and welds should receive an extra coat of
solids, which means large amounts of strong primer or topcoat with either brush or spray. When
solvents are liberated when these products are a roller is used, two coats are usually required to
used. Chlorinated rubber is dissolved by some achieve the specified edge film thickness.
animal fats and vegetable oils. Neither vinyl nor
Temperatures during curing can be particularly
chlorinated rubber washes particularly well
troublesome in food processing plants. Epoxy,
because of poor abrasion resistance. Their use
epoxy zinc-rich and epoxy polyester coatings do
must be carefully studied to avoid serious dif-
not cure below 50°F (10°C). The curing process of
ficulties. Vinyls are used as linings for fresh water
all coatings is directly related to temperature and
tanks and as exterior surfaces.
relative humidity. Some coatings dry at lower tem-
2. Maintenance Surface Preparation
peratures, but do not perform as well as if fully
The key to successful maintenance painting in cured at higher temperatures. Whenever possible,
food processing plants is surface preparation. process areas should be warmed to 70°F and
Nearly all surfaces in operating plants are con- dried to 50% relative humidity.
taminated by raw materials and finished product. Painting of damp surfaces is not recom-
These include grain dust, greases, oils, sugars, mended. There are some alkyd-type products that
salts, mild acids, caustics, condensation and any adhere marginally t o damp surfaces and form a
number of other compounds. These contaminants dried film, but maintenance painting of this type
must be removed before coating. Removal may in- is a temporary measure. See SSPC-PA 1 for paint
volve any combination of degreasing, steam application requirements and checklist.
cleaning, solvent washing, water blasting,
abrasive blast cleaning or power tool cleaning. 4. Inspection
The fundamental goals of surface prepara Periodic inspections minimize maintenance paint-
tion in this setting are complete removal of con- ing costs. When problems are diagnosed, under-
taminants, increase i n surface area for film corrosion can be checked before it becomes
mechanical bond and removal of all coatings that serious. Any plant maintenance program that
are not performing properly. calls for annual inspection and painting during a
If carbon steel has mill scale remaining it short maintenance shutdown is less than effec-
should be blasted to a Commercial Blast (SSPC- tive. Constant vigilance and ongoing maintenance
SP 6). This may require extensive effort to protect assure the lowest cost per square foot per year.
machinery and equipment, but can usually be ac- Proper inspection should be carried out dur-
complished by skilled applicators. The extra cost ing each step of maintenance painting. Surface
of plastic wrapping and ventilation is inevitably preparation should be checked to make sure
recouped by the long-term savings in corrosion greases, oils and dirt have been removed. Where
control costs. blasting is specified, conformance to industry
Concrete surfaces that still contain laitance specifications should be assured before applica-
should be blasted or acid-etched. Contaminated tion. The inspector should check equipment for
surfaces must be cleaned prior to any wet or dry cleanliness and condition. Oil and moisture
blast operation. separators, tip sizes, fluid filters and other
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*L7-6 93 m 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003883 806
be approved by the USDA. There are two types of

approvals: one for coatings applied to direct food
contact surfaces and one for what is termed “in-
cidental food contact surfaces”. This refers to all
areas of a plant where the foodstuff is not in
direct contact with the protective coating and in-
cludes ceilings, walls, floors and all other fixtures
and equipment.
The coatings manufacturer must follow a
detailed procedure to receive USDA approval for a
coating product. The company must supply a dry
sample, formula and product label to the Com-
pounds Evaluation Unit of the USDA. After evalua-
tion and approval, the manufacturer receives an
approval letter. These are separate letters for
direct contact and incidental contact services.
Important: If the manufacturer changes the for-
mulation, product name, or product label, all ap-
provals are lost and the coating must be resubmit-
ted for evaluation and approval.
FIGURE 5 2. FDA
Piping and Equipment. Rust inhibitive polyamide epoxy primer
with aliphatic urethane finish coat. The FDA is responsible for maintaining safe and
Courtesy of Porter Coatings sanitary conditions in all food processing plants,
other than those covered by the Meat and Poultry
Inspection Program.
necessary items should be verified. During ap- The FDA does not approve coatings, but has
plication, wet film thickness measurements guidelines for acceptability of protective coatings
should be made and visual checks done for sags, on food and drug contact surfaces. It is the
runs, curtains and other application problems. responsibility of the coatings manufacturer to cer-
After application full inspection should be per- tify that the coating product is acceptable under
formed on all coated surfaces. This should in- FDA guidelines for this service.
clude dry film thickness measurements and The manufacturer must do two things: for-
checks for adhesion and final appearance. mulate the coating entirely of materials listed as
A conscientious and well structured acceptable under FDA Title 21, Paragraph
maintenance painting program saves dollars. It 175.300; and run specific extractability tests as
also results in a cleaner, safer, more pleasant and detailed in Paragraph 175.300. If a coating passes
efficient processing plant. the extractability tests, the manufacturer may cer-
tify its acceptability for application to direct food
E. USDAIFDA REGULATIONS FOR contact surfaces. This certification letter is the
PROTECTIVE COATINGS equivalent of a USDA approval letter for the same
Two government agencies are concerned with protec- service.
tive coatings used in food processing plants: the U.S. 3. Simplified Interpretation
Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S. Food and a. Meat and Poultry Plants - must have USDA ap-
Drug Administration (FDA). proval on all coatings in process areas. Any direct
1. USDA food contact requires the second level of USDA
The USDA is required by law to maintain safe and approval. Coating manufacturers must provide
sanitary conditions in federally inspected meat copies of letters to the user upon request.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and poultry plants. The specific laws are the b. Other Food Processing Plants - should have
Federal Meat Inspection Act as amended by the USDA approved materials on all surfaces in all
Wholesome Meat Act of 1967 and the Poultry process areas and must have FDA approvable
Products Inspection Act as amended by the coatings on any direct food contact surfaces.
Wholesome Products Act of 1968. Coating manufacturers must provide USDA ap-
These statutes are enforced by the Animal proval letters and FDA certifications to the user
and Plant Health Inspection Service of the USDA upon request. USDA contact surfaces approval is
through the Meat and Poultry Inspection Program not a substitute for FDA compliance in these
(M PIP). plants.
In meat and poultry plants, all coatings must
436
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.6 93 8627740 0003884 742
APPENDIX A
TYPICAL PROTECTIVE COATINGS SYSTEMS

FOR
FOOD PROCESSING PLANTS
SURFACE PREFERRED SURFACE ALTERNATE SURFACE

TO BE COATED EXPOSURE SYSTEM* PREP SYSTEM PREP COMMENTS
Structural & Interior A SSPC-SP 6 B SSPC-SP 6 With System A the first two coats
Misc. Steel may be shop-applied followed by
touch-up and application of third coat
in the field after erection. With
System E, epoxy zinc-rich primer only
to be applied in the shop.
Structural & Exterior A SSPC-SP 6 C SSPC-SP 6 Primer in System C may be shop- or

Misc. Steel field-applied. If shop-applied, touch-up
of damaged areas should be done
with epoxy zinc-rich or rust-inhibitive
polyamide epoxy prior to top-coating
with acrylic emulsion.
Piping Interiori A SSPC-SP 6 B SSPC-SP 6 Piping should be blasted and primed

Exterior in shop. All pipe varnish must be
(UP to removed prior t o coating.
225°F) (107°C)
Piping Interiori N SSPC-SP 6

Exterior
225 "-300"F
(107 "-149 OC)
Piping Interior/ P SSPC-SP 10 None -

Exterior
300 "-700 "F
(149"-371"C)
z -
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Ceilings- Interior D Detergent

Galvanized & Wash
Phosphatized
Steel
Ceilings-Steel Interior E SSPC-SP 7 F SSPC-SP 10

Pre-coated not and
Galvanized SSPC-SP 3
Ceilings-Poured Interior G SSPC-SP 7 H SSPC-SP 7 Ceilings may be dry- or wet-blasted.

or Precast If wet-blasted, ceilings must be
Concrete thoroughly dry before application of
System H.
Walls- Interior I Paint only H Paint System I will have best overall
Concrete Block or clean, dry only clean, appearance and washability. System J
J surfaces dry should be selected i f stain resistance
surfaces is primary consideration.
Walls-Poured Interior G SSPC-SP 7 H SSPC-SP 7 Walls may be dry or wet blasted.

or Precast or
Concrete J
Floors-Poured Interior- K SSPC-SP 7 None - This exposure is characterized by

Concrete Very aggressive or splash and spillage of chemicals,
Areas Scarify constant wetness or overflow of prod-
or uct. Severe abrasion also dictates the
Shot Blast use of a heavy monolithic system.
Under no circumstances should acid
etching be substituted as a surface
preparation method.
Floors-Poured Interior- L SSPC-SP 7 M SSPC-SP 7 System M will provide clean finish

Concrete Normal to or or for dust control and will not yellow
semi-severe Scarify Scarify with age.
areas or or
Shot Blast Acid Etch
"See Appendix B for paints used in each system
437Questions or comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 * 6 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003885 b 8 9
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
APPENDIX A (Continued)
PREFERRED ALTERNATE
SUR FACE SYSTEM SURFACE SYSTEM SURFACE
TO BE COATED EXPOSURE (from Appendix 6) PREP (from Appendix B) PREP COMMENTS
Pre-primed & Interior F SSPC-SP 1 None - *This includes door frames, handrails,
Pre-coated and switch boxes, electric boxes, etc.
Surfaces SSPC-SP 3
Tank Linings- Interior-Dry O SSPC-SP 5 None - NOTE: Linings for liquid foodstuffs
Steel Foodstuffs or require highly specialized materials
Potable water and application. This subject is
covered in a separate chapter.
Tank Linings- Interior-Dry R SSPC-SP 7 None Third coat is necessary on concrete

Concrete foodstuffs or to insure pinhole-free finish.
potable and
process water
~~ ~
Non-Ferrous Interior S Sand to D Sand to Do not use rust-inhibitive primer

Metals <225"F remove remove direct to copper.
Copper (107°C) oxides oxides
Non-Ferrous Exterior S Sand to T Sand to

Metals <225"F remove remove
Copper (107 "C) oxides oxides
Non-Ferrous Interior S SSPC-SP 1 D SSPC-SP 1

Metals and and
Aluminum acid etch acid etch
or or
brush blast brush blast
Non-Ferrous Exterior S SSPC-SP 1 U SSPC-SP 1

Metals and and
Aluminum acid etch acid etch
or or
brush blast brush blast
Non-Ferrous Interior S SSPC-SP 1 D SSPC-SP 1

Metais and and
Galvanized Steel acid etch acid etch
Non-Ferrous Exterior S SSPC-SP 1 U SSPC-SP 1

Metals and and
Galvanized Steel acid etch wash prime or
acid etch
Plaster, Stucco Interior V Acid etch D Acid etch Epoxy coatings systems should not
and Brick not be applied to conventional lime-
putty plaster
Plaster, Stucco Exterior U Acid etch None -

and Brick
High Temp. Interior & P SSPC-SP 5 W SSPC-SP 5

Steel Surfaces Exterior
300 "-800"F
New Equipment interior & A SSPC-SP 6 SSPC-SP 1

(Carbon Steel Exterior and
Surfaces) SSPC-SP 3

at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*17.b 93 A b 2 7 9 4 0 O 0 0 3 8 8 6 515
APPENDIX B
DESCRIPTION OF TYPICAL SYSTEMS
SYSTEM Dry Film Thickness (Mils)

A. 1 ct. Epoxy or Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer 2.5- 3.0
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1 ct. High-Build Polyamide Epoxy 3.0- 5.0

1 ct. Aliphatic Urethane 1.5- 2.5
7.0- 10.5
B. 1 ct. Epoxy or Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer 2.5- 3.0
1 ct. Semi-Gloss High-Build Epoxy-Polyamide 4.0- 6.0
6.5- 9.0
C. 1 ct. Inorganic Zinc-Rich 2.5- 3.0
2 cts. Acrylic Emulsion 1.5- 2.5
1.5- 2.5
5.5- 8.0
D. 1 ct. Semi-Gloss High-Build Epoxy-Polyamide 4.0- 6.0
4.0- 6.0
E. 1 ct. Rust-Inhibitive Polyamide Epoxy Primer 2.0- 2.5
6.0- 8.5
F. 1 ct. Universal* Alkyd Primer or Epoxy Primer 2.0- 3.0
1 ct. Gloss Polyamide Epoxy Finish 2.0- 3.0
4.0- 6.0
G. 1 ct. Cementitious Acrylic Block Filler to f i l l
1 ct. High-Build Epoxy-Polyamide 3.0- 4.0
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine 6.0- 7.0
9.0- 11.0
H. 1 ct. High-Build Epoxy-Polyamide 4.0- 5.0
1 ct. Epoxy-pol yami ne 6.0- 8.0
10.0- 13.0
I. 1 ct. Cementitious Acrylic Block Filler to fill
8.0- 9.0
J. 1 ct. Cementitious Acrylic Block Filler to fill
6.0- 8.5
K. 1 ct. 100% Solids Epoxy Floor Sealer 6.0- 8.0
1 ct. @ ’,!,-Ih” Monolithic Epoxy-Aggregate
Floor System 125.0-250.0
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine (Optional color coat) 6.0- 8.0
137.0-266.0
L. 1 ct. High-Build Epoxy-Polyamide 4.0- 6.0
(Non-Skid Additive Optional) 10.0- 13.0
M. 1 ct. Clear Polyamide Epoxy 1.5- 2.5
1 ct. Clear Aliphatic Urethane 2.0- 2.5
3.5- 5.0
*Capable of being recoated with strong solvent or epoxy urethane

439 at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERmL7.b 93 m 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003887 451 m
APPENDIX B (Continued)
SYSTEM Dry Film Thickness (Mils)
N. 1 ct. Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer 2.0- 3.0
2 cts. Silicone-Acrylic Finish 1.5- 2.0
1.5- 2.0
5.0- 7.0
O. 1 ct. Alkyd Zinc-DustIZinc-Oxide Primer 2.0- 3.0
1 ct. Silicone Alkyd Finish 1.5- 2.0
3.5- 5.0
P. 1 ct. Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer 2.0- 3.0
2.0- 3.0
Q. 2 cts. Epoxy-Polyamide or Epoxy-Polyamine 5.0- 7.0
(Must be USDAIFDA Approved product for
direct contact with dry foodstuffs or
potable water) 5.0- 7.0
Alternate: 3-coat vinyl system per AWWA specs. 10.0- 14.0
R. 3 cts. Epoxy-Polyamide or Epoxy-Polyamine 4.0- 6.0
(Must be USDAIFDA Approved product for 4.0- 6.0
direct contact with dry foodstuffs or
potab Ie water) 4.0- 6.0
12.0- 18.0
S. 1 ct. High-Build Epoxy Polyamide 4.0- 6.0
I ct. Aliphatic Urethane 2.0- 2.5
6.0- 8.5
T. 2 cts. FungusIMildew Resistant Alkyd 1.5- 2.5
Gloss Finish 1.5- 2.5
3.0- 5.0
U. 2 cts. Acrylic Emulsion 2.0- 2.5
2.0- 2.5
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4.0- 5.0
v. 1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide 2.0- 3.0
7.0- 9.0
W. 1 ct. Silicone-Alkyd Aluminum Finish 1.5- 2.5
1.5- 2.5
X. 1 ct. Rust-Inhibitive Polyamide Epoxy Primer 2.0- 3.0
3.5- 5.5
Y. 1 ct. High-Build Rust-Inhibitive
Polyamide Epoxy PrimerlFinish 5.0- 6.0
5.0- 6.0
Z. 1 ct. Wash Prime Mil P 15328 0.3- 0.7
2 ct. Acrylic Emulsion 3.0- 5.0
440
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERUL7.b 9 3 8627940 0003888 398 W
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active Steve L. Schmidt is Vice
participation of the following in the review process for this President Marketing for Cour-
chapter: A.R. House, John Montle, Dan Nemunaitis, Dave R o h - taulds Heavy Duty Coatings,
son, Bill Wallace, Tom Wilhelm. Louisville, KY. His eighteen-year
career has included experience
in all facets of protective coat-
ings. He founded Porter Interna-
tional in 1989 and is the author
of numerous articles on protec-
tive coatings technology. He is
an active member of the Nation-
al Association of Corrosion En-
qineers and has served on
the Executive Committee of the Board of Governors of the Steel
Structures Painting Council.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 44 1Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.7 93 8627940 0003889 224
CHAPTER 17.7
POWER GENERATION FACILITIES

bY
Ronald R. Skabo
This chapter deals specifically with painting power in the United States comes from fossil and nuclear fueled
generation facilities. While such facilities do not present plants. They also represent the most demanding painting
any major differences in the basic approach to good paint- and the greatest challenge to the owner. Equipment and
ing, and while a properly engineered coating system can structures requiring painting are common to both types of
be developed for a power generation facility just as it can generating facilities, but there are special circumstances
for a chemical plant or petroleum refinery, each facility in each type of plant that deserve attention. Nuclear power
has special conditions, environments or regulatory plants have more regulatory restraints imposed which af-
restraints that will affect the selection of coatings fect all facets of critical coating work.
systems(’).
For the most part, power generation facilities, A. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
historically, were not located in aggressive environments. For nonradiation areas of nuclear power plants, paint-
Thus, painting systems were often selected on the basis of ing requirements generally are the same as for fossil
the lowest initial cost. While high performance was not a plants or other industrial complexes. However, in radiation
major consideration, there were some exceptions, most areas, a new set of criteria is imposed. It includes the abil-
notably, power plants located in sea coast environments, ity to be decontaminated and the ability to withstand con-
where higher quality coatings were justified because of ditions postulated for a Design Basis Accident (DBA) or
humid, salt-water environments. Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA) (Figure 2). There are
Several major developments in power generation have several ANSI and ASTM standards that pertain to coatings
resulted in significant changes in painting attitudes, and in nuclear plants (ANSI N5.12(*’, N101.2@),N101.4í4),and
more importantly, in requirements for paint performance. D4082, D4256, D4227, D4228, D4537). Refer to Part 45 of
Nuclear power generating facilities probably had the the ASTM “Nuclear Standards” for present and future stan-
greatest impact on painting practices. Because of special dards pertaining to nuclear plant coatings.
requirements for paint performance mandated by govern-
ment agencies, the quality of surface preparation, applica-
tion, paint and inspection has been raised to a level never
before required in the power generation industry (Figure 1).
In fossil fuel plants, particularly coal-fired, the enforce-
ment of air quality standards has forced installation of flue
gas desulfurization (FGD) systems at many facilities.
These systems have created chemical plants in each
power station resulting in aggressive, corrosive en-
vironments that tax the best protection system.
Other factors that have resulted in painting changes
include increased maintenance cost and aesthetic
awareness.
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In addition to protection required for structural steel,

there is a need for lining systems that can adequately
protect ferrous substrates in a totally immersed environ-
ment. These typically include hydraulic structures, various
storage tanks, and some process vessels. As is the case in
most industrial plants, painting is required in power plants
for protection against corrosion, for reasons of safety, or
for aesthetics, but not always in that order of preference. Courtesy Klaas Brothers, Inc. and
GilbertlCommonwealth
I. SPECIFIC PLANT REQUIREMENTS FIGURE 1
Installing the nuclear reactor at Hanford Station. The interior of
There are severalmethods for generating electrical the containment vessel is coated with a special nuclear grade
power. The greatest percentage of megawatts generated coating.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*L7=7 93 m 86279i.10 0003890 TLtb
Courtesy GilbertlCommonwealth
FIGURE 2
Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plan!, Middletown, PA. Uni! 1 is on right. Uni! 2 in operation (prior to accident).
Paint performance is of particular concern in areas where The potential for radioactive contamination
failure could jeopardize plant safety. associated with nuclear plants requires concrete surfaces
ANSI Standard N5.12 defines the most critical areas to be painted with materials similar to those used on steel
as “Coating Service Level I pertaining to those coating substrates.
systems, applied to structures, systems, and components, One of the most critical aspects of selecting coatings
which are essential to the prevention of, or the mitigation for “Coating Service Level I” is determining which system
of the consequences of, postulated accidents that could meets the criteria. Probably the most significant tests that
cause undue risk to the health and safetyof the public.” Of systems must pass include 1) the DBA, 2) exposure to
major concern are the consequences of failure on the safe radiation, and 3) ability to be decontaminated.
shutdown of the plant, mainly within the primary contain- The DBA test involves exposure to a temperature/
ment structure. Less critical areas exist in Service Level I l , pressureltime environment, plus certain spray solutions
which “applies to those coating systems which are essen- such as sodium borate, sodium thiosulfate, sodium
tial to the attainment of the intended normal operating per- hydroxide, andlor boric acid. Depending upon the nuclear
formance.” reactor design, the temperaturelpressureltime sequence
The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission can vary, with temperatures often exceeding 300°F and
(NRC) exerts control over nuclear power plants pertaining pressures approaching 70 psi. In addition, the coating
to public health and safety. Included are painting re- must withstand anticipated radiation levels and then be
quirements.* The previously mentioned ANSI Standards able to be decontaminated to acceptable levels. The
and more recent ASTM Standards detail critical items per- severity of these tests limits the generic types of coatings
taining to painting nuclear power plants. The nuclear that can pass and places a greater than normal emphasis
power generating industry requires strict performance on the total coating system including surface preparation,
criteria for coatings: extensive testing, quality assurance application, and inspection. Coatings that meet these
and quality control programs for manufacturers, ap- criteria for steel surfaces are inorganic zincs (Figure 3),
plicators and inspectors. The resistance of paint to long- epoxies, or modified epoxies. As with any critical applica-
term radiation exposure and decontamination procedures tion, there can be no compromise in the quality of surface
becomes the first concern. Corrosion resistance (other preparation and workmanship (Figure 4).
than from decontamination chemicals) and aesthetics are
less important. B. FOSSIL POWER PLANTS
‘Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10, Chapter 1, Energy, Office For many years, a great number of fossil fuel power
of the Federal Register, National Archives and Record Service, plants were fired with gas or oil. These are relatively clean
General Services Administration. Obtainable from the Superinten- fuels that do not Create Serious atmospheric COrrOSiOn
dent of Documents, Washington D.C., Part 50, Licensing of Pro- problems or place Special demands on paint performance.
duction Utilization Facilities (10 CFR 50). Even with coal fuel, there was little effect on paint re-
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at 303-397-2295.
C. COMMON PAINT PROBLEMS
Some areas in nuclear and fossil power plants have
painting requirements that are common with each other.
Some areas are innocuous, not requiring paint to provide
protection against corrosion but to fill aesthetic needs. Ex-
amples are the turbine-generator area and control rooms.
One of the more aggressive environments common to
both generating facilities is the water treatment area.
Demineralization units require acid and caustic for
Courtesy Mobil Chemical and GiIbertlCommonweaIth regeneration, creating a potential for chemical exposure to
spillage areas and adjoining painted surfaces. Further
FIGURE 3
Inorganic zinc coating applied to liner plate prior to assembly of discussion on painting water treatment facilities appears
nuclear reactor building at Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Plant. later in this chapter.
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Special precautions must be taken if successful cerv-

ice life is t o be achieved with most lining systems in im-
quirements since coal was generally high quality and low mersion service. There cannot be a successful service life
sulfur. i f frequent inspection and maintenance are not performed.
In recent years the use of high sulfur coals and The more aggressive the environment, the more frequent
restraints of local, state and federal agencies against the inspection. Few systems can be placed in immersion
discharging pollutants into the atmosphere have created a service without some failure occurring in the first year of
whole “new ball game” for painting in fossil fuel power service. A systematic program of inspection and repair can
plants. achieve a good service life. Frequent wash down is recom-
The need for FGD systems on many coal-fired power mended where chemical spillage occurs.
plants has created a very significant chemical plant opera-
tion on the end of these plants. The major impact has been II. SURFACE PREPARATION
on various lining materials that are required in vessels, ab-
With few exceptions, prior to the existence of nuclear
sorbers and ductwork, which often contain very aggressive
plants and FGD systems, the power generating industry
environments (Figure 5). Exterior exposures around these
was not prone to specify high quality surface preparation.
FGD systems often expose coated surfaces to highly Such an attitude was acceptable since high quality
alkaline environments due to the nature of the neutraliza- coating systems were not often specified. But now, a
tion chemicals used (lime, limestone). higher degree of sophistication has developed in the
Another problem created by plants burning high sulfur “engineered” approach to good painting practice because
coal is the highly acidic condition encountered around of the need for higher performance coating systems t o
the wet coal. Surface drainage from a pile of high sulfur satisfy requirements for nuclear service, to withstand the
coal can have a pH value of 2 or less. This acidic condition rigors of FGD systems, to reduce maintenance costs and
must be recognized when engineering a coating system. to provide better plant appearance.
Accepted standards for surface preparation have
been developed by the Steel Structures Painting Council‘B)
(SSPC). These are the final word on how a substrate should
be prepared. For immersion service, white metal blast
cleaning (SSPC-SP5) is much preferred.
Surfaces that are condensing and running wet (¡.e. in-
side of chimneys downstream of FGD systems) should be
considered as immersion service. Such an environment
can be more aggressive to coating systems than conven-
tional immersion service because of the higher rate of
moisture vapor transmission. There are few situations or
coating systems that compromise the requirement for a
white metal surface for immersion service, but the com-
promise would only down-grade to SSPC-SP 10, near-white
blast cleaning.
In less critical areas of nuclear and fossil plants,
coating systems are being built from the substrate up, re-
Courtesy Ameron and Gi,bertlCommonwealth quiring good quality surface preparation for most sur-
faces. Because of the increased availability of centrifugal
FIGURE 4
Spraypointing of contoured panel as a part of nuclear qualifica. wheel blasting equipment, either in steel fabrication or
tion of painters. paint shops, much of the major structural steel and equip-
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*L7.7 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003892 819
ment is being cleaned and primed in the shop. In most

cases commercial blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 6) is usually TABLE 1
spec if ied. FOSSIL FUEL PLANTS
Although there are exceptions, the use of hand tool or
power tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 2 and SSPC-SP3) is usually
Coal Handling: Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); in-
limited to touch-up, repair, or small items. Seldom are
organic zinc primer with epoxy topcoat, or a
these methods specified for major equipment items and
total epoxy system (primer and topcoat).
structural steel. With many developments in abrasive blast
equipment and techniques, plus the greater desire to ob- Structural Steel: Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); in-
tain high performance coating systems, there is an ever inorganic zinc primer with topcoats of either
creasing use of higher quality surface preparation epoxy, polyurethane, chlorinated rubber, or
throughout most power generation facilities. acrylic latex for exteriors; silicone alkyd on
interior, but usually with alkyd primer.
111. TYPES OF PAINT
Hydraulic Interior surfaces of circulating water lines,
It is difficult to state which coating systems are Structures: condenser waterboxes, and water treat-
typical for the power industry. However, with the emphasis ment equipment are often protected with
on high performance coating systems, including improve- phenolic, epoxy or coal-tar epoxy systems,
ment in surface preparation and a more engineered ap- flake glass polyesters, or sheet rubber.
proach, the quality of coatings has reached a new high. White-metal blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 5) is
Their performance is gauged by durability in severe generally specified, although near-white
metal blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 10) is often
chemical exposure (FGD systems); resistance to radiation,
used.
chemicals and heat (nuclear plants); and overall
aesthetics. These performance parameters, and other
High Temperature Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6) or bet-
regulatory restraints make it uneconomical to address the Surfaces: ter; use an all-silicone system or an in-
problem of paint selection casually. It is necessary to con- organic zinc alone or topcoated with a
sider carefully all aspects of the painting requirements silicone.
and to specify the appropriate coating for each plant sec-
tion. Mechanical Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); al-
Equipment: kyd primer and topcoat with alkyd enamel.
FGD Systems Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); epoxy

(Exterior): topcoat over inorganic zinc or use a total
epoxy system. Inhibitive pigments in alkyd
primers plus alkyd topcoats are used. Some
units are insulated.
FGD Systems White metal blast clean (SSPC-SP 5); condi-

(Interior) (Stacks, tions and designs vary greatly; reinforced
Duct Work, Venturi polyesters, fluoroelastomers, reinforced
Area): epoxies, rubber, foam glass block, and
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cementitious materials have all experi-
enced varied success.
Water Treatment Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); use an

(Exterior exposure): inorganic zinc primer and topcoats of vinyl
or chlorinated rubber.
Potable Water: White metal blast clean (SSPC-SP 5); use

coating systems suitable for potable water
such as epoxy or vinyl, per American Water
Works Association specifications.
Courtesy: GilbertiCommonwealth
FIGURE 5
Corrosion failure inside 1000 ft. flue gas stack of desulfurization
unit after 1% years service. Over 1700 holes were found in the
polyester lining and the stack itself due to acid attack. After re-
application of a fluoroelastorner, the unit is still in operation after
four years.
at 303-397-2295.
A. PRIMERS
Economics are an important factor in daily opera-
tions. Time is money. This also applies to painting, par- TABLE 2
ticularly in fabrication shops. With large quantities of steel NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
being shop primed, shop production must not be
obstructed by long delays waiting for primers to dry. There General: Criteria for selecting these systems include
is a need for fast-dry primers. identification of specific surface and
Care must be taken when specifying primers if the ma- substrate condition. Coatings criteria in-
jority of priming work is done in the shop. Fast dry primers clude temperature, humidity, radiation
are available in most generic types including alkyds level, decontaminability and chemical
(modified), epoxies, vinyls and inorganic zincs. Because of resistance. Level 1 coatings tests involve
their fast dry properties, these products usually require a resistance to fire, radiation, design basis
accident and unusual environmental condi-
cleaner surface than slow drying “penetrating” primers.
tions.
Another consideration created by construction prac-
tices is the result of extensive on-site storage of shop- White metal blast clean (SSPC-SP5); use in-
Suppression
primed equipment and structural steel. Construction time Chambers: organic zinc primers (without topcoats),
for most power plants, particularly nuclear, is 8 to 10 years, epoxy or modified phenolic primers and
with frequent delays being common. Most construction topcoats, or metallized aluminum, with
primers were not intended to withstand long-term outdoor epoxy or epoxy-phenolic topcoats.
storage without a top-coat. Frequently, shop-primed struc-
tures require total re-prime by the time they are ready for Steel White metal or near-white metal blast clean
top-coating because of their exposure to the elements. A Containment: (SSPC-SP 5 or SSPC-SP IO) with inorganic
partial answer to this problem is found in zinc-rich primers, zinc primer topcoated with an epoxy or
epoxy-phenolic, inorganic zinc primer (un-
particularly inorganic zincs.
topcoated), or prime and topcoat with an
As discussed in the chapter on zinc-rich paints, in-
epoxy or epoxy-modified phenolic.
organic zincs have excellent resistance to most outdoor
weathering environments, but are not problem-free. Since Concrete Walls Epoxy surfacers and topcoats to meet ANSI
zinc is a very reactive metal and is amphoteric (corroded by and Floors Standards.
both acid and alkaline environments), it can be attacked if
the construction site storage area is subjected to acid or Structural Steel: Generally the same as fossil plants.
alkaline fall-out from any up-wind facilities. Coal dust, a (Outside of
fact of life around fossil plants, can be detrimental to in- Containment)
organic zincs, either by their galvanic relationship (carbon
versus zinc) or the acidic conditions of some high sulfur Building Siding: Same as fossil plants.
coals. There have been problems with storage of inorganic
Hydraulic Generally same as fossil plants.
zinc primed structures due to inadvertent contact with un-
Structures:
coated steel (again a galvanic corrosion problem). Corro-
sion occurs by the formation of zinc salts from puddling Mechanical Same as fossil plants i f outside of contain-
water on the primed surfaces. Equipment: ment.
B. FINISH COATS Water Treatment Same as fossil plants.

Application of the finish coat(s) is typically done after
erection of major steel components, even though many in-
novative techniques have been proposed and used, ¡.e. rosion resistance. Acrylic-modified polyurethanes and
finish paint before erection. The variety of generic systems various water based epoxy coatings are also being used.
and specific requirements for each plant makes it impossi- In nuclear applications, inorganic zincs, modified
ble to say that there are specific systems unique to the phenolics and epoxy based materials have an edge over
power generating industry. The variety of generic types is a other generic types. Rigorous conditions imposed by DBA
help to the engineer who can tailor the paint system to test criteria have shown that these materials generally per-
meet each specific requirement of his plant. form best.
In many plants, aesthetics plays a major role, requiring There are many generic paints that have worked in
that painted surfaces maintain a “new” look (color and power generating facilities. As in other applications, the
gloss retention). A number of products can meet this proper choice must be determined from many factors
criterion including alkyd enamels, acrylic latexes, acrylics (cost, environment, application, service life). A great
and polyurethanes. At this time, polyurethanes represent amount of work has been done by SSPC, NACE(5),ASTM,
the newest development in industrial painting. They pro- and other technical organizations to acquire knowledge of
vide excellent color and gloss retention and give good cor- paint technology and optimize material selection.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*17-7 93 = 8b27940 0003894 691 W
IV. TYPICAL COATING SYSTEMS

Tables 1 and 2 list coating systems that have worked
well for the specified application. They indicate no prefer-
ence but list typical systems. The final choice m u s t be
made b y the coatings engineer, who m u s t tailor t h e selec-
t i o n t o meet his specific requirements.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Duane Bloemke, J. Byers, Harlan Kline, M. Masciale, Mar-
shall McGee, John Montle, Bill Pearson. T. Rudaitis, M. Shook, Bill
Wallace, Frank Windler.
worked in the petroleum industry, heavy chemical production, en-

gineeringkonstruction, and consulting engineering. He is a
registered professional engineer in several states, and a National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) certified Corrosion
Specialist. He holds memberships in the Steel Structures Painting
’
Council, NACE, the American Society for Testing & Materials, the
American Water Works Association and serves on several techni-
cal committees in each organization.
REFERENCES
1. American Society for Testing and Materials, “Manual of Coat-
ing Work for Light-Water Nuclear Power Plant Primary Contain-
ment and Other Safety-Related Facilities”. ASTM, 1916 Race
St., Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187, 1979.
2. American National Standard Institute, ANSI N512, “Protective
Coatings (Paints) for the Nuclear Industry”. ANSI, 11 West 42nd
St., 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036-8002, 1974.
3. American National Standard Institute, ANSI N101.2, “Protec-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tive Coatings (Paints) for Light-Water Nuclear Reactor Contain-

ment Facilities”. ANSI, 11 West 42nd St., 13th Floor, New York,
NY 10036-8002, 1972.
4. American National Standard Institute, ANSI N101.4, “Quality
Assurance for Protective Coatings Applied to Nuclear Facili-
ties”. ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10018, 1972.
5 . National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Publications
6D170, “Causes and Prevention of Coatings Failures”. National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, P.O. Box 218340, Houston,
TX.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LB*O 93 8b27940 0003895 528
CHAPTER 18
GOVERNMENT PAINTING PRACTICES

by
Richard W. Drisko and Howard G. lasser
The federal government is the largest purchaser of cured for stocking and storage by the federal government,
paints and painting services in the United States, spending GSA has responsibility for inspection and testing; if in-
hundreds of millions of dollars annually. Thus, in 1977, the dividual agencies procure such materials for their own
General Services Administration (GSA) spent about $58 use, then they have the inspection and testing respon-
million for 3400 paint items for stocking and subsequent sibility(*). Published specifications, standards and
distribution to federal agencies. About 60% of government qualified products lists are available from a single source,
painting is done under contract and about 40% (mostly the Navy Publications and Forms CenteP). In general,
maintenance) by in-house personnel. The trend is to in- when specifications and standards are used to provide a
crease the amount done under contract. Contractor- service to the federal government, commodity documents
furnished paint may be specification or proprietary and is become secondary references, and documents dealing
purchased directly from a supplier. with government contracts are used as the primary
Thousands of federal governmental activities, some reference~‘~.~).
very large and some quite small, each with its own
organizational structure, require painting services on a
periodic or continuous basis. In order for all these ac- I. MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS AND
tivities to procure quality materials and services in the STANDARDS
most economical and efficient manner, a common set of There are about 320 federal and 240 military specifica-
published procedures, standards and specifications is tions for paint and coating materials. These specifications
prepared. Although they may seem unnecessarily are of two general types - those associated with com-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
numerous and complicated, they were prepared to meet positional and those associated with performance re-
the many government requirements and still be fair for quirements. The latter may have a qualified products list
suppliers. A new procurement policy, the Federal Acquisi- (QPL) of approved suppliers for approved formulations(E).
tion Regulation (FAR), is being prepared for use by Federal Qualification may require both laboratory and exposure
Executive Agencies. It will provide a uniform regulation testing for conformance to specification requirements.
covering procurement and testing of paints. The fact that a product has been examined, tested and
This chapter provides basic information about opera- placed upon a QPL by the preparer of the specification
tional procedures of the federal government and advises signifies only that at the time of inspection and test the
state and local governments and private industry of manufacturer could make a product that met all specifica-
available specifications and standards. The federal tion requirements. It in no way relieves the supplier from
Freedom of Information Act makes all federal information, the obligation to deliver items meeting all requirements.
except that with a security classification, available to the There is a mandate from Congress to make greater use of
public. commercial standards because of availability and cost
In 1921, a standardization section was formed at the considerations. These standards are described as “rules,
National Bureau of Standards to establish requirements conditions, or requirements established by commercial
and a format for procurement specifications. This section standards-setting bodies concerning definition of terms;
became the nucleus of the Office of Standards and Quality classification of components; specification of materials,
Control in the GSA, which now generates federal specifica- performance, or operations; delineation of procedures; or
tions and standards. The GSA has responsibility for all measurement of quantity and quality in describing
federal standardization documents, except those describ- materials, products, systems, services, or practices”(7’.
ing items specifically for military use. The first military There are standard p r ~ c e d u r e s ( for
~~~preparation,
~~)
standard concerned the design of a rifle with inter- updating and cancellation of federal and military
changeable parts invented by Eli Whitney. From this the specifications as the need arises. The user is responsible
military standardization program developed into the for preparing a specification. The Materials and
Defense Supply Center located in Alexandria, VA. Mechanics Research Center, which lists all projects in the
The reponsibility for preparing procurement pro- Federal Standardization Class 8010 for the Department of
cedures for paints and coatings was assigned to GSA(‘) to Defense, establishes projects for each user requesting a
provide uniformity. If paint and coating materials are pro- project nurnber‘lol.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x L 8 . 0 9 3 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003896 464
Titles of specifications for paint materials use one tion or maintenance of structures such as bridges, storage
key noun (e.g., coating, paint, enamel, compound, etc.) tanks and buildings. They are frequently used in the
followed by descriptive adjectives (e.g., textured, vinyl, an- preparation of contracts.
ticorrosive, etc.). The federal code system for specifica- Several compilations or summaries of documents are
tions for paint and coating materials usually starts with available. A Guide to U.S. Government Paint Specifica-
TT-, followed by the first letter of the type of material (e.g., tions is available from the National Paint and Coatings
E for enamel, P for paint, C for coating, etc.) and a number. Association. This contains abstracts of most government
A letter, starting with A, is added after the number as documents with essential data on paint products and raw
modifications are made. Thus, TT-E-489F Enamel, Alkyd, material ingredients for quick reference (but not for bid-
Gloss (For Exterior and Interior Surfaces) is the code and ding use) by paint technologists, formulators, buyers,
title of the sixth revision of a specification for a commonly sellers and writers of specifications. It is updated about
used enamel. Specifications for similar materials are every three months.
sometimes grouped together. Thus, TT-P-300 to TT-P-500 Visual Search MicroFilm (VSMF) is provided by Infor-
are reserved for pigments. (Many of the pigment specifica- mation Handling Services. It provides not only microfilms
tions that previously fell in this category have been re- of all federal and military specifications, standards and
placed by ASTM specifications.) QPLs, but also federal supply schedules, including GSA
in addition to specifications, there are federal tests catalogs and federal construction specifications, stan-
(Federal Test Method Standard No. 141) and a few federal dards and regulations for use on microfilm readers and
standards (e.g., Federal Standard No. 595 Colors) that are printers. Microfilms of new and modified specifications
available from the Specification Distribution Branch of the (“Hot Specs”) are distributed every 15 days.
GSA(ll). A listing of all such specifications and a Federal The Department of Defense Index of Specifications
Supply Classification listing can be found in the Index of and Standards (DODISS) is published annually with
Federal Specifications and Standards, available on a cumulative bi-monthly supplements for each part (Part I -
subscription from the Superintendent of Documents. Alphabetical Listing; Part II - Numerical Listing). It is
Single copies of specifications for bidding can be obtained available at a subscription rate from the U S . Government
free from any GSA Business Service Center located in dif- Printing Office. An additional charge is required for foreign
ferent cities. mailing. The Federal Supply Classification Listing (a
Military specifications are distinct from other federal cumulative listing of documents alphabetically within their
specifications. They are generally written with the prefix FSC classes) is also available from the U.S. Government
Printing Office at a subscription rate with an additional
MIL- or DOD- (Department of Defense), followed by a code
letter designating the type of product and a number charge for foreign mailing.
assigned to each product. Federal and military specifica-
tions are being updated in metrics. When complete, the II. PAINT SELECTION, PROCUREMENT, AND
MIL- is changed to DOD-. MIL-P-15328C Primer (Wash) TEST1NG
Pretreatment was changed to DOD-P-15328D. Navy Many agencies prepare general guides for the selec-
coatings for ships frequently have formula and specification and use of paints and coatings. One of the best known
tion numbers. MIL-P-24441 includes formulas 150 through is the Tri-Service Manual, “Paints and Protective
156. A few JAN (Joint Army-Navy) specifications, forerun- Coatings”(I*). Another is the National Bureau of Stan-
ners of the MIL specifications, are still used. Military dards, “Organic Coatings - Properties, Selection and
Specifications, Standards, and Qualified Products Lists Use”[131,available from the U.S. Government Printing Of-
can be obtained from the Naval Publications and Forms fice. More specific instructions are also available. Of
Center. special interest because of excellent technical contents
There are a few specifications that have been issued are Naval Ships Technical Manual, Chapter 631 (formerly
by other federal agencies. These agencies include the 9190), “Preservation of Ships in Service (Paints and
Maritime Administration, the Bureau of Reclamation, Cathodic Protection)”[14’,General Specifications Section
Corps of Engineers and U.S. Postal Service. Many of these 631, “Guide for Painting Ships Under C ~ n s t r ~ ~ t i o n ” ~ ~ ~ ~
specifications have been changed to federal or military and U.S. Coast Guard Manual, “Coatings and Color
specifications. Specifications of such groups as the Steel Manua1”(I6).The previously mentioned specifications also
Structures Painting Council and American Association of provide much detailed information on painting specific
State Highway and Transportation Officials find occa- structures and provide guidance useful in preparing con-
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sional use by federal agencies. tracts.

Other procurement documents include purchase Federal Specification No. 595 Colors presents a col-
descriptions, type specifications, guide specifications and lection of standard colors used by the federal government
Military and Federal Construction Guide Specifications. for a variety of materials, including coatings. These stan-
Purchase descriptions cover items for a single procure- dard colors, identified by 5-digit numbers and defined by
ment. Type and guide specifications provide information colormetric data, can be used to select and procure a
covering a description of services required for construc- coating with the desired color. The standard also includes
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LB.O 93 m 8627940 0003897 3T0 m
%-by-I-inch chips for desk use and 3-by-5-inch chips

available in sets of 496 or as individual chips for inspec-
tion use. Kelly and Judd"') of the National Bureau of Stan- TABLE 1
dards describe a method or language of designating col- ADDRESSES OF REFERENCED ORGANIZATIONS
ors in simple, easily understood but accurately defined
leveIs. American Society for Testing and Materials
GSA purchases and stocks commonly used specifica- 1916 Race Street
tion paints in large volume so that it can supply these Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187
paints to agencies at a low price. Paints stocked by GSA General Services Administration
are analyzed for conformance to specification and Federal Supply Service
checked annually at one of its regional laboratories. Use is Environmental 8, Engineering and
made of the Class 8010 listing of the Federal Supply Commodity Management Center
Classification. Agencies usually have the authority to pur- Environmental, Engineering Policy Division (FCRE)
chase small volumes of paint from local suppliers. Washington, DC 20406-0001
Although GSA-supplied paints are tested for conform-
General Services Administration
ance to specification, a purchaser may have a paint tested Specifications Unit Branch
if there is reason to believe it has deficiencies. When L'Enfant Plaza
specification paints are purchased by a contractor for use Washington, DC 20407
at 'a government agency, the agency may accept an af-
fidavit from the supplier that the paint conforms to GSAIFSS
specification or have the paint analyzed by the supplier, a Paints & Chemicals Commodity Center
government laboratory or a private laboratory. Engineering Division (9FTE-1O)
GSA Center
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When government specifications list physical or
Auburn, WA 98001
chemical requirements for paint, they reference or
describe the methods of testing. Referenced methods are Information Handling Services
usually those of Federal Test Method Standard No. 141 or 15 Inverness Way East
the ASTM). The trend is to use ASTM rather than federal Englewood, CO 801 12
standards. When the desired test is so unique that it has
National Association of Corrosion Engineers
not been published in either of these sources, the method
P.O. Box 218340
must then be written in full in the specification.
Houston, TX 77218-8340
111. SURFACE PREPARATION AND PAINT National Paint and Coatings Association
APPLICATION AND INSPECTION 1500 Rhode Island Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20005-5597
Surface preparation standards used in government
contracts for painting steel surfaces are generally those of Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
the Steel Structures Painting Council118).The pictorial sur- 601 Pavonia Avenue
face preparation standards prepared by the Swedish IVA Suite 400
Corrosion Committee and jointly approved by SSPC, ASTM Jersey City, NJ 07306
and the Swedish Standards Association are occasionally
used in the field. Standards of the National Association of Standardization Documents Order Desk
Corrosion Engineers and Society of Naval Architects and 700 Robbins Avenue, Building #4, Section D
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094
Marine Engineers are less often used. The equipment and
methods for achieving these standard conditions are Steel Structures Painting Council
described in the Tri-Services Manual~lzl,National Bureau 4516 Henry Street
of Standards Building Science Series 7113),type specifica- Suite 301
tions, and special instructions, such as Chapter 631 of Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728
Naval Ships Technical Manual(14)'. The U S . Department of
Interior has published a paint manual describing the ap- Superintendent of Documents
plication and use of high performance systems for large U.S. Government Printing Office
hydraulic s t r ~ ~ t ~ Theser e ~ ~publications
~ ~ ~ . and the Washington, DC 20402-9325
specification itself provide general instructions for the
mixing, thinning, coverage, and application of specifica- U.S. Dept. of the Interior
Bureau of Reclamation
tion coatings. Suppliers of proprietary coatings provide
Box 25007
product data sheets on their coatings. Denver, CO 80225
Inspection of government painting contracts is usual-
ly conducted by trained government inspectors. These in-
spectors check for level of surface preparation, general ap-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LB.O 93 8627940 0 0 0 3 8 9 8 2 3 7
pearance of canned paints, adequate workmanship during professional and honorary societies including Sigma Xi and Tau Beta
Pi and is a registered professional engineer in the District of Colum-
application, required wet andlor dry film thickness, com- bia and the states of California and Virginia.
plete curing, acceptable appearance of applied paint, and
absence of holidays and other defects. They also check t o
REFERENCES
determine that a l l health, safety, a n d environmental
1. ”Selling to the Military”, Sup. Doc. Stock No. 008-000-00226-6,
restrictions are met in full. Superintendent of Documents.
The federal government has a unique system for the 2. “An Introduction to the Defense Supply Agency”, Public A f -
procurement of painting materials and services. It w a s fairs Office, Cameron Station, Alexandria, VA 22314.
3. “A Guide for Private Industry”, Department of Defense Single
designed to obtain such materials and services t h a t meet Stock Point for Standards and Specifications. 4ND-
satisfactory standards at minimum costs. It is only f r o m a NPFC-412013 (Ref. 1-75), Plate No. 17023, Navy Publications
thorough understanding of t h i s system b y government a n d and Form Center.
4. “How to Obtain Consideration for Architect-Engineer Con-
private industry t h a t a satisfactory relationship between tracts with Department of Defense”, Office of Assistant
t h e m c a n be reached. Secretary of Defense (I&L). Sup. Doc. No. 008-007-02778-6,
Superintendent of Documents, June 1976.
5. ”Selling to Navy Prime Contractors” NAVMAT P-1030. Chief
of Naval Material, Navy Publications and Forms Center, July
1976.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 6. ”F-M, Standardization Policies, Procedures, and In-
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active struction”, Defense Standardization Manual 4120.
participation of the following in the review process for this Superintendent of Documents, Jan. 1972.
chapter: AI Beitelman, Leon Birnbaum, Dave Bloodgood, R. Brady, 7. Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and
Paul Campbell, A. Chasan, T. Corboy, T.A. Cross, Hing Dear, Ted Budget letter to the Heads of Executive Departments and
Dowd, J. Foster, Harlan Kline, Melvin Sandler, and Bill Wallace. Establishments, Nov. 30, 1976.
The chapter was also presented to the following for advance 8. “Outline of Forms and Instructions for the Preparation of
review: B. Appleman, Duane Bloemke, R. Brown, Jack Kiewit, and Specimens and Associated Documents”, MIL-STD-961.Navy
Bill Pearson. Publications and Forms Center, Sep. 22, 1975.
9. “Outline of Forms and Instructions for the Preparation Stan-
dards and Military Handbooks”, MIL-STO-962. Navy Publica-
tions and Forms Center, Sep. 22, 1975.
10. “Standardization Directory 1 July 1977”, SD-1, Navy Publica-
BIOGRAPHY tions and Forms Center (updated quarterly).
Richard W. Drisko has BS, 11. “Paint, Varnish, Lacquer, and Related Materials; Methods for
MS, and PhD degrees from Testing of”, Federal Test Method Standard No. 141, Feb. 1,
Stanford University. He has 1979 with later change notices, Navy Publications and Forms
been employed at the Navy’s Center.
Civil Engineering Laboratory 12. Paints and Protective Coatings; Army TM 5-618, NAVFAC
since 1950 and is currently the MO-110, and Air Force AFM 85-3; Superintendent of Docu-
Director of the Materials Sci- ments.
ence Division. His special area 13. A.G. Roberts, “Organic Coatings Properties, Selection and
of expertise is protective coat- Use”. National Bureau of Standards Building Science Series
ings. He is a member of vari- 7, Feb 1978, Superintendent of Documents.
ous committees of the SSPC. He 14. “Preservation of Ships in Service (Paints and Cathodic Pro-
is also involved in the develop- tection)”, Chapter 631 (Formerly 9190). Naval Ship Systems
ment of their inspection manu- Command (1979). US. Government Printing Office.
al. He has belonged to several 15. “General Specifications for Ships of the United States Navy,”
technical societies such as the Section 631, Department of Navy, 1978, Superintendent of
American Chemical Society, the National Association of Corrosion Documents.
Engineers, and the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technolo- 16. “Coatings and Color Manual” CG 263, Department of
gy, serving in organizational offices and on technical committees, Transportation, U.S.Coast Guard, with Amendments 1 and 2,
chairing symposia and presenting papers, and authoring articles July 1973, Superintendent of Documents.
in scientific journals. He has also served in offices of civic, health, 17. K.L. Kelly and D.B. Judd, “Color - Universal Language and
and professional organizations and is a registered professional en- Dictionary of Names”. National Bureau of Standards, (Dec
gineer (corrosion) in the State of California. 1976). Superintendent of Documents.
18. John D. Keane, “Systems & Specifications”. Steel Structures
Painting Manual, Volume 2, 1982.
19. “Paint Manual”, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Reclama-
BIOGRAPHY tion, 1976.
Howard G. Lasser has BS,
ChE, and D.Eng. degrees from
Lehigh University, Columbia
University, and Darmstadt Poly-
technic Institute, respectively.
He has worked for different or-
ganizations in the federal
government for about 30 years
and industry for 12 years
specializing in application and
uses of coatings. Currently he
is a chemical engineer with
Materials Research Consul-
tants. He has authored about 500 technical articles and specifica-
tions and has received six patents. He is a member of numerous
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*LSmO 93 8627940 0003899 173
CHAPTER 19
TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR PAINTING

by
J a y / . Leanse
I. INTRODUCTION reduce costly mistakes caused by uninformed employees.

Another way to use training is to target and eliminate
Training programs are used by many companies that
specific or recurrent problems. If, for instance, delivery
want employees to become efficient and productive, par-
dates are constantly missed or certain coatings con-
ticularly where technical advances require improvement in
sistently present application problems or failures, a com-
knowledge and skills. In the coatings industry the use of
pany should take measures to correct the problems. Once
high performance protective coatings, the critical need for
identified, paint defects, which result in costly and time-
effective surface preparation and paint application, and
consuming work, can be eliminated. Thorough instruction
the development of sophisticated equipment make it
in airless equipment, for example, may be all that is
necessary to have ongoing training programs for workers.
necessary to reduce operator problems associated with
There are increasing numbers of government regula-
high pressure spray equipment.
tions affecting the entire coatings industry. To comply,
Training can be regarded as a motivation tool or as a
manufacturers must develop new materials. Trends away
“productivity initiator”. People generally want to do qual-
from low-solids systems have developed new technologies
ity work. But all workers must understand why things are
including coatings with at least 70% solids, two-part
done in a recommended way. If workers know why
catalyzed systems, emulsions and latices, water-soluble
coatings must be applied in a particular way, they take
and colloidal dispersions, powders, and radiation-cured
greater pride and satisfaction in the work, and the owner
systems.(V New systems require the development of dif-
gets desired results.
ferent equipment and application methods. Regulations
are felt in the paint shop in new procedures and tech-
II. STEPS FOR SUCCESSFUL TRAINING
niques. Changes in materials and equipment make the old
ways of painting unsatisfactory. New ways must be Application procedures must be followed correctly to
learned. produce high quality coatings. For this reason, emphasis
Procedures associated with development of the latest on motivation is an integral part of any training program.
materials and equipment must be communicated to those Workers must have a sense of pride and of the importance
responsible for the work. Training provides an ideal forum of their work. Without that feeling even the most dedicated
for transmission of information. worker can lose interest.
Training programs also make good economic sense. For training to be effective, the company must be
Most companies cannot afford to have their employees receptive t o change. Management must understand the
learn jobs by trial and error. For example, changes in resin need and objectives of training and support it. Training will
formulations are taking place in the coatings industry to not attain its potential if employees are not allowed to
accommodate other new technologies and regulations. practice what they have learned. Acceptance must come
Resin systems will be made of more constituents and from everyone - from upper management to supervisors
of higher priced raw materials. One anticipated result of and co-workers. In a study of problems that exist between
the changes in resin systems is that in ten years the learning and changes in behavior on the job, Katz@)says
average price of a chemical coating is expected to be three that once a worker recognizes a need to improve, and
to five times present levels. Higher prices makes it increas- wants to learn how, other conditions must exist in the work
ingly expensive to waste materials. environment. Primarily, it must be a permissive climate
Waste is not the only consideration with higher-priced where new knowledge and skills can be used. A company
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coatings. Painting a 50-foot freight car requiring an not hostile to change can reap the benefits of an
average of 29 gallons of paint cost $350 in 1977, including employee’s training experience.
stenciling and labor.@)A decade from now the cost of the Once the need for training is recognized, the next step
paint alone will be at least $500 - four times more than is to determine the areas of need. Specific problems must
the $130 spent for the paint in 1977. be pinpointed. This task is more difficult than it first ap-
Programs aimed at demonstrating correct procedures pears.
and techniques help to better use expensive materials and
452
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S . O 93 8627940 0003900 715
A. IDENTIFY TRAINING NEEDS application of inorganic zinc or in safety and health pro-
cedures. Who is trained depends on the previously deter-
A systematic approach helps determine the training
needs of a company. For example, a trainer wishing to mined needs. There is a great difference in training for
skills development and management responsibilities.
develop materials for painters and blasters must know
specifically what those workers should learn. The question Training related to painting procedures can also be
designed for employees in other departments. If an objec-
asked by the trainer, “precisely what do the operators need
to know to do the best possible job?” is commonly tive is to design clearer specifications, then spec writers
answered, “they must know everything about cleaning the should receive training, perhaps in conjunction with the
foremen in the paint shop. Other personnel who may be
surface and the equipment.” This may be true, but the
trained in the paint shop are QA and QC managers, field in-
answer is too general to be of any value. The identification
of specific tasks required of the operators must follow so spectors or supervisors and program managers.
An effective level for training is with new employees.
that appropriate and useful materials can be developed.
At this point basic skills instruction can be taught,
Trainers have developed a number of approaches to
especially if the employees are new to the field and un-
determine training needs. They include performance
familiar with elementary painting procedures. This is also
reviews, records, patterned interviews and surveys. One
systematic approach includes four relatively simple tech- a good time to introduce company policy to employees, no
matter what their status.
niques.WThe first of these is an individual performance ap-
Employees already with the company can also be
praisal. Once a person or group’s performance has been
trained. If an objective is to introduce new and better
evaluated, training can be developed in areas that
specifically need improvement. A supervisor or worker equipment and techniques to painters, employees must be
brought up-to-date on changes. Training can be used as a
should be able to isolate the problem. A second approach
is to conduct a more general survey. A list can be given to motivational tool, especially when an employee has poten-
tial and desire to move up.
supervisors asking them to rank the degree of need for dif-
Up and down the career ladder, all employees can
ferent areas. Results can determine the content of the
training program. A third method is to pre-test trainees to benefit from training, but only if the program is designed to
find what they already know. In training first-line super- meet specific needs. It cannot be over-emphasized that
problem areas must be carefully determined and analyzed
visors, for example, their field experience is a sound train-
to set objectives and decide which employees will benefit
ing basis. Simply build on and reinforce knowledge that
most from a training program.
already exists. If skills are going to be taught, a perform-
ance teat should be designed; i f knowledge or attitudes
are to be taught, a written test is appropriate.
C. TRAINING METHODS
The fourth approach is to seek help from an advisory Once a company decides whom to train and what to
committee of key people in the company. The committee teach, several training methods can be chosen. It is impor-
helps to determine training needs and later to implement tant to remember that training adults is different from for-
the program once designed. The trainer should be able to mal schooling. Training should be compatible with the way
present the committee with materials for consideration, adults learn. Trainers have identified certain patterns of
rather than asking broad and general questions. The pur- adult learning that are important when preparing training
pose of the committee is to advise from different view- programs. The following rules suggested by John Randall
points within the company. This kind of committee is apply to every type of learning, whether it is acquiring
valuable when asking for reactions to information skills, facts or changing attitudes.(’)
previously collected or for recommendations on how to Adults must want to learn; they must have some
proceed with training. sort of an incentive, such as job advancement or a
The four approaches provide a basis for a training pro- raise in salary.
gram. However, determination of needs alone does not Adults learn only if they feel a need and can see the
assure a successful program. Once needs are identified, a immediate benefits, such as learning a technique
logical step is to determine whether the problems can be that makes a job easier.
solved by training, or whether procedural changes would Learning and retention rates are highest among
be more effective. Training objectives should be outlined. adults if they have active involvement in the learn-
ing process, such as immediate practice and con-
B. WHOM TO TRAIN tinued use. This is especially true when learning
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Once objectives are determined, a training program new and unfamiliar skills.
can be designed and trainees selected. A program could Adults build new learning on their previously ac-
be designed for the entire paint department, with special quired knowledge and experience. This is both an
emphasis for different job categories. For example, first- asset and liability in terms of training. If knowledge
line supervisors can be trained for management duties interpreted in terms of past experience does not fit
while painters receive training in airless spray equipment, well with previous experience, it is likely to be re-
jected.

at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R t L 9 . 0 93 m 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 000390L b5L m
An informal environment is best. Even in classroom to a public course. In many cases, materials used in these
sessions adults should be treated as adults, not courses can be brought back and adapted to the training
chi Idren. needs of a company.
Adults learn better if information is presented in Outside courses offered by experts may be more cost-
several ways. The instructor should make strong ly than in-house training but offer advantages. Primarily,
impressions on the five senses, particularly seeing the courses are given by specialists who are also
and hearing. The more senses involved, the greater established trainers. In this situation people from different
the learning. The “shotgun” technique of using lec- companies share and interact and receive feedback from
tures, visual aids and group discussions appeals to trainers.
the wide range of individuals. A public course brings together trainees from dif-
Adults want guidance, not grades. They want to ferent companies that have similar jobs. In many courses
know how to measure their own progress without there are opportunities for small work groups where
fear of failure or humiliation. trainees discuss and solve problems. They may also be
In selecting a training method, advantages and disad- assigned certain tasks, such as writing a specification. By
vantages of each kind should be considered. interacting with workers from other companies a trainee
Probably the most questionable training is in self- must not only rely on his knowledge and skills, but can
taught programs. The success of these programs depends pick up valuable information from others.
on the student, who must have enough discipline and in- Training specialists can also design courses
terest to read materials, absorb information and use what customized to a particular company. All the advantages of
has been learned. Self-teaching programs present material having in-house training can be realized along with the ex-
in only one way and do not include practice, discussion, tra benefit of working with experts who have training ex-
guidance and feedback. This method is more suitable as a perience. There may be a cost-savings because the com-
guide rather than a teaching instrument. pany can hold the course on-site and train a large number
Ideally, on-the-job training is best. Since people are of employees at once without additional costs of transpor-
not perfect, they will make mistakes and acquire bad tation.
habits on the job. When one person passes knowledge
to another, the bad is picked up with the good. This is E. EVALUATION OF TRAINING
especially true in the “buddy system”. Even the most ex- After implementing a training program a company will
emplary worker, one who makes very few mistakes, may want to know if it was worth the time and expense.
not be able to explain the how’s and why’s of the job. In ad- Trainers are continually trying different techniques of
dition, an experienced worker may have developed a measuring changes in human behavior.(4) One way to
unique method or style of doing a job that works well for evaluate a training program is to measure it in terms of on-
him but not for an inexperienced co-worker. the-job results. A successful program will meet the objec-
Experience and practice for a new employee in on-the- tives set out in the beginning. Does the program address
job training is valuable and can be effective when com- specific areas of need determined by the company? If
bined with formalized training in a classroom. This training workers are applying knowledge and skills, are on-the-job
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can be implemented either by company staff or by outside improvements visible? Have the costs been reduced or pro-
trainers. duction increased? In addition to observing workers,
trainees can be asked if they felt it was effective. Trainees’
D. WHO TRAINS reactions and evaluations may provide valuable insights
The use of staff members is a cost savings to a com- for future programs.
pany implementing a training course. For example, a paint Unexpected benefits can also arise, for instance, im-
shop foreman may be chosen to develop training materials proved morale, a greater sense of identification with a
for painters because of experience in the field. The company and a decrease in organizational tensions. One
foreman is familiar with the company policies, procedures study indicated that from the supervisor’s viewpoint, what
and objectives, as well as methods used. Trainees may they learned was a secondary benefit of training.(3) Re-
know the foreman and there is no need to establish searchers found the primary benefit was that trainees had
credibility. an opportunity to share and discuss problems with others
There are some drawbacks. First, he may have no in similar fields. The fact that the company had involved
experience in developing training materials and courses. them in a training program showed their problems were a
An excellent foreman may be a terrible instructor. Sec- concern of management. Being included in the program
ond, his responsibilities as a trainer are an addition to also instilled a sense of importance among a group of
his regular work. The training program is therefore not a workers who found themselves easily frustrated by their
top priority and the extra work may cause resentment. jobs. All of these factors contributed to a decrease in per-
if the paint foreman is unfamiliar with designing and sonnel tensions.
implementing training courses, the company can send him
454
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*Lï.O 93 8627940 0003902 598
Even the m o s t successful training program should not

be considered a cure-all for a company’s problems. Never-
theless, a properly-implemented program, designed for
specific needs, provides a m o r e effective workforce and
contributes t o the company’s u l t i m a t e protective coating
objectives.
B y implementing a training program a company can
fill i t s ranks w i t h efficient employees w h o will increase
productivity. Educated employees are likely t o b e more ef-
ficient workers than those who have received no training.
W i t h greater efficiency among employees, productivity is
increased and c o s t s are reduced. Trained workers do a j o b
right the first t i m e and t h u s eliminate work and c o s t over-
runs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Robert F. Bra’dy, Jr., Alexander S. Chasan, Dr. Richard
Drisko, Robert Klepser, R. McClelland, Marshall McGee, E.
Praschan, L.M. Sherman, and William J. Wallace, Jr.
BIOGRAPHY
Jay I. Leanse is Chairman of
the Procos Group of Companies,
manufacturers and distributors
of paints, coatings and color. In
addition, he is President of the
Institute of Applied Technology,
a technical and training organi-
zation concerned with painting
and coating practices and
productivity.
REFERENCES
1. John D. Keane and Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., “Evaluation of Low-
Solvent Maintenance Coatings for Highway Structural Steel,”
Steel Structures Painting Council, October 1981.
2. Anonymous, “Working on the Railroad,” Modern Painfs and
Coatings, October 1978.
3. James A. Belasco, and Harrison Trice, “Unanticipated
Returns of Training,” Training-and Development Journal, July
1969.
4. Ronald J. Burke, “A Plea for Systematic Evaluation of Train.
ing,” Training and Development Journal, August 1969.
5. Robert Katz, “Human Relations Skills Can Be Sharpened,”
Harvard Business Review, July-August 1956.
6. Donald L. Kirkpatrick, “Determining Training Needs: Four
Simple and Effective Approaches,” reprint from Training and
Development Journal, 1975.
7. John Randall, “You and Effective Training: Part 2 - The Lear-
ning Process,” Training and Development Journal, June 1978.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 0 - 0 3 3 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003903 4 2 4
CHAPTER 20
THERMAL SPRAYED COATINGS

by
S.J. Oechsie and J.N. Childs, Jr.
Thermal spraying, formerly called metal spraying, or pounds per hour (27 kglhr) or aluminum at the rate of 17
metallizing, is an effective type of protective coating, pounds per hour (7.7 kglhr). This is equivalent to 1000 sq. ft.
either by itself or in combination with organic coatings. In of zinc coating per hour 1 mil thick (93 sq. ml25p) or 1250
practice, the two most common metals applied by the sq. ft. of aluminum coating per hour 1 mil thick (116 sq.
technique are zinc and aluminum. mi25p). Because of field conditions, such as erecting scaf-
Thermal spraying is the only practical method of ap- folding, changing wire, moving, etc., these rates are rarely
plying metallic coatings to large fabrications, often in the practical and actual rates are more likely to be 60-65% of
field. The metallic sprayed surfaces are excellent bases these amounts. Such wire guns typically weight three to
for accepting sealers andlor applying top coats that bond five pounds (1.4-2.25kg) are used in much the same manner
strongly to the metal coating. as paint spray guns and can be readily handled at the end
Metallic coatings with or without topcoats often offer of a considerable length of oxygen, fuel and air hoses,
unique properties to help solve some corrosion problems often in excess of 200 ft. (60 meters). The hoses and feed
that organic coating systems alone cannot provide, par- wire make the handling of the gun a little more difficult
ticularly in galvanic protection or abrasion resistance. than would be suggested by the light weight of the gun
This discussion provides familiarity with thermal alone.
spraying, and covers the types of thermal spraying equip- Another type of thermal spray gun is the plasma spray
ment, principles o f operation, hazards involved, gun. In this process the metal is introduced into the
characteristics of sprayed metal, nature of protective func- plasma arc cavity in powder form in a gas stream and pro-
tions, the extremely important subject of surface prepara- jected onto the prepared surface by the force of the
tion and the use of sealers and topcoats. plasma jet. The gun is light, like the oxygen-fuel gas gun
The American Welding Society through its C-2 sub- described above, but attached to it are two fairly stiff elec-
committee on thermal spraying is an up-to-datesource on tric leads and the powder feed hose, all of which tend to
all aspects of the subject and publishes a wide variety of decrease maneuverability. The metal-sprayed deposit rate
information. In particular, its publication, "Corrosion Tests is about the same as with the oxy-fuel gas equipment. The
on Flame-Sprayed Coated Steel - 19 Year Report", is a plasma spray equipment requires a special power source,
valuable practical report on the results one can expect and the lead distance from this source is appreciably less
from actual tests in a wide variety of industrial and marine than the case of the oxy-fuel gas equipment.
atmospheres. Some oxy-fuel gas thermal spraying equipment uses
The large subjects of thermal spraying for repair of powder as a source of coating material. As in the plasma
mechanical parts and for obtaining desired surfaces in the arc equipment, the powder is introduced in a gas stream
manufacture of new equipment and engines are not (usually air) into the combustion area. The oxy-fuel gas
discussed in this article. powder equipment is of interest because it can be used for
the thermal spraying of certain organic materials such as
I. TYPES OF EQUIPMENT powdered thiokol or polyethylene.
The thermal spraying process consists of melting the Another type of thermal spraying equipment is the
metal or ceramic and then spraying it onto a prepared sur- electric arc gun. In this equipment the tips of two wires are
face by means of compressed gas, which aids in the divi- brought together so they arc continuously in the presence
sion of the molten particles and the projection from the of an air jet. The molten metal is conveyed to the prepared
vicinity of the melting onto the surface. One tool common- surface by the air jet. This equipment is bulkier and
ly used is a hand-held gun with an air motor that draws the somewhat heavier than any of the equipment described
metal in wire form through knurled feed rolls into an above and with six leads (two power cables, two wire
oxygen-fuel gas flame where the wire is melted. The feeds, one air hose, and one electric control cable) is more
molten metal is then projected onto the prepared surface awkward to handle. On the other hand, the deposit rate is
by the products of combustion augmented by an air blast. considerably higher, by a factor of two to three. The
The metal wire, (usually zinc or aluminum) is ordinarily deposit is usually slightly less dense than in the case of
or Jlis" (3.2mm or 4.8 mm) diameter. Such a gun is capable the oxy-fuel gas equipment.
under ideal conditions of spraying zinc at a rate of 60 The requirement that the power supply be relatively
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 0 . 0 93 = 8627940 0003904 360
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close to the gun tends to limit maneuverability, particularly sprayed coatings are formed helps in understanding these
when scaffolding is involved. characteristics. As the molten particles are torn away from
the wire tip, they assume a roughly spherical shape that is
II. OPERATIONAL PRACTICE maintained in transit. Upon striking the surface, the par-
ticles flatten into irregular-shaped discs and at the same
Most field work in thermal spraying is performed with
time flow into the pores and irregularities of the surface.
oxy-fuel gas, wire fed equipment. The discussion that
Part of the attachment is due to mechanical interlock, and
follows will describe the practical hook-up and operation
part of it is due to the chemical affinity of the sprayed
of such equipment. Much of the discussion also applies to
metal for the prepared surface. The measurements of bond
use of plasma, powder, or electrical arc equipment.
strength between the coating and the base are not fully
Oxygen and fuel gas (usually acetylene or propane,
verifiable; but indications are that it varies from a few
particularly the latter i f the hoses are long and safety con-
pounds to about three thousand pounds per square inch,
siderations keep acetylene bottles from certain areas) are
depending on the type of surface preparation, the kind of
connected through two stage regulators to the gun. For
coating metal, and the method of measurement.
best operation, flowmeters should be used. Flowmeters
As the coating is built up, a thin oxide film is formed
(usually tapered glass calibrated tubes) permit accurate
on the particles as they accumulate on the surface. Total
volumes and ratios of gases to be obtained independent of
oxide in the coating runs from 0.5% to 3.0%,depending on
inaccurate regulators or hose friction. Excess oxygen
results in coatings containing considerable oxides accom- the coating metal and the spray technique. Because of ox-
panied by low spraying speeds and poor atomization. The ide inclusion and the incomplete filling of pores, the
compressed air should be as free of excessive oil and specific gravity of the coating is 85% to 95% of that of the
moisture as is practical, and some kind of filter should parent wire.
always be used. A pressure regulator just for the gun itself As the molten particles flatten and are quenched
is important in producing a good and consistent quality against the surface, the contraction of freezing and normal
thermal contraction produce a tendency to “shrink”. This
coat ing.
tendency varies with different metals, and is important in
Areas to be sprayed should be marked off, and the re-
deciding the type of surface preparation needed, since the
quired amount of wire for each area should be weighed
“shrink” imposes a stress on the bond to the base. Thick
carefully and placed on a wire reel stand. Once the gun
coatings require a more thorough blast preparation (¡.e.,
is ignited, the wire speed is adjusted to obtain proper
coarser abrasive, higher pressure) than thin coatings,
atomization and deposit, usually by adjusting a regulator.
since the stresses developed are cumulative.
In order to minimize fatigue on the operator, he normally
Zinc and aluminum are the only metals widely used in
does an area about 18 inches square (.46 m sq.) completely
preventing corrosion of steel structures. Some of the
before proceeding to another area. The gun should be held
physical properties of sprayed deposits of these metals
at 6 to 10 inches (15 cm. to 25 cm.) from the surface and as
are given below. The practical thickness of a sprayed
nearly perpendicular to the surface as possible. Straight
aluminum coating is in the range of 0.002 inches to 0.010
uniform passes should be made, overlapping somewhat on
inches (0.05 mm to 0.25 mm) applied over a minimum sur-
each pass. After the square is covered, the operation
face profile of 0.002 inches (0.05 mm) at the lower coating
should be repeated - this time with the passes at right
thickness range and over a minimum roughness etch of
angles to the previous passes.
0.0045 inches (0.1 1 mm) at the 0.010 inch (0.25 mm) coating
The thickness of the deposited coating can be
thickness range.
checked with a magnetic thickness gage. After a little
Sprayed zinc, with its greater ductility, can be prac-
practice, an operator will learn about how fast he must
tically applied over a much larger thickness range, ,003
move to put down a given coating thickness per pass
inches (0.08 mm) to 0.025 inches (0.64 rnm) or more, over a
(usually 2 to 3 mils or 0.05 to 0.08 mm). Inspection of a fair-
minimum surface profile of 0.001 inches (0.03 mm) at the
ly large area (approximately 100 sq. ft. or 9.3 sq. m.) should
lower coating thickness range and over a surface profile
be made with a magnetic thickness gage soon after it is
etch of 0.003 inches (0.08 mm) at the 0.010 inch (0.25 mm)
finished. This will permit additional metal to be deposited
or more coating thickness range.
in areas before the surface has a chance to become damp
Bond strengths of three thousand pounds per square
or otherwise contaminated.
inch are achievable, and with plasma or electric arc equip-
ment can be considerably higher. The most important
‘‘l. CHARACTERIST’CS
OF SPRAYED METAL practical element in obtaining good bond strength is sur-
Certain characteristics are common to all sprayed face preparation. The appearance of the metal sprayed
metal deposits, and a knowledge of the manner in which surface is similar to that of medium grit sandpaper.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 0 . 0 93 8627940 0003905 2T7
TABLE 1
PROPERTIES OF SPRAYED METAL DEPOSITS
Spec. Gravity
Tensile Strength* Shrink (Yo of Hardness
Sprayed Metal (PSI) kgkm2 (infin.) Orig. Wire) (Rockwell)
Aluminum 19,500 (1371) 0.007 94.1 H 72
Zinc 13,000 ( 914) 0.01o 89.0 H 46
*These figures will vary with the method of measurement and are intended as a guide only.
IV. NATURE OF PROTECTION tions inherent in the usual cathodic protection systems.
Sprayed coatings of these metals protect electrochemical-
There are three basic methods of protecting steel
ly in atmospheric exposures as well as underground or im-
against corrosion. The first and most common method is
mersed in water. When steel is exposed, as by mechanical
the exclusion of the environment from the metal, by means
damage, the adjacent sprayed metal will confer elec-
of painting, plating or dipping, metallizing, vitreous
trolytic protection over considerable areas in some en-
enameling, cladding, or sheet lining. The second is based
vironments.
on reducing the aggressiveness of the reagent which
Aluminum coatings are usually slightly cathodic to
reaches the surface. This may be done with inhibitive
steel when freshly sprayed, due to the oxide film surround-
pigments in paints or by inhibitors added to the reagent, as
ing the particles that make up the coating. As the coating
in a re-circulating water system. The third is by cathodic
weathers, the potential reverses and the coating becomes
protection.
anodic. This reversal requires only a few minutes or hours
The protection provided by sprayed metal systems
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in salt water but may require several weeks in atmospheric

employs to some extent all three of these principles. These
exposures. As a result, unsealed sprayed aluminum when
principles will be discussed in the order given above.
exposed in a humid atmosphere will often show a light red
Exclusion of the environment may be accomplished in
oxide staining on the surface after a few days. An ex-
some cases by using sprayed metal with no sealer. As
amination of the aluminumlsteel interface will disclose no
sprayed, the coatings are slightly porous and will transmit
visible rusting of the base, and the bond to the base is not
moisture more readily than even a very poor paint system.
measurably impaired. But since stained surfaces are un-
However, in some environments the pores are soon filled
sightly, a sealer is generally used on sprayed aluminum for
with salts formed within the coating itself, and thus the
atmospheric exposures. Sometimes the fresh, aluminum
coating becomes relatively impermeable. Since it is not
sprayed surface is treated with an anodizing solution to .
always easy to determine the effects of the environment,
make the surface almost immediately anodic.
sprayed metal coatings are frequently given a sealing
treatment. Cathodic sprayed metal coatings such as bronze,
monel, stainless steel, etc., are seldom used as protective
Inhibitive pigments used in paint systems for steel
coatings on structural steel because their cathodic
structures may be added to the prime coat, and may also
nature stimulates attack of the base steel when steel is ex-
be a part of the body or top coats. Generally, such
posed to alkaline solutions with a pH of 11 or more.
pigments as zinc chromate are slightly soluble and their
use is limited to the prime coat. When sealers or paints are
used with sprayed metal, a prime application containing V. SURFACE PREPARATION FOR
an inhibitor is generally useful and often essential. Such METALLIZING
coatings passivate the surface and have some compatibil- In order to bond properly, sprayed metal coatings re-
ity with moisture, in addition to their inhibitive properties. quire a thoroughly cleaned and roughened base. For most
It should be noted here that primers are not needed to pro- corrosion preventive work, only abrasive blasting can pro-
mote bonding of body or finish coats to the sprayed metal; duce suitable surface characteristics. Cleanliness is im-
the texture of sprayed metal is such that peeling of paint portant regardless of the type and thickness of the coating
coats is not encountered unless there is a rather violent metal. Fingerprints or other traces of moisture or con-
reaction under the paint film. tamination may result in practically no bond. Slight rust
Cathodic protection provided by sprayed zinc or discoloration, such as may appear on blasted surfaces
aluminum coatings is not subject to many of the limita- after a few hours, does not necessarily impair the bond

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 0 - 0 93 8627940 0003906 133
seriously, but the presence of rust indicates a strong prob- the sprayed metal.
ability that some adsorbed moisture will seriously affect It requires even more paint i f the final surface is
the bond. to be relatively smooth for easy cleaning.
Oil or moisture originating in the air used for the blast Because not every organic sealer or top coat is
operation can cause trouble. Thus, additional oil or compatible with the sprayed metal, con-
moisture separators are often required or specified in the siderable care must be exercised in selecting a
compressed air lines. Occasionally, even the humidity of formulation.
the air in contact with the area to be sprayed must be con-
trolled. Dehumidifiers with large volumes, for instance, C. REQUIREMENTS FOR SEALERS
can be used inside closed vessels and ships.
Thick sprayed metal coatings require a rougher sur- The principal requirements of paints or sealers to be
face than thin coatings, and aluminum requires a rougher used with sprayed metal are as follows:
surface than zinc of equal thickness. With any given 1. They must be resistant to the environment.
abrasive, roughness may be increased somewhat by in- However, paints that might fail by crazing or
creasing the air pressure. As a rule, however, the required loss of adhesion on other surfaces can
roughness is obtained by selection of the proper abrasive. sometimes be used because of the better anchor
Several types of abrasive, so long as they are angular available over sprayed metal.
and sharp, may be used for the blast cleaning operation. 2. Coatings must be chemically compatible with the
On inside work where the abrasive can be reclaimed, sprayed metal. Some formulations that perform
angular chilled iron grit or aluminum oxide is generally well on steel fail rapidly on zinc or aluminum. For
used. This material may be reused from ten to one hundred example, short oil phenolic varnishes generally
times if kept free from contamination and excessive fines. fail rapidly when applied to sprayed zinc and ex-
The most commonly used material for inside work is posed to a wet environment. Vinyl copolymers ap-
angular chilled iron grit, size numbers SAE G-18and G-40. plied directly to zinc, without a wash primer,
The size depends on degree of roughness and bond sometimes blister in a short time. Films formed
strength required. Suction feed, force feed, and centrifugal from tung or linseed oils or alkyds may become
blast machines are used. Adequate ventilation or respira- slightly acidic under some conditions and may
tory protection and eye and ear protection must be pro- disbond when used in paints applied to aluminum.
vided for the operator. Bituminous paints or enamels should be used
with caution over zinc, but have stood up well on
VI. COMBINATION SYSTEMS aluminum in some cases.
At first consideration it would seem unnecessary, 3. Coatings must have good penetrating ability.
redundant, and overly expensive to treat a zinc or Heavy, viscous paints applied directly to the
aluminum sprayed coating with a sealer or to apply a sprayed metal may do more harm than good. Such
paint, but there are many advantages to doing so and pres- paints allow moisture to enter unfilled pores in
ent practice is to employ such treatment in almost all the sprayed metal and to cause blistering. Heavily
cases. pigmented paints should be avoided except as
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topcoats after the pores are filled with one or

A. ADVANTAGES OF SEALERS more coats of sparingly pigmented paint.
Among the advantages of combination coatings are: The fact that organic materials must be compatible with
the sprayed metal cannot be emphasized too strongly.
Providing both barrier and cathodic protection
There are far too many examples of failures because one
against corrosion;
application firm applied the metallized coating and a sec-
Providing superior adhesion for painting as
ond applied a paint coating on top of it that should not
compared to most metal surfaces;
have been used. It would have been far better to leave the
Permitting the wide variety of color finishes
metallic coatings bare and uniformly corroded than to
that are available in paints;
cause spot failures and localized corrosion.
Reducing tendencies of the sprayed metals to
A wash primer, preferably of the polyvinyl butyral type
retain dirt and dust; and containing not over 4% by weight of phosphoric acid in
Offsetting the relatively high cost of sprayed the mixed material, should be used with coating systems
metal by using a thinner sprayed coating and a that will be exposed to wet environments. It should also be
proper sealer.
used, regardless of environment, i f there is any chance
that the sprayed metal has absorbed any moisture prior to
B. DISADVANTAGES OF SEALERS the painting operation. If the wash primer is omitted,
Disadvantages of sprayed metal as a paint base are: blistering is almost certain under the above conditions. A
It usually requires more paint to cover a given suitable wash primer is US. Military Specification DOD-
area because of the rough and porous nature of P-15328; application is covered by Steel Structures Paint-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 0 . 0 93 8627940 0003907 07T W
ing Council Specification SSPC-Paint 27, “Basic Zinc zinc and aluminum coatings does not depend
Chromate-Vinyl Butyral Wash Primer”. on the surface preparation (other than a clean,
Sealers or top-coats based on vinyl co-polymers or dry, abrasive blasted surface preparation). The
vinyl-alkyds have given excellent results with sprayed use of a steel flash-bond coat is not essential.
aluminum. Formulations of this type perform well with
VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS AND COSTS
sprayed zinc, but in the case of zinc the wash primer
should be used. Generally, phenolic base paints or var- The principal choices in connection with a specific
nishes should not be used over sprayed zinc, and the use application are whether to use zinc or aluminum as the
of straight oil base paints is not recommended. coating material and whether or not to use a sealerltop
As a rule, the pigments used in paints are not a coat. The characteristics and special evaluations of these
critical factor, particularly in the newer vehicles, which choices may be summed up in the following paragraphs:
provide films having low permeability. However, red lead
pigments have not been satisfactory in paints used over A. ZINC
sprayed zinc, and some failure of red lead pigment paints Zinc wire with a minimum purity of 99.9% is used. A
applied to sprayed aluminum have been reported. coating 0.003 inches (0.08 mm) thick provides one and one-
Pigments such as zinc, zinc oxide, aluminum powder or half ounces per square foot of surface (460 glsq. m.)
flake, titanium oxide, or white lead have all been used in and compares in weight with the average galvanized
paints that performed well over both zinc and aluminum. coating. However, the user is not limited to this thickness,
but may apply coatings up to 0.020 inches (0.5 mm) thick.
Zinc applied by hot-dipped galvanizing has a life roughly in
VII. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
proportion to its thickness. The same is generally true of
A program sponsored by the American Welding Soci- heavy coatings of sprayed zinc and of light coatings i f
ety subcommittee on Thermal Spraying studied the actual properly sealed. Unless sealed, thin coats of sprayed zinc
results of more than four thousand test panels exposed to 0.001 inches to 0.003 inches (0.025 mm to 0.076 mm) may
various environments at eight different test sites for nine- corrode quickly because of electrolysis which occurs at
teen years. The results of this program have been pub- the voids. Under conditions that result in the formation of
lished in “Corrosion Tests of Flame-Sprayed Coated Steel dense, relatively insoluble salts in the pores of the zinc,
19-Year Report”, AWS-C2-14-74,Miami, Florida. Exposures sealing may not be necessary. Such a condition would ex-
include total and half tide immersion in sea water, as well ist in well aerated fresh water having a pH value of 8 to 9.
as rural, seacoast and industrial atmospheres. (See Ap- Zinc is at its best in the pH range of 7 to 10, but under some
pendix A.)The report lists the results in eight general areas conditions it may show good resistance in slightly acidic
as follows: (See Appendix A of this chapter for the conclu- environments.
sions as they appear in the 19-Year Report.) On outside structures having areas not readily ac-
1. Aluminum-sprayed coatings cessible, zinc probably has an advantage over aluminum
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2. Unsealed zinc-sprayed coatings because of the greater electrolytic protection it affords. In
a sense, sprayed zinc coatings can often be considered as
3. Severe marine atmospheres
a form of cathodic protection. Sprayed zinc used on
4. Thincoats of aluminum coatings underground or immersed surfaces will confer a measure
5. Damaged aluminum coatings of protection to other parts of the structure that are bare.
6. Effects of surface preparation While there may be some superficial rusting at adjacent
7. Flame sprayed coatings areas, heavy attack and pitting is often prevented in the
same way that zinc slabs on a ship hull prevent serious pit-
8. Chlorinated rubber
ting at breaks in the paint. The coating will, of course,
For those who have followed these tests through the sacrifice to the extent that it protects bare steel areas, and
six-year and nine-year reports, the most striking results if the ratio of bare area to coated area is large, the coating
were: cannot be expected to last very long.
Many of the metallic coatings look as though Highly reactive wash prime treatments containing
they will continue to succeed for another nine- over 4% by weight of acids, which may be suitable for hot-
teen years. dipped zinc, should not be used prior to applying sealers or
The aluminum sprayed panels survived the ex- top-coats. Straight oil bases, alkyd-oil bases, and short oil
posure better than the zinc sprayed ones. of 100% phenolic bases are not generally satisfactory.
The thickness of the sprayed aluminum does Recommendations of recognized contract shops should
not appear to be a major factor in protection. be taken with regard to the proper sealers, usually special
The corrosion protection afforded by sprayed vinyls. Chlorinated rubbers are not recommended.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 0 . 0 73 m 8627740 0003908 T o b m
TABLE 2
TYPICAL THERMAL SPRAYED SYSTEMS
EXPOSURE SPRAYED METAL THICKNESS SEALING OR PAINTING

Rural Atmospheres Aluminum 0.004’’ 0.1 mm Sealed with 1 coat of clear vinyl or
epoxy.
Rural Atmospheres Zinc 0.003” 0.076 mm Painted with 2 coats aluminum vinyl
or 1 coat of anti-corrosivevinyl with
colored vinyl or vinyl alkyd top coat.
Industrial Atmospheres
Mild (light) Aluminum 0.004’’ 0.1 mm Sealed with 1 coat of clear vinyl or
epoxy.
Severe (heavy) Aluminum 0.006’’ 0.15 mm Painted with 2 coats of aluminum
vinyl or colored alternate as above.
Marine Atmospheres
Mild (light, no salt spray) Zinc 0.006’’ Wash primer and aluminum vinyl op-
0.15 mm
tional.
Severe (heavy with spray) Zinc 0.012” 0.3 mm Wash primer and aluminum vinyl op-
tional.
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Severe (heavy with spray) Aluminum 0.006’’ 0.15 mm Wash primer and aluminum vinyl.
High Humidity Atmosphere Zinc 0.004’’ 0.1 mm Painted with 3 coats of aluminum
vinyl.
Fresh Water Immersion
Below 120°F. (49°C.) Zinc 0.010’’ 0.25 mm No subsequent treatment.
pH above 6.57.5
Salt Water Immersion Zinc 0.012” 0.3 mm Wash primer and aluminum vinyl op
tional.
Salt Water Immersion Aluminum 0.006’’ 0.15 mm Wash primer and aluminum vinyl.
High Temperature Aluminum 0.006’‘ 0.15 mm Two coats aluminum silicone
paint.
B. ALUMINUM C. TYPICAL METAL SPRAYED SYSTEMS

The results of the AWSC2.14-74 19-Year Report have Thickness of sprayed metal coatings is determined by
done much to do away with any hesitation regarding use of the severity of the exposure and by the required life of the
sprayed aluminum as a protective coating. coating system. Obviously, it would be wasteful to apply a
Aluminum has many advantages over zinc for certain protective system that would be expected to last twenty
classes of work. It has better resistance to slightly acid en- years to a structure that will be obsolete in five or ten
vironments, and has been used in contaminated waters years. Furthermore, on structures where periodic repaint-
having a pH value as low as 3.0. It has better resistance ing will be done to maintain good appearance, thin
than zinc to sea water, brine, or salt atmospheres. It has sprayed metal coatings will serve as well as heavier and
much better resistance to industrial atmospheres than more expensive coatings.
does zinc, whether used as sprayed, or as a paint base. Table 2 shows thicknesses and supplementary treat-
When only a small part of a submerged structure is to ments commonly recommended for the various types of
be coated, aluminum should be used instead of zinc. The exposure. When the term “sealed” is used, it indicates a
potential difference between aluminum and steel is low single application of clear sealer such as vinyl lacquer or
enough so that aluminum will not sacrifice rapidly, except clear phenolic varnish. The term “painted” indicates a
in extreme cases. Zinc, on the other hand, will dissipate treatment that not only fills the pores but also forms a film
rapidly under such conditions. on the surface, with materials such as vinyls, vinyl alkyds,
The same factors in selecting sealing or top-coats ap- or suitable enamels. These recommendations are useful
plicable to zinc are generally applicable to aluminum. as a general guide. However, each job should be con-
Selection of chlorinated rubber is not recommended. A sidered as an individual problem, with special factors to be
coating 0.004 inches thick (0.1 mm thick) provides one considered before specifying the coating system to be used.
ounce per square foot of surface (305 glsq. m.).
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 0 . 0 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 9 0 9 9Y2
TABLE 3
TYPICAL METAL SPRAYING DATA*
The following numbers are from tables contained in a typical equipment handbook and
represent the theoretical performance of new equipment under optimum conditions. Use with
discretion.
Consumption Per Hour Coverage

Wire Size Weight Oxygen Acetylene Per Hour"
Inches mrn Pounds kg cu.ft. CU. rn. cu.lt. CU. rn. sq.lt. sq. rn.
Aluminum 7
16 4.76 17.6 8.0 80 2.27 39 1.12 250 23
Aluminum 'is 3.17 10.7 4.86 78 2.21 38 1.1 157 15
Zinc %6 4.76 61.0 27.7 84 2.38 41 1.16 247 23
Zinc 'i, 3.17 40.7 18.5 81 2.29 40 1.13 160 15
'Theoretical data based upon 100% capacity and no lost time.
"Any applied zinc coating 0.005" thick (5 mils or 0.127 mm) requires the spraying of approximately 0.25 Ibs. (4.0 oz.) of
zinc per square foot (1223 g1sq.m.).
An aluminum coating 0.005" thick (5 mils or ,127 mm) requires the spraying of approximately 0.07 Ibs. (1.12 oz.) of aluminum
per sq. ft. (342 g/sq.m. for ,127 mm thickness). These are average deposition efficiencies for normal metallizing opera-
tions but do not allow for edge or other unusual losses.
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A more typical comparison table used by an experienced contractor might be as follows:
INORGANIC
Field Performance: 'h" AL. 7,s " AL. ZN Xe" ZN ZINC
One hour gun operation 100 sq.ft./hr. 150 sq.ft./hr. 100 sq.ft./hr. 150 sq.ft./hr. 350 sq.ft./hr.
with good clear open (9.359 sq.m./hr.) (13.9 sq.m./hr (9.31 sq.m./hr (32.5 sq.m./hr (32.5 sq.m./hr)
space, no scaffolding, 5 mils thick 5 mils thick 5 mils thick 5 mils thick 4 mils thick
n o time out for measure- (.127 mm) (.127 mm) (.127 mm) (.127 mm) (.1 mm)
ment, operator change, 7# AL. 10.W AL. 25# ZN 38# ZN
breaks, etc. Cannot (3.2 kg) (4.8 kg) (11.4 kg) (17.3 kg)
be maintained for ZINC RICH
eight hours. 350 sq.ft./hr.
(32.5 sq.m./hr.)
2% mils thick
(.O64 mm)
Inspection of all operations must be thorough for A small area, approximately I/z inch x $/Z inch (12 mm
good results; failures that have occurred have been traced x 12 mm) can be marked by a chisel and the sprayed
to improper procedures. The blast cleaned surface should coating lifted off with a knife to give a rough indication of
be inspected to determine that the surface profile is suffi- bond strength and thickness.
ciently rough and that adequate cleaning has been done. The damage done by such a bond test is readily
Blast abrasives should be checked for sharpness, repaired by reblasting and recoating.
cleanliness, and proper size; proper air pressure and clean
air are essential.
There are several instruments available for the non- D. COSTS
destructive measuring of the thickness of applied sprayed Blasting costs, subject to a great deal of variation, are
metal over a steel substrate. Most of them respond to the discussed elsewhere in this manual. It should be noted
magnetic reluctance of the gap caused by the non-ferrous that the blasting requirements for thermal spraying work
film. are high, and fall in the category classified as "White
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S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 0 * 0 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003910 664
Metal Blast Cleaning,” SSPC-SP 5. REFERENCES

Thermal spraying costs are also subject to con- 1. American Welding Society, C2.2, “Recommended Practices
for Metallizing; Part 1B - Application of Aluminum and Zinc
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
siderable variation. Accessibility of the work is one of the for Protection of Iron and Steel”, 1967.
largest variables, but it should be noted that any scaf- 2. American Welding Society, C2.1, “Recommended Safe Prac-
folding suitable for blast cleaning will also be suitable for tices for Thermal Spraying”, 1973.
3. American Welding Society, C2.14, “Corrosion Tests of Flame-
thermal spraying. Transporting personnel and equipment Sprayed Coated Steel, 19-Year Report”, 1974.
and setting up equipment constitute a small percentage 4. American Welding Society, “Corrosion Tests of Flame-
of total cost when large areas are involved, but it may Sprayed Coated Steel, 12-year Report”, 1967.
5. American Welding Society, “Corrosion Tests of Flame-
greatly increase the cost per square foot on jobs involving Sprayed Coated Steel, 6-Year Report”, 1961.
small areas or remote locations. 6. H.S. Inghram, and A.P. Shephard, f l a m e Spray Hand Book,
The configuration of the work introduces another Metco, inc., Westbury, NY, 1964.
7. American Welding Society, PR. “Preprints of Papers
variable: edge loss on bridge trusses or light steel towers Presented at the Eighth International Thermal Spraying Con-
may be considerable, while on a ship hull or water tank ference”, 1976.
they are negligible. 8. J.A. Catheral, “Measurements of Bond Strength of Flame-
Sprayed Deposits”, Metal Construcfion, January 1972.
Each job must be treated as an individual problem of 9. R.D. Greene, “Metallizing Developments Utilizing Stabilized
cost. The variables must be evaluated and added to the Methyacetylene Propadiene”, Welding Journal, Vol. 45, No.
total. Information necessary to compute basic costs and 12, pp. 992-998, 1966.
10. W.E. Ballard, Metal Spraying and the Flame Deposition of
consumptions for the actual thermal spraying operation Ceramics and Plastics, 4th ed., London, 1963.
are given in Table 3, which is based on a wire-type thermal 11. W.E. Stanton, “Contraction Stresses in Sprayed Metal
spraying gun of the latest design. Deposits”, Second International Metal Spray Conference,
Birmingham, AL, 1958.
E. HAZARDS
Metallizing with zinc or aluminum may be carried out
safely i f certain basic facts are recognized. Fire and explo- Appendix A - Eight Conclusions as They Appear
sion hazards are normally associated with gas fuel in 79-Year Report
systems. Safety considerations often require that propane
be used in preference to acetylene. Zinc dust and fumes ir- 1. Aluminum-sprayed coatings 0.003 in. to 0.006 in.
ritate the eyes and will cause nausea and “zinc chills” if (0.08 mm to 0.15 mm) thick, both sealed and
breathed to excess. For this reason, a force-feed mask is unsealed, gave complete base metal protection
generally used unless very good ventilation is provided, from corrosion in sea water and also in severe
and even on outside work a force-feed mask may be re- marine and industrial atmospheres.
quired. The minimum requirement for outside work is a 2. Unsealed zinc sprayed coatings required 0.012 in.
nose respirator. (0.30 mm) minimum thickness for complete pro-
It has been reported that finely divided aluminum dust tection in sea water for 19 years. In severe marine
has been used to inhibit silicosis. However, a force-feed and industrial atmospheres, 0.009 in. (0.23 mm) of
mask must always be worn when working in closed unsealed zinc or 0.003 in. to 0.006 in. (0.08 mm to
vessels, since some carbon monoxide may be present. It 0.15 mm) of sealed zinc are needed for 19 year pro-
has been reported that the “thermite” reaction can result if tection.
rusted steel is coated with aluminum and struck sharply.
3. In severe marine atmospheres, the application of
Although the spraying of lead and cadmium is not
one coat of wash primer plus one or two coats of
covered in this chapter, it should be stressed that these
aluminum vinyl enhanced the appearance and ex-
metals are extremely toxic, and special precautions must
tended the life of zinc coatings at least 100°/~.
be taken if they are to be used.
With aluminum, the sealing system primarily
Metal dust that is allowed to accumulate is a poten-
enhanced appearance, because both systems
tial explosive hazard. All finely divided metals will ignite
showed no base metal rust after 19 years.
under the right conditions. When spraying in a closed
4. Thin coats of aluminum perform better because
space as in a tank, the concentration of dust in the air will
they have less tendency to develop pits and
not ordinarily approach the explosive limit, but due precau-
blisters and therefore extended life is expected.
tion must be taken to protect against unforeseen con-
Vinyl also seems to perform better because it
tingencies. It is particularly dangerous to allow large quan-
must penetrate to the base metal.
tities of dust to accumulate, and then to blow out with an
air hose. 5. Where aluminum coatings showed damage such
The hazards involved in sandblasting and in the use of as chips or scrapes, corrosion did not progress,
organic coatings have been covered elsewhere in this suggesting the occurrence of galvanic protection.
manual; metallizing safety measures are covered in 6. The corrosion protection afforded by zinc and
another specification of the AWS2. aluminum coatings is not affected by the method
of surface preparation used for this test.

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SSPC CHAPTERlc20.0 93 8b27940 0 0 0 3 9 1 1 5 T 0
BIOGRAPHY
Specifically, a steel flash-bond coat is not essen?
S. John Oechsle, Jr. has been
tial. For large parts, or where coating thickness a Senior Associate with S.G.
will exceed 0.006 in. (0.15 mm), a coarse abrasive Pinney &Associates since 1988.
is recommended. In prior years he was President
of Metalweld, Inc. and President
7. The use o f flame-sprayed aluminum and zinc of Surface Protection Engineer-
coatings i s recommended as a means to extend ing Consultants, Inc. He is a con-
the life of such iron and steel structures as sultant to the SSPC and a retired
member of the Metco System
bridges, highway or street light poles, marine Contractors Association (Presi-
piers or pilings, ship hulls, storage tanks, in- dent 1957).
He has been active in the Na-
dustrial structures, etc. Corrosion is thereby com- tional Association of Corrosion
batted, and the natural resources needed in the Engineers (NACE) as Chairman
manufacture of iron and steel are conserved. of 19 committees and task groups; the American Welding Society;
the Young President’s Organization; the Air Force Association; the
8 . Chlorinated rubber is an unsatisfactory seal coat American Society for Testing and Materials; and, the Utilities Nuclear
for both aluminum and zinc thermal sprayed Coating Work Committee (Vice-chairman 1972 to 1983). He is a
coatings. registered professional engineer, NACE Corrosion Specialist, and
a Registered Nuclear Coating Engineer.
He has broad and responsible pioneering experience in ship paint-
ing, metallizing, FRP pipe and lining, rubber lining, and painting
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT of nuclear power facilities in the United States, Japan and Taiwan.
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active He has delivered 61 lectures and addresses on painting technolo-
gy, and is the author of 11 technical papers. He received the Cita-
palrticipation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Roy Bishop, H. Campbell, Pam Claassen, B. Cook, F.W. tion of Recognition for Outstanding Contributions to NACE in 1975.
Gartner, E. Horvick, K. Karsten, Frank Longo, Frank Porter, H.W.
Raths, William Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
Prior to his retirement, John
N. Childs, Jr. served as Chair-
man of the Board of Metalweld,
Inc. He had also held the posi-
tions of Vice President - En-
gineering, Treasurer, and of
Manager, Industrial Mainte-
nance Division. Before his em-
ployment with Metalweld, Mr.
Childs was employed as an en-
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gineer at the Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology, where he
received his B.S. in Electrical
Engineering, and served as Engineer and Project Engineer at the
Naval Research Laboratory in Boston.
Mr. Childs’ professional activities have included membership
in the American Welding Society, the American Institute of Electri-
cal Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. He is a Registered
Professional Engineer in the states of Pennsylvania and California.

464
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SSPC C H A P T E R * Z L = O 9 3 W 8627940 0003912 437 W
CHAPTER 21
HOT DIP GALVANIZING

by
Ernest W. Horvich
I. ABSTRACT The material so processed has enough zinc on it as a

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surface film to give the desired coating for protection from

Hot dip galvanizing is a simple, but versatile process
corrosion. The amount of pickling of the material to be
used to coat steel or iron in all shapes and forms with zinc.
galvanized, proper regulation of the zinc kettle
The process is applied to finished articles and also to
temperature, fluxing of the surface of the molten zinc and
semi-fabricated materials - sheet, strip, wire and tube.
the position of the material as it is lowered into thszinc all
Galvanizing after fabrication has the advantage of
are important factors. Each of these factors affects the
completely sealing edges, rivets and welds, so that there
quality of the coating produced.
are no uncovered parts where rusting can start and
Galvanizers have no time tables regulating the
penetrate recesses. Complete protection is given to what
amount of pickling or the time that the material must be
would be corrosion sites with other coating systems. The
immersed in the molten zinc to insure proper alloying. The
process is applicable to fabrication of geometrical shapes
process of commercial galvanizing is a skill. Few pieces of
ranging from nuts and bolts to large tanks and structural
structural steel being galvanized are the same size, shape
members. With existing molten metal vessels 52 feet long
or even of the same type material; therefore, the quality of
and larger, structural members 90 feet long can be handled
the galvanizing depends on the skill of the craftsman per-
by double dipping. Since double dipping has occasionally
forming the process. Once the steel has been properly
been misused or misinterpreted, an explanation of this
prepared, the development of a galvanized coating is
practice is covered in the text.
generally predictable for a given set of steel and operating
The ability to coat large pieces and to bolt or weld
conditions.
prefabricated sections after galvanizing allows almost any
structure to be galvanized. Complex shapes and open
vessels can be zinc coated inside and out in one operation. II. INTRODUCTION
While wire, tubing and strip can be hot dip galvanized, the Many methods have been employed to fight the ex-
emphasis in this chapter is on geometric shapes, such as pensive corrosion of steel. These include painting, clad-
structurals. ding with a relatively thick layer of metal less susceptible
The fundamental steps in the galvanizing process are: to rust and developing special steel alloys to withstand
Soil and grease removal: hot alkaline or solvent highly corrosive conditions. One of the most widely used
cleaner is usually used to remove oil, grease, methods for protecting steel is to coat it with a relatively
shop oil, and soluble paints. This will not, thin layer of some other metal.
however, remove such things as epoxy, vinyl, Among the common metals used for this purpose are
asphalt, or welding slag. These soils must be zinc, lead, tin, copper, nickel, chromium and aluminum.
removed by grit blasting, sand blasting or other Because of its special advantages, zinc is used for protec-
mechanical cleaning not normally the respon- tive coatings far more than any other metal. The principal
sibility of the galvanizer. reasons for its use are that it has inherent corrosion
Scale removal: accomplished by acid pickling resistance; it is easy to apply (relatively low melting point,
or abrasive blasting. 787°F); it is relatively inexpensive and readily available;
Fluxing and hot dipping: the hot dip galvanizing it has a hard, smooth surface which is comparatively resis-
process consists after cleaning of fluxing the tant to abrasion; and it is highly amenable to continuous
surface of an iron or steel article and immersing processing.
the articles in molten zinc. There the base metal Zinc is one of the most versatile materials available
and zinc react to produce several intermetallic for coating other metals. It can be applied as a metal by
compounds that usually form distinct layers on hot dip galvanizing, flake galvanizing, electrodeposition,
the iron or steel. When the reaction subsides thermal spraying or metallizing, mechanical or peen
after proper length of time, the article is plating, sherardizing or cementation, brush scratching or
withdrawn from the molten bath. As it emerges, rubbing, plasma arc spraying, shot blasting, vacuum
it carries with it a layer of unreacted zinc that metallizing and non-vacuum vapor condensation deposi-
quickly freezes to cover the iron-zinc alloy tion. Zinc dust can also be used as a pigment in protective
layers with a bright lustrous metallic coating. paints. Each of these methods of applying zinc coatings
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SSPC CHAPTERUZ3.O 93 = 8627940 0003933 373 =
has its specific reason for being and in certain applica- 111. SURFACE PREPARATION
tions is to be preferred. While there is always at least one While a clean surface is necessary for the successful
process applicable to any particular set of circumstances, application of any coating to a base metal, it is especially
the processes are complementary rather than competitive, so for applying a zinc coating by hot dip galvanizing to
so that rarely are more than two to be seriously considered steel. Because the molten zinc fuses with the base metal
as the best choice for a particular job. Economic aspects to form a metallurgical bond with it, the steel surfaces
are important factors in making the decision. Where there must be practically surgically clean to allow the reaction
is little difference in cost, consideration should be given to to take place completely. The molten zinc cannot bond to
the serviceability required. the steel if anything foreign is present.
Factors such as size, shape and complexity have to Surface preparation, in general, requires a number of
be taken into account in choosing the most suitable proc- steps. Cleaning is necessary to remove dirt or grime ac-
ess for a particular application. cumulated during shipping, storage or manufacture.
In hot dip galvanizing, thoroughly cleaned steel or iron Removal of paint or similarly adherent materials requires
is immersed in molten zinc and withdrawn to provide a other means to be discussed later. Degreasing with an
smooth, even coating that frequently has a crystalline, organic solvent or hot alkali solution removes oils or
“spangled” appearance. The galvanized coating is applied similar organic materials.
by various means: hand-dipping of fabricated items of ir-
regular shapes, either singly, e.g. for items such as struc-
tural beams, or in baskets for coating nails, bolts and
A. PICKLING
similar products; intermittent or semi-continuous Since pickling is considered fully in another chapter
mechanical dipping of pipe; and a highly automated dip- of this Manual, only those aspects pertinent to hot dip
ping that enables steel strip and wire to be galvanized by galvanizing will be mentioned here. While the previous sur-
passing continuously through molten zinc. Coatings pro- face preparation procedures aim toward complete removal
duced by the third method are quite uniform in thickness of dirt, grime, grease and other contact contaminants,
and are very ductile. scale has to be removed by pickling or blasting.
In the hot dip galvanizing operation the steel is first For pickling, suitably diluted sulfuric or hydrochloric
cleaned of all foreign material before immersion in thezinc acid is used. The time required for pickling will depend
bath. This is generally accomplished by removing grease, upon the surface condition and nature of the steel and the
oil and other foreign contaminants either by alkaline or thickness of the scale. Usually 10 to 15 minutes of immer-
solvent degreasing and thorough rinsing, then by acid sion is sufficient.
pickling or blast cleaning and fluxing which further cleans Immersion time should be as short as possible to
and activates the surface. One type of continuous minimize hydrogen absorption and undesirable attack on
galvanizing surface preparation is effected by gas pickling the work surface. Inhibitors are recommended to minimize
in an atmosphere which reduces and eliminates the oxide attack on the metal. They lower acid consumption, reduce
film generally found on exposed steel. The steel is then im- hydrogen absorption, decrease acid fuming and help pre-
mersed in the molten zinc which readily “wets” the clean vent “burned” work. In addition, they improve general
surface of the base metal and fuses with it to form the working conditions around the pickle tank.
coating. The thickness of the coating is largely determined If an effective inhibitor is used, no harm results from
by the temperature of the bath, time of immersion, fluidity leaving the material for a prolonged period in the pickling
of the bath, the rate of withdrawal from the bath, and the acid. If no inhibitor i s used, hydrogen evolved when the
thickness and weight of the article. On withdrawal from iron dissolves in the acid is liable to be absorbed by the
the bath, coating thickness of strip sheet, wire and pipe is steel and may cause embrittlement or give rise to a
further controlled by mechanical means. This text, blistered coating when the material is dipped in the molten
however, will concen?rate on hot dip galvanizing after zinc bath.
fabrication. Hydrofluoric acid is required to properly prepare sur-
The process is very versatile and has been used to faces contaminated with silica from sand molds or
protect articles ranging in size from very srnail to very welding rods.
large. This size range, together with the ability to bolt (fric- Scale removal must be complete to obtain high qual-
tion grip or conventional using galvanized bolts) or weld ity zinc coatings. Scale, if not removed, will result in un-
prefabricated sections after galvanizing, enables almost coated or roughly coated areas. Although scale removal is
any structure to be galvanized. Of particular interest to the mandatory, overpickling will yield abnormally heavy zinc
process industries is the fact that tubes, open vessels and coating and occasionally poor adhesion of the galvanized
complicated shapes can be galvanized inside and out in coating.
one operation. All types of plain carbon and some low alloy Small articles are pickled in baskets or crates of
steels can be galvanized, as well as iron and steel wood, monel metal or other suitable acid-resistant
castings. material. Sheets are held in acid-resisting frames and are
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466
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SSPC CHAPTER*ZLmO 93 8b27940 0003934 20T
often agitated mechanically, while pipes are raised and molten zinc. Spowers, a notable galvanizing authority,
lowered at an angle inclined to the horizontal to ensure recommends a flux solution of zinc ammonium chloride of
adequate movement of the acid through them. composition ZnC12*3NH,CI. Proprietary fluxes consist of
zinc ammonium chloride with the addition of a wetting
B. WASHING agent.
Except when the pickling acid (hydrochloric acid) The solutions may be made up from the ammonium
serves also as a flux, an undesirable practice, the work and zinc salts in correct proportion and wetting agents.
must be thoroughly washed after pickling. The first rinse is Flux baths contain 20-30% by weight of the salts, and are
best done in warm water because the iron salts dissolve normally operated at temperatures around 50°F (10 OC),
more easily. But a warm rinse must be kept slightly acid though they may be left cold.
(pH 3-4) to prevent hydrolysis of the ferric salts formed by Pickling leaves a film of dissolved iron salts on the
atmospheric oxidation; in the absence of acid, ferric surface of the iron or steel. Whether or not these are
hydroxide would be deposited on the steel. The warm, washed off the surface depends on which galvanizing
slightly acid rinse needs to be followed by a second dip in techniques is used.
cold running water to complete the removal of iron salts. It There are a number of different processes. These in-
is suggested that only cold water should be used for rins- clude the so-called Old Dry Process, in which the salts
ing, and that the quantity should be kept small, again to from a hydrochloric acid pickle are dried on the work and
reduce hydrolysis. act as a flux, the Wet Process, where work is usually taken
directly from the rising tank to the galvanizing bath that
has a blanket of molten flux floating on the zinc, and the
C. BLAST CLEANING
Dry Process, in which the pickled work is rinsed, immersed
Grit, shot or sand blasting are not commonly in a tank of flux and then dried. It coats the works with a
employed as methods of surface preparation for hot dip thin layer of salt that protects the steel from air until it is
galvanizing. Acid pickling is less expensive and more prac- galvanized. Generally this is required for complex parts.
tical; where it can be employed, it is generally used. In the Pickling plus flux assures the fabricator that the entire sur-
past, blasting was confined mainly to cleaning of ferrous face of the work is covered with a fresh layer of flux
castings or heavily rusted articles. It is especially ap- leading to a better and more consistent finish. Work that
plicable to ferrous castings, since their complex and ir- has been pickled and dried should be galvanized without
regular surfaces require excessive pickling time which can delay as the flux coating picks up moisture from the air
result in uneven, heavy galvanized coatings. Also, castings and also tends to oxidize.
do not respond to the conventional chemical cleaning The fresher and more fluid the flux, the greater is its
process employed by most galvanizers, primarily because effectiveness and the more readily is it dispelled from the
of burned-on sand from the casting operation. surface of the steel. Because of local chilling action before
Blast cleaning precludes hydrogen embrittlement, a it enters the bath, the steel invariably carries with it some
condition that can result from acid pickling. Its peening ac- salt. Time must be allowed for the steel to reach the
tion has a tendency to minimize or eliminate stresses that temperature of the bath and for the article to be held in the
might be induced by severe cold work during fabrication. zinc bath until bubbling subsides and a preliminary inspec-
Unlike acid pickling, it removes only surface contamination has shown a continuous coating of zinc has formed.
tion and does not attack the steel.
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Very thick galvanized coatings can be obtained by E. DRYING
deliberately roughing the surface of work by blast clean-
ing. Also, it eliminates some problems of disposing of acid After fluxing and draining, the work is dried in a low
waste. temperature oven. In the case of plates, spacers are
sometimes used to improve drying. Heat can be supplied
conveniently by passing the flue gases from the galvaniz-
D. FLUXING ing bath through separate compartments forming the
After thorough washing, the work is dipped in a flux sides of the oven. Products of combustion containing
solution. Fluxing is mandatory to dissolve any oxide film sulphur must not enter the oven or come in contact with
that has formed on the steel after pickling and galvanizing, the work before dipping. The temperature of the oven
and to absorb any remaining impurities on the metal sur- should not exceed 300°F (149"C), since the flux may
face, all to ensure that clean steel or iron contacts the decompose if it is heated too strongly in drying. Iron salts
molten zinc. It also acts as a preheating and drying can also be formed during drying by interaction between
medium to permit wet material to be immersed into the the flux and the metal surface, thus, the drying
galvanizing bath with a minimum of spattering. Reducing temperature and time should not exceed what is
oxidation of the molten zinc surface greatly lowers zinc necessary to produce a degree of dryness that avoids
ash formation, minimizing bath degradation. Proper flux- splashing during the subsequent galvanizing dip. In an
ing reduces the cost of galvanizing as well as heat loss. oven with a sufficiently high draught, rapid drying can be
The flux, of course, facilitates wetting of the steel by the done at 212°F (100°C).
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*2L.O 93 M Ab27940 0003935 L4b =
IV. DIPPING PROCEDURES temperature, and a covering of bath metal which gives the
galvanized product its characteristic bright, shiny ap-
A. START-UP OF A NEW KETTLE pearance.
If the coating consists of zinc-iron reaction products
Slab zinc should be stacked vertically on edge in the
only, it has a matte gray finish. The free zinc portion of the
pot to insure the best contact of the zinc slabs with the ket-
coating varies in thickness and in the percentage of total
tle walls. Additional rows of vertically stacked zinc should
coating weight, depending upon the speed of the
also be set on edge, from kettle walls toward the center.
withdrawal and the wiping practice, i f any. There is no real
Some space should be left, usually near the center of the
line of demarcation between the steel and the zinc, but a
kettle, for thermal expansion and moisture release. This
gradual transition through a series of iron-zinc alloys that
vacant space may be filled with water to insure fairly
provides a metallurgical bond.
uniform heating of the entire contents of the kettle up to
212°F (l0O’C).To avoid overheating, the temperature
should be raised very slowly until melting starts. As the
B. SIZE OF KETTLE
zinc slabs melt and the pool of liquid zinc increases, the The capacity of the kettle should exceed what is
rate of heating may be increased gradually. necessary to accommodate the material being handled:
Once galvanized baths have been started up, they are the articles have to be heated to the temperature of the
usually maintained hot throughout their operating life zinc during immersion, and unless the bath has sufficient
because solidification of the zinc in the bath may cause heat content and ample heating surface areas, high rates
warping and fracture of the bath walls. The design should of heating which shorten the life of the pot are required. A
allow the pot to be changed without difficulty when a new formula for estimating the permissible throughput of a
one is required. galvanizing bath is that the weight of steel galvanized per
For “wet” galvanizing, a fresh fluid blanket of flux hour should not exceed one-twentieth of the weight of zinc
should cover the end of the kettle where the material being in the bath. If this formula is adhered to, rapid temperature
dipped enters the zinc. Zinc ammonium chloride or am- fluctuations can be avoided.
monium chloride flux is used and maintained in an active The real limiting factor is, however, the temperature of
condition by the frequent addition of small portions of the bath wall. Zinc melts at 787°F (419°C) and in the
fresh flux. Accumulation of heavy, pasty flux immediately molten state attacks all ferrous metals, the rate of attack
above the molten zinc should be removed frequently. Items depending primarily upon the temperature and becoming
are Withdrawn at the opposite end of the galvanizing kettle rapid about 878°F (479°C). The galvanizing bath should,
through a clean zinc surface. The work is immersed in the therefore, be run at the lowest possible temperature and
galvanizing bath with tongs or by the aid of suitable hot spots must be avoided. Hot spots can be prevented i f
overhead tackle, or automatically. When large parts are be- the bath is very uniformly heated, and temperature careful-
ing galvanized, they should be pre-heated before dipping. ly controlled.
Parts should be immersed only until they reach the
temperature of the bath. Flux patches can be avoided by C. WITHDRAWAL RATE
withdrawing the finished work through a portion of the Rate of withdrawal from the spelter also influences
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bath surface from which the flux and oxide coating has formation of spots. Steel strip of known spotting tenden-
been skimmed back. cies was galvanized under identical immersion time and
When immersed in the galvanizing bath, iron and steel temperature. Samples withdrawn rapidly revealed con-
are immediately wetted by the zinc and react to form iron- siderably less spotting because zinc did not drain so rapid-
zinc layers. At normal galvanizing temperatures of ly from the surface, resulting in a heavier coating which
835855°F (446-457%), the rate of reaction is very rapid at froze before it had opportunity to diffuse into the base
first with a ‘boiling-off’ action. The main thickness of metal to form a spot. Slow withdrawal was accompanied
coating forms during this initial period. Subsequently, by deposition of 1.012 ounces of zinc per square foot with
reaction slows down and the coating thickness does not bad spotting compared to 1.258 ounces per square foot for
increase greatly if the article is immersed in the bath for a rapid withdrawal with little spotting.
much longer time. The normal period of immersion is a The rate of withdrawal controls the thickness of the
minute or two, but longer for work that is particularly heavy coating between quite wide limits; the faster the rate, the
or requires draining from internal spaces. heavier the coating. Thus, for control of thickness and
Galvanizing proceeds until a “normal” coating elimination of waste, a multi-speed, power driven hoist is
develops. As the work is removed from the bath, some advisable for most large work. Five feet per minute has
molten zinc is taken out on top of the alloy layers, the proved a convenient and satisfactory withdrawal rate for
whole coating being metallurgically bonded to the base many types of larger work.
metal. Thus, the galvanized product has a coating made up In addition to the speed of withdrawal, the free zinc
of two major parts: the zinc-iron alloy layer, which is the portion of the coating will be influenced by the temper-
portion that forms in the kettle and is influenced by the ature of the bath. For a given withdrawal speed, the
steel chemistry, immersion time, and galvanizing bath amount of free zinc that mechanically attaches itself to
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z L . O 9 3 W 8627940 00039Lb 082 W
the existing work will decrease as the temperature in- k e d coatings. It works effectively on small parts such as
creases. This is due to a slight change in the fluidity of the nuts and bolts that are galvanized in a wire mesh basket or
zinc and also to the improved drainage that results from perforated cage. After removal from the galvanizing bath,
the higher temperature metal. this basket is immediately placed in a low speed cen-
When the coating is completed, the submerged parts trifuge to get rid of excess zinc on screw threads and other
are moved to the flux-free area of the kettle, which should areas and to prevent the articles from sticking together.
be cleaned of oxide with a skimmer. Then the work should High centrifuging speeds are not required. Small thick
be withdrawn with a slow, steady pull. The work is held parts, castings or forgings, are usually quenched in water
over the bath for a short time and allowed to drain. Shaking to make the coating set quickly.
the piece will facilitate draining. At this time, parts should Slow delivery to the centrifuge spinner or low to
be inspected for uncoated spots, which usually appear medium spin speeds require heating the spinner. Labor
black. If such spots appear, they may be eliminated by savings are possible using a spinner as it eliminates hand
dusting the spot area with a pinch of sal ammoniac (“,CI) wiping or hand shaking. A spinner generally assures more
and reimmersing in the bath. consistent coating thickness and conserves zinc. Limited
production, high production and automatic centrifuges are
D. DROSSING available.
Galvanizing baths should be freed from dross at week-
ly or somewhat longer intervals. The bath should be al- H. DOUBLE-DIP PROCESS MISUNDERSTOOD
lowed to stand for three hours before drossing to allow the Double-dipping in the galvanizing trade is not dipping
dross t o settle, at a temperature sufficiently low to a product in the molten bath, withdrawing and reimmers-
minimize the quantity of iron actually dissolved in the zinc. ing it in the bath. Double-dipping means immersing one-
half of a structural in molten zinc, withdrawing, and then
E. TUBE GALVANIZING dipping the other half in the bath. Thus, an item 85-90 feet
or even larger can be galvanized. Should the length be
Unfabricated tubes generally used for electrical con-
such that the center portion would not be galvanized, that
duits are usually galvanized by the manufacturer who has
area can be zinc coated by thermal spraying.
a galvanizing plant designed for semi-automatic handling.
The protective coating forms on the inside as well as on
the outside of the tube. Normal practice is to smooth and I. EMBRITTLEMENT
then to blow steam under pressure through the inside of To prevent embrittlement during galvanizing, all
the tube to remove molten zinc and leave a smooth bore. malleable castings should be heated to 1,200 to 1,500”F
Consequently, the coatings on unfabricated tube are (649-816°C) and water quenched. The holding time and the
usually thinner than those on tubular fabrications. temperature of the quench water are not important.
F. PIPE ASSEMBLIES J. APPEARANCE OF ZINC COATINGS

While the surface must be thoroughly cleaned to pro-
Varying with different types of steel, the rate of alloy-
duce the galvanized coating, pipe commonly presents two
ing is determined by composition of the base material.
special cleaning problems. The “mill coating” (varnish,
With some compositions of the steel base, the rapid
iacquer and similar materials) applied by the manufacturer
reaction between zinc and steel produces coatings con-
is normally removable at the galvanizing plant at extra
sisting entirely of (or almost entirely) zinc-iron compound.
cost. However, because some formulations, both foreign
These may be gray, with matte surface, and are usually
and domestic, are extremely difficult to remove with com-
thicker with ordinary steel compositions. This condition
mon cleaning solutions, blasting may be required. Remov-
may be planned, as with pole line hardware using higher
ing this mill coat at the galvanizing plant can be avoided by
silicon steels to secure unusually heavy coatings, or it may
ordering uncoated pipe from the supplier. Welding mill-
be the unexpected result of the use of certain low-alloy,
coated pipe burns and carbonizes the varnish in the sur-
high strength steels for their increased elastic strength.
rounding heated areas. This “soot” requires blasting or
Where undesirable appearance or reduced adhesion of the
other mechanical removal. The burned coating could be
coating accompanies such excessive growth, the
removed when blasting to remove weld flux, but if welding
galvanizer may be able to modify his operations to relieve,
has been done with an uncoated rod, any blasting or other
in part, this condition. Some of these fast growing
hand cleaning is expensive and highly impractical. Most
coatings consist of an intimate mixture of zinc-iron com-
pipe is galvanized by the steel producer. Such pipe is used
pound with zinc of the composition of the bath, and as
as electrical conduit.
such are two phase materials with potential difference of
several tenths of a volt between the constituents. This may
G. CENTRIFUGING adversely affect corrosion resistance in wet exposure, and
Centrifuging or spinning is a common practice used is usually accompanied by reduced adhesion of the
to control the thickness of the free zinc portion of galvan- coating. Such structures are termed diffuse alloy.
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469
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SSPC C H A P T E R x Z L - O 93 m 8627940 0003917 TL9 m
K. COATING THICKNESS tegral part of products made from steel and iron and
should be considered at the design stage.
Coating thickness depends on the composition and
It is not too difficult to protect a smooth, flat surface
physical condition of the steel being treated and on a
to which a coating can be applied in a continuous film of
number of factors within the control of the galvanizer. For
proper thickness. But the coating problem becomes more
example, heavier coatings tend to be deposited on rough
difficult when the structure has a variety of angles, cor-
surface and coarsegrained steel, and, at the same time,
ners, welds, rivets and edges. In these areas film thickness
the total thickness of the alloy layers tends to be slightly
and adhesion are often inadequate, making them suscepti-
greater at corners than at hollows.
ble to corrosion. Minor modifications in design to
The coating weight is controlled by the growth of the
eliminate areas that would be difficult to coat adequately
iron-zinc alloy layer. Articles galvanized after fabrication
can substantially reduce maintenance costs throughout
generally have coating weights of at least two ounces per
the life of the structure.
square foot of surface or the equivalent thickness of about
3.4 mils. The usual range is from 3.5 to 5.0 mils. Normally,
about half the coating thickness is iron-zinc alloy and half A. LIAISON
is practically pure zinc. Considering that design, fabrication and zinc coating
When very long life is required, extra thick galvanized are the three important areas in the production of a
coating can provide it. Prior grit blasting of mild steels will galvanized product, close liaison must be maintained
enable the coating thickness to be increased by up to among designer, fabricator, and galvanizer before the
50-1O0 O h wit hout c hanging the ga Iva nizi ng tech niques. product is manufactured and arrives at the galvanizing
Coatings to five mils may be produced on reactive silicon- shop. This three-way consultation can eliminate many
containing steel (e.g. “silicon-killed”). galvanizing problems before they arise.
These thick coatings are very protective but will tend Subjects worthy of joint decision-making are steel
to be a dull, dark grey because the alloy layers extend to selection, combinations of materials or surface, welding
the outer surface. The galvanizer should be consulted if procedure, cold forming, size and shape, venting and drain-
coatings thicker than those normally given in ASTM and ing, pipe assemblies, minimizing distortion, overlapping
other standards are required. surfaces, castings and moving parts.
With steels of unknown compositions or those having The galvanizer can explain how design and manufac-
less than the optimum surfaces required for good galvaniz- ture influences the quality of galvanizing. To derive max-
ing, constant monitoring should take place to check on the imum benefit from his services, it may be helpful to con-
coating thickness applied to ensure that zinc is not being sult him frequently and become familiar with the re-
utilized uneconomically. Unfortunately, it is not possible quirements of the galvanizing process.
or practical to check the composition of each piece of
steel processed. B. DESIGN FEATURES THAT AFFECT THE
LIFE OF A ZINC COATING
L. MEASUREMENT OF COATING THICKNESS
Ideally, materials should be designed so that the cor-
Regular measurements of coating thickness by the rosive attack never has a chance to get a foothold and
weight, strip weight method or by microsectioning are time begin its destructive work. All features that trap or hold
consuming and destructive, while the copper sulphate moisture and atmospheric grime should be avoided be-
(Preece)test is suitable only for checking the thinnest area cause they remain damp long after the rest of the structure
of a coating. Magnetic gages provide simple and conven- has dried.
ient non-destructive means of testing coating thickness. Nooks, crannies, and horizontal ledges should there-
They measure either the magnetic attraction between a fore be avoided, and for the same reason butt welds are
magnet and the base metal (e.g. the Tinsley Pencil Gage) preferred to lap joints. Where such features are essential,
or the reluctance of a magnetic flux path passing through they should be designed so that water runs off them and is
the coating and the base metal (e.g. the Elcometer). ASTM not retained on the surface. Also, rounded corners are
Standard E376 describes recommended practice for using preferable to sharp ones, both on exterior and inside sur-
these instruments. In converting coating weight to coating faces.
thickness, one ounce per square foot of surface is Poor assembly techniques and designs that include
equivalent to a thickness of ,0017 inch. blind pockets and cavities will prevent the galvanizer from
applying a complete coating. Moving parts such as
V. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR handles or hinges should be galvanized separately and
GALVANIZING assembled after galvanizing to prevent freezing.
The quality of a zinc coating is determined to a major
degree by the design of the steel or iron to be protected.
C. MATERIAL AND SURFACE COMBINATIONS
Because poor design can reduce the effectiveness of a Galvanizing becomes complex when assemblies of
coating, the protective system should be regarded as an in- different materials andlor structures must be coated.
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SSPC CHAPTER*ZL.O 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 000391i8 955
When galvanizing structural steel, miscellaneous cavities turns to steam when heated in the hot dip
metals (steel and iron), or other work such as pipe or cor- galvanizing process and can result in an explosion of the
rugated sheets, special requirements are introduced into member, endangering personnel. In service, processing liq-
the design. ASTM 385 outlines precautions to be taken. uors will penetrate into the cavities, probably remain there
Plain carbon and some low alloy steels, iron, and steel and lead to rapid attack of the metal. For tube assemblies,
castings can be galvanized. Soldered components cannot internally open-mitred joints should be used at all time to
be galvanized, and before brazed and welded assemblies avoid sealed sections.
are designed, the galvanizer should be consulted. Pickling
times vary with different ferrous materials (also for old and F. TANKS
new steel). Thus, a fabrication consisting of various Tanks to be galvanized must be designed to produce
materials should be avoided because uneven pickling af- uniform coatings of correct thickness, especially on the in-
fects the uniformity and appearance of the coating. side surface. To be effective, the design must enable
careful handling.
D. OVERLAPPING SURFACES There should be at least four openings 1” to 2 ” in
When contacting surface such as back angles and diameter in each tank, preferably two on one lengthwise
channels cannot be avoided, all edges should be com- centerline on the shell and the other two on opposite
pletely sealed by welding, since the viscosity of the zinc diameters to these, as close to the heads as is practical. It
prevents it from entering any space less than y32n. is also desirable to have an opening in each head.
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There are further problems with tightly overlapping The opening must be placed so that the flux on the
surfaces. Pickling liquids that are trapped will volatilize to part can float to the surface of the bath. It must also pre-
steam when immersed in the galvanizing bath. The “blow- vent air pockets that will keep pickle solution from com-
ing out” of this steam can prevent zinc from adhering to pletely cleaning the inside areas.
the area adjacent to such a lap. If there is any retained Vessels must be filled with pickling and cleaning solu-
pickle liquor, it will weep out and can then damage the tions and emptied several times prior to galvanizing. The
galvanized coating while in service. cost of handling is determined by the size of the openings.
Pickling salts can be retained in these tight areas due To prevent bare spots, side openings must be provided for
to the impossibility of adequate rinsing. The galvanized gas from pickling to escape. All openings inside the tank
coatings may be of good quality in the adjacent area, but must be flush.
humidity encountered weeks or even months later may wet In the submersion of a tank or fabricated product in
these acid salts and cause unsightly rust staining to run molten zinc at approximately 850 “F (454OC), the proper
out on top of the galvanized coating. design allows for fast and complete filling of the tank with
Oils and greases trapped between tightly contacting zinc through a bottom opening while gas and moisture can
surfaces will not be effectively removed by the cleaning be freely liberated from a top opening.
solutions. They will partially volatilize at the galvanizing In the removal of the tank, vessel or structure from the
temperature and prevent a satisfactory zinc coating in the bath, the zinc should flow from the bottom opening rapidly,
immediate area of the lap joint. Contacting joint surface draining out excess zinc while air is freely admitted
should be thoroughly cleaned before fabrication and then through the top opening.
completely sealed by welding.
If the area of an overlap is large, there should be G. TUBULAR STRUCTURES AND COLUMNS
vented holes through one or both sides into the lapped Pipe assemblies present the same problems as tanks
aieatopreventanymoisturethat gets in through a pin hole and closed vessels. They must be designed to permit free
in the weld from building up explosive pressure. This vent- flow of molten zinc and the exoulsion of all air and
ing becomes more and more important as the area is larger moisture. They must not contain’ unvented sealed sec-
or as the steel is thinner. tions.
Molten zinc must enter all sections. Drainage holes
E. CLOSED SECTIONS, FILLING, VENTING must be placed in the pipe so that molten zinc can flow in-
AND DRAINING to all areas and on all surfaces. If these holes are not large
The design of products which are to be galvanized enough, the withdrawal speed will be greatly reduced,
should provide for proper drainage of all sections. Hollow resulting in lowered quality of the galvanizing. Frames
articles must f i l l rapidly with molten zinc. The gases must fabricated from channels and gussets on fabricated col-
escape and the zinc drain completely in order to give a con- umns should have cropped corners to allow the free flow of
tinuous and uniform coating. metal.
For the safety of personnel, internal pressures pro-
duced by the combination of heat, air and moisture must H. VENTS FOR PIPE STRUCTURES
be allowed to vent to the atmosphere. With internal vent holes, drainage of zinc occurs
Sealed cavities or those having small openings through the bottom of the vertical member. This gives the
should always be avoided. Moisture trapped in such optimum galvanizing results.

at 303-397-2295.
Grit blasting the entire assembly minimizes these dif- coating thickness.
ferences in pickling requirements and results in a heavier However, certain combinations of elements may
galvanized coating that gives a longer life at higher initial result in a coating that is all or mostlyzinc-iron alloy. While
cost. a description of the mechanism that causes the alloy type
Different techniques for pickling (solution concentra- coating is complex, the description of the coating
tions, temperatures, immersion time) and galvanizing (both characteristics is not.
temperatures, immersion time) are required for excessively Even in cases where a steel is selected for considera-
rusted surfaces; pitted surfaces; machined surfaces; cast tions other than galvanizing, and the chemistry of the
iron (especially with sand inclusions); cast steel; malleable elements (C, Mn, P and Si) exceeds the previously men-
iron; hot rolled steel; cold rolled steel; and steels contain- tioned limits, it usually can be galvanized satisfactorily.
ing more than normal carbon, phosphorus, manganese The grade of steel selected should be qualified with the
and silicon. galvanizer so that he can determine what special galvaniz-
For acceptable quality, the galvanizer must be ing processing is required. Every attempt should be made
notified of any steel compositions other than “low carbon to see that steel to be galvanized is specified accordingly.
steel”. Combinations of steel, such as low carbon (0.15%
max.), medium carbon (0.15-0.30%), high carbon
A. MOST STEELS CAN BE GALVANIZED
(0.30-0.5%), high strength low-alloy, and high silicon will Hot dip galvanized coatings are applied to a wide
result in different coating thicknesses and surface ap- variety of ferrous metals, ranging from cast iron to low car-
pearance. While this is not necessarily detrimental to cer- bon and alloy steels.
tain applications, the designer and fabricator must con- Most of the known methods may be used to produce
sider it and consult their galvanizer in the planning stages. steel that is to be galvanized. The selection depends on the
With external vent holes, draining zinc flows over the physical requirements of the end product and the limits of
surface of the pipe and results in a generally rougher the processing equipment at the mills.
coating. All sections of pipe must be vented to allow com- Following is a general classification of open hearth
plete circulation of molten zinc through every area of the steels commonly used on galvanizing orders:
fabrication. RIMMED STEEL
1. Regular low carbon rimmed
VI. WELDING PROCEDURE AND WELDING 2. Extra-low carbon rimmed
FLUX REMOVAL SEMI-KILLED STEEL
Very important points t o the galvanizer are 1. Partially killed with silicon
cleanliness of the weld area after welding and the metallic 2. Partially killed with aluminum
composition of the weld itself. Several welding processes FULLY- K ILLED STEEL
have been found to be most satisfactory for galvanizing. 1. Fully killed with aluminum as chief deoxidizer
Since welding flux residues are chemically inert in normal 2. Fully killed with silicon as chief deoxidizer
pickling solutions, they will not be removed by standard CAPPED STEELS
cleaning techniques and must be chipped away or other- 1. Mechanically capped
wise mechanically removed by grit or sand blasting, wire 2. “Silicon capped” or “killed in the top”
brushing, or power abrasive wheel cleaning. This flux
removal is normally the responsibility of the fabricator, or B. SELECTING THE BASIS METAL
by mutual agreement, by the galvanizer. It is, therefore, The composition of the base metal is varied where
good to choose a welding technique which will nearly slag necessary to obtain certain desired characteristics in the
itself or which produces no slag at all. zinc coat.
Galvanized items can be joined by bolting (including With regard to carbon content of the base metal, the
friction grip connections), welding, riveting and adhesives; form of the carbon is as important for galvanizing con-
but where welding has taken place after galvanizing, the siderations as is the amount of carbon. (High carbon steels
actual weld must be protected by the application of a fresh are not generally considered suitable for galvanizing.) In
zinc layer. malleable cast iron it exists as temper carbon; in cast iron
in the form of graphite flakes; in steels, both low and high
VII. STEEL SELECTION carbon mainly in the form of ironlcarbon compound Fe&.
The galvanized coating has as its basis the reaction The effect that carbon content has on iron cannot be
between clean steel and molten zinc. This reaction results generalized, but must be seen in terms of each individual
in the formation of a series of zinc-iron alloy layers that are case. Roughly speaking, however, the higher the carbon
covered by a layer of zinc as the steel is withdrawn from content, the greater the zinc-iron reaction.
the galvanizing bat h. Copper is frequently added to steel in quantities over
Most hot rolled steels respond to the galvanizing proc- 0.2 percent to improve corrosion resistance, and occa-
ess in a predictable manner, ¡.e., the zinc-iron alloy portion sionally ingot iron sheets made from highly refined iron are
of the coating will represent 50 to 70 percent of the total used as the base metal for the same reason.
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SSPC C H A P T E R + Z L . O 93 = 8b23740 0003720 503
C. INFLUENCE OF STEEL ON GALVANIZING the molten zinc tends to establish an equilibrium, and
keeps the liquid phase at a constant iron content. It is
Galvanizing is much more tolerant of defects in the
necessary to remove dross from the pot at regular weekly
base metal than most other coating processes. The
intervals to prevent it from interfering with the normal
absence of defects ensures a better quality coating, par-
coating operation.
ticularly where appearance is important. Excessively
The ASTM Standard Specification for galvanized prod-
rusted or pitted steel may require longer pickling time than
ucts simply states that “the zinc used for the coating shall
steel that is not rusted, and the resultant rough surface
may pick up a substantially heavier zinc coating. Blast conform to Specification ASTM B06, for zinc metal (slab
cleaning before pickling will help to equalize differences in zinc) and shall be at least equal to the grade designated as
‘Prime Western’ ”. Latest issue of the galvanized coating
surface finishes.
specification deletes the section on Impurities - “the
Steel chemistry has pronounced effects on various
aluminum content of the bath during actual galvanizing
aspects of galvanizing, for example, the effect of galvaniz-
operations shall not exceed 0.01 percent”. Prime Western,
ing time on coating microstructure. This is clearly depicted
the grade commonly used for hot dip galvanizing, requires
in the difference in the metallurgical bond and zinc coating
maximum percent content of 1.4 lead, 0.05 iron and 0.02
thickness obtained from unkilled (rimmed) and silicon-
cadmium. ASTM BO6 states in a footnote that aluminum in
killed steels.
Prime Western Zinc shall not exceed 0.05%.
Steels containing carbon below 0.25%, phosphorus
The effect of elements that are either found in or may
below 0.05%, and manganese below 1.35%, either in-
have been added to the coating bath vary considerably.
dividually or in combination, will normally develop a
The impurities found in slab zinc must be known to the
“typical” galvanized coating when conventional galvaniz-
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galvanizer if he is to achieve all the desired economies, as

ing techniques are used, providing the silicon is .05% or
well as the best quality coating.
less.
In general, steels containing greater than 0.25% car-
bon, 1.35% manganese, or 0.06% or more silicon, A. IRON
such as might be found in structural steels, are highly The influence of any minor elements in the galvaniz-
reactive and will develop excessive coating weights under ing bath on the galvanized product is of primary interest to
normal galvanizing conditions. However, there are controls galvanizers. The first element to be considered is iron,
available to the galvanizer to assist in minimizing coating since reaction between iron and zinc is the basis for hot
weight. Phosphorus and silicon affect the alloying rate dip galvanizing. As the work passes through the galvaniz-
more than most other steel constituents. An increase in ing bath, molten zinc reacts with the steel to form zinc-iron
silicon content from 0.06 to 0.20 percent will triple the rate alloys on the steel. These alloys constitute a true
of alloying. Fabricators and consumers should be aware metallurgical bond between the steel being processed and
that a gray or matte (non-harmful) appearance may occur the zinc in the kettle. Although the galvanizing process
with silicon content in excess of .O6%. depends upon the reaction of iron and zinc, iron has a very
Welding wire containing a high percentage of silicon low solubility limit in molten zinc. At about 850°F (454”C),
will tend to produce a poor galvanizing job. Some welding the solubility limit is 0.034% iron.
wire materials may also tend to be reactive in the pickling The presence of iron in the bath cannot be avoided in
acid. Welding flux residues and slags must be removed. practice, but it can become undesirable when enough of it
is in suspension as dross to be carried mechanically into
the coating. In abnormal quantity, it may form undesirable
VIII. TYPE OF ZINC projections or irregular patches of crystalline particles in
A number of grades of commercial zinc are available the coating.
for use as a coating metal. They may vary considerably in
composition, but the grade commonly used in the galvaniz- B. LEAD
ing industry is designated as “Prime Western”, although While some consider lead - in the amounts that are
any of the grades could be used. soluble in zinc - as having no influence on the physical
The content of impurities in the coating bath can be properties or life of galvanized coatings, it is commonly
controlled within definite limits for most contaminants or felt that its presence improves the coating. A certain per-
alloying elements with the exception of iron. As steel cent of it is necessary for the production of spangles. lt
passes through thezinc bath, some iron goes in solution in should be noted, however, that lead concentrations that
the zinc. However, the maximum solubility of iron in zinc is are too high may adversely affect adhesion between free
soon reached, and the excess precipitates as an in- zinc and zinc alloy layers if the parts are exposed to
termetallic alloy of iron and zinc. Minute crystals of this elevated temperatures.
alloy are held in suspension in the molten zinc and even- The specifications for Prime Western Zinc sets a max-
tually aggregate into larger particles which settle to the imum limit for lead content at 1.4%; typical lead contents
bottom of the pot as dross. This process takes place dur- are 1.0-1.3%. The solubility of lead in zinc is governed by
ing the life of the bath so that the precipitation occurring in the temperature of the bath.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z L - O 93 m 8627940 0003923 4 4 T W
Research has shown that additions of lead up to However, copper is soluble in zinc up to about 2% at the
about one percent do not change the viscosity of the galvanizing temperature. A high copper content (.4% Cu) in
molten zinc. However, that level of lead in the bath reduces the galvanizing bath can lead to some structural change in
the surface tension by more than 40% - compared to the basic galvanized coating and to rapid erosion of
pure zinc. This reduction in surface tension tends to help galvanizing kettles. However, the copper concentration re-
the drainage of the bath metal from the work as it exits quired is much greater than that usually encountered in
from the galvanizing bath and probably accounts for the the galvanizing bath, unless some exogenous copper is in-
improved drainage reported by many galvanizers using troduced into the bath, e.g. from using the brightener alloy
lead-saturated baths. of high copper content.
A layer of molten lead about 2” to 4“ deep is kept Copper, in concentrations of less than 0.2% by
in the bottom of the bath to facilitate the removal of weight, does not affect zinc coatings. In greater amounts,
hard zinc (dross), which floats on the lead layer. The copper increases the thickness and the speed of formation
solubility of the lead in molten zinc is about 1YO,so unless of the brittle alloy layer, and can cause a spotting reddish
the zinc added to the bath contains this amount of the scum on the bath. When exposed to acid environments,
metal, deliberate additions of it must be made so that the the galvanized coating will turn black.
lead layer is maintained.
F. MAGNESIUM
C. ALUMINUM Magnesium, in concentrations of about 0.05% by
Aluminum is not normally found in the zinc metal; weight, is reported to improve corrosion resistance.
rather, it must be added to the galvanized bath. The Magnesium also has a tendency to promote the formation
presence of aluminum in galvanizing baths has a number of zinc ash on the surface of the bath.
of well-defined effects. By forming a thin impervious film
of aluminum oxide on the surface of the metal, aluminum G. TIN AND ANTIMONY
retards the growth of the heavy zinc-oxide films that may
Both tin and antimony have been used to influence
interfere with the smooth flow of zinc over the surface of
the spangle or crystalized appearance. Additions of up to
the work, and gives the bath the appearance of greater
1OO/ of tin increase the solidification range of the coating
fluidity. The normal concentration of aluminum is about
and give rise to bigger zinc crystals. Both additions are
0.005%, and because it is preferentially oxidized, small
said to decrease the ductility of the coating and may result
regular additions to the bath are necessary to maintain
in staining.
constant level.
The effects of tin, like those of other agents, are
Small amounts of aluminum markedly increase the
modified by the bath temperature, cooling rate, thickness
brightness, tightness and uniformity of galvanized
of the base metal and the concentration of the agent in the
coatings. Small additions of aluminum also improve the
bath.
drainage of zinc from the work as it exits from the galvaniz-
Antimony may be used as a brightener to improve
ing bath.
spangle appearance. About 0.1 YO by weight is considered
The effect of aluminum is to decrease the thickness
maximum, as larger quantities could embrittle the
of the alloy layer between the base metal and the zinc
coatings or cause staining as the antimony oxidizes.
coating, by retarding the reaction between the molten zinc
and the ferrous metal surface.
IX. PROCESS VARIABLES
D. CADMIUM
Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ore and fre- A. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURES
quently is found in remelted varieties. It does not have a After steel that has been dipped reaches the bath
detrimental effect upon the galvanized bath or the temperature, since the flux further reduces the surface ten-
galvanized coating. It might be present at a level of up to sion and enables “wetting” to occur very rapidly, fusion
0.1 Yo in commercially available Prime Western Zinc. takes place at a rapid rate.
Cadmium significantly reduces the oxidation rate of The molten zinc bath should be maintained at the
molten zinc, promotes coalescence of iron compounds, lowest temperature consistent with the free drainage of
which minimizes floating dross, and has a beneficial effect zinc from the work during withdrawal. Low temperatures
on the flux blanket. When used alone it contributes fluidity help reduce dross and ash as well as increase kettle life.
to the bath. Its effects are influenced by the presence of Generally speaking, all work to be processed can be
small amounts of other elements. With antimony it gives a satisfactorily galvanized when the zinc bath is maintained
medium to large frosty spangle. between 800°F (425°C) and 860°F (460°C). Very little
galvanizing work is done below 820°F. It should be noted
E. COPPER that the zinc alloy layers grow faster at the higher
The typical copper content of Prime Western Zinc temperat ures.
used in galvanizing is almost always less than 0.5%.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 L * O 93 8627940 0003922 386 =
B. INFLUENCES OF TIME 2. Roughness
Surface roughness of the galvanized coating is
The development of the galvanized coating is a func- due to several factors. One of the causes is ex-
tion of the time in the zinc bath. Steel should be sub- cessive or uneven growth of the alloy layers aris-
merged as rapidly as possible and in line with safety prac- ing from the composition or surface condition of
tices for the operator’s safety. The total immersion time the steel, which are factors outside the control of
will depend on the size and composition of the part. The the galvanizer. Features of the galvanizing proc-
surface of the work must reach the melting point of the ess which can also give rise to general roughness
zinc before galvanizing can begin. Once the steel has are over-pickling, excessive immersion in the bath
reached the galvanizing temperature, the reaction between or excessive bath temperature.
the molten zinc and steel proceeds very rapidly; with addi- The surface uniformity of the coating is con-
tional time, the growth rate is much reduced. trolled primarily by the drainage of the zinc as the
work leaves the galvanizing bath. A lumpy and
C. INFLUENCE OF SURFACE PREPARATION uneven coating results when the rate of
withdrawal is too fast or the bath temperature too
Surface contamination is a prime consideration. It is low to allow surplus zinc to run back into the bath.
the fabricator’s responsibility to see that all compounds
Runs may also occur because of delayed drainage
are free from welding slag, anti-spatter compounds, paint
from bolt holes, folds, seams and other pockets
and varnish, oil and excessive rust. where zinc collects. A similar effect may result
Normal pickling will not remove these contaminants,
where articles are withdrawn in contact with each
and an extra cost will be incurred if the galvanizer has to
other.
clean the article before pickling. All overlapping surfaces Often, however, the condition is due to high
must be particularly clean before fabrication, since any
silicon content of the steel. Another cause of
oils and greases will volatilize during galvanizing and pre- rough areas on galvanized surfaces is the
vent the zinc from sealing open edges. presence of dross inclusion in the coating
Careful preparation throughout cleaning, pickling, manifested as protrusion or nodules. In applica-
rinsing and prefluxing assures that the work about to be
tions where the rough finish is aesthetically unac-
dipped will react freely with the molten zinc to provide a
ceptable or would interfere with the intended use
continuous and tightly adherent coating. Various pickling
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of product, it is rarely possible for the galvanizer
operations develop different steel surface roughness, to effect any improvement; steel composition and
coating structures and weights when galvanized. surface condition should be more closely
specified.
D. DEFECTS 3. Peeling
Occasionally, defects in the galvanized coating mar Peeling results from detachment at the inter-face
the appearance of the coating and may affect the coating of the zinc layer and the contacting zinc-iron alloy
performance. In some cases, the causes of a particular layer. It occurs where the product has slowly
defect can be determined from the surface appearance of cooled after removal from the galvanizing bath
the galvanized product. They may be due to the steel qual- and subsequently heated to temperatures below
ity, inadequate processing of it prior to coating operation, the melting point of zinc. Typical examples are
faulty galvanizing practice or other factors. By using the bundled tubing or thick structurals that have been
correct technique for specific products the galvanizer can stacked on top of each other soon after removal
determine the quality of the coating. from the galvanizing bath. Examination shows
1. Adhesion Problems that, even where the coating seemed to be unaf-
Galvanized coating adhesion problems are en- fected, there is an almost continuous break in the
countered occasionally, but adhesion of the zinc coating at the bath metallzinc-iron alloy interface.
coating should not be a problem unless a reactive The same type of defect occurs when a galvanized
steel is galvanized, i n which case the coating is subjected to elevated temperatures.
characteristically thick, gray and somewhat brit- The free zinc layer peels from the zinc-iron layer
tle coating may be encountered. Under these con- leaving a total alloy coating.
ditions, some loss of adhesion may be expected; Peeling can be minimized by quenching
bare spots should be touched up with zinc-rich material immediately after galvanizing. Hot
paint or metallizing. Loss of adhesion on non- galvanized products should not be stacked on top
reactive steels probably indicates poor surface of one another immediately after removal from the
preparation, and the work would probably be re- galvanizing bath.
jected on the basis of bare spots. The coating 4. Rust Stains
must adhere well enough to withstand subse- Rust stains on the coating generally arise from
quent handling, fabrication and final application. contact with or drainage from rusty steel sur-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 L . O 93 8627940 0003923 212
faces. The galvanized coating remains intact ing but have not welded. Examples are lamina
under the stain and will fully protect the base tions, laps and folds, and non-metallic impurities
steel. Rust staining can also be caused by rolled into the metal surfaces. Defects of the first
seepage of entrapped pickling acid from seams type are sometimes detected before or after pick-
and joints; this will cause damage to the coating ling, but sometimes may not become apparent un-
and requires modification in design. Early stain- til opened by the heat of the galvanizing bath. In
ing can also sometimes occur i f the coating con- the case of rolled-in impurities, conventional
sists entirely of zinc-iron alloy and arises from the methods for surface cleaning are generally inef-
iron in the coating itself. It should not be confused fective. Minor flaws in the steel may be removed
with rusting of the base steel. It is not harmful to by local grinding, but little reclamation is possible
the corrosion resistance of the coating since ex- where the steel surface is seriously defective.
posure trials have shown that the corrosion resis- d. Articles in Contact. The importance of allowing
tance of the alloy is similar to that of the zinc the zinc free access to all parts of the surface and
itself. preventing articles entering and passing through
5. Pimples the galvanizing bath cycle while in tight contact
Pimples are caused by inclusions of dross in the with each other is self-evident and requires no
coating. These may arise from iron salts carried elaboration.
over on the work from the pickling tank which are 7. Blisters
unable to escape from the surface of the coating. Blisters are occasionally encountered in galvan-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Contamination may also arise from agitation of ized surfaces. They vary in size from minute pro-
the dross layer at the bottom of the bath. Dross jections to large defects. Small fine blisters
has a rate of corrosion similar to zinc, and its sometimes are barely discernible to the eye.
presence as finely dispersed pimples is often ob- Blisters are known to be caused by discon- ’
jectionable. However, major dross inclusions are tinuities in the basis steel traceable to the
normally grounds for rejections as they tend to presence of non-metallic inclusions, laminations,
embrittle the coating. “piped steel”, imperfectly welded blowholes,
seams or other faults. The nascent hydrogen
6. Bare Spots liberated by the reaction of the acid on the steel in
Because of the sacrificial action of the zinc, pickling diffuses readily through the steel and is
localized flaws are usually self-healing and have absorbed in these voids or inclusions. Upon
little effect on the coating life. Where considered subsequent heating in the galvanizing operation,
necessary such spots may be patched using one the substantial increase in volume of the
of the repair methods available for restoring dam- hydrogen gas exerts pressure great enough to
aged galvanizing. Gross uncoated areas, however, raise the steel surface at points of discontinuity.
should be rejected unhesitatingly. Some of the Properly made rimmed steels have a heavy
causes of bare spots in galvanized steel are skin and are relatively free from the surface
described below. blowholes that are a direct cause of seams, and
a. Under-Preparation. Remnants of paint, oil, the occurrence of the defect is largely confined to
grease, scale, or rust are perhaps the most com- semi-killed and killed steels.
mon cause of uncoated spots. Such residues are If the blister is in the free zinc layer, which it
not wetted by the molten zinc and, therefore, deter usually is, it can be eliminated by regalvanized
the normal coating reactions. It cannot be without stripping. The free zinc layer is melted by
overstressed that thorough preparation of the the galvanizing bath, allowing the gas to escape,
steel is the foundation of good galvanizing prac- thereby eliminating the blisters. Similar blisters
tice and calls for the utmost care and diligence in can occur on malleable iron castings caused by
its execution. moisture or flux entrapped by the irregular sur-
b. Welding Slag. Slag deposits from arc welding face profile.
are resistant to normal pickling acids and must be 8. Gray Coatings
completely removed before the work enters the Gray coatings appear in small localized areas or
galvanizing process. Grit or sand blasting is as a complete dull gray surface, with no spangle
strongly recommended for this purpose and is at all usually, but on occasion in very small
preferable to the less reliable method of hand spangles. This appearance is commonly caused
chipping and wire brushing. This cleaning is by diffusion of iron to form the zinc-iron alloy
usually done by the fabricator. phase at the surface of the coating. It first
c. Rolling Defects in Steel. These defects may be develops as a localized dull patch or lace-work
broadly classified as discontinuities in the steel pattern on an otherwise normal surface but may
that have been closed and elongated during roll- extend over the entire surface. Gray coatings

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z L . O 93 m 8627940 0 0 0 3 9 2 4 159 m
generally occur as a result of the combination of may result in non-symmetrical stressed pieces.
steel chemistry and galvanizing conditions. Precautions shall be taken to avoid distortion
While there are numerous factors related to or warpage of members during galvanizing. The
the formation of gray coatings, the major ones are procedures suggested in ASTM-A 384 “Recom-
attributable to a defective steel base. For in- mended Practice for Safeguarding Against Warp-
stance, the steel base may be an over-oxidized age and Distortion During Hot-Dip Galvanizing of
steel base, usually accompanied by an excess of Steel Assemblies” should be observed. Material
inclusions and porosity. An over-pickled steel failing to meet the required criteria for
base results in excessive amounts of absorbed straightness and length should be rejected.
hydrogen and a porous surface, both of which in- 10. Strength and Ductility
terfere with the normal crystallization of the zinc. Normally, no significant changes occur in the
Over-pickling also may cause embrittlement. mechanical properties of construction steel due
The composition of the steel base can affect to galvanizing. In applications which require
the formation of gray coatings. The silicon con- heavy cold working of steels that are susceptible
tent is especially important, and gray coatings to strain or age hardening, stress relieving may be
result with increasing severity as the silicon con- needed before galvanizing (or any other process
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tent is raised from 0.05 percent to 0.20 percent. involving a similar heating cycle) to ensure ade-
Some other conditions that favor the formation of quate ductility in the product.
iron-zinc alloys will result in gray coatings, for in- 11. Lumps and Runs
stance, decreasing the rate of cooling by artificial in utilitarian applications lumps and runs caused
means, as in the manufacture of “dull coat” by uneven drainage are not harmful to the life of
coatings or the effect of heavier gauges in cooling the coating. Fabrications with drainage spikes of
from the coating temperature. Another factor is such a size that they can be knocked off, exposing
the degree of roughness of the surface as it pro- bare steel, require remedial action, either repair or
vides more or less surface for the alloying action reject ion.
to progress.
12. Fluxing Defects
Gray coating can sometimes be minimized by
Serious corrosion of galvanized coatings is in-
c o n t r o l l i n g i m m e r s i o n time, galvanizing
variably caused by the inclusion of flux, especially
temperature, and quenching time. For example,
when it has lost its fluidity due to loss of most of
galvanizing a delineator post for five minutes at
its ammonia content, or to oxidation. It will then
850°F and air cooling resulted in a gray coating.
become too viscous to flow out freely from tiny
Reducing the galvanizing time to 2% minutes at
crevices on the metal surface or the pockets in the
850°F and water quenching produced a coating
irregularly growing alloy layer.
that displays the typical shiny galvanized coating
appearance. Water quenching is important in 13. Residues
reducing the frequency of dull gray coatings A number of reaction products or residuals stem
because it restricts the alloy layer growth and from the hot dip galvanizing process. These are
results in the presence of a free zinc layer on the dross, ash, and flux skimmings. While their forma
surface of the coating. tion cannot be totally-eliminated, it can be
However, this is a cosmetic defect only; the minimized by exercise of controls and care in
corrosion protection afforded by a gray coating is practice. Dross is a pasty solid comprised of zinc-
comparable to that of bright shiny coatings. Gray iron alloy and much adhering zinc. It is denser
coatings can be eliminated by specifying the steel than zinc and sinks to the bottom of the kettle.
composition to preclude silicon-killed and semi- While zinc-iron alloys contain 6-12% iron, dross
killed steel, i f possible. Otherwise, the material removed from the bottom of the galvanizing bath
should be galvanized at low temperatures for analyzes at about 97% zinc and 3% iron.
short times and then water quenched as quickly
as possible after withdrawal from the galvanized. X. AFTER-TREATMENTS
bath. Since these coatings are often thicker than
After galvanizing, the work may be quenched in water
the normalbright coatings, they will give a longer
or cooled in air, Small parts, such as nuts, bolts, and
life. It is rarely possible for the galvanizer to
washers that are galvanized in baskets in a batch are
minimize this effect when it is due to the composi-
usually centrifuged to remoye excess zinc before it
tion of the steel.
freezes.
9. Distortion No after-treatment is essential, but components are
Because galvanizing takes place at the low end of often quenched to allow handling and to limit further
the stress-relieving temperature range, some growth of the alloy layers that have a dark gray ap-
stress relief takes place and distort.ion or warping pearance.
477
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERa2L.O 93 = 862’7940 0003925 O95 a
Where work is likely t o be stored or transported under Another line is characterized by a continuous anneal
bad conditions of ventilation, a simple chromating treat- during which the strip is exposed to a complex gas con-
ment may be used to prevent wet storage stain (white rust). taining hydrogen chloride.
Such treatments are usually not suitable as a pre- A fourth type of line includes controlled oxidizing and
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treatment for painting. reducing steps prior to coating. The cold-reduced strip
passes from the uncoilers through an open-flame oxidizing
A. TREATMENT FOR WET STORAGE STAIN furnace, which also serves as a flame degreaser, into a
reducing furnace where it is annealed or normalized, and
Wet storage stain is the name given to the bulky white
the oxide film formed in the first furnace is reduced by
or grey deposit that may form on the surface of closely
hydrogen gas.
stacked, freshly galvanized articles that become damp
A fifth type of line, which may or may not use alkaline
under poorly ventilated conditions during storage or tran-
cleaning or acid pickling, anneals the steel in a gas-fired,
sit. In extreme cases, the protective value of the coating
direct-flame-impingement reducing furnace and cools it in
may be seriously impaired, but the attack is often light
a closed compartment containing a reducing atmosphere
despite its appearance. This porous deposit is not protec-
from which the steel enters the zinc bath.
tive and must be removed even i f the attack is superficial
In other installations, strip material is alkaline
as the essential protective patina of tightly adherent corro-
cleaned, rinsed and dried, bright annealed, cooled to
sion products will not form in these areas. Light deposits
slightly above pot temperature, and introduced into the
can be removed by brushing with a stiff bristle brush.
coating bath while still protected by the furnace at-
Heavier deposits can be removed with a 5 per cent solution
mosphere.
of sodium or potassium dichromate with the addition of
0.1 per cent by volume of concentrated sulphuric acid. This
B. ELECTROGALVANIZING
solution is applied by brush or spray and left for about half
a minute before thorough rinsing and drying. After removal In electrogalvanizing, steel strip or wire is fed con-
of these heavier deposits, a check should be made on the tinuously through suitable entry equipment, a series of
coating thickness. washes and rinses, and a plating bath. The pure zinc
coating deposited is highly ductile. Because of its ex-
B. MARKING FOR IDENTIFICATION cellent adhesion, electrogalvanized steel strip and wire
have good working properties, and the coating remains in-
Units to be galvanized must be free from marking tact after severe deformation.
paint such as might be used for addresses, shipping in-
1. Strip and Sheet
structions, and job numbers.
Electrogalvanized steel is produced in strip coils
For temporary identification use water soluble paint
or sheets. Most products have a coating weight in
or detachable metal labels. For permanent identification
the range of 0.06 to slightly less than 0.2 oz. per
to be legible after galvanizing use large heavily punched or
sq. ft. (0.00005 to 0.00017 in. thick on each side). A
embossed marks.
small amount carries considerably less - about
0.025 oz. per sq. ft. (0.000021 in. on each side).
XI. OTHER METHODS OF GALVANIZING Electrogalvanized sheets are produced in
various tempers suitable for simple bending or
While this chapter is mainly on products hot dip
forming, for curving, and for rolling into cylinders
galvanized after fabrication, it is pertinent to mention two
without fluting. Spot welding is easily ac-
other zinc coating fields. These are continuous line
complished provided care is taken.
galvanizing of steel strip and wire, and electrogalvanizing
Electrogalvanized steel is easily prepared to
of steel strip and wire. Strip continuous galvanizing is by
receive decorative finishes. Much of it is produced
far the largest market in that, in an average year, about 7
with a phosphate treatment or an organic coating.
million tons of steel are zinc coated.
The phosphate treatment provides adequate
“tooth” for a good bond with organic finishing
A. CONTINUOUS HOT DIP GALVANIZING materials. Organic coatings applied over elec-
Several designs of continuous hot-dip galvanizing trozinc so treated maintain good adhesion in
lines are in commercial use. In the simplest arrangement, adverse conditions such as sudden changes in
a continuous strip of box-annealed and temper-rolled steel temperature and high humidity. Phosphatized
is passed from an uncoiler through a long acid pickling electrogalvanized steel is used for parts subject
tank into a galvanizing pot. to atmospheric corrosion or salt spray, and for
A more elaborate design utilizes the so-called “dry- parts that are to be lacquered or printed.
fluxing” practice. In this modification, a thin film of flux in Phosphate treatment increases corrosion
aqueous solution is applied to the strip after it leaves the resistance to a marked degree, particularly in at-
cleaner, and the strip then passes through a drying fur- mospheres with a high sulfur content.
nace into the zinc pot.
478
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z L = O 9 3 D 8627940 0003926 T 2 1 =
2. Applications Appendix
Electrogalvanized sheet is used for manufactur- Specifications for Galvanized Coatings
ing water cooler housings and exterior panels on Pertinent ASTM specifications concerned with zinc and
ranges, freezers, dryers, washers, air conditioners some technical practices are:
and other major appliances. It is used for deep- A 53 Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot
drawn parts for kitchen cabinets, refrigerators Dipped, Zinc Coated Welded and Seamless
and allied products instead of plain cold-rolled A 90 Methods of Test for Weight of Coating on Zinc-
sheet because zinc holds better in the dies and Coated (Galvanized) Iron or Steel Articles
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cuts down greatly on breakage. Bakery equipment A 111 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) “Iron” Telephone
and other merchandizing display cases, stud sys- and Telegraph Line Wire
tems for steel building construction, acoustic
A 112 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Tie Wires
ceiling members, and television masts are also
made of electrogalvanized steel. A 116 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Iron or Steel
ASTM Standard Specification A525 for “Steel Farm-Field and Railroad Right-of-way Wire Fencing
Sheet, Zinc Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot Dip A 120 Spec. for Black and Hot Dipped Zinc-Coated
Process” is the master specification for galvan- (Galvanized) Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe for
ized sheet. It spells out the general requirements, Ordinary Uses
whereas other specifications go into specifics A 121 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Barbed
more clearly. It lists the different kinds of surface Wire
finishes available as well as supplementary A 123 Spec. for Zinc (Hot Galvanized) Coatings on Prod-
finishes to further retard corrosion such as oiling ucts Fabricated from Rolled, Pressed, and Forged
and chemical treatments. The latter includes the Steel Shapes, Plates, Bars, and Strip
various chromate conversion coatings or
A 143 Rec. Practice for Safeguarding Against Embrittle-
modifications thereof that are used for white rust
ment of Hot Dip Galvanized Structural Steel Prod-
control.
ucts and Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement
ASTM Standard Specification A591 for “Steel
A 153 Spec. for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel
Sheet, Cold Rolled, Electrolytic Zinc Coated” is
Hardware
the document covering the parameters of electro-
A 385 Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc
galvanized steel.
Coatings (Hot-Dip)
A 591 Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Electrolytic
XII. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS Zinc-Coated for Light Coatings Mass Applications
An important advantage of the hot-dip galvanizing A 641 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Carbon Steel
process is that unless zinc is removed by mechanical Wire
devices (a practice confined to the specialized galvanizing A 642 Spec. for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by
of sheet, strip, wire and tube), the work is bound to be the Hot Dip Process, Drawing Quality, Special Killed
thoroughly covered and to carry a thick coating, usually A 767 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
weighing from 1.8 to 2.2 oz. of zinc per square ft. of sur- Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
face. All edges, rivets, seams and welds are thus sealed by A 780 Standard Practice for Repair of Damaged and Un-
the hot-dip process. Furthermore, it will often be the most coated Areas of Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings
economical process where large amounts of steel have to
be treated. B 6 Spec. for Zinc Metal (Slab Zinc)
Galvanizing can be specified to good advantage on B 454 Spec. for Mechanically Deposited Coatings of Cad-
many construction projects. The architect and specifica- mium and Zinc on Ferrous Metals
tion writer should be selective in their use of galvanizing, B 487 Measurement of Metal and Oxide Coating
just as they are selective in the use of other materials. Thicknesses by Microscopical Examination of a
Technical and economic requirements must dictate the Cross Section
choice of materials. B 498 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Core Wire
for Aluminum Conductors, Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
XIII. CONCLUSION B 499 Measurement of Coating Thicknesses by the
Magnetic Method: Nonmagnetic Coatings on
Hot dip galvanizing methods and practices have im-
Magnetic Basis Metals
proved considerably. The technical aspects of galvanizing
have .been emphasized. It is hoped that the design B 504 Measurement of Thickness of Metallic Coatings by
engineer will benefit as well as the corrosion engineer the Coulometric Method
from this discussion. Zinc coated steel is the dominant B 555 Guidelines for Measurement of Electrodeposited
method used for economical long-term protection of steel Metallic Coating Thicknesses by the Dropping Test
structures. B 571 Test for Adhesion of Metallic Coatings
at 303-397-2295.
B 695 Standard Specification for Electrodeposited Coatings
of Zinc on Iron and Steel
E 376 Rec. Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness b y
Magnetic-Field or Eddy-Current (Electromagnetic)
Test Methods
B 633 Spec. for Electrodeposited coatings of zinc or steel
(see 6454)
A 591 ASTM Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Cold
Rolled, Electrolytic Zinc Coated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the ac-
tive participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Willard Lantz, Howard Lasser, Marshall McGee, John
Montle, Jack Oechsle, Walter Pregmon, Walter Radut, Melvin
Sandler, and William Wallace, Jr.
REFERENCES
1. “Specifying Galvanized Steel For Construction Projects”. The
Construction Specifier, October 1973.
2. U.S. Steel Corporation, The Making, Shaping and Treating of
Steel, 1971.
3. “Faults in Hot Dip Galvanizing”, Max Planck Institute
Booklet, 1975.
4. American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of
Standards, 1980.
5. “Fabricating Continuous Galvanized Steel”, Steel Processing
and Conversion, June 1958.
6. “Zinc - Science and Technology of the Metal, Its Alloys and
Compounds”, C.H. Mathewson, Ed. American Chemical
Society Monograph Series No. 142 (1959).
7. Inspection Manual for Hot Dip Galvanized PrÓducts, Zinc In-
stitutelAmerican Hot Dip Galvanizers Association, 1979.
8. The Design and Fabrication of Galvanized Products, Zinc In-
stituteiAmerican Hot Dip Galvanizers Association, 1979.
9. The Galvanizing Manual, St. Joe Minerals Corporation, 1974.
BIOGRAPHY
Ernest W. Horvick has worked for the Zinc Institute, Weirton
Steel Company, Bell Aircraft and Minneapolis Honeywell, in
technical, supervisory and marketing capacities. He is a member
of ACS, the American Society for Metals, the Society of Die
Casting Engineers, the American Society for Testing and Materi-
als, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers and is a Soci-
ety of Manufacturing Engineers Certified Manufacturing Engineer
in the field of Inorganic Coatings.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

480
at 303-397-2295.
~ ~~
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 2 . 0 93 W 8627740 0003728 8T4 W
CHAPTER 22
PAINTING OF GALVANIZED STEEL

by
Richard W. Drisko, Ph.0.
I. INTRODUCTION
Hot-dipped galvanizing of steel is achieved by immers-

ing cleaned steel in a bath of molten zinc. The zinc is metal-
lurgically bonded to the steel to form a tight metallic layer
that provides both barrier and cathodic protection. Cathodic
protection comes into play wherever there are imperfections
in the zinc protective film.
The length of protection provided to steel structures is
related both to exposure environment and to the thickness
of the zinc, which is sometimes expressed in ounces per
square inch. Mils increasingly are also being used to describe
the thickness of the zinc film. Electrodeposition of zinc usually
results in much thinner films of zinc than does hot-dipping,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
so that the latter is usually preferred for long-term protection.
Although galvanizing itself may provide many years of
protection to steel structures, coating will extend the period
of protection as well as provide other desirable features. This
chapter addresses the benefits of coating galvanized steel
and how best to achieve them. For more information on gal-
vanizing, see chapter 21.
II. REASONS FOR COATING GALVANIZING
There are basically three reasons for coating galvanized

steel structures: extended corrosion protection, color cod- FIGURE 1
Galvanizing may be painted to extend corrosion protection. Early
ing and appearance. corrosion of galvanized steel in tropical environment, caused by
water drainage problems.
A. EXTENDING CORROSION PROTECTION
Although galvanizing may protect steel for 30-40 or more required for cathodic protection on buried or immersed struc-
years in moderate environments, this period of protection tures. The cathodic protection provided by galvanizing, or
may be much less in severe environments. Being ampho- an external cathodic protection system protect organic coat-
teric (attacked by both acid and alkali), zinc is especially sus- ings from undercutting at holidays and other imperfections
ceptible to attack in acidic and alkaline environments. that arise in the paint film with time.
Properly selected and applied coatings can significantly ex- B. APPEARANCE
tend the life of galvanized coatings on steel surfaces in a Hot-dipped galvanizing of steel results in a metallic fin-
range of environments. ish that may not be pleasing to some people for some appli-
There is some evidence that galvanizing and coating
cations. They may desire a finish to produce a more pleasing
with an organic finish have a synergistic effect in protecting
appearance.
steel, ¡.e., the total time of protection is greater than the sum
of the times normally provided by the zinc and the organic
coatings. This additional protection is said to be similar to C. SAFETY MARKING/COLOR CODING
the combined effects of cathodic protection and organic coat- Galvanizing may also be coated when regulations re-
ings on buried or immersed steel structures. quire safety coding. For instance, OSHA regulations require
Organic coatings reduce the rate of zinc consumption that workers be alerted to physical hazards using a safety
from galvanizing just as they reduce the amount of current color code system. Under this system, the color red signi-
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 2 = 0 9 3 m Ab27940 0003929 730 m
circumstance which could cause a worker to trip or fall, to

be caught in between two surfaces or to strike against
something.
Aviation regulations also require some color coding. Tall
galvanized structures such as antennas may constitute a haz-
ard to aircraft unless treated by a system that provides a
quick visual identification by pilots.
111. BACKGROUND
Historically, there have been problems obtaining good

performances from organic coatings on galvanized steel.
These have usually been related to improper cleaning of the
galvanizing or improper selection of the organic primer.
A. PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM IMPROPER
CLEANING
Necessary cleaning of galvanizing for coating includes
removal of all surface contaminants that would adversely af-
fect primer adhesion. After the hot dipping of steel, the gal-
vanized finish is sometimes coated with a thin film of oil or
given a hexavalent chromate treatment to protect it from for-
mation of “white rust” (zinc corrosion products) during ex-
terior storage. Galvanizing is susceptible to accelerated
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
crevice corrosion during exterior storage, if water gets be-

tween sheets or other components.
Galvanizing may be painted when the appearance of a structure is
a consideration.
FIGURE 4
Rusting of steel through galvanizing. Zinc was badly corroded due
to exterior storage of siding.
Oil and chromate protective treatments will prevent good

adhesion of primers, so these materials must be removed
prior to priming. The oil is easily removed by solvent cleaning
(SSPC-SP 1). The hexavalent chromate treatment is more
difficult to remove, and so its use should be prohibited if the
FIGURE 3
Galvanizing may be painted for the purpose of color coding haz- galvanizing is to be painted with an organic coating. ASTM
ards, for instance aviation hazards. D 2092 Appendix X2 describes how the chromate can be
identified using 1,5-diphenylcarbohydrazidesolution and re-
fies “danger”, and is required for danger signs and for safety moved by weathering for 6 months, abrading the surfaces
cans containing flammable liquids. Red also signifies “stop”, by sanding, or brush-off abrasive blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 7).
and is required for emergency stop bars, buttons or switches
on hazardous machines. The color yellow signifies “caution”
and is used to signal a structure, piece of equipment or other

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 2 - 0 93 8627940 0003930 452
5. PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM IMPROPER Either the solvent or the steam cleaning alternatives
SELECTION OF ORGANIC PRIMER of SSPC-SPI should be used. Do not use the alka-
li alternative, since it may damage the galvanizing.
1. Alkyd Coatings
Alkyd coatings using such primers as TT-P-641 2 . Abrasive Blasting and Waterblasting
were once used by direct application to galvanized There is some concern in cleaning weathered gal-
steel surfaces, with limited success. Galvanizing al- vanizing or galvanizing which has localized rusting
ways has a film of alkaline zinc corrosion products that abrasive blast cleaning may remove significant
on its surface. This alkalinity saponifies (hydrolyzes) amounts of the zinc. It has been shown, however,
alkyd or other oil-containing primer binders and may that only very slight amounts are removed by water-
cause disbonding of the total coating system after blasting or brush-off abrasive blasting (SSPC-SP 7).
only 6 months. Localized rusting may have been initiated during im-
Treatment of galvanized surfaces with an acid- proper exterior storage.
ic wash primer (e.g., SSPC-Paint 27 or MIL- 3 . Weathering
P-15238) increased the adhesion of alkyd primers Another approach to obtaining improved primer
and the performances of alkyd systems, but per- adhesion and coating performance is to allow the
formances were still significantly poorer than those galvanizing to weather for six months before paint-
of other generic systems. ing. Although the surface roughness may contrib-
2. Cement Coatings ute to better primer adhesion, surface contaminants
Cement coatings have been used on galvanizing, on weathered galvanizing may adversely affect the
but they are too rigid to expand and contract with coating performance. Thus, deliberate weathering
the metal. Also, they have saponification problems, of galvanizing prior to coating is not recommended.
if drying oils are incorporated into their formulations. 4. Shop YS. Field Cleaning
3. Vinyl, Acrylic and Chlorinated Rubber Lacquers It is preferable to clean and coat new galvanized
Vinyl, acrylic, and chlorinated rubber lacquers have steel in a shop before erection of a structure. When
been successfully used over wash primed galvaniz- this method is used, there is no problem with adhe-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ing but will not be discussed further here, because sion of the recommended coating systems to new
they cannot successfully be formulated as low-VOC galvanizing, and the cleaning and application will
coatings (coatings with low solvent content required be much more effective in a controlled environment.
in locations with poor air quality.) Field cleaning and application is especially difficult
on tall structures.
4. Bituminous (Coal Tar and Asphalt)
Bituminous (coal tar and asphalt) and coal tar epoxy B. COATING
formulations are not recommended for exterior
1. Spraying
service, because they become embrittled by the
Application of coating systems is best accomplished
sun’s ultraviolet light.
by spraying. This is another reason to coat galvaniz-
5. “Home Remedies” ing in a shop environment, where overspray will not
A number of home remedies have also been used drift to some undesired surface.
in the past to promote adhesion of the primer to gal-
2. By Brush
vanizing. These include washing with vinegar or a
Application of coatings by brush is normally
solution of copper sulfate to produce surface tex-
preferred in the field, where spraying may be a
ture. Neither was advantageous.
problem. It can result in fairly uniform dry film
Surface treatments for galvanizing prior to
thickness.
coating are not recommended, because they are
not necessary with the recommended coating sys- 3 . By Roller
tems and thus comprise an unnecessary expense. Application of coatings by roller may be very effec-
Also, if not properly done this procedure may be tive on flat surfaces. It is less effective on surfaces
detrimental. that are not flat and usually results in greater film
thickness variations than does brush application.
IV. HOW AND WHEN TO CLEAN AND COAT 4. By Mitt
GALVANIZED STEEL Application using a synthetic wool mitt is often done
A. CLEANING on tall structures but is not recommended. It always
results in a great variation in coating thickness and
1. Solvent Cleaning
is usually messy.
New galvanizing is easily prepared for coating by
solvent cleaning (SSPC-SP 1) to remove any grease 5. Striping
or oil or washing with a mild detergent solution to Prior to application of the primer coat, it is recom-
remove any dirt or other loose surface contaminant. mended that all galvanized steel edges, corners,
483
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*22.0 93 8627940 0003933 399 =
crevices and other surfaces that are hard to paint 6. Acrylic latex - Use SSPC-PS 24. Apply 2-3 coats
receive an extra coat of paint, a procedure known of the system to give 5-7 mils DFT.
as “striping”. These hard-to-paintsurfaces usual- 2 . New interior galvanizing
ly receive only thin films of paint by conventional Apply two coats of epoxy polyamide (e.g., MIL-
methods of coating application and thus only limit- P-24441, Formulas 150 and 152) to give a minimum
ed protection from corrosion. of 6 mils total dry film thickness.
V. RECOMMENDED COATING SYSTEMS FOR VI. RECOMMENDED COATING SYSTEMS FOR

NEW EXTERIOR GALVANIZING MAINTENANCE PAINTING
A. GENERIC COATING SYSTEMS Maintenance painting may be required to correct fad-
Two generic coating systems are recommendedfor gal- ing, discoloration or limited intercoat peeling, or when the
vanizing, an epoxy system (with an aliphatic urethane finish existing orange and/or white painted bands on tall structures
for exterior service) and an acrylic latex system. fail to meet the requirements of the color chart of the FAA
Advisory Circular 70/7460-lG.
A. PROCEDURE
1. Surface Preparation
The only surface preparation required for cosmet-
ic repairs is removal of paint chalk andlor other
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
loose surface contaminants by washing or scrub-

bing with a bristle brush. The weathered coating ex-
teriors will have sufficient texture to permit good
adhesion of finish coats.
The damaged coating should be scrubbed with
a bristle brush to remove all loose coating material
and clean any exposed galvanizing. The sound
coating adjacent to cleaned damaged areas should
FIGURE 5
Test racks used to evaluate the performanceof particularcoatings. be feather-edged by light sanding to permit tight
bonding of repaired areas onto existing sound
1. Relative Merits coating.
The epoxy systems will provide long-termperform- 2. Compatibility
ance, while the acrylic latex system will provide a Maintenance painting to correct coating defects,
cheaper, easier-to-applysystem with a wider range other than cosmetic, requires use of repair materi-
of colors and glosses at a slight reduction in serv- als that are compatible with the existing deteriorat-
ice life. Both systems are readily available in VOC- ed coating. Generally, this means use of the same
limited and lead- and chromate-free formulations. system already on the tower. Where the existing
Examples of appropriate government and systems are no longer permitted (e.g., vinyl and
SSPC specifications are included. The recommen- chlorinated rubber systems in geographical areas
dations are based on extensive long-term exposure with VOC limitations), another compatible system
testing of the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory at must be used.
Florida and Bermuda. If the generic type of the existing finish coat
2. Application is not known, a solvent-solubility test should be
With the epoxy and epoxy urethane systems, it is done. To do this, soak a portion of cloth or a cotton-
best to apply the topcoat on the day after applica- tipped swab stick in methyl ethyl ketone or acetone,
tion of the primer. If a delay of more than 7 days rub it against the existing finish, and visibly check
occurs before topcoating, apply a thin film (1-2 mils whether it has picked up the finish. The finish is
wet film thickness) of the primer and allow it to cure classified as “solvent soluble” if paint is picked up,
for 4 hours before applying a full coat of the finish. and as “solvent insoluble” if not.
This will result in good adhesion of the finish coat.
B. SPECIFICATIONS
B. SPECIFICATIONS
Alkyd and epoxy systems are also included for coating
1. New exterior galvanizing damaged areas where rusted steel but no galvanizing is
a. Epoxy polyurethane - 1) Apply one primer coat present.
of epoxy polyamide (e.g., MIL-P-24441, Formula 1. Maintenance Painting of Galvanized Steel with
150) to give 3 mils dry film thickness. 2) Apply one No Rusted Steel
finish coat of aliphatic urethane (e.g., MIL-C-85285) Galvanized steel with damaged coatings but no
to give a minimum of 5 mils total dry film thickness. more than a few pinpoint areas of rusted steel

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 2 . 0 93 8627940 0003932 225
should be painted by System A or B, depending (1) Apply two coats of alkyd primer (e.g., TT-P-645)
upon the type of existing coating to be repaired. to the cleaned steel each at 2 mils dry film thickness.
a. Repair System A - If the existing finish is known (2) Apply two coats of alkyd or silicone alkyd (e.g.,
to be oil, alkyd, latex, vinyl or chlorinated rubber or TT-E-489 or MIL-P-24635) finish over the primer
was found to be “solvent soluble”, apply two coats each at 2 mils dry film thickness.
of quality acrylic latex coating (e.g., TT-P-2784 or b. Solvent-lnsoluble Coating - If the existing finish
SSPC-PS 24) each at 1 1/2 mils dry film thickness. coat is known to be urethane or epoxy or if it was
b. Repair System B - If the existing finish is known found to be “solvent insoluble”
to be urethane or epoxy or was found to be “sol- (1) Apply a thin film (1-2 mils wet film thickness) of
vent insoluble”: epoxy polyamide primer (e.g., MIL-P-24441,Formu-
(1) Apply a thin film (1-2 mils wet film thickness) of la 150) to the repair area and allow it to cure for
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
epoxy polyamide primer (e.g., MIL-P-24441, Formu- 4 hours before applying two coats of this primer
la 150) to the repair area and allow it to cure for 4 each at 3 mils dry film thickness.
hours before applying a full coat of this primer at (2) For exterior service, apply a finish coat of aliphat-
3 mils dry film thickness. ic urethane (MIL-C-85285) at 2 mils dry film
(2) For exterior service, apply a finish coat of aliphat- thic kness.
ic urethane (e.g., MIL-C-85285) at 2 mils dry film (3) For interior service, apply a finish coat of epoxy
thickness. polyamide (e.g., MIL-P-24441, Formula 152).
(3) For interior service, apply a second coat of epoxy 4. Total Coating Replacement
polyamide (e.g., MIL-P-24441, Formula 152) at 3 When coating deterioration occurs extensively on
mils dry film thickness. galvanizing that is still in good condition, it will prob-
(4) High-build zinc dust tower paint can be used for ably be necessary to remove the remaining coat-
repair of galvanized utility towers. (Stainless steel ing and recoat as recommended for new
flake can be added to increase the life expectancy galvanizing. Brush off blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 7)
in corrosive or coastal environments). Apply a sin- or high pressure water jetting (10,000 psi or great-
gle coat of 8-10 mils DFT. er) are suitable methods for removing the existing
For these repair systems, overlap the repair deteriorated paint.
area 1 inch onto the surrounding sound coating. If
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
the color match of the repair area to the existing
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active par-
coating is adequate, topcoating of undamaged ticipation of Donald H. Wetzel in the review process for thic chap-
areas will be unnecessary. ter. Pictures were provided by: Dr. Drisko, Donald H. Wetzel and
Keeler and Long. Ernest V. Horwick wrote an earlier chapter.
2 . Maintenance Painting for Appearance (Cosmet-
ic Defects) BIOGRAPHY
Apply two coats of a quality acrylic latex finish (e.g., A portrait and biographical sketch of Richard W. Drisko ap-
TT-P-2784 or SSPC-PS 24) to completely hide the pear at the end of the chapter on Government Painting Procedures.
existing paint. REFERENCES
3 . Maintenance Painting of Galvanized Steel with 1. American Galvanizing Association and Zinc Institute. Painting
Galvanized Structural Steel. 1986.
Rusted Steel 2. American Galvanizing Association. Zinc Coatings. 1988.
If the coating deterioration and the zinc corrosion 3. American Galvanizing Association. Touch-up Material for Gal-
have occurred to the extent that significant areas vanized Steel. 1979.
4. R. W. Drisko, D. R. Polly, and L. K. Schwab. “Salt Spray Evalu-
of rusted steel but no galvanizing are exposed, spot ation of Coated Galvanized Steel”. Journal of Protective Coat-
repair of the surface is more complicated. The rust- ings and Linings, February 1985, pp. 30-39.
ed steel must first be hand tool-cleaned (SSPC-SP 5. M.F. Lichenstadter, Lloyd Smith, Dean M. Berger, Gary Sat-
terfield. “Problem Solving Forum: How Is Galvanized Steel
2) or power tool-cleaned (SSPC-SP 3 or 11) to re- Painted?” Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, Septem-
move rust and loose paint. ber 1986, pp. 19-24.
The preferred method of cleaning is SSPC-SP 6. D. John Long. “The Painting of Galvanized Transmission Tow-
ers and Substation Structures”. Journal of Protective Coatings
11. “Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal”, because and Linings, November 1987, pp. 32-41.
it not only removes all visible rust but also produces 7. D. John Long, Bruce Delventhal, W.D. Dickinson, Jr. “Problem
a roughened surface. Powered needle guns and Solving Forum: Most Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
tration (OSHA) Safety Colors Contain Lead Color Pigments.
grinders with flexible wheels and disks can be used Does the Lead Content Constitute a Hazard in Application or
to produce the SP 11 surface. Cleaned steel should Removal of These Coatings? Are Suitable Alternatives Availa-
be primed the same day before flash-rusting oc- ble?” Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, December
1992, pp. 9-1 1.
curs. If flash rusting occurs before priming, the steel 8. Jan F.H. Eijnsbergen. “Duplex Systems”. (To be available,
must be recleaned. 1994).
a. Existing Solvent-Soluble Coating - If the existing fin-
ish coat is known to be oil, alkyd, latex, vinyl, or chlo-
rinated rubber or was found to be “solvent-soluble”:
at 303-397-2295.
CHAPTER 23
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF

PAINT FAILURE
by
Charles G. Munger
Coatings or pair s are the prin ipal materials of cor- adequate thickness control, pinholes, overspray,
rosion protection for all steel structures. This is true almost improper drying, lack of cure or holidays can
without regard to the use of the structure, whether it be a cause rapid failure.
bridge, ship, chemical plant, tank farm, refinery, high rise 7. The design of the structure itself is often a cause
office building or underground pipe line. Every exposure of for severe failure. Sharp edges, crevices, skip
a coating is different, even though it may be used for the welds, back-to-backangles all are focal points for
same purpose at different locations. Bridges in Florida are failure.
exposed to vastly different conditions than bridges in the All paints, and particularly many of the more ad-
northern part of the United States or Canada, and a tank vanced coatings, are complex chemical mixtures that
farm in California is exposed to conditions quite different must react in place on the surface over which they are ap-
from one on the Gulf Coast. As coatings are the primary plied. Paints and coatings contain a number of interacting
protection for all of these vastly different exposures, it is ingredients: resins, plasticizers, curing agents, pigments,
understandable that failure of coated surfaces is inherent extenders, catalysts, fungicides and solvents. These
and that time to failure is the critical dimension in this are applied to the surface as a very thin film, a few
phenomenon. micrometers or thousandths of an inch in thickness. The
Failure can occur for a number of reasons: solvents must evaporate properly. The non-volatile portion
1. Improper selection of the coating for the service. of the liquid coating must deposit in a continuous even
Too often, a coating designed for steel surfaces film over the surface. It must adhere to and possibly react
may be extended out over a concrete or wood sur- with the surface. It also may react with internal curing
face from the steel structure with rapid failure oc- agents, with oxygen from the air or with water from the air
curring on the non-metallic surface. Also, a in order to become an insoluble, relatively inert film of low
coating which might be excellent on the exterior permeability which has good appearance. This thin film
of a storage tank may be a complete failure on a must then withstand rain, wind, the sun’s rays, humidity,
chemical reaction vessel. Proper selection of a cold, heat, oxidation, physical abuse, chemicals, bio-
coating for any specific purpose is extremely im- degradation and other forces. With all of the variables
portant. involved in the formation and use of paints or coatings, it
2. The coating may fail from causes inherent t o that is obvious that there can be many causes for coating
specific coating. Such failure could be chalking, failures.
checking or alligatoring. The common causes for paint or coating failure which
3. Adhesion-related failures are most numerous and are listed above will be taken up individually.
can be catastrophic. Such failures are blistering,
flaking and peeling. I. SELECTION OF THE COATING SYSTEM
4. Failure can occur from the surface to be protected
The primary requirement of a coating system is that it
(the substrate). The coating may be incompati-
shall resist deterioration by the environment in which the
ble with the surface; there may be a chemical
coating is to serve as a protection for a substrate. Since no
reaction between the surface and the coating; or
one coating, or type of coating, is resistant to all en-
the density or smoothness of the surface may
vironments (atmospheric, aqueous, or chemical), many
cause the coating to have poor adhesion.
types of coatings have been developed for service under
5. The coating may fail from exterior forces such as special conditions and for application by various methods.
chemical exposure, abrasion or severe weather- Selection of a paint from among these many types can be
ing. made intelligently only on the basis of the following fac-
6. The coating may fail because of poor or inade- tors: the known performance of coatings in similar ap-
quate surface preparation or application. Here, plications, the known chemical composition and physical
surface contamination, poor surface profile, in- properties of the paints, and the results of exposures of
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*23.0 93 ö b 2 7 9 4 0 000393Li O T B
recommended by the manufacturer, nor should the prod-

ucts of one manufacturer be mixed with that of another.
Only the manufacturer can know the true compatibility
characteristics of the paint system which he has
developed and is recommending. Selecting parts of paint
systems from different manufacturers or from different
generic types without basic knowledge of the products is
almost a guarantee of failure.
II. COATING FAILURES WHICH ARE

INHERENT WITHIN THE COATING ITSELF
(FORMULATION RELATED)
There are many failures of coatings due to the basic
FIGURE 1 formulation, the resins used, the pigments or the many
Note chalking of primer on deck. other ingredients used in coatings. The relation of the in-
herent coating failures to coating classes should be con-
sidered: ¡.e., those based on organic materials and those
the coatings under consideration to test environments
based on inorganic vehicles.
simulating the conditions of use.
Of these factors, the best basis for critical judgment
A. ORGANIC COATINGS, FORMULATION-
of the relative suitability of a paint system is previous ex-
RELATED FAILURES
perience with the performance of that coating. Never-
theless, actual first-hand observations of the serviceability i. Chalking
of a coating can be misleading i f the new environment in With chalking, the organic binder in the coating
which the paint is to serve is dissimilar or i f the composi- tends to gradually disintegrate on the surface
tion of the paint has been modified. Knowledge of the releasing the pigments and allowing them to re-
chemical and physical properties of a coating (e.g., acid main on the surface as powder or chalk. This is
and alkali resistance, heat resistance, abrasion resistance, strictly a surface phenomenon. While in some
etc.) is a selection aid but should not be the sole basis for cases it can result in rapid reduction in coating
final selection. thickness, it is generally a relatively slow process
If the durability of a coating has not been proved in and one which does not result in catastrophic
field tests or by service in commercial uses, the paint failure or severe corrosion to the substrate. Chalk-
should be evaluated by accelerated tests. However, it must ing, or powdering, is primarily caused by the ac-
be emphasized that evaluation by accelerated tests should tion of the actinic rays of the sun on the organic
be used cautiously and then only for comparison pur- binder. Permanently shaded areas seldom chalk.
poses. The results of such tests must not be valued too Humidity and oxygen from the air also play a part
highly unless there is correlation between their results and in this phenomenon.
the observed performance of the paint in actual use. Unfor- The resins which make up the binder are the
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tunately, correlation between the results of accelerated key to the chalking rate. As an example, many
tests and performance during service is usually not epoxy coatings have a strong tendency to chalk.
available. Properly formulated, they chalk minimally;
A source of information by which to select a coating however, there have been epoxy formulations that
is the manufacturer of the paint or the supplier of chalk at a sufficient rate so that a coating of eight
materials for paints. Yet, such information can be in- or ten mils thickness can be reduced to the point
complete or misleading if a precise description of the con- where the primer is visible in a one-year period. On
ditions to be met is not given to the persons whose advice the other hand, acrylic, silicone, and polyurethane
is sought or i f the basis on which their recommendations resins are only slightly affected by the sun’s rays,
are made is not disclosed to the potential user of the and a coating system formulated from these may
coating. Selection of paint on the basis of price only or on remain in a chalk-free condition for several years.
the unsubstantiated opinion of a salesman can prove to be Pigments also play a very important part in
extremely costly. the chalking reaction. Some pigments, such as
Mixing of paint systems is often practiced by persons anatase titanium dioxide, chalk very readily and
with limited knowledge of coatings, usually as a matter of rapidly, while most rutile titanium dioxide
expediency. This can result only in costly failures. The pigments are very resistant to chalking. Many
compatibility of one coat with another is extremely impor- pigments tend to catalyze the chalking reaction.
tant to the satisfactory service life of a paint. Generic Some black pigments will chalk after a short
types of coatings should generally not be mixed unless period of time, while others will remain for years
487
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERr23.0 93 m 8627940 0003935 T34 m
with little surface effect. Iron blue pigments tend because of the greater erosion of the raised area.
to bronze as the first step in their chalking proc- Erosion of this type can best be prevented by the
ess. selection of a chalk resistant coating as de-
The influence of pigments on chalking is not scribed above and one which tends to flow out to
all bad inasmuch as they tend to reduce chalking a very smooth film.
by shielding the resin from the sun’s rays. ASTM-D 662 describes degree of erosion of
Aluminum pigmentation is an excellent example exterior paints. ASTM-D 821, describes degree of
of this type of shielding. The shingle effect of the abrasion and erosion. ASTM-D 913 describes
leafing aluminum flake pigment prevents the degee of chipping of traffic paint.
sun’s rays from penetrating to the coating vehicle. 3. Checking
Almost any coating vehicle is more resistant to Checking is an age-related failure of a coating. It
chalking when formulated with leafing aluminum is characterized by uneven and generally non-
pigment. linear, non-continuous breaks in the coating.
The use of the newer resins, such as the These breaks are primarily a surface phenomenon
acrylics and aliphatic polyurethanes, combined and do not penetrate the full depth of the coating.
with chalking resistant pigments and the use of Checking can be characterized as “visible” i f the
coating additives, such as ultra-violet absorbers, checks can be seen with the naked eye, or “micro-
has resulted in paints and coatings which remain scopic” if they can be seen only under low
free of any surface change or change in gloss over magnification.
a period of several years. There can be several causes of checking. It is
The chalking reaction has been one used by a generally a formulation problem which results in
number of manufacturers to produce coatings surface stresses in the coating. It can occur when
with self-cleaning properties. When chalking is solvents evaporate very rapidly from the surface
properly regulated through the prudent selection and cause the surface to shrink more rapidly than
of the coating binder and the pigments, the chalk- the body of the coating. It can be caused by resins
ing reaction can be controlled to the point where which oxidize on the surface or by certain
the surface erodes slowly, but at a sufficient rate pigments which apparently catalyze the checking
to keep the surface free from any grime or dirt reaction on the surface. Essentially, it is a stress
which might otherwise accumulate from the at- set up in the surface which causes the small
mosphere. In these cases, the reduction in checks to appear while the body of the coating IS
thickness is uniform and relatively constant so not subject to the same reaction. Wetting and dry-
that sufficient coating remains to fully protect the ing, heating, cooling and sunlight exposure may
surface over a number of years. Chalking may all contribute to the checking of a coating.
result in some color change and a reduction in While initially the checks in a coating do not
gloss of the coating, and such factors must be
considered in selecting a product.
Of all the types of coating failure which can
occur, chalking can be considered preferable to
the rest. A clean, chalked surface, which is free
from other types of failure or corrosion, is con-
sidered a satisfactory surface over which to apply
additional coats of paint for maintenance.
2. Erosion
Erosion is a type of failure caused by the wearing
away of the coating down to the base surface or
to the primer. This wearing away of the surface
may be related to the above chalking mechanism.
On the other hand, it may often be aggravated by
the surface being exposed to heavy rainfall, hail,
high winds or a combination of high winds and
rain. Sand erosion of the coating caused by high
winds and sand, such as encountered in beach
areas or in the deserts of the west, cannot be con-
sidered in this same category since such erosion
may be catastrophic from one storm.
FIGURE 2
Erosion is often seen in brushed coatings Badly eroded paint. (Federation of Societies For Coatings
where the high ridges of brush marks are exposed Technology Photo)
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*23.0 93 m 8627940 000393b 970
pene.trate, if the coating is left without

maintenance, the coating will eventually break
down by further checking in the same area until
the checks become cracks and the underlying sur-
face is exposed. Checking is prevented primarily
in the selection of the coating. A coating for-
mulated with weather resistant resins should be
selected, with pigments that do not contribute to
checking and with reinforcing pigments that aid
the coating in resisting surface stresses.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ASTM Standard D-660-44, reapproved 1976,
provides a standard method for the evaluation of
the degree of checking in exterior paints.
FIGURE 3
4. Cracking Checking magnified ten times. (Federation of Societies for
Coatings Technology Photo)
Cracking is also an age-related failure caused by
similar conditions to those described under
“checking”. It contrasts with checking in that it is
not a surface phenomenon but one where breaks
in the coating penetrate to the underlying surface.
This makes it a much more damaging type of
failure than checking, since corrosion can rapidly ASTM Standard D 661 provides a method for
take place at the breaks in the coating. It may oc- the evaluation of the degree of cracking in exterior
cur in an irregular pattern where the coating paints.
stresses are rather uniform. It may be linear, 5. A Iliga toring
following brush marks or even some spray pat- Alligatoring can be considered a macro-checking
terns, or it may occur in a curved pattern with the failure and is caused by internal stresses set up
cracks meeting and intersecting in a rather typical within and on the surface of the coating. The
form. A surface such as wood that rapidly ex- stresses cause the surface of the coating to
pands and contracts can contribute to cracking. shrink much more rapidly and to a much greater
Excessive thickness of coatings can also cause extent than the body of the coating. The strong
cracking because of increased stresses on drying surface stresses, because of the shrinkage, tend
or curing. to create very large checks in the surface that do
Cracking is a formulation defect which can not penetrate t o the substrate. These can be
be overcome by the use of proper weather resis- caused by rapid polymerization of the resin on the
tant resins and pigments plus the addition of two surface, rapid oxidation of the surface of the
additional ingredients that help materially to coating or a very rapid release of solvents or
reduce the interior stresses within the coating. volatile plasticizers from the surface.
One of these is reinforcing pigments. Such As an example, some air drying or chemically
pigments are fibrous or acicular and act very cured coatings, when applied over a cold surface
much like chopped glass fibers in reinforced and then heated on the coated surface to speed
plastics. They definitely add physical strength to the drying, often alligator. Such a reaction may be
the coating film. The second is a permanent found on coating the interior of tanks or tank cars.
plasticizer or soft, compatible resin that in- This is caused by shrinkage of the surface while
creases the elasticity of the coating. Increased the body of the coating, because of the cold
reinforcing and elasticity both reduce the metal, does not change at the same rate as the
physical stresses caused by weathering, heating coating surface. Basically, it is a physical
and cooling or wetting and drying. phenomenon whereby the coating surface hard-
Coatings made from oxidizing materials, ens and shrinks at a much faster rate than the
such as oils or alkyd resins, or internal curing body of the coating itself. It may also be caused
resins such as epoxies, are often susceptible to by the application of a very strong, tough, hard top
this type of failure since they continue to cure, coat over a softer, more resilient primer. In this
become more brittle and shrink with time. Fully case, the undercoat flows and moves as the top
polymerized materials, such as vinyls, acrylics coat tends to shrink.
and chlorinated rubbers, when properly for- It is almost a rule of thumb that a hard, tough
mulated, are less susceptible to cracking since top coat should never be applied over a soft under-
they continue to cure, become more brittle and coat. Asphalt and coal tar coatings are often sub-
shrink with time. ject to this phenomenon. The surface hardens due
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R x 2 3 - 0 73 m 8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003737 807 m
more rubbery one. FIGURE 5

Alligatoring
6. Mud-Cracking
Mud-cracking can be considered a macro- ticles from coalescing into a continuous film. By
cracking phenomenon where the breaks in the contrast, where the resins are dissolved in a sol-
coating usually go down to the substrate. In this vent, a true solution exists and the resin is in a
way, it is a much more dangerous failure than continuous phase as the solvent evaporates. Mud-
alligatoring. It can cause immediate corrosion cracking can be prevented by proper formulation
and result in the chipping and flaking of the to prevent the too rapid drying of water base
coating from the surface. It is not a common coatings and by the use of reinforcing pigments.
failure of organic coatings that are properly for- Mud-cracking can also be prevented by satisfac-
mulated for weather exposure. It may occur where tory drying conditions, by application of the
coatings are very highly filled and where they are coatings in thinner films and by elimination of
applied to a surface that dries the coating ex- sags or puddles where rapid drying could cause
tremely rapidly. this type of failure.
Mud-cracking is often a phenomenon of Ethyl silicate zinc-rich primers will mud-crack
water base coatings and improperly cured in- i f applied too thick (over 6 mils). This generally
organic zinc-rich primers. Because most water is caused by the lack of moisture (too low
base coating materials are emulsions or disper- humidity). Thus, a heavy film would not allow
sions, very rapid drying prevents the resin par- moisture to penetrate and properly cure the zinc-
rich primer.
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FIGURE 4 FIGURE 6
Cracking due to overthickness of coating. Mud-Cracking

490
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 3 - 0 93 Ab27940 0003938 743
surface and in the body. However, when a paint

contains an excess of surface driers, the surface
of the paint will swell by absorption of oxygen and
will wrinkle. Such a reaction depends on air
temperature, surface temperature and coating
thickness.
Excessive thickness aggravates the wrin-
kling process, since the body of the paint cannot
cure sufficiently to resist the change in volume of
the paint surface. The temperature of cure can in-
fluence the rate of wrinkling. Paints that cure
without wrinkling, at normal temperatures, may
wrinkle if curing is accelerated by baking. Also, if
FIGURE 7
Mildew on painted surface. Microscopic examination is often
the amounts of surface driers and body driers are
necessary to determine the difference between mildew and dirt. balanced for curing at a given temperature, a
(Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology Photo) paint may wrinkle at a higher temperature,
because the increase in the temperature tends to
cure the surface more rapidly than the body of the
7. Wrinkling paint.
Wrinkling is the formation of furrows and ridges in To prevent wrinkling, make certain that air-
the surface of a paint system. It occurs when the oxidized or air-reacting coatings are properly for-
surface of the paint film expands more rapidly mulated for the conditions under which the
during drying than does the body of the paint. It is coating will be applied. Where wrinkling of a
proportional to the thickness of the surface layer coating appears to be a problem, the coating
that dries more rapidly than the body of the paint should be applied in a thin, even film with no
film and to the difference between the drying areas of excessive thickness such as runs or pud-
rates and the expansion of the surface layer and dles.
the main body of the paint.
Wrinkling results from a formulation failure 8.. Microorganism Failure
and is most common with oil base paints or Both bacteria and fungi can cause coating failure.
alkyds containing driers that increase the rate of They primarily attack biodegradable coatings
drying. Driers serve two general purposes: to dry where the fungus or bacterium derive their energy
the surface of the paint, and to dry the body of the from the materials making up the coating. Oil type
paint film; that is, surface driers and body coatings, alkyds, polyamide epoxies and coatings
driers, respectively. Cobalt compounds are a com- using biodegradable plasticizers are most often
mon type of surface drier; zinc and lead com- affected. On the other hand, coatings made from
pounds are classified as body driers. vinyl chloride acetate resins or chlorinated rubber
coatings using non-biodegradable plasticizers
,, .
Ordinarilv. Daints are formulated so that the
drying process proceeds at the same rate on the have excellent resistance to biological attack.
One example of the comparative resistance of two
similar coatings is in their exposure to sewage
conditions. A polyamide epoxy may rapidly
disintegrate due to bacteria or fungi attack under
severe sewage conditions. On the other hand, a
polyamine epoxy can remain unaffected under the
same exposure. A fungus attack often occurs on
the north or shady side of a structure under damp,
humid conditions. A coating under these condi-
tions turns grey or green, with black splotchy
areas over the surface. In these areas, a 10-power
glass reveals fungus growths acting on and within
the coating. Prevention of such attack is primarily
by formulation of the coating.
Fungus attack is reduced or completely
eliminated in oil type coatings by the addition of
zinc oxide, fungicides, bactericides or a combina-
FIGURE 8 tion of the three to the formulation. In non-oil type
Failure of inorganic zinc-rich by pinpoint rusting. coatings, such as pure epoxies, vinyls or
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49 1Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
TABLE 1
A SUMMARY OF
FORMULATION-RELATED FAILURES
COATING FAILURE FAILURE APPEARANCE CAUSE OF FAILURE REMEDY
Organic Coating Failure

1. Chalking Surface soft and powdery. Surface disintegration by actinic Select coatings formulated
Easily removed by wiping surface. rays of sun on the organic resin with radiation resistant
binder; improper pigmentation. resins (acrylics) and non-
catalytic, high hiding pigments.
2. Erosion Similar to chalking. Surface Chalking mechanism with coating Select a tough chalk resistant
removed on high spots and brush surface removed by weathering coating with a good flow out
marks to base coating or primer. and abrasion. to a smooth film.
3. Checking Surface phenomena - uneven, Surface stresses caused by shrinkage Select coating formulated
small, non-continuous fissures in due to weathering and continued with weather resistant
coating which do not penetrate coating polymerization and oxidation. resins and inert reinforc-
to the substrate. ing pigments in addition
to non-catalytic colored
pigments.
4. Cracking Small breaks in coating to sub- Stress set up in coating due to Select coating formulated
strate. May be linear, cross- continued polymerization and oxida- from non-reactive weather
hatched, or curved. Cracks may tion - improper pigmentation, or resistant resins,
or may not be continuous. improper coating system. reinforcing pigments and
non-reactive colored
pigments. The primer must be
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compatible with intermediate

and finish coats.
5. Alligatoring Very large macro-checking, Internal stresses where surface Apply thin coats and
generally cross-hatched pattern. shrinks more rapidly than body of thoroughly dry before
coating. Hard top coat applied over adding additional coats.
soft undercoat. Never apply hard top coats
(epoxy) over soft under-
coats (asphalt).
6. Mud-Cracking Large macro-cracking. Coating Rapid drying of highly filled Use coatings with strong adhesion.
may curl at cracks and lose coatings, especially water based Apply coatings under proper
adhesion. materials (water emulsion paints) drying conditions and
prevent sags, puddles or
areas of excess thickness.
7. Wrinkling Furrows and ridges in coating Surface reaction where surface of Choose coatings with even,
surface. May be linear or coating expands more rapidly during thorough drying charac-
random pattern. Wrinkle may be drying than does the body of the film. teristics. Apply evenly,
fine or quite large. avoid excessive thickness.
8. Microorganism Softening or slime reaction of The biodegradation of the coating by Use oil paints which contain
coating. Blotchy brown or black bacteria or fungi¡. The coating is permanent fungicides or
spots on coating surface causing used as a source of nourishment. bactericides. Non-oil
poor dirty appearance. coatings should use non- bio-
degradable modifiers.
9. Discoloration Yellowing, greying or darkening Resin or pigment color change due to Select coating formulated
of coating. weather or chemical action. with both color stable
resins and pigments.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 3 - 0 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 O003940 3 T L
TABLE 1 (Continued)
Inorganic Coating Failure

1. Checking Usually fine visible or micro- The zinc pigment to binder ratio Formulation should include
scopic checks. Do not penetrate is high - rapid drying conditions reinforcing pigments.
to the substrate. cause surface checking. Apply coating as thin as
recommended. Second coat,
if necessary. Apply under
favorable drying conditions.
2. Mud-Cracking Fine t o fairly large segments Application of coating too heavy. Apply coating at no more
( Y i ") flaking from surface. Rapid drying conditions. than recommended thickness.
Apply under favorable drying
conditions.
3. Chemical Pinpoint rusting progressing Acid or alkali reaction on both Apply resistant topcoats
from limited to continuous silicate binder and on metallic zinc. over inorganic zinc
rusting. coatings.
4. Pinpoint Rusting Pinpoint spots of corrosion Uneven coating thickness - thin This is normal failure
progressing from a few per square coated areas show first failure. pattern for inorganic
foot to almost continuous. zinc coatings. Apply
maintenance coat at first
sign of pinpoint failure.
5. Pitting in Seawater Strong anodes (rust tubercles) Reaction of chemicals with Top coat the inorganic
form in breaks in coating. surface of inorganic zinc or galvan- zinc with a strongly
izing, causing it to become inert and adherent resistant
thus a massive cathode. coating system.
TABLE 2
MOISTURE VAPOR TRANSMISSION RATES
OF CHARACTERISTIC COATING TYPES
Test
Permeance Thickness Gramsll00 sq. in./
Coating Type Perms' Mils 24 Hours
Epoxy polyamide 0.16 8.10 .17
Amine catalyzed
epoxy 0.19 7.5 .30
Vinyl Chloride-
acetate 0.31 5.5 .a3
Vinyl acrylic 0.54 5.10 .a3
Alkyd (short oil) 2.4 5.10 3.7
'Perms = grains of moisturell hr./sq.ft./P (in. of Hg)
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493Questions or comments about this message: please call the Document Policy Group
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 - 0 93 m 8b27940 0003941 238 m
chlorinated rubbers, plasticizers or modifiers be necessary to remove any undercoats which

should be nonbiodegradable. contain lead or mercury.
ASTM-D-3274 describes degree of surface
disfigurement by fungal growth or soil and dirt B. INORGANIC COATINGS, FORMULATION-
accumulation. RELATED FAILURES
9. Discolora tion Inorganic zinc coatings also have some inherent
Because appearance may be as much a func- failures because they are made primarily from silicate
tion of a coating as its corrosion resistance, vehicles and metallic zinc.
coatings that change color after application and 1. Checking
become unsightly can be considered to have Inorganic zinc coatings are particularly subject to
failed. This type of failure is, of course, one based checking if the formulation or the application
on formulation and arises from a number of are not proper. These coatings are highly filled
causes. with powdered metallic zinc and other pigments.
Many of the resins used to formulate The ratio of the pigment to a relatively low
coatings contain unsaturated photosensitive viscosity binder is high, and under these condi-
groups which, on exposure to sunlight, cause tions, rapid drying can cause the surface checking
darkening, yellowing or other discoloration of the of the coating.
vehicle. Vinyl chloride-acetate coatings, as an ex- Many formulations contain fibrous pigments
ample, i f used as clear coatings will turn dark to help prevent checking as well as special sol-
brown or even black within a few weeks of ex- vents and silicate binders to aid in controlling the
posure to sunlight. Some epoxy resins tend to drying rate. The tendency to check can also be im-
yellow as do some of the more resistant polyure- proved or prevented by proper application. The
thane resins. Proper pigmentation to shade the coating should be applied as thinly as is practical,
basic resin from sunlight is one of the prime with a second pass if necessary to reach the
methods of preventing discoloration. recommended thickness. As rapid drying in-
Often, however, pigmentation is not suffi- creases the tendency to check, application should
cient. Coatings subject to strong sunlight and be under controlled temperature conditions or
weather conditions should preferably be for- under less severe drying conditions, ¡.e., applying
mulated with silicones, acrylics or aliphatic it under cover, or when in the open, in the early
polyurethanes in order to reduce any possible col- morning or late afternoon. The application condi-
or change to a minimum. Many pigments can also tions established by the manufacturer should be
cause color change in a coating. Some orange closely followed.
pigments are color reactive and darken. Certain Since checking is a surface phenomena and
yellow pigments tend to grey and whiten. Lead does not extend through the coating, i t is much
pigments are particularly susceptible to attack in less of a problem with inorganic zinc coatings
sulfide atmospheres and turn dark or even black. than with organic coatings. As long as the adhe-
Iron blue pigments tend to bronze or turn brown. sion of the inorganic zinc is unimpaired, the fine
Obviously, these pigments should not be used in checks will gradually fill with zinc reaction prod-
formulations where the appearance of the coating ucts, and the effectiveness of the coating will be
is important and where it is exposed to severe maintained. Evaluation of checking is covered by
weat her conditions. ASTM-D 660.
10. Sulfide Discoloration 2. Mud-Cracking
This is the staining of the film by hydrogen Mud-cracking, because the breaks extend through
sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide attacks paints contain- the coating to the substrate, is a more serious
ing lead or mercury turning them gray or black in problem than checking. Adhesion is often im-
patches or streaks. Exposure of copper base anti- paired with the coating flaking from the surface.
fouling paints not only turns them black but can Mud-cracking is primarily a problem of excessive
inactivate the copper causing them to foul rapidly. thickness where the thickness exceeds the manu-
This often occurs in contaminated water. facturer’s recommendations. It is found, for the
This blackening may be distinguished from most part, in runs or puddles or where heavy
mold growth by treatment with dilute hydrochloric overlapping occurs.
acid; disappearance of the blackening indicates The reason for this type of failure is similar to
the presence of sulfide. the reason for checking. The volume of the
When repainting or painting in hydrogen pigmentation is high compared to the volume of
sulfide areas, use paints that do not contain mer- the vehicle in the dried film. Where applied in ex-
cury, lead or copper pigments or lead driers. If cessive thickness, the volatile ingredients in
emulsion paints are used for repainting, it would water base zinc-rich coatings evaporate rapidly
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at 303-397-2295.
~~
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 * 0 93 86279YO 0003942 174
with shrinkage taking place throughout the corrosion. Normally, zinc coatings provide
coating before any chemical reaction can occur. cathodic protection to the steel surface; however,
Such areas will eventually pull themselves away CIS the chemical reaction from seawater takes
from the surface and chip or flake. place on the surface of the zinc, the surface
To eliminate or prevent this problem, apply becomes inert, although it is still conductive.
the coatings in relatively thin films (not over the 1Jnder these conditions, since zinc ions are no
maximum thickness recommended by the manu- longer available, the zinc coating becomes
facturer). cathodic and the holiday or break becomes an
Heavy coats (over 6.0 mils) tend to mud-crack. anode. When this happens, pitting will take place
For ethyl silicate zinc-rich primers, mud-cracking where breaks occur or where there are sharp
is caused by lack of moisture needed to cure the edges, abrasion or holidays.
coating beneath the surface of the film. Pitting can be prevented with a compatible
3. Chemical Resistance and proper organic coating system over the zinc,
Obviously, coatings containing zinc, organic zinc wherever it is exposed to seawater immersion.
coatings, inorganic zinc coatings or galvanizing
should not be used alone or without top coats in a III. AD HES1O N-RELATED FA1LU RES
strongly acidic atmosphere. Because of the zinc
in the coating, acid attack is rapid and the coating 1. Blistering
would be subject to failure. Under these condi- Blistering is one of the most common forms of
tions, galvanizing would tend to fail faster than adhesion related coating failure, particularly
the inorganic zinc coatings, inasmuch as the zinc where the coating is immersed in water, seawater
in the inorganic coating is partially protected by or other liquids. It can also occur in areas of high
the silicate matrix. Strong alkali will tend to react humidity where there is continuing or intermittent
with the silicate vehicle as well as with the zinc at condensation on the surface.
pH values above 10. Blistering is caused by gases or liquids
within or under the coating that exert pressures
4. Pinpoint Rusting
stronger than both the adhesion and the internal
Zinc coatings, either galvanized, inorganic zinc or
cohesion of the coating. This allows the coating
organic zinc, normally fail at the end of their
t o stretch and to form the hemispherical blister.
useful life by pinpoint rusting. This occurs
The blister will generally increase in size until the
primarily in areas that are thinner than the re-
tensile strength of the coating is greater than the
mainder of the coating, starting with an isolated
internal pressure. If the pressure is greater than
pinpoint of rust showing here and there in these
the tensile strength, the blister will break. This is
thin spots. As time goes by, the pinpoints will
often the case where a brittle coating with little
become closer together, and finally, at the time of
extensibility is involved. After the blister breaks,
full failure, the spots of pinpoint rust will be
frequently the substrate will be readily attacked,
almost continuous and general over the entire sur-
causing rust.
face.
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Such failure usually occurs after many years
of service, even under marine atmospheric condi-
tions. While this type of failure can be expected, it
can also be prevented by proper maintenance and
repair of the thin areas that first show failure.
ASTM Standard D 610 provides a method of eval-
uating rusting. A maintenance coat of inorganic
zinc may be applied over itself or over galvanizing
at the time of the first indication of failure. Light
abrasion of the surface by hand sanding or brush F STEEL
blast is necessary for proper adhesion of the b
maintenance coat.
5. Pitting in Seawater
Inorganic zinc coatings or galvanizing immersed
in seawater may pit after exposure of from 12 to
24 months. This phenomenon occurs because of
the reaction of some of the salts in the seawater
with the surface of the zinc to such an extent that
the surface becomes insoluble and no longer pro- FIGURE 9
vides zinc ions to protect the steel surface from Osmosis
at 303-397-2295.
There are several forces that contribute to As an example, if a coating were applied in a
the formation of the liquid or gas underneath or marine atmosphere to a piece of steel having a
within the coating. In addition to strength of adhe- salt deposit on the surface, and if after the
sion the key to most blistering is the moisture- coating were applied and dry the steel were sub-
vapor transmission rate of the coating. Each ject to immersion, moisture would be forced
coating formulation has its own characteristic through the coating from the water on the outside
moisture-vapor transmission (MVT) rate, the rate of the coating to the salt crystalson the underside
at which molecular water passes through the of the coating. The salt crystals would absorb a
inter-molecular spaces in the coating. Any area of small amount of moisture in the beginning,
poor adhesion will tend to accumulate moisture or creating a solution with a high concentration of
moisture-vapor at the interface between the salt. Osmotic pressure is created by the moisture
coating and the substrate. Moisture-vapor in this vapor which has passed through the coating from
area creates a vapor pressure that causes blisters the more dilute side to the more concentrated .
to form. side of the membrane. The pressure built up on
Generally, coatings with the lowest MVT rate the underside of the coating may be quite high
(the greatest resistance to the passage of molec- (several ounceslsq. in.). Moisture vapor being
ular water through the coating) will have the least forced by the osmotic process through a coating
tendency to blister. Table 2 lists some typical with poor adhesion can cause blisters to form.
MVT rates for several of the common coating But coating may have adhesion stronger than the
types. It must be stressed again that these osmotic pressure that develops and thus will not
rates are for specific coating formulations blister.
and do not necessarily indicate a positive rela- Osmosis can also cause blistering if water
tionship between coating types. Permeation is insoluble materials are incorporated into the
fluenced by film thickness, coating pigmentation coating itself. Oftentimes, primers contain in-
and means of application. hibitive pigments having a degree of water
As blistering is an adhesion-related failure, solubility, for instance, zinc yellow or zinc
there is a general rule of thumb that applies: a chromate. This pigment is an excellent inhibitor of
coating with excellent adhesion, even with high corrosion; on the other hand, if a primer made
MVT, will have a low tendency to blister. At this with zinc chromate is top coated and immersed,
point, it should be stated that there is no correla- blistering will often result. In this case, because
tion between the moisture absorption of a coating of the solubility of the chromate, osmosis condi-
and the moisture-vapor transmission rate. tions are set up within the coating itself forcing
Moisture absorption is the amount of molecular water to the area where the soluble chromate is
water which is held within the molecular structure located. Coatings formulated with such soluble
of the coating. There are some coating materials pigments should not be used for immersion pur-
which may have a rather high moisture absorption poses.
but which do not have a high moisture-vapor Table 3 lists several chromates that have
transmission rate. The converse is also true been used or are presently being used in coatings.
There is one synthetic resin material which has The ones with the lowest solubility are preferable
zero water absorption, yet has an extremely high from the standpoint of resistance to osmosis and
MVT rate. This being the case, moisture absorp- blistering.
tion is not necessarily a good measure of the
Another blister forming process is that of
blistering tendency of a coating. electroendosmosis. In this process moisture
Osmosis also contributes strongly t o the vapor or molecular water is forced through
transmission of water or moisture through a the coating by an electrical current in the
coating. Osmosis occurs when moisture vapor
direction of the electrical pole with the same
passes through a semi-permeable membrane
charge as the coating. Most coatings are
from the water solution having the lesser concen-
negatively charged, and if the underlying metal
tration to the one with a higher concentration of
surface is cathodic, or has a source of negative
dissolved solids.
electrons, moisture is then drawn through the
coating towards the negative pole. Under these
conditions, if there are areas of poor adhesion,
blisters form readily. Incidentally, this process
has caused coatings on structures subject to ex-
cessive cathodic protection to blister away from
the surface. Cathodic potentials in excess of 1.0
volt cause many coatings to blister and lose adhe-
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496
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 - 0 93 8627940 0003944 T 4 7
the paint before the solvent is removed. After

rnost of the solvent has evaporated, the baking
TABLE 3 temperature can be increased to cure the paint
completely.
SOLUBILITY OF CH ROMATE PIGMENTS Blistering can be caused also by hydrogen
Grams of CrO, in absorbed in the surface of the steel during pick-
Solution in 1000 CC. ling, that is, during the process of removing rust
Pigment Water at Equilibrium 25OC and mill scale before the surface is coated. If,
Calcium Chromate 17.0 after the coating has been applied, the temper-
ature of the coated object is raised, this hydrogen
Zinc Yellow 1.I
will leave the metal; and, if the rate of hydrogen
St ront i um Chromate 0.6 evolution is more rapid than the rate of diffusion
Basic Zinc Chromate 0.02 of the gas through the paint, pressure areas will
be formed at the metal-paint interface. When the
Barium Chromate 0.001
pressure of the gas under the coating exceeds the
Lead Chromate 0.00005 force of adhesion between the two surfaces, the
paint will be lifted off the metal in blisters. After
pickling steel plate or shapes, hydrogen can be
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eliminated by heating the steel prior to applying
sion. Coated pipelines in wet soil conditions have
the coating. Preferably the coating should be ap-
often shown this type of failure.
plied while the steel is still warm.
Blistering most often results from poor sur-
There is a strong tendency for some coating
face preparation or applying a coating over a dirty,
materials to blister on cast iron. Cast iron is much
greasy, moist or contaminated surface. Such a
more porous than steel and contains gases that
surface is the cause; osmosis or electroendos-
expand, particularly when heated. Coatings ap-
mosis is the process that makes it take place.
plied even to clean, sand blasted cast iron, when it
A coating can also blister when it is used as a
is cold, often blister as the temperature increases.
lining and is subject t o a warm water solution, with
If the cast iron is heated sufficiently to release the
the steel substrate being considerably cooler than
gases and the coating is applied to the cast iron
the liquid (for example, an uninsulated tank con-
while it is still warm, blistering will not occur.
taining liquid at a higher temperature than the
Chemical exposure often causes blistering
outside air). In this case, the moisture passes
and loss of adhesion of coatings, particularly
through the film, and because the steel surface is
where a coating may be subject to volatile acids
cooler than the vapor, it condenses underneath
such as acetic acid, hydrochloric acid or nitric
the coating causing blistering.
acid. These volatile materials can penetrate the
Another cause of blistering is entrapped
coating and react with the underlying metal sur-
solvents. These are solvents that remain in the
face. With moisture vapor always present, a
coating for some period of time, usually by solu-
strong acid solution is formed that not only has a
tion in the coating resin. If the temperature of the
strong osmotic pressure, but also is strongly reac-
coating system is raised and the rate of diffusion
tive with the metal surface, creating hydrogen
of the solvent vapor through the film is slower
than the rate of formation of the vapor, then
blistering will take place.
Many coatings that dry rapidly on the surface ELECTRO-ENDOSMOSIS
are subject to this type of blistering, particularly
where applied in the sun or on a heated surface.
C A T H O D I C A R E A OF C A T H O D I C AREA-
When the pressure exerted by the solvent vapor MOISTURE PENETRATION ANODIC BLISTERS F O R M I N G
becomes greater than the adhesion of the paint, TOWARD NEGATIVE CHARGE AREA IN T H I S A R E A
blisters will be formed and will increase in size un-
til equilibrium between the pressure and the
strength of the film is established. If the pressure
becomes greater than the cohesive strength of
the film, the blisters will break.
Blistering due to entrapped solvents is com-
.”?
mon when baked finishes are used. It can be
avoided i f the coating is prebaked at a STEEL
temperature high enough to drive out all the sol- FIGURE 10
vent but not high enough to cure the surface of Electroendosmosis

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R W 3 . 0 9 3 8627940 0003945 983
substrate over a period of time, thus substantially

reducing the adhesion.
3. Flaking and Scaling
These two types of failure are adhesion-related.
Flaking is a term describing a condition where
small pieces of coating detach themselves from
the surface of the substrate. Its edges are general-
ly raised up from the surface and the small pieces
can be rather easily removed, leaving the bare
substrate.
Flaking is quite common on wooden surfaces
and tends t o occur after oil paints have oxidized
for a period Of years. It is a common sight on
fences and old wooden buildings. Flaking also oc-
curs on metal surfaces, particularly those which
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
have been galvanized. Alkyds or oil type paints ap-
plied to galvanized surfaces eventually age and
oxidize t o the point where the film shrinks suffi-
ciently to pull itself away from the surface. There
can also be an interfacial chemical reaction,
creating a zinc soap between the organic coating
and the zinc substrate, which causes loss of
adhesion and flaking.
Scaling is similar to flaking, except that the
BLISTERINQ DUE TO pieces that break away from the surface are much
THBRMAL GRADIENT
larger. This is a common type of failure on coated,
FIGURE 11 galvanized surfaces. Pieces of coating several
Theirmal Gradient Across Coating
inches in diameter may crack due to aging
stresses, curl and come off in large flakes. Scal-
ing can also occur where a new coat is applied
gas. Acetic acid is a good solvent for many over a very old, well oxidized coating. The adhe-
coating materials, but its presence increases the sion between the two surfaces, where surface
probability of blistering. preparation is poor, is low and the top coating on
Blistering conditions can best be prevented aging will tend to curl and to scale.
by using a coating with very strong adhesion The prevention of flaking and scaling is
characteristics and a low moisture-vapor primarily one of surface preparation. Clean sur-
transmission rate and applying the coating over a
perfectly clean surface. The best surface is per-
fectly clean and white-metal blasted (SSPC-SP5).
It has been proven by many tests and hundreds of
actual coating applications that (with all exposure
conditions being equal) proper surface prepara-
tion can reduce blistering to a minimum or com-
pletely prevent it. ASTM Standard D 714 provides
a good method of describing the degree of blister-
ing of paints.
2. Peeling
Peeling is a coating failure usually caused by a
coating having a tensile stength greater than its
bond strength to the surfaces. This was a com-
mon early-day cause of vinyl coating failure. It has
been overcome by vinyl primers now having su-
perior bond strength when they are applied to
clean - preferably abrasive blasted - surfaces.
Any coating will peel or pull from the surface i f it
has less adhesion to the substrate than it has ten- FIGURE 12
sile strength, or i f it reacts adversely with the Blistering

498
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 3 - 0 9 3 8627740 000394b 8 L T
faces, with a good anchor pattern, combined with

a coating that has strong adhesion and good ag-
ing characteristics will prevent this problem.
ASTM Standard D 772-47 (reapproved 1975) is a
standard method for the evaluation of the degree
of flaking and scaling of exterior paints.
4. Intercoat Delamination
This is the failure of one coat to adhere to an
underlying coat, whether applied as one coat
following the other or where the top coat is ap-
plied as a maintenance coating after some period
of time. The cause is generally within the coating
itself. Air-reactive coatings, either those that re-
quire oxygen or moisture for cure, or coatings that
react internally by the action of catalysts or reac-
tive resins are subject to this type of failure. Com- FIGURE 14
patibility of one type of coating to another is Flaking
essent ial.
In the case of air-reactive coatings, either by ternally cured coatings are used. Polyurethanes,
the absorption of oxygen or water, the surface epoxies, coal tar epoxies and oxidizing coatings
becomes rapidly insoluble and dense. In the case are subject to this type of failure. Where catalyzed
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of internally reactive coatings, the entire coating epoxy is applied at low temperatures, an exudate
becomes insoluble and dense. In both cases, the may remain on the surface causing incompatibil-
coatings are insoluble in the original solvents in ity with subsequent topcoats.
the liquid coating. Solventless coatings are also Coal tar epoxy coatings have special prob-
subject to intercoat delamination. lems of intercoat delamination. In addition to the
The second coat should be applied over the normal internal curing of the coating, external
first after the initial set of the first coating, but forces also create intercoat delamination. Even
before that coating has been completely cured though the curing of the coating has not pro-
either by internal or exterior forces. gressed to the point of insolubility, if the coating
The temperature of application is also is subject to condensation, rain, or moisture prior
critical. Since the curing reactions are to the application of the second coat, intercoat
temperature-dependent, the higher the tempera- delamination is probable. Also, if the coal tar
ture, the more rapidly the second coat should be epoxy coating is applied in the sunlight, even
applied over the first. Manufacturer’s instructions though the coating has not reacted to the
should be closely toiiowed where internally or ex- point of insolubility, intercoat delamination
may occur due to the heat and actinic rays of the
sun, causing the surface to cure beyond the point
where good adhesion between the two coats can
result. Whenever any of the above phenomena
occur and the second coat is applied over an in-
soluble coat, there is a positive interface between
the coats. When water or moisture penetrates to
the interface, any apparent adhesion between the
two coats is lost, causing delamination to occur.
Lacquer-type coatings, such as vinyls,
acrylics or chlorinated rubbers are not as subject
to this type of failure as are the reactive type
coatings. Lacquer-type coatings are permanently
soluble in their own solvents, thus allowing the
second coat to dissolve into the first coating,
reducing the chance of any interface forming
between the two coats.
An additional major cause of intercoat
delamination is the contamination of the first
FIGURE 13 coat before the application of the second.
Peeling Moisture, dust, fumes, chemical fall-out, oil and
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*23.0 93 8627940 0003947 7 5 b =
Undercutting often occurs when a coating
has been applied over mill scale. Moisture and
oxygen penetrate the coating and react with the
scale causing it to lose adhesion and thus form
progressive corrosion beneath the coating. The
application of coatings over a very smooth, dense
surface where adhesion is critical also creates a
condition inviting this type of failure. Most of
these undercutting failures can be substantially
reduced by proper surface preparation prior to the
application of the coating and the use of a coating
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with strong adhesion characteristics.
- I
\. -
- One of the preferred methods of preventing
undercutting on steel surfaces is the application
of an inorganic zinc coating as a permanent
primer before the organic coating is applied. The
inorganic binder reacts chemically with the steel,
FIGURE 15 providing very tight adhesion and preventing the
Scaling undercutting which is characteristic of most
organic paints or coatings. This coating system
grease all can cause this result. The method of has been successful on hundreds of millions of
prevention is obvious: prevent the contamination square feet of surface exposed to extreme marine
from reaching the coating during application. or industrial conditions.'
Where this is impossible, particularly when apply-
ing coatings to structures or tanks subject to fall- IV. FAILURE DUE TO THE SUBSTRATE
out from adjacent plants or adjacent operations,
very fast drying lacquer coatings, vinyls or The substrate is not often considered as being a ma-
acrylics, i f applicable from a corrosion stand- jor factor in the failure of protective coatings, but it is ex-
tremely important. The common surfaces that need to be
point, should be used. The second coat should be
applied as rapidly as possible following the first considered are steel, aluminum, zinc, copper, concrete and
to provide good results. wood. Each of these have a very different effect on the
coating. One coating may be very effective over one sur-
5. Undercutting
face and completely ineffective over another.
Undercutting is another type of adhesion failure
An example of this is the coating of steel surfaces for
that involves the gradual penetration of corrosion
exposure to sodium hypochlorite. Even though the coating
underneath the coating from a break or pinhole in
applied may be completely pinhole free, because of the
the film or from unprotected edges.
breakdown reaction of the sodium hypochlorite on aging
into nascent oxygen and sodium chloride, coatings ap-
plied over a steel surface generally last only a very short
period of time. Nascent oxygen will penetrate the coating
and react with the surface underneath the coating.
Tuberclës are formed which break the coating, allowing
corrosion to proceed very rapidly. On the other hand, if the
same coating were applied over concrete, long life could
be expected because the concrete itself is unaffected by
the nascent oxygen. While this is rather an extreme ex-
ample, it nevertheless demonstrates the importance of the
substrate to the life of the coating.
Steel may be the best and the easiest surface over
which to apply a coating. It is a very dense, and essentially
non-porous material; therefore, a coating can be applied
over it as a continuous film with relative ease. While the
steel surface is reactive, it is less so than many other sur-
faces over which coatings are applied, and most coatings
or paints adhere reasonably well over a clean dry steel
substrate. Coating compatibility with the steel is not as
FIGURE 16 critical as it can be with other materials.
Intercoat Delamination To assure consistently good coating life, abrasive

500
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0 93 8627940 0003948 b 9 2
must be eliminated. The surface must receive a coat of ce-

ment plaster, hard troweled as described above, or a
resinous concrete surfacer must be applied which will fill
all the concrete surface imperfections, have some penetra-
tion into the concrete for maximum adhesion and provide a
smooth, pore-free base for the subsequent coatings. Both
of the above methods are applicable for the best coating
service under difficult conditions. Where concrete or stuc-
co surfaces are coated for decoration only, such surface
treatments may not be required.
Aluminum generally has a dense, smooth surface with
a tight aluminum oxide coating on the surface. While this
surface is relatively stable, it can cause adhesion prob-
lems for some coatings. Where there are breaks, particular-
ly under alkaline conditions, undercutting and even per-
foration of the metal may occur.
Copper provides a dense surface with a copper oxide
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
film over it. Many coatings fail to obtain proper adhesion

to this surface. In many ways, it is similar to aluminum,
although it is not as reactive a surface so that coating
failure is not as prevalent. The failure of many effective
coatings is caused by these types of smooth, dense sur-
faces. A light dust blasting with used sand or very fine
sand and low pressure air will break up the surface, in-
crease the surface area and allow adhesion that cannot be
obtained by any other means on either of these two types
l of surfaces.
Zinc is a more reactive metal than aluminum, which is
FIGURE 17
Undercutting the reason for its use as a galvanic coating. Galvanizing
and inorganic zinc coatings have proven to have a very
long life in many atmospheres. In spite of this, under cer-
blasting of steel is recommended to remove all contamina-
tain marine or highly humid conditions, when used as a
tion and oxidation and to increase the surface area for
base coat, zinc may react under the top coat producing a
maximum coating adhesion. SSPC-Vis 2 provides a stan-
voluminous white corrosion product. This causes coating
dard for evaluating the degree of rusting on painted steel
failure by white salts of zinc corrosion that completely
surfaces. This standard is also available as ASTM-D 610.
undercut the coating and lift it from the surface.
Concrete, on the other hand, is a chemically active,
There are also coatings that react with the various
non-uniform, porous surface filled with water and air
alkaline zinc hydroxides to form zinc soaps. These are oil
pockets, thus making a surface that is very difficult to
paints or alkyd coatings and are not recommended for
paint properly with a continuous coating. In addition to a
direct application over galvanizing or inorganic zinc. Top
very variable surface, it is sensitive to moisture, and when
coats for zinc surfaces should be inert, thoroughly com-
the moisture is confined under a coating, a pH of up to 13
patible with zinc, have high adhesion and a low MVT rate.
may be encountered. Only a very inert, highly alkali-
resistant and penetrating coating can be expected to per-
form satisfactorily. UNDERCUTTING OF AN ORGANIC COATING
BY RUST QR CORROSION
As can be seen in Figure 19 the problems of coating a
concrete substrate to obtain a failure-free coating are
primarily physical. The surface is variable with the most
consistent concrete being a hard, steel-troweled surface
(sidewalk finish). This surface is preferred for coating.
However, because it is often glazed due to the troweling
action, the glaze must be removed by acid etching (1 part
commercial hydrochloric acid and 5 parts water followed
by a clean water wash) or a light brush blast for consistent
coating adhesion. A poured concrete surface as shown in
Figure 19 is the most difficult of all surfaces over which to
apply a consistent, uniform, pore-free coating. FIGURE 18
All surface imperfections, air pockets and pinholes Undercutting
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 - 0 93 W 8627940 00039Vq 529 W
TABLE 4
SUMMARY OF ADHESION-RELATED FAILURES
1. Blistering Minute to large ( 1 " + ) Blistered coatings have adhesion Select a coating with very
hemispherical bubbles in coating problems due to poor surface prepara- strong adhesion charac-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
containing gas or liquid. May tion, internal soluble materials or teristics and a low moisture.
range from 1 per square foot to poor wetting of substrate. Osmosis, vapor transfer rate. Apply
several hundred per square foot. electroendosmosis, gases absorbed in- to a clean, abrasive blasted
See ASTM Std D 714-56 (revised to the metal surface or solvent en- surface with care.
74). trapment cause blisters to form.
2. Peeling Coating may be smooth and lying Adherence is less than the tensile Select a coating as outlined
on surface or it may be hanging strength of the coating. When broken under blistering.
in shreds. Little or no adhesion the coating can easily be pulled from
is evident. the surface leaving the original
surface of the substrate. Coating
may react with substrate and lose
adhesion. Coating usually flexible.
3. Flaking or scaling Small ('A,") to large (1 " + ) Coating usually brittle with internal Select a coating as outlined
pieces of coating, curling at the shrinkage characteristics in addition under blistering. For
edges - easily removed from the to marginal adhesion. Oil type galvanizing use a primer
surface leaving bare substrate. coatings may scale or flake from a compatible with zinc.
galvanized surface.
4. Intercoat The top coat does not adhere to The top coat is not compatible with Select coatings with good
delamination the undercoat. It may lie on the undercoat; the surface of the compatibility and adhesion
surface, blister, flake or peel. undercoat may be contaminated; between coats. Make
the undercoat may be over-cured to certain undercoat is clean
complete insolubility. before application of the
second coat. Do not expose
coal tar epoxy coatings to
water or excessive sunlight
before overcoating.
5. Undercutting Corrosion tends to build up Poor adhesion due to surface contami- Select a coating with
under coating, at breaks, edges or nation, a very smooth surface or lack very high adhesion. Apply
holidays; corrosion is progres- of compatibility with the surface. over a clean, abrasive
sive under the coating. blasted surface. Using
inorganic zinc coatings as
a first coat reduces under-
cutting.
Certain vinyls, epoxies and chlorinated rubbers work well. rather porous, soft summer grain. This is very
Zinc also has a smooth surface; however, once it is oxi- characteristic of woods such as Oregon pine, cedar, ash
dized by exposure to the atmosphere for a period of and many other open-grained woods. Maple, birch and
several weeks or months, the smooth surface tends to woods which are very dense are somewhat less of a prob-
disappear, providing much better adhesion. If a new lem, although both types of surface, ¡.e., summer and
galvanized surface must be coated, it should be lightly winter grain, are present. These grains tend to expand and
dust blasted, as indicated for the aluminum or copper sur- contract at a different rate due to varying humidity and
faces, or it should be chemically treated with a zinc sur- temperature, and any coating which is applied over these
face treatment (commercially available) prior to coating. surfaces and which will not expand and contract with
Wood has its own inherent characteristics which them, will tend to fail rather quickly along the grain bound-
cause coating failures. It is very moisture sensitive and aries (Figure 20).
will swell during times of high humidity and shrink when Any coating which is applied over a surface must be
conditions are dry. This dimensional change can take thoroughly compatible with that surface, must have strong
place on a daily cycle, in addition to climatic changes permanent adhesion to it and must not chemically react
which occur over longer periods. Wood has two types of with it. Unless the coating has these capabilities, failure is
surfaces: that provided by very dense winter grain and the inevitable.

502
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 - 0 93 m 8627940 0003950 240 m
penetrate the coating, causing early failure in the previous-

ly corroded area.
There are two methods that can be used to improve
this situation. 1) After the original blasting, react the sur-
face with a dilute phosphoric acid solution (5%), allow it to
dry, and then re-blast the surface. This procedure produces
a reaction that allows the minute amounts of corrosion
product to be removed on the second blasting. 2) The sec-
ond procedure, where an inorganic zinc coating can be
used as a permanent primer, is a very satisfactory one. The
inorganic zinc coating tends to react with the minute
FIGURE 19 amount of corrosion product on the surface, eliminating
Poured Concrete Surface its corrosive tendency, and at the same time to react with
the steel surface to provide a very strong chemical bond.
The failure of a coating over a used surface is much Following the application and cure of the inorganic zinc,
more probable than when applied over a perfectly new, the required top coating can then be applied.
original surface. This has been proven many times. As an
example, tanks in the west Texas oil fields, where
sulfides are a problem, have been repaired by the use of
new steel sheets. The entire surface of the tank was then
sand blasted to white metal and the coating applied with
equal care over the new and the old surface. In a matter of
just a few months, the coating applied over the old surface
failed, while it was still completely effective over the new
steel.
This same phenomenon occurs aboard ship where
corrosion has taken place on steel plates. It occurs in
chemical tanks and on the exterior of structural steel
bridges. This problem occurs to the greatest extent on
steel surfaces and in areas where severe corrosion condi-
tions exist. The previous use of the steel must be taken in- FIGURE 21
to consideration in order for the coating to be effective.
Adhesion Retention -
sand blasted vs. cold rolled steel. Panel
#69, sand blasted, and panel #73,cold rolled steel, both exposed
The problem is the retention of very minute quantities of to water for the same period, demonstrate the benefit of physical
corrosion product in the rough corroded areas of the steel, adhesion.
and when the contamination is not completely removed,
they continue to react with the moisture vapor which can
Do not underestimate the problems involved with used
steel surfaces. Untold failures of coating have occurred
because this problem of prior use was not recognized.
Used aluminum and zinc surfaces are less of a prob-
lem. However, care should be taken whenever a surface
has been subjected to serious corrosion.
Wood and concrete are definitely affected by previous
use. Both can absorb and retain soluble or reactive
materials, which if not removed prior to the application of
the coating, will cause blistering, lack of adhesion and
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
coating failure.
The density or smoothness of a surface over which a
coating is applied is extremely important. As an example,
cold rolled steel is much more difficult to coat than hot
rolled steel with the mill scale removed. Cold rolled steel
has an extremely dense, smooth surface, and it has proven
in the laboratory many times that a coating applied over
such a surface compared to a coating applied over a sand
blasted, cold rolled surface will fail much faster when both
are subject to the same conditions. The problem, of
FIGURE 20 course, is that the very dense, smooth surface does not
Paint failing on wood grain. allow the same quality of adhesion of the coating as does

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 3 . 0 9 3 8627940 0003953 187
TABLE 5
SUMMARY O F SUBSTRATE-RELATED FAILURES
COATING FA1LURE FA1LURE APPEARANCE CAUSE O F FAILURE REMEDY
1. On Previously Blistering, rust, tubercles, loss Retention of minute amounts of corro- Wash blast surface with
Used Steel of adhesion in areas where steel sion product or contaminant on water or dilute phosphoric
was previously exposed to corro- the steel surface, even though acid solution and reblast.
sive conditions. blasted to white metal. Apply an anticorrosive
primer with strong adhesion.
Where applicable, an inorgan-
ic zinc primer may react
with the minute surface
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
corrosion after first blast-

ing and provide a base coat.
2. On Galvanized or White zinc corrosion product form- Formation of zinc salts (oxide, sul- Brush blast zinc surface or
Metallic Zinc ing under the coating or actually fide, oxychloride, zinc soap), treat with commercial zinc
Surfaces breaking through the coating. underneath coating. treatment. Apply a non-oil
base, inert strongly adher-
ent primer.
3. On Aluminum White corrosion product causing The very smooth aluminum oxide sur- Very lightly dust blast the
pinpoint failure in coating - face. No physical adhesion. aluminum surface, or where
loss of adhesion because of very applicable, treat with com-
smooth surface. Possible blis- mercial aluminum treatment.
tering. Apply a primer with known
compatibility and strong
adhesion to aluminum surface
4. OnCopper Greygreen corrosion product, Very smooth copper oxide surface. Brush blast copper surface
loss of adhesion, blistering. No physical adhesion. or etch with commercial
copper treatment. Apply a
primer with known high
adhesion to copper.
5. On Wood Checking and cracking of coating. Expansion and contraction of wood Start with a clean, newly
Flaking from hard winter grain. due to varying temperature and sanded wood surface. Apply
Blistering of dense coatings with humidity. Differential expansion low molecular weight, highly
a low MVT rate due to of the grain. Very hard penetrating paint, prefer-
absorption and evaporation dense winter grain combined with ably oil base, with suffi-
of moisture from the wood. soft porous grain, causing cient elasticity to expand
a variation in coating adhesion. and contract with the wood
surface. Paint should
have relatively high mois-
ture porosity to allow wood
to breathe.
6. On Concrete Blistering of coating. Formation The chemical reactivity and moisture The concrete should be clean
of calcium salts under coating, content of concrete. Its non- and the surface dry. It may
forcing coating from the surface. homogeneous, very porous structure. be acid etched or lightly
Loss of adhesion and peeling. Pinholes, water and air pockets in blasted to obtain proper
poured concete surfaces. surface condition. Use a
low molecular weight, highly
penetrating primer with
strong alkali resistance
(liquid epoxy). Primer
should be heavy body and
thixotropic to fill imper-
fections in concrete surface.

504
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0 93 = 86279YO 0003952 013
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the one that has been roughened and that allows me- tured. In the mixed state, the consistency of the
chanical adhesion in addition to normal wetting of the sur- formulation is uniform and the pigments are even-
face. ly dispersed. During prolonged warehouse stor-
Cleanliness of the surface is vitally important, of age, pigments tend to settle to the bottom of con-
course, to the life of any coating. It is a rule of thumb that tainers. Also, the surface of some paints may be
any coating applied over a perfectly clean surface will last covered with a tough skin. It is essential that a
longer and be more effective than the same coating ap- paint be carefully remixed before application is at-
plied over a lesser surface. This applies to metals, con- tempted. All settled pigment must be redispersed
crete and wood to the same degree. It also applies to the and any surface skin must be removed. Failure to
repair and maintenance of coatings as well as to original effect such complete mixing can cause early
coating installations. failure of the paint system.
2. Thinning
As previously stated, the consistency of a paint or
V. APPLICATION -R ELATED FA1LURES coating is usually correct as it is received from the
Application-related failures are undoubtedly the manufacturer. Most manufacturers attempt to
cause of the majority of difficulties encountered with pro- provide the liquid coating at the proper consisten-
tective coatings or paints of all types. Paints and coatings cy in order to prevent failures related to thinning.
are failure-oriented, particularly on large structures, There is no universal thinner for the wide range of
bridges, off-shore platforms, ships, nuclear energy plants sophisticated coatings that are necessary today.
and similar structures, for a number of reasons. Improper thinning can cause many different types
The painting or coating operation is the last item of of failure. As an example, mineral spirits can be
work on most large projects. The contractor, the owner and tolerated by liquid vinyl coatings in certain
the engineers are pushing to have the job completed. Many amounts; however, i f added excessively to a vinyl
times their completion deadline may be passed, which coating poor adhesion will result. Improper thin-
puts pressure on to complete the coating job as rapidly as ning of an epoxy coating can increase the viscosi-
possible. This “get the job done fast” philosophy is a ty rather than reduce it. An alcohol type solvent
source of many coating failures. for a polyurethane could cause immediate jelling.
There is also a natural tendency on the part of people While thinners are an essential part of any
to overlook and resist the proper cleanliness and the prop- coating, they are incorporated in the manufacture
er surface preparation that is needed for an effective for proper application, proper leveling on the sur-
coating job. There are untold examples of this where chew- face and proper drying.
ing tobacco, cigarettes, small rocks, mud, steel shot and It is occasionally necessary to decrease the
similar trash have been carefully coated over. viscosity of a paint by the addition of thinners.
Most of the defects that occur in applied coatings are Such adjustment of the consistency should be
not related to the coating manufacturer, a poor formula- made only as directed or advised by the manufac-
tion or the selection of a wrong material, but are people- turer, by means of the proper specified thinners
related. This is caused by lack of knowledge, lack of train- and at ratios specifically recommended. Substitu-
ing and lack of understanding of the consquences of a tion of other thinners for the specified ones
poorly applied coating. Other contributing factors are a should not be undertaken without consultation
lack of proper coating application specifications and a with the suppliers; for none of the many thinners
!ack of proper inspection. Care in writing the application available are generally adaptable for all paint for-
specifications, proper training of applicators, care in the mulations.
application itself, and care in the inspection of the finished Thinners should be added slowly and with
coating are essential for a proper coating application and constant stirring. Adding a large amount all at
for an effective coating result. once may result in local overdilution and may
cause curdling of the paint or flocculation of the
1. Mixing
pigment. This precipitation may appear to stir in,
Paint, as supplied by the manufacturer for a
but that portion of the mix that has curdled or floc-
specific use, is usually ready for application by
x l a t e d is never restored to its original condition,
brushing or by spraying when received by the ap-
zausing early failure.
plicator. Such paint will have been formulated to
have more than sufficient durability in the environ- 3. Atmospheric Conditions
ment where it is to be used, and no change should Painters normally determine the time of applica-
be made in the composition or in the adjustment 1tion, which can contribute to the success or
of the consistency of the liquid coating unless failure of the coating, depending on the condition
specified by the manufacturer. >f the atmosphere. Certainly, it is a poor decision
For proper application, a paint must be a :o apply a coating before an approaching rain
homogeneous mixture, as it was when manufac- jquall, and yet this is often done. Painters have
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0 93 m 8b27940 0003953 T 5 T m
also been observed wiping condensed moisture coatings, such as epoxies and polyurethanes,
from the surface of the steel structure and then tend to crack and disbond due to internal stresses
applying the coating. Inorganic zinc coatings have within the coating because of shrinkage during
been applied to steel surfaces which were suffi- the curing reaction. Many such coatings have
ciently cold to freeze the water from the liquid literally pulled themselves off the surface due to
coating, making the coating useless. Water base excess thickness. Any painter or coating ap-
coatings do not evaporate properly when the plicator should understand the problems arising
humidity is too high or the temperature too low, from either too thin a coating or one which is con-
and the coating will not form properly under these siderably over the optimum thickness for proper
conditions. use.
The condition of the atmosphere while the It must also be recognized from a practical
paint is being applied and cured can contribute to standpoint that the coating applicator cannot ap-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
its success or failure. Paint should be applied ply a completely uniform coating, particularly to
during relatively dry conditions. The relative complicated structures. Coating specifications
humidity should be 80% or less with the dew often give a minimum thickness, such as "the
point at least 3 C o (5 F") less than the ambient coating shall be applied in two coats to a
metal or surface temperature. When the metal minimum of 10 mils". Such a specification does
temperature is above 38°C (IOOOF), precautions not recognize the excess thickness that may
must be taken to make certain that the paint or result. A proper specification should recognize
coating does not dry too rapidly. Organic coatings the practical aspects of application and provide
tend to overspray or surface dry and blister. In- the applicator with a range of thickness which, if
organic zinc coatings may form a powdery soft followed, will provide the proper average coating
film that does not harden properly. thickness for the use involved.
Temperature is critical for the cure of many The thickness of a coating can be measured
coatings, particularly epoxies and coal tar epox- during the application process by a wet film
ies. Because they are internally reactive, unless thickness gage. While this is not a positive in-
the temperature is proper, they will not cure to a strument, i t does indicate what the thickness of
satisfactory coating. Such materials should not the coating will be after it has dried. A number of
be applied at temperatures less than 25°C (60°F) instruments provide the thickness of the coating
except on recommendation by the manufacturer. after it has dried. Such an instrument is an essen-
It is wise not to paint if the ambient temperature is tial part of the equipment of any paint foreman or
below5"C(40"F),orlessthan3C0(5F")abovethe inspector who is doing a proper job.
dew point. Application should be restricted to
5. Overspray
those hours when the temperature is sufficiently
Overspray is a major cause of pinpoint rusting of
high to offset the possibility of condensation of
steel surfaces. Many modern, high-performance
moisture during application and the drying period.
coatings have a tendency to overspray unless
4. Coating Thickness properly applied. These include coating types
A coating is a relatively thin film or barrier such as solvent-based inorganic zincs, organic
separating two reactive materials: the at- zincs, solvent-dry vinyls, chlorinated rubbers,
mosphere on one side and the substrate on the acrylics, heavy-bodied epoxies, and other similar
other side. This barrier must have an even formulations. Overspray is the adherence of semi-
thickness over the entire surface to be protected; dried coating particles to the surface to be
otherwise, there will be areas prone to early coated. The dust or coating particle dries partially
failure because they are too thin to separate prop- in the air between the spray gun and the surface,
erly the two reactive elements. Thickness, and does not then flow together with or join other
therefore, is extremely important. Each coating particles to form a continuous coating. There are
should have optimum thickness, depending upon bare or very thin areas between these discrete
the surface over which it is applied and the at- coating particles. These bare areas act the same
mosphere in which it is to operate. This optimum as pinholes, and pinpoint rusting results.
thickness can be determined only by actual ex- Because overspray is the result of incorrect
periment or by consulting the manufacturer of the spray technique or improper adjustment of spray
coating. equipment, it can occur in any coat from the
While too thin a coating can cause early primer to the final top coat. It may be caused by
failure, an excessively thick coating can also the spray gun being held too far away from the
cause early failure. This is particularly true of in- surface to be coated, being held at a long angle to
organic zinc coatings. Where they are applied too the surface rather than perpendicularly, or having
thickly, they tend to mud-crack. Internally reactive been adjusted with too little material pressure

506
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0 73 8627740 0003754 996 W
and too much air pressure. Top coats with slow drying characteristics or with
With airless equipment, overspray can be high solids and a low solvent content help to
caused by too small a gun tip or one with too wide alleviate this condition.
a spray pattern. Airless equipment is preferred for Pinholes are an immediate problem. Once
application of a material with a tendency to they occur, they will persist no matter how many
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
overspray because there is no air atomization in- subsequent coats are applied. As one coat is
volved. sprayed over another, or over pinholes in the
The proper technique to prevent overspray re- substrate, the existing pinholes will act as a reser-
quires optimum spray gun adjustment for both air voir for solvent vapor from the following coat. The
and liquid volume and the application of an even, vapor pressure in the pinholes will then cause a
wet coat over the surface, with each pass of the bubble in the following coat that will eventually
coating being overlapped 50 percent. This method break, leaving a passage to the original pinhole
ensures that any minor dry particles at the edge of and the underlying surface.
the fan are incorporated into a wet coating sur- Mechanical force is necessary to f i l l the
face. pinholes with liquid coating. This filling is ac-
Existing overspray on a surface being coated complished by brushing a coat into the pinholed
must be removed or pinhole failure will almost area. Several passes over the same area may be
surely occur. At best, an unsightly coating ap- required to fill all pinholes.
plication will result. The dry, adherent particles Pinholing occurs most readily in lacquers
should be wiped, scraped or sanded from the sur- and solvent-dry coatings. Extra care should be
face before a proper wet coat is applied, or, i f taken during application of these coatings to pre-
pinholing of the coat applied over existing vent pinholes from forming.
overspray has already taken place, the overspray 7. Spatter Coating
area should be given a wet brush coat to work the Spatter coating is caused during the spraying
coating into the existing porous overspray area. process where the liquid coating particles hit the
6. Pinholes surface, but the number of particles is insufficient
Pinholing is a common type of application failure. to form a complete and continuous wet coat. This
It may result from several causes. The formulation is often caused where a painter does not suffi-
of the coating itself can cause pinholes, primarily ciently overlap each pass of the spray gun, or
because of improper solvent balance when sol- where he tends to flick the spray gun at a long
vents evaporate too rapidly at one stage of the angle to the surface at the end of his spray pass.
drying process. Another, more common cause is Oftentimes, particularly under poor lighting condi-
improper application, usually during spraying. tions, the surface may look as though it is com-
The spray gun may be held too close to the sur- pletely coated. On the other hand, once the
face with excessive atomization pressure, or ex- coating has been exposed for a short period of
cessive material pressure may be combined with time, particularly on steel, general pinpoint
low atomization pressure. rusting will occur over the area where the spatter
A third cause of pinholes may be the surface coating exists. These pinpoints of rust will take
itself. Concrete may already contain innumerable place wherever there is an opening between the
bugholes that must be filled if an impervious droplets of the coating. While it doesn’t seem like
coating is to be obtained. Pictorial descriptions of this type of coating failure should be common, it
bugholes in concrete are found in the ASTM is one which is quite prevalent on many steel
Manual of Coating Work for Light Water Nuclear structures.
Power Plant Primary Containment and Other The answer to this, like many other applica-
Safety-Related Faci Iit ¡es. tion related failures, is care during the application
One cause of pinholing is the top coating of process, making certain that each pass of the
inorganic zinc primers with organic top coats. spray gun is overlapped at 50% with the coating
During a period shortly after the inorganic zinc going on as a wet film, making sure that the spray
coating has been applied, it remains a porous film gun is held perpendicular to the surface and that
and solvents from the organic top coats can eas- the gun is not flicked at an angle at the end of the
ily penetrate into the inorganic coating. When the spray pass. Cross spraying is also a method of ap-
top coat is applied in the sun or under warm con- plication which helps to provide an even, uniform
ditions, the penetrated solvent evaporates rapidly coat ing.
causing vapor pressure within the inorganic zinc 8. Holidays
and under the organic top coat. This vapor A painter’s holiday is any place on a structure the
pressure may create small blisters or bubbles painter has missed. This can be behind angles,
which, when they break, cause pinholes to form. around rivets, longitudinal areas on pipe, or any
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SSPC CHAPTER*23=0 93 = 8627940 0003955 8 2 2
area where the coating has failed to be applied. Once the cratering has occurred, it Is difficult
Spatter coating is related to holidays in that, to overcome inasmuch as a second coat applied
as previously indicated, some areas of the over the same area may again crater in the same
coating appear finished, even though the coating spot. The procedure suggested in these cases is
is not continuous in that area. Holidays can be to physically roughen the cratered area by hand
overcome only by care on the part of the painter sanding or other means, and then apply the
during the application. coating over the area by brush, working the
9. Ciatering coating into the cratered areas in order to
Cratering in a coating can be a most difficult ap- physically coat the bottoms of the craters and
plication problem. Most cratering is encountered make sure that the coating thoroughly wets the
during the application of slow drying or baked surface. Where this is not practical or it does not
coatings, such as pure phenolics, epoxy prevent the cratering, the coating must be re-
phenolics, pure epoxies, polyurethanes, etc. The moved and the surface reprepared, making sure
internal cure coatings appear more susceptible to that the cause of cratering is eliminated before
this phenomena than faster drying coatings such applying the repair coating.
as vinyls and chlorinated rubbers. Cratering can 10. Bleeding
be caused by several different conditions. This is the transfer of a soluble colored pigment
(a) One of the most common causes is oil in the or vehicle in a dried film to a subsequently applied
blasting or atomizing air. Here the condition topcoat. It may also be the discoloration caused
will be general and caused by minute droplets by the diffusion of soluble ingredients in the
of the incompatible oil on the surface or incor- substrate.
porated into the liquid coating during applica- To correct this situation, coat the film con-
tion. taining the bleeding ingredient with two coats of a
(b) Minute particles of dust or contamination sealer in which the bleeder is insoluble. An
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
from the atmosphere may cause pinholes. They aluminum or emulsion finish over asphalt vehicles
can fall on the surface either before or during or solvent type primers over wood substrates are
the application and may come from steam blow examples. For areas of serious corrosion any
off, dust or soot from boiler stacks, fall out from sealing material must be selected with care to
paper mills, fertilizer plants or other similar make sure of compatibility and proper adhesion.
operations. Fallout from jet aircraft around air- 11. Blushing
ports may cause problems. This is the hazing or whitening of a finish as the
(c) Some cratering has been found which is due result of absorption and retention of moisture
to the various protective skin creams used by formed on the film during or immediately after
workmen during the surface preparation or spraying. It is normally restricted to lacquers. Cor-
other sources during application of the coating. rection of this problem is not always possible
Silicone creams are particularly difficult. without reducing humidity; however, recoating us-
Cratering in these instances is usually localized ing a mist coat of retarder or a slower evaporating
and due to contamination of the surface by reducing thinner may help. Correct air pressure at
those materials. Most silicone resins are in- the gun is important. Avoid using higher air
compatible with other coating vehicles thereby pressure than needed as this will cause rapid
causina- craters to occur. evaporation and thereby increase moisture con-
Cratering can be defined as the formation of densation.
small bowl shaped depressions at a point of con- 12. Lifting
tamination on the surface. The craters are caused This usually occurs when the solvents in a top-
by the surface tension of the coating being coat attack and swell the previously applied film
greater than the surface tension of the contami- resulting in distortion, blisters or the forma-
nant. A repelling of the coating away from a point tion of a wrinkled finish. It may also be caused by
due to a difference in static charge between a par- wax on the surface, use of incorrect thinner, poor
ticle at the point and the coating itself will cause dry of undercoats or poor adhesion of old film.
a crater. At times, the coating itself may be the To correct, remove finish from affected areas
cause of the difficulty, having sufficient surface and refinish. Make sure surface is clean and dry.
tension so that heavy areas of the coating will Allow longer drying time before recoating the
tend to pull together. undercoat. Make sure the solvent in the topcoat is
Irrespective of the cause, failure of the compatible with the previous coat or undercoat
coating can be expected in the low areas of these before recoating.
craters, usually in the form of pinpoint rusting 13. Orange Peel
starting at that point. This is a bumpy pattern inherent in nearly all

508
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SSPC CHAPTER*23.0 93 8627940 0003956 769
sprayed films, caused by either the spray pattern 14. Runs or Sags
or the drying characteristics of the finish. It is an Runs are downward movements of a paint film
appearance problem and should not cause resulting when excess material continues to flow
coating fail Ure. after the surrounding surface has set.
If the degree of orange peel is objectionable, Sags are downward movements of a paint
then improvement in flow can be obtained from film between the times of application and setting
better spraying technique, application of a good resulting in a “curtain” appearance.
wet film, or addition of a small amount of slower Both of these problems may be caused by the
solvents. use of too much wet paint. Coating failure can oc-
TABLE 6
SUMMARY OF APPLICATION-RELATED FAILURES
1. Improper Mixing Thin coating - non-uniform pig- Most common cause is improper pig- Thoroughly mix the liquid
of Coating ment distribution. May be areas ment-vehicle ratio, where settled coating (preferably by
of poor adhesion, uneven color, pigment remains in the bottom of the mechanical means) t o an
checking or cracking. can. even, smooth, homogeneous
liquid with no color varia-
tion. Continue mixing as
necessary during use.
2. Improper Thinning Poor adhesion, pigment float or Thinner incompatible with resins Use only manufacturer’s
of Coating flooding (uneven color). Separ- or pigments. Improper drying - recommended thinners, add
ation of pigment and vehicle change in surface tension. Thinner slowly with thorough mixing.
after application - pinholing, evaporation too rapid, causing mois-
blushing (coating turning white ture to condense on liquid coating.
after application).
3. Poor Atmospheric Poor adhesion and blistering from Condensation of moisture on the sur- Apply coatings at relative
Conditions for humid, damp conditions. Over- face prior t o application. Lack of humidity of 80% or below
Coating Appli- spray - powdery coating where proper cure due t o too low or too and at least 3 C o (5 F”)
cation drying is too rapid. Soft high temperature during application. above the dew point. Apply
uncured film. paint and coatings at 5°C
(40°F) or above except for
internally reactive mate-
rials which should be 25°C
(60°F) or above.
4. Improper Coating Areas of pinpoint corrosion be- Thin areas, spatter coating, holi- Careful application - even
Thickness tween areas of solid coating days. Runs, puddles, excessive spray passes with each pass
where coating is thin. Checking, number of spray passes in areas overlapped 50%. Use cross
cracking, flaking where coating where coating is difficult. spray technique.
is overly thick.
5. Overspray Very rough coating surface. May Improper spraying technique. Uneven Apply coating with care
appear like sand in the coating. spray passes with gun too far from and with even wet spray
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Some dry coating, like dust, on the surface. Spray pressure too passes overlapped 50%.
the surface. low, atomizing air pressure too high. Use wire screen and
Lacquer type coating most subject t o sandpaper t o obtain smooth
overspray. surface before topcoating.
6. Pinholes Small, visible holes in the Improper spray technique. Spray gun Apply coating with care with
coating (YS2’’). Holes generally too close to the surface with air spray gun at the optimum
appear in concentrations with a bubbles being forced into the coat- distance from the surface.
random distribution. ing. Spray pot pressure too high Make sure spray gun is
with atomizing air pressure too low. properly adjusted. If pin-
Pinholes may exist in the substrate holes already exist, apply
(concrete). coating by brush, working
it into the surface.

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S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 3 = 0 93 8627940 0003957 b T 5
TABLE 6 (Continued)
7. Spatter Coat Area of thin coating, usually at Discrete coating droplets which are Apply coating with care.
end of spray pass or around a not continuous over the surface. Use even, wet spray with
complex section of structure. Inconsistent spray passes not over- each pass overlapped 50%.
Small spots of coating which are lapped 50%. Spray gun flipped at Use cross spray technique.
noncontinuous over substrate. end of spray pass. Catalyst cured
In poor light, may seem contin- coatings most subject to spatter.
uous.
8. Holidays Bare areas of the surface which Poor, inconsistent application. Lack Apply coating in a careful,
were uncoated by the painter. of care. consistent manner, making
Most often in difficult areas certain that no areas
to coat. remain uncoated.
9. Cratering Bug eyes, fish eyes or craters Improper solvent mixture, oil in Once cratering occurs, sand
randomly dispersed over coated atomizing air, surface contamina. or roughen crater area.
area, May be more prevalent in tion, particulate fall-out during Apply another coat by brush,
in thicker sections. application, high surface tension, working coating into crat-
silicone contamination. ered area. Make sure
contaminant is removed.
10. Bleeding Staining of top coats. Soluble resins or pigments in under- Seal with coating in
coat. which bleeding ingredient
is insoluble.
11. Blushing Haziness or whitening of film. Condensation of moisture on coating Wait for improved
due to rapid dripping of solvents. humidity conditions.
Reduce atomizing air
pressure to a minimum.
12. Lifting Wrinkling, swelling or blistering Attack or swelling of film by solvents Remove old coating and
of film. in top coat. recoat.
13. Orange Peel Overall bumpy pattern. Surface Spraying technique, drying char- Apply a wet spray coat.
is smooth but irregular. acteristics of the film. Add a slower solvent.
14. Runs or Sags Coating running in droplets down Excessive application. Apply thinner coats.
vertical surface causing curtain Check surface temperature.
effect. May be too cold for
proper drying.
cur because of thin coating above the sag or run. Following are a number of typical areas, primarily on
Reduce material according to label direc- steel structures, where coating problems are much more
tions, apply thinner coat i f rolled or brushed on. prevalent than on plain surfaces.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Regulate fluid adjustment on the spray gun t o cut 1. Edges

down flow of material. Make sure temperature of Edges are always a problem on structures using
surface and coating are at acceptable level. steel shapes, where the number of lineal feet of
If runs or sags are objectionable, the surface edge compared to the ptain surface is large. The
should be removed with solvent or sanded smooth edges of sheared plate are one of the worst areas
and refinished. because they are very sharp. The rounded edges
of steel shapes, such as on I-beams, H-beams and
VI. DESIGN-RELATED FAILURE angles are less of a problem; however, almost in-
Many coating failures occur because of the design of variably where failure occurs on a steel shape, it
the structure. Unfortunately, most structures are not will be on the edge first.
designed with the painting or coating process in mind. One cause is that many of the more
This being the case, many failures are due not to the sophisticated coatings, such as vinyls, epoxies or
coating or its application, but merely to difficult problems polyurethanes, have a high surface tension and
of application created by the design. Where there are also tend to shrink during curing. A high surface
design problems that make a structure difficult to coat tension of the coating tends to pull the coating
adequately, proper selection of the coating and careful away from an edge, in many cases leaving an ex-
and proper application can overcome many of the inherent tremely thin coating at that point. This being the
problems created by the design. case, failure is inherent along the edge. On

51O
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SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 3 . 0 93 H 8627940 0003958 532 =
I-beams, angles and similar shapes, the ap- A brush coat should be applied on all sides
plicator more often than not sprays on the plain and edges of the discontinuous area prior to ap-
surface while the edge is at a tangent to the spray plying the overall spray coat. A brush coat is
and only becomes spatter coated, even though it preferable to spray for the initial application as
may look well covered. the physical action of brushing forces the coating
Horizontal surfaces on structural shapes into crevices and other small openings where the
(I-beams, H-beams, etc.) tend to accumulate dust, spray coat will not reach.
dirt and chemical fumes that flow toward an edge 4. Welds
when any condensation or precipitation occurs. There are literally millions of lineal feet of welds
As a result, a relatively strong chemical deposit in many structures. Relatively smooth machine
forms and remains on the edge. Such a situation welds create few problems. Even so, there can be
makes the edge even more susceptible to coating undercuts along edges that should be watched.
f ai Iure. Hand welds, in particular, require more care
There should be a direct application of the than plain surfaces. These welds are much
coating to edges prior to applying an overall coat rougher than machine welds and may have deep
to the structure. Edges should be double coated undercuts and holes along the edges, with weld
with each individual coat. This procedure will help spatter on adjacent surfaces and, in some cases,
to maintain a full coating thickness in these very rough, sharp protrusions. All of these are
areas. focal points for corrosion and for coating failure.
Deep square corners Weld spatter, small balls of metal, are spat-
These areas are on the interior of angles and on tered away from the weld proper during the
the interior angle of H-beams, I-beams and very welding process. They are always focal points for
often on built-up, complicated steel sections. failure. Many times they are lightly adherent and
There are two problems. The first is that these provide not only protrusions, but undercuts as
areas will accumulate dirt and dust, and even '
well. Weld spatter must be removed from the sur-
though the surface is well prepared by abrasive face for a proper coating job. These are not
blasting, dust seems to accumulate in these always removed by sand blasting. Once the sur-
areas to a greater degree than on the plain surface is prepared, however, it is the recommended
faces. It is also more difficult to remove. When a procedure to brush coat a weld, working the
coating is applied over dust or dirt in these areas, coating into all of the rough areas before applying
shrinkage and oftentimes actual cracking of the the overall coat to the plain surface. This aids
coating occurs, creating an area for immediate materially in preventing premature failure at that
failure. point. Where welds are treated in this manner,
Second, even though the surface i s oftentimes the plain surface of a coating will fail
thoroughly clean and free from dust, these areas before the area of the weld.
more often than not receive a heavy coat because 5. Skip welding
of the application of the coat to the flat areas with Overlapping plates and roof plates are often skip
the spray overlapping into the corner. This can welded. The reinforcing ring around the top of a
create the coating thickness on the interior corner tank may be skip welded. Angles and similar
which is greater than recommended for the flat shapes are skip welded where a continuous weld
surface. During curing and when shrinkage oc- is not necessary for ultimate strength. From a
curs, the coating may tend to pull itself away from coating standpoint, wherever serious corrosive
the interior corner, creating a very thin film or a conditions exist, skip welds are an invitation to
void underneath the coating. Although the coating coating failure and very inadequate surfaces for
may look continuous, if it is exposed to serious
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
proper coating even in mild environments. Water

corrosive conditions or immersion, failure occurs and moisture accumulate between the plain sur-
by moisture penetration into this area. The faces of the plates. The skip weld does not keep
ultimate cracking and breaking of the film occurs out the moisture. It is almost impossible to apply
at this point. a coating to the crevice between the skipwelds
To overcome this design difficulty, apply thin, and to obtain a satisfactory corrosion resistant
multiple coats to the deep corner, allowing each coating at that point.
coat to dry before a second coat. The only practical answer is complete
Discontinuous areas welding of all the seams to insure proper coating
These areas are located around rivets, boltheads, life in corrosive areas and to maintain good ap-
threads and similar areas. The cause of failure is pearance without rust stains even under milder
similar to that of sharp edges and corners. Careful conditions. Caulking may even be necessary in
appl ¡cation can el imi nate discontinu ities in these some cases.
areas.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 51 1Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
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SSPC CHAPTERx23.0 73 8627740 0003959 478
TABLE 7
SUMMARY OF DESIGN-RELATED FAILURE
~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~
COATING FAILURE FAILURE APPEARANCE CAUSE O F FAILURE REMEDY

--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Edges Corrosion linear with Surface tension of coating pulling Precoat edges prior to coat-
the edge and coating being liquid coating away from edge. ing flat surface. Overlap
undercut away from edge. coating on flat surface
over edge. Spray directly
at an edge t o build thicknesses.
Interior Corners A void or blister under Excessive thickness, causing coating Apply coating in thin,
the coating at interior corners. t o shrink on curing. multiple coats, thoroughly
drying or curing between
coats.
Discontinuous Corrosion failure on edges of Many small surfaces t o cover with a Brush coat surfaces prior
Areas threads, bolt heads, rivets. high ratio of sharp edges and cor- t o full coating. Overlap
ners t o plain area. Surface tension brush coat with each coat.
of coating pulls coating away from Multiple thin coats are
points and edges. better than one thick one.
4. Welds Coating failure along welds, Welding flux in undercuts along weld. Remove all blue scale or
particularly hand welds; coating Rough weld surface. Soap remaining soap solution. Grind rough
undercutting starting at weld. from pressure testing of welds. welds smooth. Blast weld
Blue scale (similar t o mill scale) at least 2”-3“ o n each
remaining on weld. side. Apply first coat by
brush, working it into all
rough weld areas.
5. Skip Welding Discontinuous welds with skips Impossible t o apply coating in crev- Continuously weld all over-
from 6 ” to several feet between ice between metal surfaces. laps before applying coating
welds. Corrosion between over- in any corrosive environment.
lapping metal undercuts coating.
6. Back t o Back Corrosion between back to back Impossible to apply coating in crev- Use T bar or pipe for con-
Angles angles undercutting coating. ice between roof plates and between struction. As a stopgap,
angles. fill crevice with heavy,
resinous caulking and overcoat
with a compatible coating.
7. Storage Tank Umbrella type roof - center pole Impossible t o apply coating in cre- Butt weld or double weld
Roofs - Interior and rafters. Coating failure vice between roof plates and between roof plates. Precoat
between roof and rafter and roof plates and rafters. rafters and underside of
between lapped roof plates. roof.
8. Pipe Structures Coating failure at welds or Rough welds between pipe sections See No. 4, “Welds”. Apply
longitudinal with pipe. (see No. 4, “Welds”). Lack of coating carefully, assuring
sufficient overlap during coating 50% overlap on all passes.
application. Most application
linear with pipe.
6. Back to back angles angles is difficult to clean and impossible to coat

Many steel buildings have trusses, lattice work, properly. Where such designs exist and where cor-
and similar areas constructed from angles which rosion dictates, the only practical answer is to fill
are placed back to back. In some instances, the all of the void spaces between the angles with a
anglés are precoated by galvanizing or with in- plastic mastic or caulking compound and then ap-
organic zinc. However, in any severely corrosive ply a compatible coating over it. This, at best, is a
environment, even this procedure is prone to stop-gap measure and is no substitute for the use
failure and extremely difficult to protect properly of “T” shapes or pipe for structures where cor-
by the use of coatings. The area between the rosive conditions exist.

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S S P C CHAPTER*23.0 93 862’7940 0003960 L9T
7. Storage tanks the difficult areas are fully coated. Much pipe
Many storage tanks are constructed with used for new construction comes with a factory
cone or umbrella type roofs where there is usually applied temporary coating. This must be removed
a center pole with I-beam rafters extending out to by abrasive blasting for proper coating adhesion
the edge of the tank. In addition to the many cor- and performance. Care in the surface preparation
ners, edges, welds, bolts and rivets, there are two and care in the application of the coating are the
particularly difficult areas from the standpoint of only answers to a satisfactory coating job.
the interior coating of such tanks. The first is the
steel between the 1-beam rafter and the steel roof VIL FAILURE BY EXTERIOR FORCES
plate. Here the steel plate is merely laid on the In almost all coating failures exterior forces are in-
rafter, and unless the coating is applied to the volved, since the environment in which the coating
underside of the plate and the topside of the operates is the primary cause of failure. If there were no
rafter prior to installation, this area will fail even exterior corrosive environment, then no coating failure
under mild conditions. If the coating is to be ap- could occur, even though there were coating imperfec-
plied after construction, it is necessary to raise tions. In this section, however, ordinary atmospheric con-
the roof by wedges and prepare the surface to ditions are not considered, since it is taken for granted
coat in the best manner possible. This area is par- that coatings must withstand most exterior conditions, in-
ticularly vulnerable due to moisture condensa- cluding marine conditions.
tion. 1. Chemical failure
The second area is the crevice between the Chemicals are the most obvious exterior force
lapped roof plates. Generally, the roof plates are that can cause the failure of coatings, since the
welded on the exterior with the lap on the interior. chemical industry, considered in its broadest
In this reservoir for corrosive solutions failure scope, is one of the largest, if not the largest, in-
takes place rapidly. dustry where severe coating failures can occur.
A coating cannot prevent corrosion with this There are literally thousands of different
type of construction. Where a coating is required chemicals to which a coating may be exposed
on the interior of such a tank, roof plates should and, this being the case, it is understandable that
be butt welded or should be welded on each side there are also hundreds of specialty coatings that
of the lap so that a continuous coating is possi- have been developed to resist attack by these
ble. chemicals.
8. Pipe structures The attack may be by simple solution of the
Much of the construction of off-shore plat- coating, reacting with the coating to render it
forms is done with pipe to minimize coating useless, or chemicals may actually penetrate the
failure and corrosion. Pipe provides a plain sur- coating and cause corrosion to the steel
face with no sharp corners or edges subject to underneath. Attack by volatile acids, such as
early failure. It would seem, therefore, that pipe hydrochloric and nitric, often cause the latter
would be an ideal type of surface to coat. There failure. The caustic chlorine industry and the
can be problems, however, primarily ones of a p rayon industry can cause coating failures both by
plication. actual coating attack and by penetration and
If failure occurs, other than at a joint, it is under-film corrosion. The interior and exterior of
usually longitudinal with the pipe. This is caused tank cars, specialty tankers and storage tanks in
by insufficient overlapping of the spray passes terminals are all areas where chemical attack of
during the coating process. In coating pipe, it is coating is common.
essential that each spray be overlapped at least There is no universal solution to the problem.
50%. With large pipe, this means that there are Each condition must be considered on its own.
numerous passes required in order to obtain a The proper coating must be selected. The best
hol iday-free coating. surface preparation must be used and a defect-
In addition to areas where pipe is used as the free application obtained. An improper coating
principal construction member, there may be hun- selection or improper application of the right
dreds of miles of pipe used in a single industrial coating can be disastrous.
plant, all of which require coating. Here, in addi- 2. Erosion and abrasion
tion to the cylindrical structure, there are pipe These are exterior forces that can cause
flanges, valves, threaded joints, bolts, pipe coating failure. One example is erosion by sand
hangers and pipe racks. These areas have all of and wave action of coatings applied to steel piling
the focal points for corrosion which have been on beaches.
previously discussed, and wherever corrosion is a Sand erosion by wind is another example.
factor, care must be taken to make sure that all of Other examples are the abrasion on the interior of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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SSPC CHAPTERx23.0 93 = 8627940 000396l 026 =
hopper cars, interior abrasion in pipe lines due to determined that inorganic zinc silicate coatings
particulate matter in the liquid, or abrasion on have adequate friction resistance and can be
floors by wheeled traffic. The, moving and han- used as a coating between the contact surfaces in
dling of many fertilizers can cause both abrasion riveted and bolted joints. The use of the inorganic
failure and chemical failure of the coating. In such zinc coating as a base coating within and outside
cases, specialty coatings must be selected to of the joint provides an excellent corrosion resis-
resist the abrasion and erosion as well as the nor- tant answer for coating bolted or riveted struc-
mal corrosion which might be expected should tures.
the coating wear through. When there is liquid penetration at such
3. Faying surfaces joints, crevice corrosion can occur due to the oxy-
gen concentration cell effect, especially i f dis-
Coating failures can occur where joints in steel
similar metals make the steel surface cathodic to
structures are formed by riveting or by the use of
the bolt of high-strength steel.
TABLE 8
SUMMARY OF FAILURE BY EXTERIOR FORCES
COATING FA1LURE FA1LURE APPEARANCE CAUSE OF FAILURE REMEDY
1. Chemical Solution of coating, undercutting, Unsuitable coating selection. Poor Proper selection of coating
underfilm corrosion. coating application. for the service is a prime
requisite. This must be
followed by the best surface
preparation possible and a
defect-free application.
2. Erosion and Coating worn away, leaving sub- Wear by wheeled vehicles, impact, Specialty coating must be
A brasion strate subject to corrosion. wind or liquid born abrasives. selected to resist specific
abrasion. Coating must
have strong adhesion in
addition to wear resistance.
(Polyurethane coatings are
most abrasion resistant.)
3. Faying surfaces Coating failure and corrosion Crevice between contacting steel sur- Prior to joining metal$ur-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
in joint. faces joined by rivets or high strength faces, sand blast and apply
bolts. an inorganic zinc coating
to joint area and beyond.
When the two surfaces are
joined, a corrosion-free
joint will result.
VIII. SUMMARY
high strength bolts. Such joints are common on
bridges and in many open steel work plants such Coating failures may be caused by the coating for-
as refineries and chemical plants. If there is a mulation or the materials from which it is made; by the
crevice at the joint, the coating applied to the sur- basic characteristics of the surface coated; by improper
face can fail at that point, allowing access to surface preparation; by the design of the structure coated;
moisture or chemicals, with resulting corrosion. or by poor coating application procedures. Coating
Most coatings are unsuitable for use within the failures can be prevented only by using the proper material
joint itself as they do not provide the proper coef- for the job, and by care in the application to achieve com-
ficient of friction to maintain the joint in a static plete, uninterrupted coating coverages irrespective of the
condition. Even galvanized surfaces do not have built-in problems of the design and materials of construc-
sufficient coefficient of friction to provide a prop- tion. On any coating job, the following procedures are
er joint. recommended to assure coating success.
In the past, most joints have been made on a 1. Analyze the exposure and the structure, and
steel to steel basis in order to obtain the proper specify the material which will properly meet the
friction resistance. Recently, however, it has been conditions. Do not compromise on price or qual-

514
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 - 0 9 3 8627940 0003962 T62
ity. The material is the least costly item of a

coating application.
2. Use a detailed specification covering the method
of surface preparation and the application of the
coating. A general specification is not adequate.
3. Make a detailed inspection of the surface prepara-
tion and the application procedures to assure
conformity with the specification in numbers 1
and 2 above.
Irrespective of the structure or the corrosive condi-
tions, a strong specification and good follow-up inspection
are the two most important keys to a successful and
failurefree coating job.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: AI Beitelman, Wallace P. Cathcart, Thomas A. Cross,
Theodore Dowd, J. Roger Garland, Dan Gelfer, Lewis Gleekman,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
H.W. Hitzrot, Joe Mazia, Marshall McGee, I. Metil, John Montle,

William Pearson, E.A. Praschan,.Melvin Sandler, William Wallace.
A portrait and biographical sketch of Charles G. Munger can be

found at the end of Chapter 4.2.
REFERENCES
1. G.W. Segreu, “Causes & Prevention of Paint Failure”, Steel
Structures Painting Manual, Volume 1, Good Painting Prac-
tice, Chapter 18, 1954.
2. Paint and Protective Coatings, Chapter 5, U.S.Government
Publication, Department of Defense, Army - TM5-618,
NAVFAC MO-110, Air Force - AFM-85-3, 1969.
3. C.G. Munger, “Causes of Coating Failure”, paper presented
at NACE South East Regional Meeting, November 1975.
4. C.G. Munger, “Coating Failures”, Plant Engineering, 1974.
5. C.G. Munger, “Protective Coating Failures; Coating Formula-
tion & Selection” (Part l), Plant Engineering, April 15, 1976;
“Substrate Material & Condition” (Part 2), Plant Engineering,
April 29,1976; “Coating Application Procedures (Part 3), Plant
Engineering, May 13, 1976.
6. C.G. Munger “Repairing Protective Coatings: Evaluating
Coating Condition” (Part l), Plant Engineering, November 11,
1976; “Procedures for Metallic Substrates” (Part 2), Plant
Engineering, December 23, 1976; “Procedures for Non-
Metallic Substrates” (Part 3), Plant Engineering, January 20,
1977; “Effects of Coating Types” (Part 4); Plant Engineering,
February 17, 1977.
7. C.G. Munger, “influence of Environment on inorganic Zinc
Coatings”, Materials Performance, March 1977.
8. C.G. Munger, “Sulfides - Their Effect on Coatings &
Substrates”, Materials Performance, March 1977.
9. C.G. Munger, “Coating of Contaminated Ferrous Surfaces”,
1979 Coating Symposium, Niagara Falls, NY, 1979.
10. C.G. Munger, “Practical Aspects of Coating Repair”,
Materials Performance, February 1980.
11. “Causes and Prevention of Coating Failures”, NACE Report
6D170.
12. “Corrosion Control - Principles and Methods”, Ameron
Publication.
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S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 4 * 0 93 Ab27940 00039b3 9T9 September 1993 (Revised)
CHAPTER 24
PAINTING NAVY SHIPS

by
Stephen D. Rodgers, Richard W. Drisko, and John Tock
I. INTRODUCTION II. BACKGROUND

The operational readiness of a modern, technologi- Coating materials and techniques utilized by the Navy
cally sophisticated fleet is of paramount importance to the have generally changed in much the same manner as
defense of our nation. Marine coatings comprise a key ele- those of the commercial sector. Prior to World War II, most
ment in the maintenance program required to achieve and of the maintenance painting was done by sailors using
retain this readiness. The United States Navy is committed chipping hammers and other hand tools to clean steel sur-
to providing this protection in the most reliable and cost faces and brushes to apply drying oil (e.g., alkyd) paints.
effective manner available. This is being achieved through Since that time both cleaning and application techniques
an active research program to develop (1) new formula-type and coating materials have improved greatly. All shipyard
coatings which can be purchased competitively and (2) and maintenance depot painting is done by civilian (civil
performance-type specifications for which manufacturers service or contractor) personnel who clean steel surfaces
can qualify products. Most of the coatings used on Navy to a near white blast (SSPC-SP 10) with automated equip-
ships are of the high performance type that require surface ment wherever possible to reduce emission of particulates,
preparation and application by experienced personnel. Those and apply coatings with modern spray equipment. The
coatings used by ship forces for everyday maintenance (e.g., everyday maintenance painting is still accomplished by
alkyds) are more tolerant of applicator skill. The effective- less experienced ship personnel.
ness of the coatings in the Navy’s ship corrosion control pro- In the last forty years, paints used on Navy ships have
gram is reflected in the present drydocking cycles of five to changed from the drying oil (alkyd) formulations, such as
seven years. Navy Formula I (1944),of the early forties to vinyls, such as
Coated surfaces on Navy ships are subjected, as Navy Formula 119, of the early fifties to epoxies, such as
shown in Figure 1, to a variety of destructive conditions MIL-P-23236(1962) and MIL-P-24441(1972), currently in use
(e.g., a salt laden, high humidity atmosphere; total sea- today. The drying oil paints were relatively easy to apply
water immersion; and acidic exhaust gases) with tempera- since they did not require a high level of surface prepara-
tures ranging from those of the tropics to those of the tion, but they had limited resistance to marine service. The
Arctic. They must be resistant to physical damage from vinyl paints were much more durable, but they required a
such forces as cavitation, drag (friction), impact with higher level of surface preparation and more coats to
waves and mooring structures, and abrasion by chains. achieve a desired thickness. The epoxies have proved to be
Each coating system must adhere tightly to the particular more cost effective in that, even though they still require a
substrate (ferrous and nonferrous metals, wood, plastics, relatively high level of surface preparation and should be
and elastometers) to which it is applied, and it must resist applied at temperatures above 35OF, they provide a very
deterioration from a variety of chemicals (e.g., distilled, durable barrier in fewer coats.
potable, and salt water; hydrocarbon fuels and lubricants; Prior to World War II, Navy ships were coated with
and sanitary wastes). In addition, antifouling coatings paints produced in Navy factories according to Navy
must prevent the attachment and growth of marine specifications. Today, the Navy obtains from commercial
organisms on immersed surfaces. These organisms suppliers a mixture of Navy formula (Military
increase frictional drag, which results in loss of speed and Specification), Federal Specification, and qualified com-
maneuverability and increased fuel consumption. Fouling mercial products. Table 1 identifies the paint formulations
may also promote localized corrosion, damage to most commonly used on Navy ships along with their
coatings, reduced buoyancy, and inoperable equipment. specifications and uses. The current procurement pro-
Thus, ships of the Navy require a combination of versatile cedures permit the maximum cost effectiveness while
and specialized coatings to meet many different require- taking advantage of the latest coatings technology of
ments to keep them operational. Many of these coatings private industry and research and development of coatings
may also prove to be as cost effective on commercial ships with Navy-unique purposes (Le., coatings for camouflage,
as on those of the Navy. submarines, and extreme durability).
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
516
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 4 . 0 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003964 835
Antennas and Superstructures
o Acidic Exhaust Fumes
-IzL o Extreme Temperatures
- r-
, --- _ _ _ ~=-=æ
o Intense Sunlight
o Thermal Shock
6 __ ~
.- _ Wind Driven Saltwater and Spray
Deck Areas
4
-
____ /
o Mechanical Abrasion i Lines, Chains, etc)
t-
~
~ - c:,=- -_
-9 o Fuel/Chemical Spills
I
7.
-.
o Humidity
o Heat/Fire
o Cooking Fumes
Soiling
o Abrasion
Ballast, and Cargo Tanks
-z2_r$So o Hydrocarbon Fuels

FUEL
WATER o Distilled, Potable, and Salt Waters
CARGO CARGO
0 Corrosive and Sensitive Cargoes
W ~-
BALLAST. .__-\/Y J
o Chlorination System
I
Underwater Hu I I
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
o Marine Fouling
o Seawater Immersion
o Abrasion
o Galvanic Corrosion
o Cavitation
FIGURE 1
Environments that are destructive to chipboard coatings.
517
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 4 - 0 9 3 m 8627940 0003965 7 7 1 =
TABLE 1 * *
IDENTIFICATION OF COATINGS USED ON SHIPS
NAVY FORMULA SPECIFICATION TYPE' USE
- TT-S-711 oil stain wood interiors

- formerly MIL-V-I 174 oleoresinous phenolic varnish spar varnish
TT-V-119 now used
84 and 84D TT-P-6456 alkyd-zinc molybdate anticorrosive primer for
steel and aluminum
111 MIL-E-15090 alkyd/powder enamel for equipment
121 MIL-P-15931 vinyl-cuprous oxide antifouling (red)
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
124 DOD-E-24607 chlorinated alkyd nonflaming (white)

125 DOD-E-24607 chlorinated alkyd nonflaming (green)
126 DOD-E-24607 chlorinated alkyd nonflaming (gray)
129 formerly MIL-P-16189; vinyllcuprous oxide antif o uIing (black)
MIL-P-15931 now used
150-156 MIL-P-24441 epoxy polyamide general use on metals
(different colors)
- MIL-C-11796 petrolatum corrosion-preventive
compound
- MIL-R-15058 coating outboard shafting
- MIL-C-16 173 corrosion preventing
compound
- MIL-D-23003 epoxy polyamide nonslip deck covering
- DOD-P-23236 epoxy fuel and ballast tanks
- DOD-P-24380 chlorinated rubber anchor chain
- MIL-D-24483124667 epoxy nonslip deck coating
- DOD-P-24555 silicone-aluminum high temperature
- DOD-P-24596 - fire protective coating
compound
518
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S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 4 - 0 73 8627740 0003766 608
TABLE 1 (Continued)
IDENTIFICATION OF COATINGS USED ON SHIPS
NAVY FORMULA SPECIFICATION TYPE* USE
- MIL-P-24647 - antifouling systems

MIL-(2-46081 intumescent insulating
coating
- TT-P-28 silicone-aluminum high temperatures
- TT-V-51 asphalt varnish anchors and chain

MIL-E-24635 silicone-alkyd exterior
semi-gloss enamel
'MIL-P- indicates military specification (being replaced by DOD-P-)

DOD-P- indicates Department of Defense specification
TT-P- or TT-E- indicates Federal specification
'The following specifications have been removed from the table to reflect current practice:
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TT-C-542, TT-E-489, TT-E-490, TT-L-26, TT-LdO, TT-P-320, TT-P-595, MIL-C-17504, MIL-E-17970,

MIL-E-17971, MIL-L-19537, MIL-P-15929, MIL-P-15930, MIL-P-19451, MIL-P-19452, MIL-P-19453,
MIL-P-22298, MIL-P-22299, MIL-P-22750, MIL-P-23377, DOD-E-699, DOD-E-1821O, DOD-P-15328,
DOD-P-17545, DOD-P-23236, Class 2-4, DOD-P-24588

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 4 * 0 93 D 8627940 00039b7 544 M
111. CURRENT PRACTICES ing all governmental regulations are specified for painting
Painting during acquisition of ships is covered by the operations.
general specification requirements that are included in
contracts for the building of a ship. While they reflect the
A. SURFACE PREPARATION
latest painting technology at the time the contract is Currently recommended methods of preparing dif-
written, they may not reflect the latest technology at the ferent ship surfaces for coating are listed in Table 2. Steel
time of delivery of the ship seven to ten years later. Modifi- surfaces are much more prevalent on Navy ships than
cation of contracts to reflect changing technology has other materials, with aluminum representing a large
proven to be difficult and costly. portion of superstructures. A near-white blast finish is
Maintenance painting of ships in service is covered in suitable for all the coatings used on steel surfaces. Of the
great detail in Navy Ships Technical Manual, Chapter 631. many different types of coatings used on ships, inorganic
This document provides information on surface preparation, zinc primers are the least tolerant of a lower level of
thickness of paint films, coatings to be used, and applica- cleaning: It should be noted that even in shipyards and
tion procedures. Touching-up by currently recommended maintenance depots, mechanical cleaning is occasionally
p r a ~ t i c e sis~emphasized.
~~ Strict safety precautions meet- used on small touch-up areas or those areas difficult to
reach with blast cleaning.
TABLE 2
RECOMMENDED METHODS OF SURFACE PREPARATION OF
VARIOUS SUBSTRATES FOR COATING
SUBSTRATE RECOMMENDED METHOD OF SURFACE PREPARATION

--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Steel Abrasive blast cleaning to near-white finish (SSPC-SP 10) for touch-up and full scale
repainting at shipyards and maintenance depots.
Hand or power (preferably) tool cleaning with wire brushes, chipping hammers,
grinders, sanders, needle guns, etc., for maintenance by ship forces.
Galvanized steel Solvent cleaning (degreasing) new surfaces followed by application of one Coat of
Formula 150.
Aluminum 80 grit Garnet or Aluminum Oxide at 65 psi blast pressure.
Wood Scraping to remove loose coating and sanding or planing with hand or power
equipment.
Plastic Solvent cleaning and light sanding.
B. COATING APPLICATION use, as shown in Tables 3 and 4. In addition, their

use in potable water tanks was approved by the
The Navy is currently changing its recommended Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery.
method of coating application from an atomized spray to
airless spray techniques. It is also experimenting with
multicomponent airless spray equipment. Ship forces
generally use brush or roller techniques since they require
less skilled personnel.
C. TYPES OF COATINGS
1. Steel Surfaces
The great versatility of formulas 150-156 of MIL-
P-24441 accounts for their widespread shipboard

520
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 4 * 0 73 Ab27940 0003968 480
The approved inorganic zinc primers are providing ex- Because of the high fire risk associated with
cellent corrosion control on exterior surfaces above the boot- storage of flammable and explosive materials, non-
topping (see Table 3). The cathodic protection provided by flaming, highly chlorinated alkyd paints (Formulas
these primers has not been long lasting in continuous im- 124,125 and 126) are used on interior overheads and
mersion service, even when topcoated, because of topcoat bulkheads (see Table 4). Recent tests by the Navy's
damage during service. As indicated in Table 3, Formula 150 David Taylor R&D Center have shown that these
(epoxy) can be used as a barrier coat between these primers paints can be rated as noncombustible (when test-
and the silicone alkyd finish coat (MIL-E-24635). This is reed by ASTM E-162) at a dry film thickness of 20 mils,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
quired because of an incompatibility between zinc-rich coat- equivalent to 1O coats. The new performance-type
ings and drying oil paints.' A new performance-type specification DOD-C-24596covers fire-resistant coat-
specification for zinc-rich primers for shipboard use, DOD- ings for many substrates and uses.
P-24648, was approved in 1985. In the interior wet spaces (see Table 4), the
Formulas 121 (red) and 129 (black) are cuprous oxide- epoxy (Formula 150) system is required because of
containing antifouling paints which have received extensive its greater resistance to water and soiling. Thus, it
use. Their effectiveness, however, is usually limited to two has performed much better than alkyds.
years, depending upon the type of service. New ablative cu-
prous oxide antifouling paints for 5 to 7 years service are
described by MIL-SPEC-MIL-P-24647.
TABLE 3
COATING SYSTEMS FOR EXTERIOR STEEL
SHIP AREA COATINGS IN SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS
Hull from keel to *Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 (1); Formula 154 (1) or Formula 153 (1); Formula 121 (2)
start of boottopping
*NAVSEA* * -approved commercial epoxy; Formula 121 (2)
MIL-P-24647 (5 - 7 year system)
Hull boottopping *Formula 150 (1); Formula 161 (1); Formula 154 (1); Formula 129 (2)
area * NAVSEA-approvedcommercial epoxy; Formula 129 (2)
MIL-P-24647 (5 - 7 year system)
Near vertical *Formula 150; Formula 151; MIL-E-24635

surface above
boottopping NAVSEA-approvedcommercial inorganic zinc primer (1); Formula 150 (1);
MIL-E-24635
Horizontal surfaces *NAVSEA-approvedcommercial inorganic primer (1); Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 or
and waterways MIL-E-24635
Formula 150 (1); MIL-D-24483 or MIL-D-23003, Type II nonslip coating
*Preferred or most used systems

"'Naval Sea Systems Command
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 52 1 Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, 06/21/2004 05:53:50 MDT
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERm24.0 73 W 8627740 00037b7 317 W
In the early 1970s, the Navy began using flame- corrosive. Initially used only on components that
sprayed aluminum to protect the faying surfaces could be removed for metallizing ashore, it now
between aluminum superstructures and steel finds occasional use on deck and bulkhead areas
hulls. In 1978, this technique was extended to and on the special items listed in Table 5." As with
areas that were difficult to reach or extremely
TABLE 4
COATING SYSTEMS FOR INTERIOR STEEL
SHIP AREA COATINGS IN SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS
Overheads and Bulkheadsa Formula84(1); Formula 124 (1) or Formula 125 (1) or Formula
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
126 (2)'
Bulkheads in wet spacesb Formula 150 (1); Formula 152
Decksa NAVSEAd approved deck coatingse
Bilges and machinery NAVSEA-approved commercial system under DOD-P-23236, Class 1

rooms
Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 (1); Formula 156 (1)
Saltwater tanks NAVSEA-approved commercial system under DOD-P-23236,Class 1
Potable water tanks NAVSEA-approved commercial epoxy system
Gasoline and jet fuel NAVSEA-approved commercial system under DOD-P-23236,Class 1

tanks
Sanitary tanks Formula 150 (1); Formula 156 (1); Formula 151 (1); Formula 152 (1)
Inaccessible voids MIL-P-21006flotation type rust-retarding compounds
Fire stop bulkheads M IL-C-46081intumescent coating
aOn dry, living (habitable) spaces, such as sleeping, messing, recreation, and passageway areas.
'Sculleries, washrooms, showers, etc.
'Formula 124 can be tinted with DOD-C-22325colorants to other colors.
dNaval Sea Systems Command.
522
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S S P C C H A P T E R U 2 4 . 0 93 8627940 0003970 039
TABLE 5
ITEMS R ECEIVING FLAM E-SPRAYED ALU MINUM M ETALLIZING
MILITARY STANDARD 2138
AREA OF USE SPECIFIED ITEMS METALLIZED
Topside Exterior Use Deck hardware and machinery; tiedowns; steam riser valves and piping;
exhaust stacks and covers; fire station hardware; lighting fixtures; masts;
and booms.
Topside Interior Use Equipment foundations; deck areas; coaming around doors and scuttles;
heads, and sculleries.
Propulsion Plant Steam valves, reducers, stops, strainers, and piping; bottom blow valves
and Machinery and piping; pump and machinery foundations; boiler skirts; electrical and
mechanical casings; diesel headers and exhaust system components;
hangers; brackets; and supports.
zinc-rich coatings, flame-sprayed aluminum is 2 . Galvanized Steel

topcoated with organic coatings. Flame-sprayed Galvanized steel ship surfaces except for bilges and
aluminum is also being introduced to replace the ballast tanks are painted with one coat of Formula 84
silicone-aluminum heat-resisting coatings (TT-P-28 or 150 followed by 1 or 2 coats of the appropriate top-
and DOO-P-24555) currently specified for heated coat. In bilges and ballast tanks, one coat of Formula
ferrous sheet metal piping, fittings, and valves that 150, one coat of Formula 151, and one coat of Formula
have a very limited service life (about one year). 156 are applied.
Table 6 lists coatings recommended for such
services.
TABLE 6
COATINGS FOR MACHINERY AND PIPING
SURFACE COATINGS IN SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS

--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Ferrous sheet metal Formula 84 (1); Formula 111 (1)

(exterior or interior;
heated) Formula 84 (1); Approved coating to match surroundings (2)
Ferrous sheet metal TT-P-28 (1)

(exterior or interior;
heated) DOD-P-24555 (1)
Ferrous machinery TT-P-28

(exterior; heated)
DOD-P-24555 (2)
Machinery gage boards Formula 84 (1); Formula 111 (2)

(including gages and
clocks)
Piping, valves, and Formula 84 (1); Approved finish coat (2)

fitti ngsa
aFinish is to match surroundings or color coded for content identification.

If insulated, insulation is coated to match surroundings.

at 303-397-2295.
S S P C CHAPTER*24-0 93 m 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 9 7 3 T75 m
TABLE 7
COATING SYSTEMS FOR ALUMINUM SURFACES
SHIP AREAS COATING IN SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS
Boottopping and hull NAVSEA-approved commercial system with noncopper antifouling coating
Exterior topside Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 (1); MIL-E-24635(2)a
Habitability areas Formula 84 or 84D (1); Formula 124 (2)
Wet spacesb Formula 150 (1); Formula 152 (2)
Bilges and seawater Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 (1); Formula 152 (1)
ballast and fuel tanksc
aFor decks, MIL-E-24635gray deck or MIL-D-23003,Type II or MIL-D-24483nonslip

coatings are substituted for TT-E-490.
bSculleries, washrooms, showers, etc.
‘On fuel tanks, the bottom and walls up to 6 in. are coated.
3. Aluminum before applying adesired finish or antifouling paint of

The coating systems used on aluminum alloy ship Table 3. Exterior reinforced plastic laminate is
surfaces are listed in Table 7. In March 1974, the repaired and recoated as described in MIL-R-19907.
Naval Ship Engineering Center issued a pocket- Interior reinforcedplastic laminate receives two coats
size manual (“Ship Hull Structure Maintenance and of Formula 124.
Repair”) to provide additional practical information 6. Miscellaneous items
on topside coating. It includes specific recom- For more information on types of coatings, consult
mendations related to aluminum super-structures, Naval Ships Technical Manual, Chapter 631.
such as dissimilar metal problems, surface prepara-
tion, aluminum flame spray techniques, coating D. SAFETY PRACTICES
materials, sealants, and application methods. Metal The Navy safety procedures reflect the latest commer-
containing paints should not be used on aluminum. cial practices in the protection of the health of workers
4. Wood and the physical integrity of the structures being coated.
Wood that is to be varnished is first filled with a The health aspects are overseen by the Navy’s Bureau of
filler (paste). Exterior painted wood is treated as Medicine and Surgery, and the structural aspects by the
shown in Table 8 . Interior wood is either covered ship operational organization and the facilities command.
with one coat of approved aluminum paint and two The controllingdocuments are all cited and discussed in Naval
coats of approved finish paint to match the sur- ShipsTechnical Manual, Chapter 631 (Preservationof Ships
roundingsor stainedwith commerciallyavailable stain in Service).
and coated with three coats of Formula 80 varnish. IV. TRENDS
5 . Plastic Changes in painting practices for Navy ships will
Plastic surfaces to be painted are treated with be directed toward more durable, longer lasting sys-
Formula 150.Additional primer coats are not required tems that will require less maintenance and permit

524
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*24-0 9 3 W 8627740 0003972 901 W
TABLE 8
COATING SYSTEMS FOR EXTERIOR WOOD
SHIP AREA COATINGS I N SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS

--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Hull from keel to start Formula 150 (1); Formula 121 (2)
of boottopping
or MIL-P-24647system
for 5-7 year life.
Boottopping area Formula 150 (1); Formula 129 (2)
Vertical surfaces Approved aluminum painta ( l ) , MIL-E-24635(2)

above boottopping
Horizontal surfaces Approved aluminum painta (2); Formula 20 (2)

waterways
Masts and spars Approved aluminum painta (2); Formula 20 (2)
aPrepared by mixing 2 Ib. of TT-P-320, Type II,Class 2 aluminum paste into 1 gal. of
Formula 80 varnish.
longer periods between dry docking”. Greatly improved V. SUMMARY

fouling -control (5 years or more) with safe materials is
The severe environmental forces encountered by Navy
sought through such systems as renewable (self-polishing) ships require tough, durable, and often specialized coat-
and controlled-release antifouling paints. Antifouling
ings. The presently used systems described in this chapter
rubber, plastics and greases will also be considered for have provided satisfactory protection in a cost effective
selected surfaces. Smooth hull coatings that also perform manner. Improved painting materials and procedures are
other necessaryrequirements may impart a microsmoothsur- sought, however, to control spiraling maintenance costs,
face texture with minimum drag. permit improved operational capabilities, and conform to
The Navy paints of the future must meet all environ- governmental regulations related to health, safety and
mental, health, and safety requirements of federal and environmental concerns. The research and development
local governments. Currently, the State of California is required to meet these and future needs will be
restricting the use of volatile organic compounds (VOC) in challenging.
marine coatings, and other states will follow this action. Work
is now being done by coating suppliers and the Navy to develop
water borne and high solids marine coatings that meet these
and other anticipated restrictions.
The Navy Environmental Health Center has recom-
mendedlo other materials or procedures be substituted for
lead or chromium pigments in metal primersfor corrosion con-
trol. While substitute pigments are available,li their long-term
effectiveness in marine primers has yet to be established.
However,current navy policy is to restrict lead and chromate
content to 0.005°/o.
Environmental restrictions have already been placed
on abrasive blasting and chemical cleaning procedures of
ship surfaces for painting. New, acceptable cleaning pro-
cedures must be developed, and the primer materials
applied must be compatible with these surfaces.

at 303-397-2295.
TABLE 9
COATINGS FOR MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
ITEM COATING SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS
Anchor chain, anchor and TT-V-51

securing chains
MIL-P-24380
Antenna insulator fittings Formula 150 (2)
Bilge keels (Internal MIL-C-16173, Grade 1 rust preventive

surfaces)
Catapult launching DOD-P-23236, epoxy coating

valves and exhaust
tees; lagging on
Exterior canvas and TT-P-595 gray canvas, preservative

life floats (rafts)
Fire plugs and foam Formula 150 (1); MIL-E-24635color to match; Formula 40 (1)
discharge valves
Furniture and joiner doors As specified in MIL-F-90;
Helmets MIL-E-24635(haze grey)
Inaccessible surfaces Unpainted

(galvanized and
nonferrous)
Inaccessible surfaces 1 coat inorganic zinc or

(ungalvanized steel) MIL-C-11796, Class 1 or A, or
2 coats Formula 150
Messenger buoys Formula 150 (2); TT-E-490 international Orange (2) or MIL-E-24635
Propellers (composition or Clean and polish bright

corrosion-resistant)
Rings buoys Orange plastic compound (3)
Rudders and skegs MIL-C-l6173D, Grade 1 or 3 rust preventive

(internal surfaces)
Shafting, inboard Formula 150; Formula 151 (1)
Shafting, outboard MIL-R-15058or resin-glass cloth coating and antifouling
Shaft tube (internal) Formula 150 (1); Formula 151; Formula 152
Smoke pipes TT-P-28 (2)
Sonar domes:
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Rubber MIL-P-24647
Plastic and HY80 steel NAVSEA-approvedepoxy or MIL-P-24441system for hulls (see Table 2);
Formula 121 (2)
Stainless steel Formula 150 or unpainted
Structure behind insulation Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 (1)
Ventilation ducts and trunks Formula 150 (1); 151 (1); 152 (1) or
(ungalvanized steel) inorganic zinc; Formula 150 (mist coat); 151 (1); 152 (1) or
DOD CTD 2138
Turntable pits (LSTs) DOD-P-23236 (2 or 3 coats)

526
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SSPC C H A P T E R k 2 4 . 0 93 W 8627940 0003974 784 =
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT REFER ENCES
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active 1. Naval Ship Systems Command. NAVSHIPS Technical Manu-
participation of the following in the review process for this al, Chapter 631. Preservation of Ships in Service (Paints and
chapter: Leon Birnbaum, David Bloodgood, Theodore Dowd, Ben Cathodic Protection). Washington, January 1970.
Fultz, Dan Gelfer, Jack Hickey, Edward Hobaica, Hing Dear, AI Washington, January 1970.
Hohman, Howard Milam, Neil M. Miller, Hugh E. Peck, Walt Radut, 2. C.G. Munger, Practical Aspects of Coating Repair, Materials
Alfred E. Smith, William Wallace. Performance, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 46-52, February 1980.
3. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 80-06: Repair of
Exterior Protective Coatings. Port Hueneme, CA, July 1980.
4. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 79-04: Surface
Preparation for Coatings. Port Hueneme, CA, April 1979.
BIOGRAPHY 5. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 77-09R: Coating
Stephen D. Rodgers has been Interiors of Steel Potable Water Tanks. Port Hueneme, CA,
employed in the paint field for 35 July 1979.
years. Mr. Rodgers specializes 6. Naval Ship Systems Command. NAVSHIPS Notice 9190: Navy
in protective finishes and the Polyamide-Epoxy Systems for Interior and Exterior Ship Sur-
related surface preparation tech- faces. Naval Ship Systems Command, Washington, June
nology for the marine industry. 1972.
Mr. Rodgers' experience in- 7. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 77-19: Incom-
cludes 22 years in paint RDT&E patibility of Paints. Port Hueneme, CA, November 1977.
with the Navy, 7 years as the 8. H.H. Vanderbilt and R.A. Sulit. Thermal Spray Technology
Head of the Corrosion control Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation and Service
Branch of the Naval Sea Sys- Applications in the U S . Navy, Tri-Service Conference on
tems Command, with responsi- Corrosion. US. Air Force Academy, Colorado, November
bilities for corrosion mitigation by 1980.
design, cathodic protection and 9. H.S. Preiser and S.D. Rodgers. "Coatings - the Promise and
protective finishes. As a Senior engineer, Mr. Rodgers has provid- Challenge for Enhanced Naval Performance," chapter in Cor-
ed consulting engineering services in private industry for 5 years. rosion Control by Coatings, H. Leidherser, Jr. (editor). Prince-
Mr. Rodgers is a registered professional Corrosion Engineer in ton, NJ, Science Press, 1979.
the State of California and a Nuclear Safety Related Coating En- 10. Navy Environmental Health Center letter 41AIJRB:crh
gineer (National Board of Registration for Nuclear Safety Related 6260.1G serial 9-130 of May 14, 1979.
Coating Engineers and Specialists). 11. J.D. Keane, J.A. Bruno and R.E.F. Weaver. Performance of
Mr. Rodgers has 8 patents and 45 publications. Alternative Coatings in the Environment (PACE), Steel Struc-
tures Painting Journal. Pittsburgh, PA, August 20, 1979.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
John J. Tock has been employed by the U. S. Navy since 1971,

initially working at the Naval Ship Engineering Center. He is cur-
rently employed as the Senior Materials Engineer of the Corrosion
Control Division of the Materials Engineering Group, Naval Sea Sys-
tems Command, Washington, DC. Mr. Tock has a Bachelor's degree
in Zoology from the Pennsylvania State University (1965) and a
Bachelor's degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of
Florida (1971). He is and has been primarily responsible for the cor-
rosion control of Navy ships through the application of protective
coatings. Mr. Tock specifies coating systems for shipboard appli-
cations based on expected performance and environmental com-
pliance. He is responsible for writing and updating material
specifications, qualifying and approving materials, writing Naval
Technical Manuals and developing ship specifications for coating
systems. Mr. Tock has been involved in efforts to develop and evalu-
ate water based paints, fire resistant coatings, anticorrosive primers
and intumescent fire protective coatings.
A portrait and biographical sketch of Richard W. Drisko

appear at the end of the chapter on Government Painting
Procedures.
527
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 . 0 93 W 8627940 0003975 bLO =
CHAPTER 25
DESIGN OF CORROSION-SAFE STRUCTURES

by
V. Roger Pludek
I. INTRODUCTION All materials of construction and preservation must

be appreciated and evaluated, not only individually but
The rising cost of labor and energy and the scarcity of
also en masse, in complete units or components. Not only
raw materials make conservation a necessity today, par-
the structural steel is considered, but also the necessary
ticularly with regard to steel structures that cannot easily
weld metal, fasteners, plastics, separation materials,
be dismantled and replaced. When they suffer unchecked
sealants, coatings, etc., all together in their rational rela-
corrosion, steel structures fail, and their failure has a pro-
tionship.
found influence on the economic and social welfare of all
Good design must create a unified, reliable and safe
people. As more and more corrosive effluent is being emit-
functional complex. The main purpose of such materials
ted, and the corrosiveness of atmosphere, soil and natural
association is to fulfill its prime requirement of functional
waters increases, the negative effect on steel structures is
utility and also the requirements of safety and survival
compounded.
stability. It is not possible to separate the functional ap-
The effects of poor design can seldom, if ever, be cor-
preciation of materials from its corrosion engineering
rected by coatings. Preventive control, beginning with
counterpart.
design, offers the best answer to the difficult problem of
Even high quality materials can become casualties as
corrosion. A majority of service failures caused by corro-
a result of poor design and poor corrosion control. In
sion would not occur i f proper precautions were taken at
general, the prime requirement of integrated corrosion
the design stage. All designers, engineers and technical
control is to provide a parallel system of appreciation,
workers engaged in a construction project must work to-
evaluation, and selection of materials, both for their func-
gether to create an integrated corrosion control system."
tional suitability and for their ability to sustain this
positive function for the required length of time at an
II. REQUIREMENT OF CORROSION
economic cost.
EXPERTISE
Requirements for structural material include the
There is a great deal of knowledge about corrosion following:
that is not being translated duly into practice. Much better
effort to improve communication and cooperation between 1. Select materials for their functional suitability
and ability to maintain their function safely for an
individual specialists, in management, purchasing, design-
economical period of time at a reasonable cost.
ing, production, and installation should be made. Rather
than learning by trial and error, an exceedingly expensive
2. Specify accurately and test on delivery for
conformance with specif ¡cations.
process, the designer and all other workers in design
should be aware of the best sources of advice about corro-
3. Select more corrosion-resistant materials for
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
more critical structural members or where relatively high

sion control. Scientists, engineers, technologists,
fabrication costs are involved.
technical and managerial workers must be educated about
4. Compromise where necessary; trade-off
corrosion and its control to conserve materials and pre-
mechanical advantages for corrosion protection.
vent failures due to environmental or bad design in-
5. Do not specify more expensive materials than ab-
f luences.
solutely necessary, except for long-term economy or
111. MATERIALS preservation of the safety of personnel or product.
6. Do not mix short-life materials with long-life
Among the most fundamental design activities, the
materials in sub-assemblies that cannot be repaired.
appreciation and evaluation of materials of construction
7. Evaluate for suitability not only the structural
take the lead. Only thus can unnecessary work be avoided
members but also their basic treatments (chromate
and serious mistakes prevented.
passivation, galvanizing, etc.).
8. Do not use flammable materials in critical places.
9. Do not use materials producing corrosive or toxic
'A full account of Mr. Pludek's corrosion control work exists in fumes for steel structures subject to fire hazard.
his book, Design and Corrosion Control, Macmillan, 1977. Another
excellent account of the subject is given in National Association 10. Select metals of construction in accordance with
of Corrosion Engineers Standard RP-01-78. a comprehensive selection list that takes into account both

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 - 0 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003776 5 5 7
function and corrosion controls. Metals should be to allow for corrosion waste and sacrificial protection of
selected on the basis of their physical properties, design cathodic members.
limitations, fabrication character, and economic utility. In 7. Design must provide for an easy replacement of
each of these areas function and corrosion control must anodic structural units.
be considered. 8. Laminar composites may be used in marine en-
vironments for bimetal composite structures: noble metal
IV. COMPATIBILITY clads, sacrificial metal clads, corrosion barriers, complex
multilayers (Figure 2).
A. INTRODUCTION
Some designers don’t appreciate the total structure Y
-I
as one complete whole with its inherent design character, iz

which transcends its material and elemental boundaries. m
This badly conceived inter-relation among the materials U S E A WATER
within the structure can ruin even the best design.

All intermaterial parameters must be properly ap-
preciated and evaluated before any final design decision is
taken. This evaluation must take into account problems
caused by direct contact between dissimilar metals or in- FIGURE 2
duced by changes of polarity, by transfer of electrolysis
through a medium, by transport of metallic particles in the 9. Clad metals can be used as transition joints in
environment, by stray currents or by any other adverse ef- structures.
fect arising from the proximity of incompatible materials. 10. Edges of clad metals in corrosive environments
must be well protected (Figure 3).
B. DISSIMILAR METALS
1. Faying surfaces of dissimilar metals should be SEALANT OR LEADS
designed for effective separation. Separation materials of
suitable shape, thickness, consistency and mode of ap-
plication should be used (gaskets, butyl tape, sealant,
etc.).
2. Insulation must be sufficiently thick and cover
sufficient area of bimetallic joints to prevent conductive
medium from by-passing it and reaching the faying sur-
faces of the connection.
3. Crevices between structural metals and plastics FIGURE 3
may support an increased rate of corrosion (crevice and
chemical attack). Test their compatibility. 11. Proper structural design must conduct moisture
4. Input of large cathodic areas of metal with small away from bimetallic joints.
anodic areas must be prevented in design of structures ex- 12. Dissimilar metals connected in a couple must not
posed to corrosive environments. be embedded in any porous environment or material
5. Key structural units, especially if these are without effective protection (insulation, concrete, soil,
smaller than adjoining units, should be made in more no- etc.).
ble metals (Figure 1). 13. Structures embedded in porous environments and
6. Less noble structural members in bimetallic in proximity of other structures having dissimilar metals
structures should be made larger or in a thicker metal form will suffer galvanic corrosion unless adequately protected.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
14. The designer must specify against the use of

MO NEL
backfill containing rough, coarse carbon cinders and
-I ashes around buried structures. Burying structures in old
household and industrial dumping grounds must be
discouraged.
15. If a dielectric separation is not possible, fasteners
must be coated with anti-corrosive primer and their ex-
posed ends encapsulated.
16. An application of moisture-proof coating or
organic sealant over a bimetallic connection should be
considered a measure of lesser effectiveness.
FIGURE 1

529
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R + 2 5 = 0 93 6 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003977 493
C. COATINGS, FILMS AND TREATMENTS structures from earth, applying insulating coatings or plac-
1. The component parts of a bimetallic joint should ing structures in conduits.
be cleaned, pretreated and primed prior to assembly in
5. Protecting structures with a cathodic protection
system can be effective (see chapter on that subject).
she1t ered conditions.
2. Relative proportion of discontinuities in the pro-
tective coating of a bimetallic joint between its anodic and V. GEOMETRY
cathodic element affects its corrosivity. With appropriate geometry in the design of a struc-
3. Painting does not provide dielectric separation ture, the designer can do much to control corrosion.
against galvanic corrosion. 1. Structural design is an integral part of a structural
4. A metallic coating used on the bimetallic connec- member and its function.
tion overall must be less noble than either of the metals 2. Structural design geometry should be simple,
used in the connection (Figure 4). sleek and streamlined.
3. Design forms should assist in preventing
geometry-dependent corrosion (crevice, impingement,
-
ANODIC CATHODIC
galvanic, electrolysis, etc.).
CORRODES
4. The designer should select shapes, forms or their
combinations whose fabrication, jointing and treatment
does not worsen the corrosion hazard.
ZINC TIN 5. The design geometry must support all or most of
ALUMINUM CHROMIUM
CAOMIUM NICKEL the selective corrosion preventive measures (initially and
LEAD
COPPER METALS
within lifetime).
STAINLESS STEEL 6. Corrosion-prone areas must be accessible.
SILVER
7. Size and shape of structural members must con-
FIGURE 4 form to the method and technique of the selected protec-
tion (e.g. for galvanizing by single, double dipping; pro-
5. Coatings containing metals or their active com- gressive galvanizing).
pounds must not be applied on top of coatings containing 8. Prevent entrapment of liquids and absorbent
zinc or aluminum on structures to be submerged in sea solids within the structural assembly. Provide adequate
water. drainage (Figure 5).
6. The designer must consider the possibility of a
change of polarity of metallic coatings on bimetallic con- I ENTRAPMEUT COTITS.
WELD
nections under any probable environmental conditions.
7. Partially cured or under-cured organic materials
and coatings can be a source of corrosion. DRAIN
HOLE
8. At temperatures above 150°F (66°C) the possibil-
ity of emission of hydrochloric acid should be considered BETTER BEST
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
for certain vinyl paints.

9. Zinc- or cadmium-plated components should not
be used in heated compartments containing phenolics,
varnishes, unstable insulating materials or encapsulants.
10. Galvanized fasteners should not be used on
stainless steel structures at high temperatures.
D. STRAY CURRENTS
1. Avoid passage of electric current between struc-
tures and environment as described in the chapter on
cathodic protection (HVDC, other DC and AC stray cur-
rents; electric traction, welding plants, power undertak- BAD BETTER BEST
ings and cathodic protection stray currents). FIGURE 5
2. Insulating couplings can be used to separate
metallic components for control of stray currents. 9. Good design of the geometry of structures should
3. In a conductive environment however, surface aid in preventing condensation and accumulation of cor-
films can negate the effect of an increase in the length of rosive media in joints and other spaces.
the insulating couplings, and result in external current 10. The designer must avoid laps and crevices in
jump. structural design, if possible. If these are unavoidable, the
4. Avoid critical leakage of stray current by increas- laps must face downwards on exposed surfaces and all
ing the earth contact resistance of structures, insulating such connections must be well sealed (Figures 6 and 7).
at 303-397-2295.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BACK OF FLANGE
RAIN \ \ \\ [ SHEET METAL
/+ SPOT WELD
POOR
I
u BETTER
BAD FIGURE 9
FIGURE 6
2. The design layout of structures must offer easy in-
itial preservation and repainting (Figure IO).
K PIPES rPIPES7
FILLET SIDE
ACCESS
HOLE
BAD BETTER
SEALING FIGURE 10
COMPOUND
3. Structural steel for galvanizing must be designed
A without extremes in weight and cross-section. It must be
reinforced and braced, if necessary, for prevention of warp-
FIGURE 7
age and distortion (Figure 11).
11. Steel reinforcement must be embedded in suffi-
cient thickness of concrete to suit the severity of environ-
BRACING
ment. Minimum thickness of concrete for mild conditions
is inch (1.3 cm); for corrosive conditions, 2 inches (5 cm);
and for hydraulic structures, 2-3 inches (5-8 cm). Reinforc-
ing steel can be bare, clean metal; coated metal where
shallower embedment is indicated; powder epoxy coated
where concrete is exposed to sea water or road salt; or
even combined metal coating and powder epoxy coating in
concrete exposed to exceptionally severe environments.
NNEL
12. The designer should not use back-to-back angles FIGURE 11
that are bolted or intermittently welded (Figure 8).
4. Joined structural members prepared for galvaniz-
ing must be fully enclosed by sound, poreless and con-
tinuous welds (does not apply to open ends of hollow sec-
tion members).
5. The geometry of structural steel for metal spray
BAD BETTER BEST
deposition must permit efficient blast cleaning overall as
FIGURE 8 well as complete coverage of surface with the spray-
deposited metal.
13. The designer must avoid designing structural 6. Complex structural shapes diminish the effec-
forms that contain horizontal runs of welding, especially i f tiveness of paint applied over them. Protruding fasteners
these are not accessible for cleaning, grinding or blasting. should be avoided. Corners should be well rounded to aid
efficiency of the painting films (Figures 12 and 13).
VI. GEOMETRY FOR COATING
1. Structural surfaces to be joined must be accessi-
ble for easy cleaning, coating and maintenance (Figure 9).
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 . 0 93 = 8b27940 0003979 2bb
1-1
AVOID PREFERRED damage, corrosion fatigue and fretting corrosion, due to
the mode of their attack on the mechanical strength of
--@- structural metals, justify separate attention.

The insidious attack of these four types of corrosion
occurs largely inside of the structural metals or on the hid-
den interfaces, and therefore it cannot be detected in time
I to obviate the failure by a suitable remedy. It remains thus
in the hands of the combined design team to prevent or
delay the risk of the crisis by their able preventive work.
Generally speaking, none of the metals or alloys used
in construction can be excluded from these hazards.
Among the most susceptible alloys are those normally
selected for today’s highly stress-loaded and critical ap-
plications.
A cooperative and parallel appreciation of function
and corrosion is a sound policy.
A. MECHANICAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Sound design is based on the comprehensive con-
sideration of materials, stress levels, environments, serv-
ice conditions variations and the reliable design life of the
structure.
1. The designer must avoid specifying materials
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking or corrosion
fatigue for highly loaded and critical structures in a
hazardous environment - present or expected, of local or
FIGURE 12
distant origin.
AVOID PREFERRED 2. Hydrogen embrittlement must be avoided during
cleaning, welding, treatment, cathodic protection and
operat ion.
3. Irregularities of surface on structural members
(notches, grooves, screw threads, changes of section, etc.)
weaken their load bearing capacity.
4. Intermittent wetting and drying of the critical
structural members should be prevented.
5. Good structural design must provide for exact
assembly of individual structural members without undue
stressing; joining without misalignment is in the interest
of good corrosion control.
6. In structures subject to stress loading, simple
welded joints should be preferred to lap welding, spot
welding, riveting or bolting.
7. Incomplete or intermittent welds must be avoided
in stressed structures (Figure 14).
AVOID PREFERRED
FIGURE 13
VIL MECHANICS
Mechanical integrity of any structural metal can be
reduced or terminated by any of the known types of corro-
sion. Thus, all relevant types of corrosion should be
carefully considered in the design and appropriate protec-
tive measures taken. Stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen FIGURE 14
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 - 0 9 3 86279LIO 0003980 T 8 8
B. SURFACE TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS A. SURFACE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

1. The designer must specify a uniform, and in 1. The surfaces should be simple, compact, smooth,
critical areas, the top grade cleaning of surfaces. Ali sur- well shaped, optimally positioned and angled. The sur-
face layers contaminated in storage, fabrication, and heat faces should not be rough or devised for entrapment and
treatment must be cleaned. retention of corrosive substances. The surfaces should
2. High strength steels should be cleaned preferably render full support to corrosion protection whether this is
by blast cleaning methods. intrinsic to the design proper or extraneous.
3. Formation of stress raisers through careless 2. Rounded contours and corners provide the best
fabrication methods (deep surface finish marks) must be continuity of surface (Figure 15).
prevented.
4. To improve on the fatigue strength of structural
steel, specify shot peening to create compressive residual
stresses.
5. The designer must not specify surface finishes
that may produce tensile stresses in the structural
materials or cause hydrogen embrittiement.
6. Conversion coatings may occasionally help in
reducing the probability of the initiation of the stress cor-
rosion cracking.
7. An increase of the coefficient of friction in struc-
tural joints can reduce the probablity of fretting corrosion.
8. Only those coatings approved by the American In-
stitute of Steel Construction (zinc-rich, etc.) should be
used in high-strength frictional bolted joints. FIGURE 15
9. Application of any efficient and compatible paint-
ing system should assist in reducing the chance of an in- 3. Multiform or random combination of surface
itiation of stress corrosion cracking or corrosion fatigue. planes complicates the corrosion control of structures
10. Coating structural surfaces with organic coatings (Figure 16).
after metallizing improves the resistance to stress corro-
sion cracking and the fatigue strength.
11. Coating structures with metallic and organic
coatings where a possibility of hydrogen embrittlement
arises can be recommended only under the condition that
the structures are not made in high strength steel, that
they are not under stress loading and that the coating does
not contain reactive zinc or corrosive chemicals.
12. Wide radii bends for structural steel to be
galvanized reduce the local stress concentration.
13. Welds must be stress relieved before galvanizing. FIGURE 16
VIII. SURFACE CONFIGURATION 4. Critical surfaces of structures must be visible and

Corrosion usually originates at the surface. There are accessi ble.
inherent characteristics of surfaces that may significantly 5. Well-designed structures should show overall
change or complement the conclusions arising from the continuity of profile flow as well as detail continuity of sur-
considerations of the geometry. faces. The detail can be improved by reduction of crevices,
Among the moot points in appreciation of the sur- grooves, faying surfaces and by improvement of their
faces are the optimal configuration of these surfaces, their drainability. Further, it can be improved by complete seal-
cleanliness, preparation, texture and their electrical and ing of surface discontinuities.
electrochemical stability in the given and expected en- 6. The unity of multishape surfaces of structural
vironmental conditions. members can be improved by overall sealing or tape wrap-
ping. (Note: The metal must be coated with inhibitive paint
prior to sealing.)

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SSPC CHAPTERm2-5-0 9 3 m 8b127940 0003981 914 m
7. No part of a metal surface (painted or unpainted) ened, anodized, passivated, metallized, surfaced, sealed,
within the structural entity can be allowed to have an prefabrication-treated or painted. The texture of the
adverse corrosion effect on other surfaces of the design substrate and the coating finish are relevant.
conglomerate. All surfaces must be electrically stable in 5. Surface conditions must be reconciled with sur-
the given medium under all possible environmental condi- face treatments to follow and their application techniques.
tions.
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6. Oil, grease, salt deposits and organic or inorganic

8. Electrical stability is to be supported by contaminants must be removed before the specified sur-
beneficial sizing of compatible metal surfaces within the face cleaning.
structural assembly and by efficient surface coating of 7. Only the anodic cleaning of high-strength, low-
both anodic and cathodic surfaces. alloy structural steel is permitted. Cathodic cleaning sup-
9. Excessive roughness of structural metal surfaces ports corrosion.
should be leveled out by grinding down protrusions and 8. Flame cleaning of new structural steel does not
filling in hollows with fillers. remove mill scale.
10. Haphazard application of insulation or surface 9. The preferred method of cleaning structural
coverings can cause adverse corrosive conditions metals is abrasive blasting. The blasting profile should fit
(chemical effect, thermal or electrochemical imbalance). the thickness, consistency, smoothness and adhesion of
11. The designer should provide for reduction of sur- the specified coating.
face damage of materials in storage, fabrication or erec-
tion. IX. PROTECTION
12. The relative position of individual structural
members and their shape must not be the cause of a A. COATINGS
significant corrosion within the structure.
13. Structural welds must be technically sound, well-
Protective coatings alone can not maintain a poorly
laid and clean. Flux, metal spatter, welding residue, burrs designed structure in a usable state. The true function of
and other weld defects must be removed prior to overall protection is to retain and improve the effectiveness of
surface cleaning (Figure 17). those anti-corrosion properties that have been built into
the design of the structure itself. These intrinsic corrosion-
control attributes of the designed structures and the ex-
ROUGH
FDI ATTSD / SURFACE trinsic corrosion protection are complementary to each
other. Their use will depend largely on their economic ad-
vantages and engineering value.
The corrosion protection should be made up to suit
BAD BETTER BEST
the whole structural entity. Piecemeal protection of in
FIGURE 17
dividual structural members, sub-assemblies or units is
shortsighted and illogical. For the best protection, t h e
14. The surfaces of structural steel for pickling geometry of the structures, location and relative position
should provide homogenous continuity (no crevices, of the critical parts of the structures, the degree of applica-
ledges, recesses, etc.). tion difficulties, and the reciprocal effectiveness of the
15. Crevices in structural steel for galvanizing shouJd protective measures must be reconciled.
be completely enclosed by sound and complete welding. The new, sophisticated, protective measures must not
be incorporated into the design haphazardly. The design of
B. SURFACE PREPARATION the structures must suit their use. The less the surfaces
1. Exposed surfaces should be protected in storage, are accessible, the better must be their protection.
fabrication, assembly and in use by temporary or perma- The designer must not be rigid in his attitude toward
nent protective measures. protection. He should specify only the necessary, safe and
2. The texture of surface not only influences the economically feasible methods of protection. He should
mechanical efficiency of structures, but it has also an ef- give preference to methods and techniques that can be
fect on the results obtained from the corrosion control. utilized by skilled personnel under controlled conditions.
This applies whether the structures remain bare or a Local climatic conditions on the production site and
coating is applied. subsequent ports of call, including the erection site, will
3. A smooth surface finish avoids sharp ir- have a considerable influence on the eventual selection of
regularities that are potential source of fatigue cracks and the protective measures. Difficulties in obtaining skilled
corrosion. labor could critically affect the reliability and safety of the
4. The designer should evaluate which texture of adopted protective measures. It is usually preferable,
surface provides the best base for the protection and therefore, to select materials, methods or techniques that
specify this in the design. He should stipulate whether the will give the best possible results and that can be readily
structural material should remain raw as is, untreated as secured in the operational locality of the structures.
fabricated, or whether it should be blast cleaned, rough- Basically, the corrosion protection of structures con-

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 . 0 93 = 8627740 0003982 850
sists of the protective measures that provide the separa- perties of material components of the system in relation to
tion of surfaces from the environments, those that provide procedures and schedules, suitability of application
cathodic protection or anodic polarization and those that methods for the structural geometry selected, the choice
cater to the adjustment of the environment. The available of techniques allowing the maximum use of money-saving
methods can be used singly, individually, or they can be practices, reduction of complexity in reducing the number
combined to suit the requirements. Usually, the sum of two of materials and color schemes and, lastly, the expected
or more protective measures can provide a much better maintenance.
degree of protection than the straight total of their in- 11. The designer must plan and specify coating of the
dividual effects. faying surfaces of structures prior to the mating.
12. The complete painting of surfaces that become
inaccessible on assembly must be specified in the draw-
B. PROTECTION DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
ings to be completed prior to the assembly.
1. The separation of materials from environments is 13. Cutting and welding of coated structural
provided by application of metallic coatings, by painting, members must be minimized.
by coating with plastics, ceramics or glass, by lining, seal- 14. To obtain best results from protective coatings
ing, enveloping, insulating, wrapping with tapes and by ap- the designer must provide optimum geometry for cleaning,
plying temporary protectives (oils, greases, removable application, inspection and maintenance; optimum
plastics, etc.). Each involves a change of the surface com- knowledge of materials and methods of protection;
position and in most cases a change in dimension and reputable and approved contractors and applicators; op-
weight of the structural element. timum and thorough inspection methods; and earliest
2. The most effective separation of surface requires repair of local breakdowns.
an exclusion of air and moisture or other corrosive media 15. The designer must appreciate, when deciding on
from the protected substrate. cathodic protection of structures, the compatibility of
3. To accomplish this, the designer may call for cathodic and coating protection.
various forms of protective systems. 16. The corrosion of structures can be considerably
4. Metal coating processes can be classified as reduced by a suitable change of environment by one or
anodic and cathodic. The anodic coatings protect the several of the f o l l o w i n g methods: ventilation,
metals (steels, etc.) even i f they are porous or damaged. dehumidification, air conditioning, cleansing, filtration,
The cathodic coatings protect the substrate by their separation, reduction of acid strength, reduction of the
superior resistance to corrosive environment; once dam- peak metal temperature and the use of inhibitors in sur-
aged these will accelerate the corrosion of the substrate. rounding media.
The anodic metallic coatings are mostly used for protec- 17. The change of environment by ventilation must
tion of structures. satisfy the habitability requirements, control the cor-
5. Preconstruction primers must be considered in rosiveness of atmosphere, direct and distribute air flows,
structural engineering as an important and integral part of prevent the access of corrosives to vital structures, reduce
the whole preservation system. Their effectiveness must condensation on vital surfaces, keep relative humidity
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be maintained during the whole production and erection below 6O%, and accelerate the drying of surfaces.
program. 18. The designer must avoid using insulation,
6. The main purpose of a sealer or topcoat is to ex- materials, sealants, etc. that contain soluble salts or acids
tend the utility and life of the anti-corrosive compositions or emit corrosive vapors causing the corrosion of struc-
(primers, metallic coatings, etc.) in an efficient state for an tural materials.
economic period of time.
7. A good seale: provides good adhesion to the anti- X. MAINTAINABILITY
corrosive primer (with or without a tie coat); low
permeability to the prevalent corrosive media; high film A. INTRODUCTION
thickness; good chemical resistance; good abrasion
Structures may fail as a result of catastrophic failures
resistance; and good climatic resistance.
of individual structural components or by a progressive
8. Protective coatings should be used only if they
degradation and deterioration of performance. Each of
are more economical than corrosion-resistant materials.
these failures can be attributed to factors of mechanics
9. Structural materials protected by coatings must
and corrosion.
be stored, handled, and maintained with due attention to
The structures must be so designed that their
the maintenance of the coating integrity. Prevention of
maintenance can be undertaken as a regular and
physical damage, contamination and deterioration should
economically feasible activity.
be duly planned in design.
10. The designer must review, before deciding on the
coating system and its individual components, all prob- B. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR
lems and limitations of individual applicators, the climatic MA I NTA I NA BI LITY
and working conditions on the sites of application, the pro- 1. The designed structures must be open to observa-

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SSPC CHAPTER*25=0 9 3 8627940 0003983 797
tion and inspection for reliability and safety. economic terms, as well as in terms of safety, health and
2. As far as possible all corrosion-control precau- pollution control. But the most advanced and
tions must be “repeatable and reparable”. sophisticated corrosion control parameters and
3. The designer should evaluate whether it is more technology may not be the most economical way of obtain-
economical to replace the whole structure or its coming economy and reliability of the structure.
ponents instead of repetitive maintenance.
4. The design of structures must be based on the op-
B. ECONOMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
timal length of corrosion prevention.
5. A planned maintenance program must not in- Clear and comprehensive specifications are im-
terfere with the utility of the structure. perative for an accurate economic evaluation; accurate
6. The design of structures must provide for the description of the job; instructions in exact technical
safety of all maintenance personnel while performing their terms or references to standards; production and applica-
various tasks. tion methods accurately described (including tools and
7. Critical members of the structures and those sub- auxiliary equipment); corrosion-control systems and their
ject to accelerated corrosion must not be located in inac- conditions of applications accurately stipulated; safety re-
cessible places. quirements stated; and materials and product movements,
8. Structural materials and their protective systems housekeeping, workmanship, weather limitations, produc-
should be selected to provide an economic period of anti- tion flow, assembly, decontamination and ventilation pro-
corrosion resistance. cedures, inspection procedures, etc., comprehensively
9. Accessibility for maintenance of structures is described.
necessary (Figure 18). The designer’s task is to obtain the desired degree of
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corrosion control at the lowest cost. The designer must ap-

STRUCTURE preciate if a timely replacement of the deteriorated struc-
tural material is more beneficial than high-cost corrosion
i control precautions.
The service life of structural materials is based on
wasteage limits in a given environment, critical strength of
structural materials, renewal periods of materials in par-
ticular locations, distribution of materials among struc-
tural members or groupings, material repairs of structures
and possible benefits of corrosion.
In painting jobs the cost of paint itself is a small part
of the total compared with the cost of labor (approximately
8O%), scaffolding, plant, ventilation, drying, lighting and
BAD cleaning.
FIGURE 18 The cost of structural steel is closely associated with
its weight. The cost of fabrication, transport, erection,
10. Obstructions to the maintenance of structures maintenance and corrosion control increases with the in-
should be avoided. crease of the weight of steel in the structure. Optimum cor-
11. The designer must provide sufficient access rosion control leads to a reduction in the weight and cost
space behind any auxiliary structures or equipment stand- of structures. This will also reduce the cost of main-
ing in the way of the main structures or he should, if possi- tenance painting.
ble, incorporate such elements into the main structures. Simplifying and standardizing structural assemblies
12. Where blast cleaning of structures in situ will be also reduces the cost of maintenance. Permanent struc-
required, all precautions must be taken in design to pro- tures designed for a service life exceeding five years
tect other structures and equipment from damage by should be protected with the best available coating
abrasives or dust and from ingress of abrasive particles in- system, possibly combined with other types of protection.
to vital frictional spaces.
13. The local and general geometry of the structures
must be designed for repetitive cleaning and preservation. XII. PLAN OF ACTION
Where this is not possible, such areas should be fully
enclosed and airtight. A. INTRODUCTION
The designer must create a plan for corrosion control.
XI. ECONOMICS The plan of action is the expression of functional corro-
sion control and investment know-how of the cooperative
A. INTRODUCTION team and must be written in a language understood by all
Corrosion causes loss of capital assets and business of them.
profits. Corrosion control, therefore, can justify itself in

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 = 0 9 3 8b2794O 0003984 623 9
B. REQUIREMENTS BIOGRAPHY
V.R. Pludek, prior to his
A properly designed structure must serve its purpose retirement, was a corrosion
with an acceptable degree of efficiency. It should last only control consultant and pro-
prietor of “CORROSION DE-
as long as it is to the advantage of the proprietor or user, SIGN CONTROL”. He worked
and it should be as cheap as possible. It does not need to on diversified corrosion engi-
last forever. Corrosion of the structures must not limit neering projects in the U.K.,
Europe, the Americas, Asia,
their life to a significantly short period; it must not vitally Africa and Australia for 35
interrupt their inherent utility; and it must not endanger the years. He has lectured at the
life and health of the users. Reasonable precautions University of Calgary and the
Southern Alberta Institute of
should be taken in the plan, but an overdesign should be Technology.
avoided. Following an undergradu-
Considering the shortages of raw materials facing the ate degree in Europe, he took post graduate studies in the U.K.,
Canada, and the U.S.A.
world, the recoverable and recycleable materials of the He is a Fellow of the Institution of Corrosion Science and
structures should be preserved from total destruction. The Technology, London, U.K., and a Corrosion Specialist in the Na-
constantly changing causes of corrosion from new tech- tional Association of Corrosion Engineers. He is a member of the
American Society for Metals and the Sea Horse Institute, and a
niques and new chemicals or processes has to exert a past member of the Canadian Forces Corrosion Prevention Com-
significant influence on the concept of corrosion control mittee, the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, and the
planning. Electrochemical Society.
He has been a corrosion consultant in numerous countries,
Given the shortage of materials and energy, designing dealing with corro5,ion control for ships, shipyards, harbors,
obsolescence into any structure by increasing its corro- nuclear energy facilities, food plants, and oil industries. He has
sion potential, by selecting corrosion-prone materials and several inventions related to corrosion prevention in stacks,
aerials, and ship shafts.
treating them with negligent protective coating systems, is
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His many published works include an EnglishlCzech bi-

a serious error. Well-balanced design, integrated function, lingual technical dictionary (1942), and a book on “Design and
corrosion control and reasonable cost are sound policies. Corrosion Control” (1977).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter. Frank LaQue, R. Martell, W. Mathay, I. Metil, C. Munger,
Melvin Sandler, Eugene Praschan, Melvin Sandler.
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SSPC CHAPTER*Zb.O 93 8b279qO 0003985 5 b T
CHAPTER 26.0
SAFETY AND HEALTH IN THE

PROTECTIVE COATINGS INDUSTRY
by
Daniel P. Adley, D. Brian Shuttleworth, Scott Ecoff, Sidney Levinson * and Saul Spindel*
I. INTRODUCTION these firms. An effective safety program may help reduce

these costs. While the workers compensation system has
In 1991, 6.3 million U.S. workers became ill or were in-
traditionally precluded a worker suing an employer for work-
jured on the job. The total includes both minor discomfort
place injury, various exceptions have been granted by the
and serious injury. Roughly 8 people in every 100 were af-
courts, and more can be expected to follow. For instance,
fected. Of course, some industries are more dangerous than
because several different entities are often involved in a
others. In the painting and paperhanging industry, (no break-
painting job, an injured worker employed by a contractor may
down for painting only is available), the rate was somewhat
bring suit against a third party such as the specifier.
higher than average - 9.9 per hundred, while the injury rate
for ship building and repairing was 44.1. By contrast, the rate
B. ROLE OF OSHA, NIOSH, AND OTHER
in the financial industry was only 2.3 per hundred.
ORGANIZATIONS AND SAFETY
Workers in the painting industry have to be alert to the
PROFESSIONALS
possibility of falling from scaffolds, being struck by material
falling from above, becoming caught or being electrocuted In 1970, Congress passed the Occupational Safety and
by the machinery their jobs require. They also need to be Health Act, which created the Occupational Safety and
aware of occupational illnesses that may result from coat- Health Administration, a division of the Department of Labor.
ing and coating removal operations. Exposure to lead pig- OSHA is responsible for developing and enforcing manda-
ments and silica in abrasives can cause serious and even tory job safety and health standards.
fatal illness. Various solvents affect the nervous system and OSHA receives assistance from NIOSH, a complemen-
are known or possible carcinogens. tary agency established under the Act as a branch of the
About 2,800 workers were killed on the job in 1991, or Department of Health and Human Services. NIOSH conducts
4.3 per 100,000 full-time workers. According to the Bureau research on safety and health issues, and provides techni-
of Labor Statistics, although fatalities are not available for cal assistance to OSHA.
the painting industry alone, the incidence is not much higher Safety and health organizations such as the American
than this national average. Industrial Hygiene Association, the American Conference of
These figures suggest that it is in the best interest of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, the American Society
everyone engaged in the painting and coating trades, em- of Safety Engineers and the National Safety Council provide
ployers, employees, managers and suppliers, to take health information to help managers with many other responsibili-
and safety issues quite seriously. ties, as well as the health and safety professional, stay
abreast of developments in this rapidly changing field.
A. COST BENEFITS FROM SAFETY Professional organizations for the painting and coating
trades, such as the Steel Structures Painting Council, the
Of course no company wants to see workers hurt or
International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, the
killed, but there are also external incentives to safety, par-
National Paint and Coatings Association and the Painting and
ticularly the costs of such incidents. Lost worktime decreases
Decorating Contractors of America, can provide information
worker productivity and lowers morale.
specific to the industry.
Many facility owners and general contractors are pre-
qualifying contractors based on their safety record, and com-
C . WHY OWNERS AND SPECIFIERS NEED TO
panies cannot afford to present the image of safety being
BE AWARE OF SAFETY AND HEALTH
anything but a top priority.
Workers compensation and health care costs are be- Owners and specifiers have a stake in ensuring that con-
coming more of a drain on all businesses, particularly small tractors they employ have the capability to comply with health
companies, and any costs that can be avoided will benefit and safety regulations. Many painting specifications require
the successful bidder to comply with all applicable safety
‘Authors of Chapter 5.3, “Safety in Paint Application,” from the second
edition of Volume 1, portions of which have been incorporated into the regulations during the performance of a contract. In order
current chapter. to comply, a contractor must know what materials employees
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538
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*26.0 93 8627740 0003986 4Tb
may be exposed to and what federal, state and local regula- contractors before they are hired. Although other sections
tions require. The contractor must also be familiar with vari- of the industry are not required to do this, it is a good way
ous approaches to compliance, including engineering, work for them to protect themselves.
practice and administrative controls, air and personnel Examples of indicators to measure a firm’s safety per-
monitoring and the proper use of personal protective formance include the contractor’s worker’s compensation ex-
equipment. perience modification rate (EMR), total cases and lost
A contractor who does not have the expertise to keep workday incident rates and serious and willful OSHA
abreast of safety regulations and to comply with them may citations.
be subject to regulatory fines and civil and criminal liability. In addition to pre-qualifying contractors, owners and
The owner who hires such a contractor runs the risk of be- specifiers should routinely outline in their specifications the
ing included in legal actions against the contractor. For in- safety responsibilities of the contractor and enforce the safety
stance, according to OSHA guidance to inspectors, when one and health section of the specification just as stringently as
employer is not meeting requirements to inform employees the quality assurance sections. Owners can also require the
of workplace chemical hazards at a multi-employerwork site, low bidder to submit a site specific safety and health plan
the other employers may be cited also. which the owner must approve before awarding a contract.
Contractors who do not make health and safety a pri-
ority often suffer reduced productivity and lower worker II. HAZARDOUS OPERATIONS IN THE
morale. The owner may also be affected by unnecessary PROTECTIVE COATINGS INDUSTRY
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work stoppages and slow downs, and unfavorable publicity
A. MATERIALS
as a result of a serious accident or pattern of occupational
injury and illness at its work site. 1. Fire Hazards and Explosions
Contracting firms who value their employees and prac- a. Causes - Most solvent-thinned paints and paint
tice safety on each job every day will reap many benefits not solvents are highly flammable and extremely dan-
only for themselves but for the owners that hire them. Good gerous when they, or especially their vapors, are ex-
safety performance reduces lost work hours, which in turn posed to open flames, sparks or very high
reduces the contractor’s insurance costs while increasing temperatures. The results may be fire or explosion,
productivity. A contractor with lower insurance costs can do if in a confined area, unless proper precautions are
the job at less cost to the owner. Everybody wins. taken. A certified industrial hygienist or certified
safety professional should be consulted for advice
D. RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYERS, about safe working conditions, particularly in con-
EMPLOYEES AND INSPECTORS, fined spaces.
CONSULTANTS AND ENGINEERS
Conscientious painting contractors have written safety
programs based on all safety standards applicable to the in-
dustry, and make every effort to routinely train their em-
ployees to comply with the written program. Many
progressive firms have active safety committees which in-
clude management and worker representatives and continu-
ously refine the safety program and refer suggestions for
improvement to upper management.
A truly professional contractor evaluates the hazards of
each job undertaken before any equipment is brought on site,
and develops a plan to control the hazards expected during
each phase of the job. For example, the project manager may
hold a pre-job safety meeting with workers and supervisors,
and follow up with weekly tool box meetings with workers
FIGURE 1
to ensure that expected hazards are being controlled and Paint vapors can be flammable if adequate ventilation is not
unexpected hazards are recognized as they develop. Daily provided.
routine job site safety inspections by the person responsi-
ble for safety and health are also advisable. Workers who b. Flammability of Paints - Many solvent-thinned
consistently violate safety regulations should be suspend- paints are flammable and precautions need to be
ed, and in some cases terminated. taken when handling these types of coating sys-
Owners and specifiers can reduce the odds of contrac- tems. Two examples of solvent-thinned paints
tor safety violations by pre-qualifying contractors before they include:
allow them to submit a bid. OSHA’s recent regulation on (1) Two-Component Paints - Two-component
process safety management (PSM) requires owners in the paints should never be mixed in large quantities,
chemical process industry to evaluate the safety record of generally no more than five gallons at a time.

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SSPC CHAPTER+Zb.O 93 8627740 0003987 332
They usually create heat because they react faces where fire hazards are present.
immediately upon mixing. The larger the volume (6) Extinguish all sources of flame in the area.
mixed, the higher the temperature. The temper- Turn off all gas valves and open all electrical
ature may become high enough to create a switches if working in confined areas or near
hazard. electrical equipment.
(2) Oil Paints and Specialty Coatings - Waste or (7) Be sure that all equipment, motors and lights
wiping rags soaked with paints based on linseed in the area are grounded and consider using only
oil may catch fire spontaneously if left lying explosion proof lighting.
around, especially during warm weather. Spillage (8) Keep fire extinguishers nearby. Be sure that
of peroxide catalysts used in polyester laminates they are of the proper type, as follows:
and other similar chemicals can cause com- Class A - Paper, wood, rubbish, where water is
bustion. effective;
c. Flammability of Solvents and Thinners - Most Class B - Burning liquids, where smothering ac-
paint solvents and the solvents used in solvent- tion is required;
thinned paints are volatile and will flash in the Class C - Electrical equipment, where the extin-
presence of a flame or electric spark. Usually, the guishing agent must be non-conductive.
faster the solvent evaporates - the lower its flash (9) Keep pails of sand or similar absorbent materi-
point. Therefore, solvent-thinnedbrushing or rolling als near dispensing pumps and spigots to absorb
paints, which dry relatively slowly, will contain sol- any spills. Replace all leaking containers.
vents with a flash point of about 105OF or somewhat (10) Clean up before, during and immediately af-
higher. A solvent-thinnedspray paint that requires ter painting operations. Wet down sweepings,
fast evaporating solvents may contain solvents that rags and waste with water and store in closed
flash as low as 3OOF. A spray gun, which applies metal containers. Dispose of daily.
a pint to many quarts of paint per minute under high (1 1) Always clean up paint or solvent spills im-
pressure, will produce a greater volume of solvent mediately.
vapor than brushes or rolled paint. Therefore, all 2 . Health Hazards
spray equipment must be grounded to prevent ac- a. Causes - A variety of paint ingredients or chem-
cidental ignition by static electricity. This includes icals may be harmful to the human body. For in-
containers. Painters should bond their empty bucket stance, some chemicals may cause irritation,
to the bulk drum while filling it and the drum should sensitization, central nervous system effects, or sys-
be properly grounded. temic effects. Most people can withstand chemical
Pure solvent vapors are heavier than air and exposures for short periods of time at low doses;
tend to move along the ground when in confined however, some people are immediately sensitive to
areas. Thus, all flames near the area must be ex- some ingredients and almost everyone will be af-
tinguished. Solvent vapors must be mechanically fected to a degree if exposed for a cuff icient period
exhausted from all enclosed areas with the ventila- of time. Continued exposure may cause the body
tion designed for efficient air flow. Explosion proof to become sensitized so that subsequent contact
lights must be used. All electric motors should be may result in an aggravated reaction, especially for
turned off. anyone with a chronic illness.
d. Prevention of Fires -The following precautions b. Types and Components of Paints - The term
will help prevent the possibility of fires: paint is commonly used to identify a range of
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(1) Store solvents in Underwriter’s Laboratory products including conventional paints, varnishes,
(UL) listed containers. enamels, and lacquers. Conventional paint is an in-
(2) Prohibit smoking anywhere solvent-thinned organic pigment dispersed in a vehicle consisting
paint is stored, mixed or used. Allow no other of a binder and solvent, with selected fillers and ad-
sources of ignition such as electric coffee pots, ditives. Varnish is a nonpigmented product based
hot plates, or other such appliances in the area. on oil and resin in a solvent that dries first by the
(3) Provide adequate ventilation in all working evaporation of the solvent and then by the oxida-
areas to prevent a build-up of explosive concen- tion and polymerization of the resin binder. A pig-
trations of solvent vapor. Properly calibrated mented varnish is called an enamel. Lacquers are
direct reading detection instruments should be coatings that are commonly based on a cellulose
used to monitor confined areas or closed spaces ester in a solvent that dries by evaporation leaving
to be sure vapor concentrations are maintained a film that can be redissolved in the original solvent.
below explosive limits. (1) Alkyd Paints - employ metal soaps of organic
(4) Do not use metal ladders in confined areas acids to catalyze the oxidation of the drying oil
or within 10 feet of exposed electric wiring. component. Because lead soaps are commonly
(5) Use non-sparking tools to clean metal sur- used, lead is a potential hazard in any drying-

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SSPC CHAPTER*Zb.O 93 = 8b27940 0003988 2 7 9
oil-type paint (alkyd, epoxy ester, oleoresin, and may irritate the respiratory tract and/or cause ad-
urethane-oil). Lead used as an oxidation catalyst verse health effects to other body systems by be-
may comprise 0.5 to 1.0 percent of the paint ing transferred via the blood stream. The third route
solids by weight. (See also discussion of lead of entry of solvents into the body is by ingestion. In-
under pigments.) gestion of solvents may affect the gastrointestinal
(2) Liquid Epoxy Resins and Curing Agents - are tract as well as other body organs. The following
primarily used in solvent-borne and waterborne precautions should be used while working with tox-
two-component epoxy paints. These liquid resins ic solvents:
are modified by the addition of reactive diluents (1) Properly label, seal and store all toxic solvents
(glycidyl ethers). These reactive diluents are when not in use.
themselves irritants to the skin, the eyes, and the (2) Adequately ventilate all areas where solvents
respiratory tract. are used or stored.
(3) Aliphatic and Aromatic Polyamines, Polya- (3) Wear the proper respirator and eye protection.
mine Adducts and Polyamides - are used as cur- (4) If a solvent gets splashed into the eye, im-
ing agents in two component epoxy coating mediately flush the eye with water for a minimum
systems. The aliphatic amines are potent irritants of fifteen minutes and seek medical attention.
and sensitizers; the aromatic amines are some- (5) Wear the appropriate gloves and clothing
what less potent. The polyamide resins are rela- when handling solvents.
tively harmless. Acid anhydrides and (6) Practice good personal hygiene after handling
formaldehyde resins are used as cross-linking any solvents.
agents in powder coatings and baking enamels. (7) Consult the Material Safety Data Sheet
The acid anhydrides are irritants and sensitizers. (MSDS) to determine the toxicity of the material
Formaldehyde is a strong irritant and is also con- that is in use, and the specified protective equip-
sidered a human carcinogen. ment needed when using the material.
(4) Epoxy Resins - are commonly reacted with fat- (8) If permissible exposure limits are exceeded,
ty acids to produce epoxy esters. Because coat- as determined through air monitoring conduct-
ings produced with these resins contain no ed by an industrial hygienist, then engineering
unreacted epoxy groups, no hazard exists. control and respiratory protection becomes
(5) Urethane Resins - organic isocyanates are the necessary.
principal hazard associated with urethane coat- d. Prevention of Health Hazards - The following
ings. Isocyanates can cause severe irritation to precautions should help reduce potential hazards.
the conjunctiva, and respiratory distress. They They describe a common sense approach to avoid-
react with various protein functional groups and ing contact:
should be capable of forming antigens. A typical (1) Identify and seal all toxic and dermatitic
response to isocyanate inhalation, either as a materials when not in use.
vapor or an aerosol, is the manifestation of an (2) Adequately ventilate all painting areas. Pro-
asthma-like syndrome, characterized by a feel- vide general exhaust ventilation in the form of
ing of chest constriction and difficult breathing, blowerdfans supplying “fresh” outside air to the
sometimes accompanied by a dry, irritant cough. work area where necessary and use National In-
A small percentage of the population may be- stitute for Occupational Safety and HealthlMine
come sensitized to isocyanates, whereupon the Safety and Health Administration approved
above symptoms are produced on exposure to respiratory protection equipment if the vapors
even low airborne concentrations. The toxicity cause irritation or intoxication.
can be minimized by avoiding use of smaller When surface preparation involves removal
molecular weight species. of old paint films, take care to minimize dusting,
c. Hazards of Solvents and Thinners - Most sol- to protect workers from the dust and to properly
vents are toxic to some degree, depending upon ex- dispose of coating residues, in accordance with
posures. Solvents may enter or affect the body in applicable state and federal regulations.
three ways. The most frequent way solvents affect (3) Wear goggles and the proper respirator when
the body is by skin contact. When a solvent is al- spray painting or performing any operation where
lowed to contact the skin, even for a short period an abnormal amount of vapor or dust is formed.
of time, it will start to damage the skin or cause der- (4) Wear appropriate gloves and clothing when
matitis. Dermatitis is reddening and swelling of the handling dermatitic materials. Change and clean
skin. The second route of entry of solvents into the work clothing daily.
body is by breathing, or inhalation. (5) Avoid touching any part of the body when han-
Once solvents are inhaled, the vapors can pass dling dermatitic materials. Wash hands, face and
from the lungs directly to the blood. The solvent arms thoroughly before eating and at the end of
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SSPC C H A P T E R s 2 b . O 93 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0003989 105
e. Hazards of Pigments and Other Additives

(1) Heavy Metal Pigments - Pigments are another
paint component that may be toxic to the human
body. The most common contain lead, chromi-
um, and oxides of iron, titanium, and zinc.
Precautions such as ventilation, respirators,
hygiene facilities, and personal protective cloth-
ing should be implemented when applying or
removing paints containing these pigments. The
substitution of hazardous pigments with non-
hazardous pigments is the best method of con-
trolling future occupational health hazards.
The removal of paints containing heavy
metal pigments without control measures great-
ly increases an employee’s chances of develop-
ing a heavy metal poisoning. Airborne pigments
such as lead may enter the body by inhalation
and ingestion. Exposure to lead may affect each
person differently. Even before symptoms ap-
pear, lead may cause unseen injury to the body.
During early stages of lead poisoning, mild
symptoms may be overlooked as everyday med-
ical complaints, including: loss of appetite, trou-
ble sleeping, irritability, fatigue, headache, joint
and muscle aches, metallic taste, decreased sex
drive, lack of concentration and moodiness. Brief
intense exposure or prolonged overexposure
may result in severe damage to the blood-
forming, nervous, kidney and reproductive sys-
tems. Some noticeable medical problems in-
clude: stomach pains, wrist or foot drop, high
FIGURE 2 blood pressure, nausea, anemia, constipation or
Eye and respiratory protection are needed for spray painting. diarrhea, tremors, convulsions or seizures.
(2) Silica - Silica (both crystalline and amorphous)
and the silicates clay, diatomaceous earth, mica,
the day. Try to shower at or near the jobsite. and talc are widely used as extender pigments.
Change clothing before leaving. Toxicants can With the exception of clay, all have been demon-
be transferred easily. strated to produce fibrosis of the lung. A prelimi-
(6) Paint removers containing solvents are often nary study of the health hazards in the painting
toxic. They should be used only with ventilation trades suggested that “mixed dust pneumoconi-
controls and/or respiratory protection. osis” is common among painters. While extender
pigments are used in substantial quantities in
some paint formulations, these materials may be
at least partially locked up by encapsulation in
the resinous binder.
(3) Organic pigments - The chronic hazards
posed by these materials are largely unknown.
Many of the pigments are based on dyestuffs: the
dyestuff is combined with an inorganic compound
to produce an insoluble pigment. The dyestuffs
have been studied more extensively than the pig-
ments, and several have been implicated as
cancer risks. In paint the biological availability of
these materials is probably limited by the insolu-
bility of the pigments and their partial encapsu-
lation in the paint resin matrix. Fat andlor water
soluble dyes are used in some wood stains, in-
Table 1. Health Effects of Lead creasing the potential hazard.
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542
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SSPC C H A P T E R m Z b - 0 9 3 8627940 0003990 927
(4) Activators and Catalysts - Activators and clothing, respiratory protection, medical monitor-
catalysts found in some coatings, such as mer- ing, posting of warning signs, and worker
cury compounds, can be very harmful if proper training.
protective clothing and respiratory protection is The Texas Department of Health also issued
not used. an advisory on the hazards of using silica abra-
f. Hazards of Surface Preparation Materials sives to the oil and gas pipe coating industry.
(1) Dusts and Abrasive Fines - Blast cleaning can Both documents strongly recommend observing
turn paint, rust and substrate surfaces into a dust OSHA’s PEL of 100 pg/m3 based on an 8-hour
cloud consisting of many airborne particles, some time-weighted average.
too small for the naked eye to see. Whether or (3) Chemical Strippers - Chemical strippers are
not any of the airborne dust particles are a poten- used to soften the existing coating for removal
tial health hazard depends on the size of the dust by scraping andlor flushing. Chemical strippers
particles, the toxicity of the materials in the dust, eliminate airborne hazards but proper protective
and the amount of dust breathed into the lungs. clothing such as coveralls, gloves and glasses
To determine the toxicity of the dust refer to the should be worn to prevent skin and eye irritation.
MSDS for the abrasive in use, and identify the Caustic compounds in some chemical strippers
chemical makeup of the coating being removed can cause burns if not immediately washed off
and the substrate or object being cleaned. To the skin and can cause eyes, nose and throat ir-
control workers’ exposures to potentially toxic ritation upon inhalation. Solvent-based strippers
dust, a well designed ventilation system should are also available. Health hazards may vary from
be installed. Respirators and proper protective irritation and central nervous system depression
equipment should also be used to ensure ade- possible with substances such as xylene to the
quate protection. possibility of human carcinogenicity, as with
Abrasive fines used to remove paint coat- methylene chloride. Chemical strippers contain-
ings that contain lead, cadmium, chromates, zinc ing solvents may require use of respiratory pro-
or nickel should be treated as hazardous unless tective devices.
testing can prove otherwise. In addition, abra- (4) Acids and Alkalis - Acids and alkalis common-
sives may contain small amounts of toxic heavy ly found in “wash primers” and chemical strip-
metals such as lead, copper, arsenic, cadmium pers (e.g., sodium hydroxide and phosphoric
and beryllium. Respiratory devices and protec- acid) are highly corrosive, and appropriate meas-
tive clothing should be worn when working with ures should be instituted concerning storage,
abrasive fines. Of particular concern is the handling, waste disposal, ventilation, personal
presence of silica (quartz) in sands and other protection and first aid.
mineral abrasives. (See below.) (5) Chemical Spills - Clean up spills immediately
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(2) Silica and Silicosis - Chronic or acute short- and wash immediately if skin comes into contact
term exposure to silica dust can cause a debilitat- with a hazardous substance. If a solventlchemi-
ing disease known as silicosis. Air-supplied respi- cal gets splashed into the eye, immediately flush
rators, operated in accordance with OSHA the eye with water for a minimum of fifteen
respiratory standard 1910.1 34, can protect minutes and seek medical attention. Wear the ap-
blasters from this hazard. However, because of propriate gloves and clothing when handling
poor maintenance of respiratory equipment and spills. Practice good personal hygiene after han-
poor hygiene, many workers have been exposed dling any spills. Consult the Material Safety Data
to and injured by excessive levels of silica. Sheet (MSDS) to determine the toxicity of the
NIOSH recommended as early as 1974 that abra- material that is in use, and the specific protec-
sive blasting be restricted to abrasive with a max- tive equipment needed when using the materi-
imum of 1 percent silica content. In a recently al. Store and dispose of all oily or solvent wetted
issued Hazard Alert, NIOSH described specific rags in metal containers with a tightly sealed lid.
health hazards from silica, and cited several case Respiratory protection should be worn if the spill
histories where blast cleaners had died from this creates a hazardous atmosphere, or the MSDS
condition. NIOSH also identified inadequate en- indicates it is necessary.
gineering controls, inadequate respiratory protec- (6) Materials Removed From Surfaces - A pre-
tion, and failure to conduct adequate medical job analysis of the surface materials should be
surveillance programs as contributing to the de- conducted to determine whether the coating con-
velopment of silicosis. NIOSH recommends a tains hazardous materials. If the coating contains
series of measures, including substitution of al- potentially hazardous constituents then respira-
ternative abrasives, air monitoring, use of con- tory and protective clothing should be worn when
tainment structures, personal hygiene, protective working with the removed material.

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SSPC CHAPTERs26.0 93 m 8627940 0003991 863 m
B. PAINT APPLICATION hose must never be bent or kinked in less than a

four inch radius.
i.General
Paint products are used widely in industry to pro- e. Airless spray equipment must be grounded to pre-
vide a surface coating for protection against corro- vent static sparking. If extension cords are used,
sion, for appearance, as electrical insulation, and make sure that they have a ground wire and that
for a number of special purposes. The hazards as- the ground is connected.
sociated with the industrial application of these f.Do not spray solvent through the nozzle tip be-
products will be discussed in this section. Common cause this can build up static electricity and cause
methods of application include airless spray, con- explosion or fire. Take the tip off before spraying
ventional spray (air atomizing) and electrostatic solvent through the system.
spray. g. Secure blast hose at a point no more than 10 ft.
from the operator.
h. Conduct hydrostatic tests at least once, prefera-
bly twice a year. Check all valves, including safety
valves, daily.
3. Air Atomization Method
The air atomization spray gun is widely used be-
cause of its versatility, its low cost, and because it
creates a high quality finish. In this method, com-
pressed air provides the energy to atomize the fin-
ish. The atomization is produced by an air nozzle.
Two types of nozzles are used: external mix and in-
ternal mix nozzles. In the external mix nozzle, the
coating and the compressed air exit from separate
orifices and are mixed outside the nozzle. The air
FIGURE 3 jet atomizes and shapes the spray fan. Internal mix
Airless spray systems exert considerable force and can cause nozzles combine the compressed air and finishing
serious injury if not handled carefully.
materials in a chamber inside the nozzle. The
atomized mixture is shaped by the geometry of the
2. Airless Spray
chamber opening.
Because airless spray systems operate at high pres-
Regardless of which paint method is used,
sure, give special attention to safety during opera-
most industrial spray paint operations require ex-
tion. A tip guard and trigger lock must be on all
haust ventilation, the use of air supplied respirators,
airless spray-guns. Fluid sprayed from the gun is
protective clothing, and adequate washing facilities.
propelled with sufficient force to penetrate skin and
cause serious damage. In the event of injection, spe- 4. Electrostatic Spray
cial treatment by a physician is required. The attend- In electrostatic spraying, an electrical charge is ap-
ing physician should be advised of the material’s plied to the atomized coating particles, either by the
ingredients (an MSDS would be helpful) and of the creation of an ionized zone within the spray cone
nature of the injection (high pressure). area, or by imparting a charge to the fluid stream
The entire system is pressurized so that hose prior to its release from the spray gun head. The
ruptures or leaks at fittings can result in dangerous charged, atomized paint particles are attracted to
high pressure spray. Some important safety prac- the conductive object being finished by the elec-
tices to help avoid these hazards include the fol- trostatic potential between the paint and the object.
lowing: The level of exposure to the paint is determined
a. Never point the gun at anyone. by the overspray and rebound that occurs during
spraying. Effective ventilation controls, protective
b. Do not make adjustments to the equipment set-
clothing and respiratory protection should be worn
up, such as changing nozzles or fittings, without first
while using this painting method. All electrostatic
shutting off the pump and releasing the system
equipment must be properly grounded.
press ure.
c. Always make sure the fluid hose is in good con- 5. Compressor Pumps
dition before spraying; kinks or abrasion can de- When using a compressor never overload it. Place
velop into a rupture. Store hose in a dry area. the compressor in an open and level area. Place the
compressor in a remote location because it requires
d. Do not use standard hardware on an airless sys-
a good supply of clean, fresh air in order
tem; only high pressure fittings can be used. High
pressure hose is required for fluid flow. The
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SSPC CHAPTERW2b.O 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003992 7 T T H
to properly operate. The compressor should also be Protective equipment is essential to protect the
grounded before being started. It should have abrasive blaster and fellow workers from the haz-
reasonable time to warm up before building up pres- ards of the job. At a minimum, a continuous flow
sure in the receiving tank. Never tamper with preset re,spirator with helmet and wide angle, clear vision
safety valves. lens must be used by abrasive blasters. The helmet
Gauges should be kept clean and visible at all must fit completely over the head and neck to the
times. Workers need to see the gauges to tell shoulders. The helmet should be equipped with a
whether all air pressure has been released before constant supply of clean air (Grade D or better) of
disconnecting any couplings or opening any lids. not less than six cubic feet per minute. The air-line
The gauges are also used to ensure that the com- should be equipped with air-purifying filters, pres-
pressor is operating safely. sure regulator gauge, relief valve, air-flow control
Do not add fuel to a gasoline powered com- valve and a NIOSH/MSHA approved blasting respi-
pressor when it is hot or running. The fuel can eas- rator. The abrasive blaster should also be equipped
ily ignite, causing a fire or explosion. All re-fueling with appropriate work gloves, coveralls and other
of the compressor should be done in the morning appropriate clothing.
before start-up. The compressor should be kept The blaster must use a dead-man control valve
tuned-up and out of confined spaces. If compres- on the blasting nozzle which cuts off the air and
sors are used to supply breathing air for respirators abrasive stream when the pressure on the control
they must be equipped with a carbon monoxide is released. The hoses for the blasting equipment
monitor and filter systems capable of providing must be equipped with a static dissipating tube or
Grade D air. be lined with carbon black. This prevents shock from
static electricity build-up. The shock from static elec-
tricity could cause the operator to fall if working from
elevated surfaces.
Before starting any abrasive blasting operation,
thoroughly examine the condition of hoses, hose fit-
tings, couplings and unions. Any of the above show-
ing wear must be replaced to prevent sudden
parting and whipping under pressure.
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2. Hand and Power Tools

Common hand tools used for hand tool cleaning are
sandpaper, non-woven abrasive pads, wire brush-
es, chipping hammers, scrapers, hammers and
chisels. Prolonged use of chipping hammers and
chisels may cause trauma to the hands, wrists, and
elbows. Use of shock absorbing gloves andlor wrist
supports or ergonomically designed tools might be
advisable.
Common power tools are pneumatically driven
hammers or rotary hammers, needle guns, roto
peens, rotary grinders, sanders or wire brushing
tools. It is important to have a proper equipment set-
up when using power tools. Follow the manufac-
turer’s instructions for the tool being used.
FIGURE 4
Specialized protective equipment is required for abrasive Power tools can be dangerous and safety
blasting. precautions must be taken when operating them.
Protective equipment must be worn. In addition to
a hard hat, eye protection, and work gloves should
C. SURFACE PREPARATION be worn. Power tool cleaning may be very noisy.
Therefore it is very important to use adequate hear-
1. Abrasive Blasting
ing protection. Respiratory protection and coveralls
Without proper precautions the high pressures used
are advisable whenever hand or power tools are
in blast cleaning can cause injuries. Injection of
used to remove paint, but are required for removal
water beneath the skin should be treated as seri-
of lead based paints.
ously as any other chemical injection. In addition,
If electrically driven (rather than air-powered)
abrasive material may cause harm at high or even
tools are used, they must be adequately grounded
moderate pressures, and continuous exposure to
or double insulated, and used in a dry atmosphere
the dust may result in lung disease.

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 6 - 0 93 8627940 0003993 636
to avoid the possibility of shock. Ground Fault Cir- emissions generated during surface cleaning.
cuit Interrupters (GFCI) should be used with all elec- Means for fire protection and proper ventilation
tric cords and tools. should also be provided during welding, cutting or
In confined spaces and other areas where there heating.
may be a danger of explosion, power tool cleaning
5 . Pressure Pots
should not be conducted because of the possibility
Sandblast pots and related blast machinery should
of sparking.
be built to standards set by the American Society
The operator must be certain that the tools in
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) or National Board
use are checked and safe. Make sure that the abra-
Code. Pots not meeting these requirements must
sive media is attached securely and tightened. Tools
not be used. The ASME code means that everything
should not be operated above maximum operating
has been done to make the vessel as safe as pos-
speed. Tools should not be run unless in contact
sible. The code prohibits any field welding on blast
with the work surface. Manufacturer’s directions
machines.
should always be strictly followed.
Blast pressures should stay within the
3 . Water Jetting manufacturer’s blast machine ratings. High blast
Although water itself is relatively safe, the extremely pressures increase wear and tear on blast
high pressure often used for water jetting can be machines, and increase operator fatigue. Unless
hazardous. Prior to starting any water jetting oper- otherwise specified, maximum working pressure of
ation, employees should examine the condition of blast machines and related components must not
the hoses, hose fittings, couplings and unions. Any exceed national board approved 125 psis (8.5 BAR).
equipment showing wear should be replaced to pre- Pot tenders and others working near abrasive
vent sudden parting and whipping under pressure. blasting operations may need to be equipped with
Water jetting hoses should be secured to the respirators, gloves, hard hats and safety glasses.
staging at the working level leaving only enough free Most abrasive blasting operations produce noise
hose so the hose weight can be properly and safe- levels in excess of 90 decibels so hearing protec-
ly handled by the blaster. Any electrical equipment tion devices (ear plugs or earmuffs) should also be
in the area of operations that presents a hazard to worn.
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the operator should be de-energized, shielded or Never force the lid off the sandblast pot. If the
otherwise made safe. Operators should wear ap- lid is difficult to open, stop and check the air pres-
propriate waterproof clothing, head, eye and hear- sure. The pot must be depressurized before open-
ing protection during all water jetting operations. ing the pot lid, or before any changes to hose
When water jetting operations are conducted couplings, or repairs of any kind are allowed.
in confined spaces, the blaster should be in constant A blast machine should never be moved while
communication with the stand-by person. Em- it contains abrasives. Abrasive blasting machines
ployees should take precautions to protect the water which will be towed on a highway should be
blasting equipment from freezing in cold weather equipped with properly operating brakes, taillights,
and signs should be posted to advise others in the fenders and side reflectors.
area when water blasting operations are being per-
formed. As always, injection of water beneath the D. ACCESS AND RIGGING
skin should be treated as seriously as any other
chemical, and a physician should be consulted. The proper use of scaffolds is discussed in chapter 5.2.
For more information on safe practices for The following precautions should be observed when using
other access methods.
water jetting, see The Water Jet Technology Associ-
ation’s booklet RecommendedPractices for the Use 1. Ladders
of Manually Operated High Pressure Water Jetting Use the following procedures in storing, setting
Equipment. up and using ladders:
4. Welding, Cutting or Heating a. Use safety shoes on all ladders.
All welding, cutting or heating on surfaces with b. Store ladders off the ground in a warm, dry area
preservative coatings should be performed accord- protected from the weather.
ing to OSHA standard 29 CFR 1926.354, Welding, c. Protect wood ladders with a clear finish so defects
Cutting and Heating in Way of Preservative Coat- are visible.
ings. Before welding, cutting or heating, the poten-
tial toxicity and flammability of preservatives should d. Inspect ladders daily during use. Keep clean and
be evaluated. All surfaces covered with toxic coat- free of oil or grease.
ings require the use of protective clothing and a e. Do not use ladders that are longer than can be
respirator that is capable of filtering out the carried and erected by two men.

546
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S S P C CHAPTER*Zb*O 93 = 8b27940 0003994 5 7 2 =
f. Do not use a stepladder over 12 ft. high. It should a. Guardrails - The primary means for protecting
be fully opened with a locking device. Do not stand workers from hazards of falls from heights is the use
on the top step. One man should hold the ladder of a standard railing consisting of top rail, intermedi-
if the other is more than 8 ft. high. ate rail, and toeboard. Guardrails and toeboards
g. Avoid placing ladders in front of doorways, un- should be installed on all open sides and ends of
less the door is blocked. platforms to give maximum protection. The OSHA
standard pertaining to this protection is 29 CFR
h. Only one worker should work on a ladder at a
1926.500(d), which refers specifically to work on
time.
floors, platforms and runways. Other OSHA stan-
i Do not use a ladder as a horizontal scaffold dards that discuss the use of guardrails are
member. 1926.451, pertaining to scaffold arrangements, and
j. if the ladder is used to reach unusually high lev- 1926.550(g), pertaining to suspended personnel
els, its top must be at least three feet above the point platforms.
of support and tied off b. Safety Belts, Lines and Lanyards - Guardrails
and toeboards cannot be used in all fall hazard sit-
uations. When guardrails are neither practical nor
feasible, use a secondary means of fall protection.
One such means is a lifeline system. Lifelines can
be 2 basic types: 1) a catenary or horizontal lifeline
between two fixed anchorages, independent of the
work surface, to which a lanyard is secured, or
2) a dropline or personal lifeline system. The
dropline or personal lifeline system is a rope sys-
tem, used with some type of approved safety belt
or harness. This is worn around the waist and at-
tached to a lanyard or rope grabbing device that is
securely fastened to an anchorage point. The rope
grabbing device should be attached to a lifeline of
3/4 inch manilla rope or equivalent, which in turn
should be secured to an anchorage point capable
of supporting 5,000 pounds. When used and main-
tained properly, these systems can be a key factor
in preventing injury and death from falls. While fed-
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eral regulations still allow use of safety belts, use

of full body harnesses is advisable.
c. Safety Nets - Sometimes safety belts, personal
lifeline systems, guardrails, or other conventional
protective equipment may be impractical or not
feasible for the work method. In these situations,
personnel safety nets can be installed under and
around the work area. Personnel safety nets are
typically used in bridge work and long-term struc-
tural projects where workers are exposed to signifi-
cant fall hazards. OSHA requires the use of safety
nets when work places are more than 25 ft. (7.6 m)
FIGURE 5
above the ground or water surface and conventional
Failure to use proper access equipment can lead to falls, a com-. protective equipment (personal lifelines, guardrails)
mon source of injury in coating operations.
is deemed impractical.
2. Fail Hazards Personnel safety nets must be manufactured
Falls from heights are a significant hazard faced by and tested in accordance with all pertaining ANSI
painters and blasters in day-to-day work. Because standards and OSHA standard 29 CFR 1926.105 re-
falls are a routine hazard, there is a tendency not quirements. Personnel safety nets should bear a
always to take the precautions necessary when label displaying the manufacturer’s name, date of
working from elevated work surfaces. But when manufacture, and proof of load testing. Every net
working from heights, safety can not be taken for should also carry a serial number so that records
granted. The hazards of high work subject em- can be kept of details such as repairs, inspections,
ployees to possible injury and death, and an employ- and load test results.
er to possible OSHA citations and fines.
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SSPC CHAPTERW6.0 9 3 ô627940 0003995 4 0 9 m
3. Confined Spaces ments, groups that develop voluntary industrial stan-

OSHA’s Permit-RequiredConfined Space Standard dards or labor representatives. Once the need for
1910.146, defines a confined space as a “space that a new standard has been identified, OSHA Adviso-
is large enough and so configured that an employee ry Committees, which include representatives of
can bodily enter and perform assigned work; and management, labor and state agencies, develop
has limited or restricted means for entry or exit (e.g., recommendations.
tanks, vessels, silos, storage bins, hoppers, vaults In the very early stages of the process, OSHA
and pits are spaces that may have limited means may request additional information needed for the
of entry); and is not designed for continuous development of a standard by publishing an “Ad-
occupancy”. vance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking” in the Fed-
The confined space standard states the eral Register, a daily record of federal business.
minimal requirements for safe entry, continuous When a first draft of the proposed regulations has
work in and exit from tanks and other confined been completed, a “Notice of Proposed Rulemak-
spaces. A confined space program should include ing” must appear in the Federal Register. Interest-
training in: ed parties must then have at least 30 days to
a. the duties of a standby person; comment on the way proposed regulations will im-
pact them. Following this comment period, the fi-
b. use of ventilating equipment;
nal regulations are published in the Federal
c. isolation of systems; Register, and incorporated into the Code of Feder-
d. atmospheric testing; al Regulations, a permanent record of government
e. confined space entry limits; and regulations organized by subject. (See Appendix for
more details on sources of information.)
f. the use/purpose of an entry permit.
Those who feel they will be adversely affected
by a standard may request a judicial review. Em-
ployers that cannot meet the standard, or believe
ill. OSHA STANDARDS
an exception should be made in their case because
their facilities or methods are “at least as effective”,
A. OVERVIEW OF OSHA
can request a temporary or permanent variance.
1. Authority When new or particularly hazardous conditions
In 1970, Congress passed the Occupational Safety warrant, OSHA may develop emergency standards,
and Health Act, which created the Occupational which take effect immediately. Once these stan-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Safety and Health Administration, a division of the dards have been published in the Federal Register,
Department of Labor. OSHA is responsible for de- they are also subject to comment and review before
veloping and enforcing mandatory job safety and they are published as permanent standards.
health standards. The agency also conducts
4. Enforcement and Interpretation
research, training and record keeping related to
Every establishment covered by the Act is subject
health and safety issues. Some states have been
to inspection by OSHA compliance safety and
approved to administer their own state OSHA
health officers. Inspections are generally conduct-
programs.
ed without advance notice, though OSHA is required
2. General Dufy Clause to obtain a warrant if an employer does not consent.
Although OSHA has developed a number of indus- OSHA gives highest priority to workplaces:
try - and substance-specific standards, the general a. where there is imminent danger of death or seri-
duty clause of the Occupational Safety and Health ous physical harm;
Act takes a very broad view of worker health and
b. where fatal accidents, or those that hospitalized
safety. It requires employers to furnish to their
more than five employees have occurred;
workers “employment and a place of employment
which are free from recognized hazards that are c. when employees complain of alleged violations
causing or likely to cause death or serious physical and request an inspection;
harm”. OSHA can use this clause to cite an employ- d. when specific industries, occupations, or materi-
er when conditions it believes to be unsafe do not als are associated with high rates of illness or injury.
violate specific OSHA regulations. If OSHA discovers violations during an inspec-
3. Regulatory Process tion, the employer will receive a citation, which de-
Some OSHA standards have been mandated by tails the violation, includes information about
Congress. They may also be initiated by the agen- penalties and a schedule for compliance. Penalties
cy in response to petitions from other parties includ- may depend on the seriousness of the violation,
ing the National Institute for Occupational Safety knowledge of the violation, and a show of coopera-
and Health (NIOSH), state and local govern- tion, or good faith.

548
at 303-397-2295.
Type of Violation Criteria for Type of Violation Possible Penalty
Other than Serious Violation Probably would not cause death or serious Penalty is discretionary and may range from $50-$7,000
physical harm for each violation, depending on a show of good faith
Serious Violation Substantial probability of death or serious Penalty is mandatory and ranges to $7,000 for each
physical harm. Employer knows or should violation
have known about the violation
Willful Violation Employer knows about the hazard or violation, Penalties range from $5,000 to $70,000 for each violation
and makes no reasonable effort to correct it
Willful Violation Resulting in Fines of up to $25,000 for an individual and $500,000
Death for a corporation - possible six month jail term
Repeat Violation Upon reinspection, a substantially similar vio- Up to $70,000 for each violation
lation is found
Failure to Correct Violation A violation for a final citation has not Up to $70,000 for each day past the abatement date the
been corrected by the prescribed abatement violation continues
date
Table 2. Possible fines for OSHA violations.
Serious penalties are also possible for repeat recognition for those who accept the challenge. The
violations and failure to correct previous violations. Star, Merit and Demonstration Programs are cooper-
Employers may want to schedule an informal meet- ative programs, and participants are volunteers.
ing with OSHA’s area director, who is authorized to These firms also receive limited exemptions from in-
enter into settlement agreements that revise cita- spect ion.
tions and penalties. Local OSHA offices can also provide publica-
The employer may also contest both a citation tions, speakers, audiovisual materials and techni-
and associated penalties within 15 days. The writ- cal advice. OSHA provides funds to nonprofit
ten Notice of Contest will be evaluated by the Oc- organizations to conduct workplace training and
cupational Safety and Health Review Commission. education. A number of private firms and universi-
Unfavorable decisions can be appealed at this lev- ties also offer OSHA compliance training.
ei and to the U.S.Court of Appeals.
Painting contractors are considered part of the B. COMPONENTS OF AN OSHA COMPLIANCE
construction industry for OSHA record keeping pur- PROGRAM
poses. These businesses are most frequently cited
Company Safety & Health Programs should be designed
for failure to comply with the Hazard Communica-
to be used in conjunction with the current copy of the OSHA
tion Standard. They are also frequently cited for lack
Construction Industry Standards, 29 CFR 1926, and the
of accident prevention and training programs, not
General Industry Standards, 29 CFR 1910. OSHA states in
having or not using safety equipment such as side
29 CFR 1926.20 “General Safety and Health Provisions“,
rails on ladders, railings on scaffolds, and hard hats.
“It shall be the responsibility of the employer to initiate and
Contractors also commonly forget to post a required
maintain such programs as may be necessary to comply with
poster informing employees of their rights and obli-
this part” (part refers to all of 29 CFR 1926).
gations under the Occupational Safety and Health
The purpose of an OSHA Compliance Program is to es-
Act.
tablish and maintain policies, programs, and procedures that
5 . Consultation Assistance are necessary to comply with all applicable OSHA standards,
OSHA provides a Consultation Service that can help and to establish and maintain an effective program to pre-
employers evaluate and improve their compliance. vent accidents, injuries and illnesses.
The service was developed with small employers in The components of an OSHA Compliance Program
mind. Although the program is funded by OSHA, it should include:
is entirely voluntary. No penalties are issued, and 1. Policy statement establishing goals and commitment
OSHA enforcement compliance officers do not see of management and the means for communicating
the results. these to all employees.
State officials or university staff often operate
2. Delegation of responsibilities for implementing the
the Consultation Service. They may point out weak-
program.
nesses in an employer’s health and safety program
and provide the training and technical assistance 3. Methods for identifying hazards and hazardous ac-
needed to resolve any problems. Firms that partici- tivities and for controlling them.
pate in the program receive a limited one-year ex- 4. Commitment to ongoing training and education of
emption from OSHA inspection. all supervisors and employees on all aspects of job
OSHA’s Voluntary Protection Programs en- safety and health.
courage employers to take their health and safety 5. Proper reporting and record keeping, and investi-
programs beyond the letter of the law - and provide gation of all accidents, injuries and illnesses.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*26*0 9 3 = 8627940 0003997 281
6. Methods and procedures for complying with specific tain many standards that apply to industrial protective coat-
OSHA standards. ing operations. Some of the common standards that apply
7. Periodic review of the program with revisions made to the construction industry include:
as necessary. 1. Hand Tools and Power and Pneumatic Tools -
All hand, power and pneumatic tools should be
C. ORGANIZATION AND HIERARCHY OF equipped, inspected, guarded, used and maintained
OSHA STANDARDS according to the manufacturer’s specifications and
The OSHA General Industry Standards 29 CFR 1910 limitations and OSHA standards 29 CFR
contains several standards applicable to the protective coat- 1926.300-305, Tools - Hand and Power.
ings industry. When a construction industry standard 29 CFR 2. Compressed Air - There is no existing OSHA stan-
1926 is not applicable or is non-existent, the General Indus- dard for compressed air. However, there are stan-
try Standard (29 CFR 1910) Protective Coatings may be dards set by the American Society of Mechanical
enforced. Engineers (ASME).
Some common aspects of the protective coatings indus- 3. Electrical - All electrical systems and equipment
try and their related General Industry standards include: should be designed and installed according to
OSHA standards 29 CFR 1926.402-408, Installation
1. Abrasive Blasting - No specific standard applies
Safety Requirements, and the most current edition
to blasting in the field but many aspects of blasting
of NFPA 70, National Electric Code. All employees
operations fall under other applicable standards.
performing work on electrical equipment or systems
should comply with the work practices in OSHA
standards 29 CFR 1926.416-417, Safety-Related
Work Practices.
4. €ye and Face - Eye and face protection should be
provided when machines or operations present
potential eye or face injury from physical and chem-
ical hazards as required by OSHA Standard 29 CFR
1926.102, Eye and Face Protection. Eye and face
protection equipment required by OSHA should
meet the requirements specified in American Na-
tional Standards Institute 287.1, Practice for Occu-
pational and Educational Eye and Face Protection.
FIGURE 6
Workers may be required to wear hearing protection under
OSHA’s Occupational Noise Exposure Standard. 5. Fire Protection/Flammable, Combustible Liquids
- Fire protection should be developed for all com-
2 . Noise/Hearing Conservation - Noise protection pany activities according to OSHA standard 29 CFR
should be provided and a Hearing Conservation Pro- 1926.150, Fire Protection. This should include
gram should be in place and be in compliance with providing, maintaining, inspecting, and testing fire
OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.95, Occupational suppression systems and portable fire extinguish-
Noise Exposure. ers, as required by this OSHA standard. The fire
prevention requirements, specified in OSHA stan-
3 . Respiratory Protection - The selection, issue, dard 29 CFR 1926.151, Fire Prevention, should be
use, inspection, cleaning, storage and repair of implemented for all jobs.
respirators should comply with the OSHA Respira-
tory Protection Standard, 29 CFR 1926.103 and
1910.134. See section IIIF for more information on
choosing respirators.
4. Confined Spaces - Practices and procedures
used to protect employees from the hazards of en-
try into permit required confined spaces should com-
ply with OSHA Standard, 1910.146,
Permit-Required Confined Spaces.
D. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY STANDARD

RELATING TO INDUSTRIAL PROTECTIVE
FIGURE 7
COATING OPERATIONS In order to test the level of air contaminants, a vacuum pump
on the worker’s belt is used to pull air through a specialized
The Construction Industry Standards, 29 CFR 1926 con- filter placed in the worker’s breathing zone.
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550
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERa2b.O 93 m 8627940 0003998 118 m
The storage, handling, use and fire protection The design, construction, load-bearing capa-
requirements for flammable and combustible liquids bilities, platform guarding, and use of all scaffold-
and their containers should be in compliance with ing must comply with OSHA standard, 29 CFR
OSHA standard 29 CFR 1926.152, Flammable and 1926.451, Scaffolding.
Combustible Liquids.
9. Personal Protective Equipment
6. Exposure to Gases, Vapors, Dusts, Mists and
a. Head Protection - Hard hats must be used where
Fumes - Exposure of employees to inhalation, in- there is a possible danger of head injury from im-
gestion, skin absorption, or contact with any material pact, or from falling objects, or from electrical shock
or substance at a concentration above the permis-
and burns as required by OSHA standard 29 CFR
sible exposure limit (PEL) specified in OSHA stan- 1926.100, Head Protection.
dard 29 CFR 1926.55, Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Helmets and hardhats for the protection of em-
Dusts and Mists is prohibited. ployees against impact and penetration of falling
Generally, OSHA requires employers to and flying objects should meet the specifications
minimize employee exposure to air contaminants as contained in American National Standards Institute,
far as possible through the use of engineering con- 289.1, Safety Requirements for Industrial Head
trols such as enclosure or confinement of an oper- Protection.
ation, ventilation, or substitution of less toxic Helmets for the head protection of employees
Task-Related Triggers and Required Protective Measures

Workers engaged in the tasks listed must be protected as specified before air monitoring results are back and throughout the task unless monitoring
results show that lower levels of protection are sufficient (29 C f R 7926.62fd)).
Presumed Exposures for Specific Tasks >2,500 pg/m3

Specific Tasks *manual demolition 'power tool cleaning without dust *abrasive blasting
*manual scraping collection systems *welding, cutting, and
*manual sanding *clean-up of dry expendable torch burning
*heat gun applications abrasives
*general clean-up *movement and removal of abrasive
-power tool cleaning with blasting enclosures
dust collection systems *use of lead-containing mortar
-spray painting *lead burning
*any other task where employer 'rivet busting
has reason to believe task could
exceed PEL
Protective Measures /protective clothing & equipment /protective clothing & equipment /protective clothing & equipment
(A complefe list of options for respiratory /change areas /change areas /change areas
protection appears in the Interim Final /hand washing facilities /hand washing facilities /hand washing facilities
Rule's Table on Respiratory Protection, /training i/ training /training
1926.62(f).) /initial medical surveillance: vinitial medical surveillance: /initial medical surveillance:
blood sampling and analysis blood sampling and analysis blood sampling and analysis
/respirators with protection factor /respirators with protection factor /respirators with a protection factor
of 10, such as a half mask air- from 25-50, such as a powered air- of above 50, such as a full
purifying respirator with high- purifying respirator with loose fitting facepiece supplied-air respirator
efficiency filters or operated in helmet or hood and high efficiency operated in positive pressure mode
demand (negative pressure) mode filters, or full facepiece air-purifying (assigned a protection factor of
respirator with high efficiency filters 2,000 in new rule)
Table 3. Task-Related Triggers Under the Construction Industry Lead Standard.

--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table Courtesy of the Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings.
materials. Only when acceptable levels of exposure exposed to high voltage electrical shock and burns
cannot be achieved through these approaches (as should meet the specifications contained in Ameri-
is often the case in coating operations) may employ- can National Standards Institute 289.
ers use respiratory protective devices to comply with b. Foot Protection - Where the potential for seri-
these standards. ous foot injury exists, safety-toe footwear for em-
7. Housekeeping - During the work day, work areas, ployees should be required and meet the
passageways and stairs in and around buildings or requirements specified in American National Stan-
other structures must be kept clear of debris accord- dard for Personnel Protection - Protective Footwear,
ing to OSHA Standard 1926.25, Housekeeping. 241.
c. Body Protection - Employees working with
8. Ladders and Scaffolding - Stairways and ladders chemicals or materials that can cause damage to
must be designed, constructed and used accord-
the skin or that can be absorbed should be provid-
ing to the manufacturers' specifications and limita-
ed appropriate protective clothing.
tions and OSHA standards CFR 1926.450 through
29 CFR 1926.460. Job-made ladders must conform d. Respiratory Protection - The selection, issue,
to the design and construction specifications of use, inspection, cleaning, storage and repair of
these OSHA standards. respirators must comply with the OSHA Respirato-
at 303-397-2295.
ry Protection Standard, 29 CFR 1926.103 and Air-purifying respirators remove particulates from
191O. 134. See section III F for more information on the air in the worker’s breathing zone by filtering it
choosing respirators. prior to the worker inhaling it. Supplied-air respira-
tors supply breathing air from outside the work en-
E. STANDARDS FOR LEAD AND LEAD REMOVAL vironment.
a. Air-Purifying Respirators - Air-purifying equipment
The Construction Industry Lead Standard, 1926.62, pro- has the advantage of being lighter and less restric-
vides the practices and procedures for protecting employees tive, as well as more economical than supplied air
exposed to lead on the job. All construction work excluded respirators.
from coverage in the General Industry Standard for Lead by b. Supplied Air Respirators - Supplied air respirators
29 CFR 1910.1025(a)(2) is covered by this standard. Con- may have several advantages for coating work.
struction work is defined as work for construction, alteration They protect workers from simultaneous exposure
and/or repair, including painting and decorating. Lead paint to multiple contaminants, which is not uncommon
removal and maintenance activities would be covered by the in coating operations. High dust levels associated
CFR 1926.62 Lead Standard. All other non-construction work with many surface preparation techniques may
is covered by the General Industry Standard 1910.1025.Pro- quickly overload the filtering systems on which air-
tective measures required under the Construction Industry purifying respirators are based. And air-purifying
Lead Standard are shown in Table 3. equipment may not be adequate to protect workers
from high lead levels associated with containment
F. CHOOSING RESPIRATORY PROTECTION systems.
DEVICES
3 . Protection Factors
1. Need for Respirators in Coating and Surface Various groups have established protection factors
Preparation for respirators, including NIOSH, OSHA, ANSI, and
It is likely that workers will be required to wear some others. In fact, there is quite a controversy over the
type of respiratory protection during most level of protection afforded by different categories
coating and surface preparation operations, partic- of respirators.
ularly when removing lead paint using techniques
such as powered hand tools and vacuum blasting,
due to the very low levels of exposure required to
trigger mandatory use ( 5 0 , g/mJ).
~ In a containment
structure in which abrasive blasting is occurring,
workers will always be required to wear respiratory
protective equipment, even if a well designed ven-
tilation system is being used. It is also likely that
most support personnel may be required to wear
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
respirators in order to meet the permissible ex-

posure limit.
FIGURE 9
Supplied air respirators deliver breathing air from outside the
work environment.
In general, protection factor describes a degree

of protection a given respirator will provide, versus
some airborne concentration of contaminant outside
the respirator. For instance, for the half-mask respi-
rator equipped with HEPA filtration cartridge, a pro-
tection factor of 10 is assigned for lead. This means
FIGURE 8 that the respirator can be worn in an atmosphere
Air purifying respirators filter contaminants from the air workers up to 10 times the PEL, and still protect the worker
breathe. so that the concentration of lead inside the mask
is below the PEL. Assuming a PEL of 50p gím3, this
2 . Types of Respirators respirator can then be safely worn when airborne
In general there are two basic types of respirators. concentrations are up to 5 0 0 g/mJ.
~ Similarly, a pro-

552
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 b - 0 93 8627990 0009000 474
tection factor of 50 is assigned for full-face respi- The first step in establishing a worker safety and health
rators. program should be to determine the program’s purpose. The
Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPR) high- program’s purpose is to establish and maintain policies, pro-
light a variation on assigned protection factors. For grams, and procedures that are necessary to comply with
lead, NIOSH has taken a very conservative posture all applicable OSHA standards, and to implement and main-
and established a protection factor of only 50 for tain an effective program to prevent accidents, injuries, and
PAPR’s, while OSHA and others have established illnesses.
protection factors of up to 1000. Similar problems The second step in establishing a worker safety and
occur when looking at the standard respirator for health program is to identify the program components. These
blasting, the abrasive blasting hood. NIOSH’s cur- components were discussed earlier in the “Development of
rent position is to assign a protection factor of only an OSHA Program” section.
25, when OSHA may allow up to 1000 if proper air- The third step is to dedicate the time to sit down with
flows to each hood are maintained. all company managers and supervisors to review the pro-
One example of the discrepancy and variation gram and set specified goals for implementing its require-
that exists in evaluating protection factors is the fact ments. Have managers and supervisors do the same for all
that OSHA has proposed, in a draft chapter from the employees. Encourage participation. Be honest and sin-
their technical manual, higher protection factors for cere. Continually ask for feedback and ways for improving
powered air-purifying respirator (PAPR’s) that main- the program. Let everyone know they will be consistently held
tain higher flow rates to the facepiece. If the PAPR accountable for fulfilling their responsibilities under the
device delivers more than 6 ftYmin to the facepiece, program.
the higher protection factor of 500 may be used. Enforce the program by holding everyone accountable
OSHA has proposed a similar approach for the blast for their responsib es. Let good pertormers know that they
hood. A protection factor of 1000 may be assumed are doing a good job. At the same time, do not let poor or
for a respirator which provides a minimum flow mediocre performance go unnoticed.
through a tight-fitting hood designed to maintain a Monitor and maintain records relating to accidents, in-
positive pressure under sustained heavy work. juries, illnesses, medical examinations, training, fit testing,
However NIOSH, which has the responsibility of es- and exposure monitoring for the life of the company. Ana-
tablishing protection factors, hac not recognizedthis lyze the firm’s total worker’s compensation costs over the
position and it is currently not clearwhich numbers years. Compare accident rates and evaluate changes in em-
OSHA might enforce in the Construction Industry. ployees’ attitudes and work quality. Seek assistance from
employees to get feedback on the success of the program.
5 . Breathing Air Requirements
With any of the supplied-air respirators, including B. OWNER EVALUATION AND MONITORING
abrasive blast hoods, it is essential that Grade D OFCONTRACTOR PROGRAMS
breathing air reach the respirator. ANSI Standards
Z 86.1ICompressed Gas Association commodity A representative of each facility owner should evaluate
specificationG-7.1 for Grade D air, requiresnormal and monitor all contractor health and safety and OSHA com-
oxygen levels, no more than 5 mg/m3 condensed plianCe programs. These programs should be submitted and
hydrocarbon contamination, no more than 20 ppm approvedlmonitored by a qualified individual, such as a Cer-
carbon no pronounced odor, and a max- tified safety professional (CSP) or certified industrial hygienist
imum of 1000 ppm carbon dioxide. controls must (CIH). The program evaluations should be completed before
be installed on compressors to achieve and verify any work begins. Monitoring of the programs should be con-
with these requirements, or specially ducted through job site visits and review of daily work logs.
built, dedicated breathing air compressors must be The OSHA Standard 1910.119 Process Safety Manage-
used. he control/filter systems of existing ment of Highly Hazardous Chemicals contains the specific
lubricated compressors must be equipped with a requirements, and responsibilities for owners’ and contrac-
constant monitor for carbon or a tors’ safety and health programs. This standard states that
alarm with frequent measurement of in-line carbon the owner is responsible for obtaining and evaluating infor-
monoxide, addition, periodic samples from the air mation regarding the contract employer’s safety performance
stream should be drawn, bottled, and sent to a and programs.
laboratory to verify that each parameter of Grade A good example of a safety program that each contrac-
D breathing air has been met. tor in the coatings industry should have is the OSHA
1910.146 Permit - Required Confined Spaces standard. Un-
der this standard, the contractor must develop a written per-
IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF SAFETY AND mit space entry program that complies with the requirements
HEALTH PROBLEMS of the standard. This program must be reviewed by the owner
to verify that the contractor’s safety procedures and prac-
A. ESTABLISHING WORKER SAFETY AND tices developed under the standard are adequate and are
HEALTH PROGRAMS being followed.
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*26.0 9 3 M 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004003 300
Maintaining a site injury and illness log, OSHA Injury The Water Jet Technology Association
and Illness Records Form 200, is another method employ- P.O. Box 1365
ers must use to track work activities involving contract em- ,Golden, CO 80402
ployees working on or adjacent to covered processes. Injury
and illness logs of both the employer’s employees and con- B. SELECTED HEALTH AND SAFETY
tract employees allow an employer to have full knowledge REGULATIONS
of process injury and illness experience. This log will also Existing Occupational Safety and Health Administration
contain information which will be of use to those auditing (OSHA) regulations which apply to coatings operations can
process safety management compliance and those involved be found in three volumes of the Code of Federal Regula-
in incident investigations. tions (CFR):
It is very important for owners to write OSHA compli-
ance requirements into their contracts and specifications.
This will help ensure that the contractors are complying with
the applicable OSHA standards. 29 CFR Part 1900-1910 (1901.1 to 1910.999)
1903 Inspections, Citations and Proposed
Penalties
V. SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HEALTH
AND SAFETY 1904 Recording and Reporting Occupational
Injuries and Illnesses
A. ORGANIZATIONS 1905 Rules of Practice for Variances, Limita-
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) tions, Tolerances and Exemptions
2700 Prosperity Avenue 1910.132-140 Personal Protective Equipment
Suite 250 1910.1 55-165 Fire Protection
Fairfax, VA 22031-4319 29 CFR Part 1910.1000 to End
(703) 849-8888 1910.1000 Air Contaminants
American Society of Safety Engineers 191O. 1025 Lead
1800 East Oakton 1910.1200 Hazard Communication
Des Plaines, IL 60018-2187
29 CFR Part 1926 (Construction Regulations)
(708) 692-4121
1926.57 Ventilation
International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades
1926.62 Construction Industry Lead Standard
1750 New York Avenue, N.W., 8th Floor
1926.102 Eye and Face Protection
1926.152 Flammable and Combustible Liquids
(202) 637-0700
1926.354 Welding, Cutting and Heating in Way of
National Safety Council
Preservative Coatings
1121 Spring Lake Drive
1926.803 Compressed Air
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Itasca, IL 60143-3201
(708) 284-1121
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Paint and Coatings Association
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active par-
1500 Rhode Island Avenue, N.W. ticipation of the following in the review process for this chapter: Rex
Washington, DC 20005-5597 Bison and Daniel O. Chute.
(202) 462-6272 Richard Grunberg provided a number of pictures for this
chapter.
NIOSH
Publications Dissemination BIOGRAPHY
National Institute for Occupational D. Brian Shuttleworth received a B.S. in Occupational Health
Safety and Health and Safety Management from Slippery Rock University of Pennsyl-
Robert A. Taft Laboratories vania. He works as an Industrial Hygiene Associate with SE Tech-
nologies, Inc. and KTA Environmental. Mr. Shuttleworth is also
4676 Columbia Parkway experienced in research and planning for stringent quality assur-
Cincinnati, OH 45226 ancelquality control programs.
(513) 533-8287
Painting and Decorating Contractors of America (PDCA)
3913 Old Lee Highway Scott D. Ecoff received a B.S. in Industrial Safety Management
Suite 33-8 from Indiana University of Pennsylvania and an M.S. in Inductrial
Hygiene from Central Missouri State University. Mr. Ecoff is the
Fairfax, VA 22030 Principal Industrial Hygienist and Technical Director of Safety &
(703) 359-0826 Industrial Hygiene Services for SE Technologies, Inc., and a Senior
Consultant to KTA Environmental. His responsibilities include provid-
Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) ing consultation to clients in the recognition, evaluation and con-
4516 Henry Street trol of occupational health hazards. Mr. Ecoff is a Certified Industrial
Hygienist, and is also an active member of the American Industrial
Suite 301 Hygiene Association and the Steel Structures Painting Council.
Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728
. 2), 687-1113
(41
554
at 303-397-2295.
~
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 6 . 0 93 8627940 0004002 247
Daniel P. Adley received a B.A. in Chemistry from St. Vincent 21. Philip J. Landrigan. “Exposure to Lead from the Mystic River
College in 1977 and an M.S. in Industrial Hygiene from the Univer- Bridge: The Dilemma of Deleading.” New England Journal of
sity of Pittsburgh in 1984. Mr. Adley has 16 years of experience in Medicine, March 1982, Vol. 306, p. 676.
providing broad based safety and health consulting to a diversified 22. Richard J. Lewis, Sr., ed. Sax’s Dangerous Properties of Indus-
cross-section of American industry. He has worked for SE Tech- trial Materials, eighth edition. New York: Van Nostrand Rein-
nologies, Inc. as the Manager of the Safety, Occupational & Environ- hold, 1992.
mental Health Department for the past four years. He is also very 23. John M. Lunardini. “Lead Paint Removal: Specification Through
involved in lead-based paint management, working as a Principal Job Completion.” Maintaining Structures with Coatings, SSPC,
Consultant to KTA Environmental. Mr Adley is a Certified Safety 1991, pp. 140-155.
Professional and a Certified Industrial Hygienist. He is Chairman 24. Robert Manware. “Lead in Construction.” Industrial Lead Paint
of the SSPC Group C.5 Committee on Environmental, Safety and Removal: Compliance and Worker Safety, SSPC, 1992, pp.
Health Compliance. 57-58.
25. H. Everett Myer. “Safe Use of HDI Polyisocyanate-Containing
Portraits and biographical sketches of Sidney Levinson and Polyu rethane Coatings. ” Maintaining Structures with Coatings,
Saul Spindel can be found at the end of Chapter 4.1 SSPC, 1991, pp. 68-74.
26. H. Everett Myer. “Some Plain Talk About Polyurethane Coat-
SUGGESTED READING MATERIAL ings: Definitions, Safe Application, and the Future Direction of
1. Dan Adley, Scott Ecoff, and Larry Balint. “Personal Protective Industry Safety Needs.” Journal of Protective Coatings and Lin-
Equipment For Maintenance Painting Operations.” Journal of ings, January 1991, pp. 52-56.
Protective Coatings and Linings, April 1992, pp. 46-54. 27. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Construc-
2. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. tion Bibliography, 1990.
Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice. 28. National Safety Council. Accident Prevention Manual for Indus-
3. H.R. Bleile and S.D. Rodgers. “Specification Criteria for Abra- trial Operations, 1978 edition, pp. 27-28.
sive Blasting Media.” Surface Preparation: The State of the Art, 29. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. All About OSHA.
SSPC, 1985, pp. 89 -123. OSHA 2056.
4. Jerry Burbank. “Industrial Hygiene in Lead Abatement: A Con- 30. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Consultation
tractor’s Perspective.” Lead Paint Removal: Meeting the Services for the Employer. OSHA 3047.
Challenge, SSPC, 1991, pp. 168-172. 31. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Hand-
5. Daniel O. Chute. “Protecting Workers from Lead: A Review of book for Small Businesses. OSHA 2209.
Regulations and Practices.” Lead Paint Removal: Meeting the 32. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Publi-
Challenge, SSPC, 1991, pp. 186-195. cations and Audiovisual Programs. OSHA 2019.
6. Daniel O. Chute. “Update on OSHA Lead in Construction Stan- 33. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Personal Pro-
dard.” Maintaining Structures with Coatings, SSPC, 1991, pp. tective Equipment. OSHA 3077.
133-136. 34. P. Orbaek. “Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Solvents in the
7. F.E. Clayton and G.D. Clayton. Patty’s Industrial Hygiene and Paint Industry.” Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmen-
Toxicology, third edition, Vol. 2A-2C. New York: Wiley & Sons, tal Health, 1985, #11, Supplement 2. pp. 1-28.
1981. 35. Frank J. Pokrywka. ” Controlling Hazards in Confined Space
8. Mark R. Cullen, K.F. Maurer, and Irene Kurylo Smith. “Con- Work.” Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, August 1993,
trolling Lead Poisoning on Bridge Sites.’’ Industrial Lead Paint pp. 81-84.
Abatement: Approaches, Alternatives, and Advances, SSPC, 36. Frank J. Pokrywka. “Personal Hygiene and Skin Protection for
1993, P P . 63-65. Coating Applicators.” Journal of Protective Coatings and i i n -
9. R. DeReamer. Modern Safety and Health Technology. New York: ings, December 1992, pp. 63-65.
John Wiley & Sons, 1980. 37. Jeffrey D. Propst. “Working Safely with Electrical Equipment.”
1O. Barbara DeWoody. “Solvent Hazards and Controls.” Journal Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, February 1993, pp.
of Protective Coatings and Linings, April 1993, pp. 75-78. 91-94.
11. Scott Ecoff. “Air-Borne Health Hazards Associated With Abra- 38. John F. Rekus. “Employees Have a Right to Know.” Journal
sive Blasting.” Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, May of Protective Coatings and Linings, April 1989, pp. 42-47.
1993, pp. 85-87. 39. John F. Rekus. “The Occupational Lead Hazard.” Lead Paint
12. Scott Ecoff. “Basic Principles of Fall Protection From Eleva- Removal, SSPC, 1988, pp. 1-13.
tions.” Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, November 40. John F. Rekus. “Eliminating Confined Space Accidents in the
1992, Pp. 77-80. Coating and Lining Industry.” Journal of Protective Coatings and
13. Scott Ecoff. “Setting Up an Air-Line Respirator System for Abra- Linings, April 1990. pp. 46-53.
sive Blasting Operations.” Journal of Protective Coatings and 41. Steven P. Roetter. “Responsibility for Worker Safety on Lead
Linings, January 1993, pp. 69-72. Paint Removal Projects. Industrial Lead Paint Removal: Com-
’I
14. Epidemiology Division, Texas Department of Health. “Silico- pliance and Worker Safety, SSPC, 1992, pp. 14-18.
sis In Oil and Gas Pipe Coating.” January 1992. 42. Gwen Russell. “Personal Monitoring to Evaluate and Control
15. Federal Register. ‘‘OSHA’s Lead Exposure in Construction, In- Employee Exposure to Lead on Abrasive Blasting Projects.”
terim Final Rule.” Volume 58, 2590, (May 4, 1993). Industrial Lead Paint Removal: Compliance and Worker Safety,
16. Kent Foster. “Monitoring of Lead Levels Outside Contained SSPC, 1992, pp. 53-56.
Areas During Blasting Operation.” Achieving Quality in Coat- 43. Randy L. Sadler and Frank J. Pokrywka. “Safe Storage and
ing Work, SSPC, 1992, pp. 202-203. Use of Flammable and Combustible Liquids.” Journal of Pro-
17. Harold E. Hower. “The Dilemma of Removing Lead-Based tective Coatings and Linings, March 1993, pp. 71-76.
Paint.” Journalof Protective Coatings and Linings, January 1988, 44. The Steel Structures Painting Council. SSPC Qualification
pp. 30-37. Procedure No. 2(1), SSPC QP-2 (I), Standard Procedure for
18. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings. “NIOSH Requests Evaluating the Qualificationsof Painting Contractors to Remove
Assistance in Preventing Silicosis and Deaths from Sandblast- Hazardous Paint 1992.
ing.” April 1993, pp. 21-37. 45. The Water Jet Technology Association. Recommended Prac-
19. Mark A. Katchen. “Solvent Syndrome.” Maintaining Structures tices for The Use of Manually Operated High Pressure Water Jet-
with Coatings, SSPC, 1991, pp. 63-67. ting Equipment. 1985.
20. Karen A. Kapsanis. ‘‘OSHA’s New Rule on Lead: Changing the 46. Sheri L. Woodruff. “Providing Safe Respiratory Protection in
Practice and Price of Lead Paint Removal.” Journal of Protec- the Protective Coatings Industry,” Journal of protective Coat-
tive Coatings and Linings, July 1993, pp. 46-51. ings and Linings, August 1988, pp. 54-59.
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CHAPTER 27.0
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS AFFECTING

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
by
Bernard R. Appleman
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INTRODUCTION (Chapter 27.0) IV. MISCELLANEOUS REGULATIONS

A. Operations that Affect the Environment A. Regulating Coatings For Food & Beverage Facilities
B. How the Environment is Affected B. Soil Quality Regulations
C. Regulatory Agencies C . Regulating Antifouling Coatings
D. Overview of Federal Acts and Regulations
APPENDICES
AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS (Chapter 27.1) Appendix A: Hotlines and Other Phone Numbers
A. General/Overview of Activities and Regulations Appendix B: Professional & Trade Organizations
B. Ozone & VOC Appendix C: Selected Environmental Regulations
C. Air Quality for Lead
D. Air Quality for Particulates
E. State & Local Regulation of Air Quality INTRODUCTION
WASTE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL (Chapter A. OPERATIONS THAT AFFECT

27.2) THE ENVIRONMENT
A. Definitions Coating and lining activities have a significant effect on
B. Classifying Wastes the environment. Some examples of these activities and their
C . Responsibilities for Hazardous Waste specific effects on the environment are as follows:
D. Sampling & Testing 1. Abrasive Blast Cleaning
E. Treatment & Disposal of Hazardous Waste In this process, hard, small abrasive particles strike
F. State Regulation of Hazardous and Non-Hazardous the steel or other substrate at high velocities, frag-
Waste menting the abrasive particle and eroding the sub-
strate. Significant quantities of dust from the
OTHER REGULATIONS AFFECTING PROTECTIVE abrasive and the surface debris are thus made air-
COATINGS (Chapter 27.3) borne and can contribute to air pollution. This dust
itself is recognized as a fugitive emission that is
I. WATER QUALITY
A. Federal Clean Water Act
B. Reportable Quantities for Hazardous Substances
C. Water Quality Standards
D. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
E. Potable Water in Storage Tanks
II. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
A. Toxic Substances Control Act
B. CERCLA & Superfund
C. Right To Know - SARA Title III
III. REGULATING STORAGE VESSELS

A. Secondary Containment FIGURE 1
B. Underground Storage Tanks Dust from abrasive blasting operation.

556
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 0 73 M 8627740 0004004 O I T
often regulated. In addition, specific species may be agencies have not established sufficient policies or proce-
released, such as lead dust, other heavy metals, sil- dures for coordinating the various divisions within the agen-
ica, or asbestos, which are separately controlled by cy. Consequently, the protective coatings and related
environmental agencies. industries affected by these regulations must deal with these
2 . Paint Application regulations individually, responding to and complying with
In the process of spraying (and other means of ap- each specific requirement. If there are inconsistent or con-
plication), a substantial portion of the liquid coating flicting requirements between one or more environmental
does not reach the substrate but is lost due to over- regulations (even from the same agency), the industry may
spray. In addition, most coatings have appreciable need to bring this to the attention of appropriate officials.
quantities of volatile organic compounds (solvents) This is not to say, however, that government agencies,
that can contribute to smog formation. be they federal, state, or local, cannot collaborate on enforce-
ment as well as regulatory development. In one of the more
3. Waste Production dramatic instances of inter-agency cooperation, the Texas
Both coating removal and coating application gener- Air Control Board (TACB) developed a stringent regulation
ate waste products, which must be properly dis- for containing lead-based paint debris during removal oper-
posed of. In many instances, the waste may be ations on water storage tanks.’
classified as hazardous by EPA or state environmen- The TAC6 was responding in part to an incident in which
tal agencies because of the heavy metal (e.g., lead) citizens of Cedar Park, TX complained to the Texas Health
content of the residue, or the solvents of unused Department about air-borne dust from an open blasting oper-
paint or thinner. ation on a water tank. In the process of investigating the com-
4. Product Storage plaint, public health officials found lead-based paint chips
The storage of certain products (e.g., hazardous contaminating the soil of the entire neighborhood, and the
waste, petroleum compounds) is regulated by EPA chips were traced to the open blasting operations. Not only
because of the potential ecological damage that did two agencies work together on this complaint, but the
could result from a spill or leak from storage vessels. air quality regulation subsequently developed by the TACB
5. Leaching of Coatings had the effect of protecting the ground as well as the air.
Under certain circumstances, toxic or otherwise un-
desirable components of applied coating films may C. REGULATORY AGENCIES
leach into the environment. Examples include coat- The Environmental Protection Agency is the federal
ings used for lining of potable water storage tanks, agency responsible for developing and enforcing environ-
coatings used in food and beverage plants, and anti- mental regulations. Congress intended that protection be a
fouling coatings. Leaching occurs because many of joint Federal-state responsibility. Most of the statutes pro-
these ingredients are water-soluble or flake or erode vide for states to implement and enforce the regulations. In
into the environment. some instances states must meet certain requirements to be
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delegated authority (e.g., hazardous waste regulation under

B. HOW THE ENVIRONMENT IS AFFECTED RCRA).
The above activities collectively can affect almost all the Individual states may have their own environmental
major environmental receptors (¡.e., air, soil, groundwater, agencies, variously known as the Department of Environmen-
surface water, potable water). The environmental regulato- tal Protection, Department of Environmental Resources,
ry structure (as exemplified by the US EPA) is specifically Department of Natural Resources or state EPA. Other state
organized according to the aspects of the environment af- or local agencies that may be involved are health agencies
fected, not by the industry activity producing the environmen- and fish and game commissions. State environmental regu-
tal impact. lations must be at least as stringent as federal regulations,
The EPA’s authority to issue and enforce environmen- but they may be more stringent. In some cases, county or
tal regulations is based on the environmental statutes or laws municipality requirements may be stricter than state or fed-
passed by the US Congress. Major environmental regulations eral regulations. The following discussion focuses primarily
are listed in the References section. Almost all of these stat- on federal requirements. State and local authorities should
utes and the resulting regulations have some applications also be consulted.
to the protective coating industry. The ones which have had
the greatest impact are the Clean Air Act, the Resource Con- D. OVERVIEW OF FEDERAL ACTS
servation and Recovery Act, and the Toxic Substance Con- AND REGULATIONS
trol Act. Congress responds to concerns about environmental
Also as a result of the historical development of the regu- problems by passing laws which outline a general response
lations, there often exists within the environmental agencies to a problem and direct the Environmental Protection Agen-
(both at Federal and State levels) separation of activities ac- cy to develop regulations. The citations at the end of this
cording to the specific aspect of the environment (e.g., air chapter are for the authorizing legislation (Acts’of Congress).
or soil). The legislators and the heads of the environmental The Federal regulations developed by EPA in response to

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27.0 93 8627940 0004005 T56
these Acts are published in the Code of Federal Regulations The amendments accelerated EPA’s regulation of
(CFR). They are described in Chapters 27.1, 27.2, 27.3 and toxic contaminants, banned future use of lead pipe
listed in Appendix C. and solder in public water systems, mandated bet-
1. Air Pollution Control Regulations ter protection of groundwater resources, and limit-
a. Clean Air Act - The original Clean Air Act (CAA), ed underground injection of waste.
passed in 1970, focused on several specific pollu- Drinking water regulations require that drink-
tants: sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen di- ing water contain no more than the Maximum Con-
oxide, particulates, ozone and lead.2 Air quality taminant Levels (MCL) for any particular substance.
goals known as National Ambient Air Quality Stan- Drinking water standards are sometimes used to es-
dards (NAAQS) were developed for these pollutants. tablish criteria for acceptable levels of hazardous
Despite considerable progress, many regions of the material at waste sites.
country did not meet the standards within the Regulations on Water Pollution Control and
prescribed deadlines. The original act also required Safe Drinking Water Act are found in 40 CFR
that the EPA develop standards for toxic substances 100-149. Other Clean Water Act regulations are
in the air, known as National Emission Standards found in 40 CFR 400-699.
for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS), but be- 3. Hazardous Waste Regulations
cause the NESHAPS system required the agency a. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act - The
to prove the risk of the materials, only a few stan- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),
dards were developed. passed in 1976, was intended to provide “cradle to
b. Clean Air Act Amendments - The Clean Air Act grave” management of hazardous wastes.’ Gener-
Amendments of 1990 (CAAA) require areas that are ators were required to evaluate all wastes generat-
not in compliance with existing requirements for ed; to identify those that were hazardous; and to
ozone, carbon monoxide and particulates to come properly store, transport and dispose of those that
into compliance, and provide a schedule for com- were determined to be hazardous waste. There
pliance.3 The Amendments also require control of were also stringent requirements to document
air toxics, approximately 190 specific substances proper handling of these wastes.
emitted by specific kinds of facilities. Many of the RCRA regulations initially applied only to bus-
solvents that make up paint will be affected by both inesses that generated fairly large quantities of
of these sections of the Clean Air Act Amendments. hazardous waste, more than 1000 kg (2,200 pounds
The new regulations will also affect much smaller or about five and a half full barrels) a month. The
sources than previous regulations. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984
Air pollution control regulations can be found extended similar requirements to businesses gener-
in 40 CFR 50-99.* ating smaller quantities of waste, more than 100 kg
2. Water Quality Regulations (220 pounds or about half a barrel) a month.8
a. Clean Water Act - The Federal Water Pollution However, generators of small quantities of waste,
Control Act of 1972 was the first legislation to take less than 100 kg (about 220 Ibs) per month, do not
a national approach to meeting the goal of “fisha- have to meet all the requirements that larger gener-
ble, swimmable” waterways.4 Secondary treatment ators do.
of biodegradable materials such as domestic sew- Regulations on treatment, storage and disposal
age was an important goal of early Clean Water of hazardous waste are found in 40 CFR 260-280.
legislation. Limits were also set for a relatively small b. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Com-
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number of common industrial pollutants. In 1977, pensation and Liability Act - The Comprehensive En-
the Clean Water Act (CWA) was passed. It extend- vironmental Response, Compensation and Liability
ed deadlines for some of the requirements of the Act (CERCLA), passed in 1980, authorized the EPA
1972 Act. Amendments passed in 1987 expanded to respond to hazardous spills and clean up aban-
the number of regulated pollutants to include 129 doned waste sites.9 The businesses that had gener-
specific toxic pollutants.S ated the wastes were to pay the costs of cleanup,
Requirements are enforced through a permit and the Act outlined procedures for recovering costs
system. Facilities must have a permit to discharge from these businesses. It also created a fund to pay
materials to waterways. There are some exceptions for clean-up of abandoned hazardous waste sites,
for facilities discharging to public wastewater treat- known as “Superfund” The waste sites became
ment facilities. known as Superfund sites.
b. Safe Drinking Water Act - The Safe Drinking c. The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization
Water Act (SDWA) was passed in 1974.6 It author- Act - The Superfund Amendments and Reauthori-
ized the EPA to limit the amounts of various sub- zation Act (SARA), passed in 1986, reauthorized,
stances in drinking water. It was amended in 1986. refunded and refocused hazardous waste site clean
up.10 It also created a new set of requirements
‘NOTE: Citations include sections reserved for future regulations

558
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SSPC CHAPTER*27*0 93 8627940 0004006 7 7 2
included as SARA Title III, the Emergency Planning guidelines on lead-based paint removal, entitled
and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA). Title “Hazard Identification and Abatement in Public and
III required state- and community-level emergency Indian Housing”.13 The work was a joint effort of
planning. It also required industries to report quan- several federal agencies responsible for health
tities of hazardous substances released into air or and safety and the health effects of hazardous
water or stored on site to these local agencies and substances in the environment. Unfortunately,
to the federal government. the guidelines were written with residential and
SARA and CERCLA regulations are found in domestic paint removal in mind. It is often diffi-
40 CFR 300-399. cult to apply them directly to industrial paint
d. Underground Storage Tanks - Regulations for un- removal.
derground storage tanks (USTs) were required by The guidelines include information on identify-
the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of ing the level of lead in paint; when that level consti-
1984.8 Many industrial storage tanks are covered tutes a hazard; acceptable methods of abatement;
by regulations requiring registration, improved de- reducing dust levels; housekeeping; inspection;
sign, leak detection, proper installation and closure. equipment used to protect workers from exposure
Regulations for tanks containing hazardous waste to lead; and containment.
are more stringent. 6. Soil
UST regulations are found in 40 CFR 280-299. There are no federal regulations regarding permis-
4. Hazardous Substances Regulations sible levels for contaminants or hazardous material
a. The Toxic Substances Control Act - The Toxic in soil relevant to protective coatings. The potential
Substances Control Act (TSCA), passed in 1976, impact of soil contamination is discussed in Chap-
gives EPA the authority to approve newly developed ter 27.3.
or newly imported chemicals.ll In addition, the EPA
has the authority to limit or ban use of specific chem- REFERENCES
icals which the agency determines pose an unac- 1. “Water Tower Project Shut Down for Lead Contamination: Ci-
tation and Lawsuits Follow,” Journal of Protective Coatings and
ceptable risk to human health or the environment. Linings (JPCL),October, 1990, pp. 97-99. “Texas Reviews Com-
These provisions have been used by the EPA to ments on Blasting Rule for Water Tanks”, JPCi, July, 1991,
regulate asbestos and polychlorinated biphenyls. p. 31.
2. Clean Air Act, Public Law 91-604, December 31, 1970.
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They are likely to be used to limit use of lead in in- 3. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, Public Law 101-549,
dustrial paints in the future. November 15, 1990; and Public Law 102-187, September 4,
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) regula- 1991.
tions are found in 40 CFR 700-799. 4. Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Public Law 92-500, Oc-
tober 18,1971, and Clean Water Act of 1977, Public Law 95-217,
b. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenfi- December 28, 1977.
cide Act - Regulation of pesticides dates from the 5. Clean Water Act of 1987, Public Law 100-202, December 22,
beginning of this century, but originally focused on 1987.
6. Safe Drinking Water Act (Title XIV of the Public Health Service
effectiveness of pesticides. Amendments to exist- Act, Public Law 93-523, December 16, 1974).
ing laws in 1972 focused on health and environmen- 7. Resource Conservation Act, Public Law 94-580, October 21,
tal effects and came to be known as the Federal 1976.
8. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments, Public Law 98-616,
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act November 9, 1984.
(FIFRA).l* The regulations apply to a broad range 9. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
of substances used to control unwanted organisms Liability Act, Public Law 96-510, 1980.
1O. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986. Pub-
including insects, rodents, plants and microorgan- lic Law 99-499, October 17, 1986.
isms such as mildew. Additives to control microor- 11. Toxic Substances Control Act, Public Law 94-469. October 11,
ganisms are common in paint. 1976.
12. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, Public Law
Pesticide regulations require that manufac- 92-516, October 21, 1982.
turers register pesticides with the EPA. Labels that 13. Lead-Based Paint: Interim Guidelines for Hazard Identification
outline safe uses and practices are required and and Abatement in Public and Indian Housing, September 1990,
rev. May 1991. Washington, DC: Office of Public and Indian
must be submitted as part of the registration Housing, May 1991.
process. EPA must weigh any health or environmen-
tal effects of a product against its benefits. It may
ban or restrict the use of a product for which the
risks outweigh the benefits.
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act regulations are found in 40 CFR 150-189.
5. HUD Guidelines
The Department of Housing and Urban De-
velopment has developed the only available
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SSPC CHAPTERa27.L 93 8627940 0004007 8 2 9 m
CHAPTER 27.1
AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS

by
Bernard R. Appleman
and Karen A. Kapsanis
using “maximum available control technology”

A. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF ACTIVITIES
(MACT). MACT is defined in part as “the maximum
AND REGULATIONS
degree of reduction in emissions of the hazardous
1. NAAQS air pollutants ...”i4 A new source (¡.e., a new emit-
The US Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1970 ting facility) must achieve reductions equivalent to
to protect and enhance the quality of the nation’s the best-performing similar source. Existing sources
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air resources.* As a result of this act, EPA es- (the majority of facilities) are required under MACT
tablished the National Ambient Air Quality to achieve the average reduction attained by the
Standards (NAAQS), intended to promote the pub- best 12 percent of similar sources (based on there
lic health and welfare. Six primary pollutants were being a minimum of 30 such sources). These stan-
identified, for which EPA was to develop criteria, al- dards are thus based on technology rather than on
lowing for an adequate margin of safety to protect health, as was earlier the case.
the public health. These six pollutants are as follows: The facilities initially required to abide by MACT
Lead are stationary sources emitting more than ten tons
Ozone 19 megagrams (Mg)] per year of any single HAP or
Particulate matter (10 microns or less) 25 tons (23 Mg) per year total. Thus, a facility ap-
Sulfur dioxide plying coatings containing 2 Ibs/gal (240g/L) of xy-
Nitrogen dioxide lene would be limited to 20,000gallons (76,000 L)
Carbon monoxide per year.
Of most interest to the protective coatings in- According to a National Paint and Coatings As-
dustry are those for ozone, lead, and particulates. sociation analysis, EPA plans to set MACT regula-
NAAQS apply only to measured ambient levels (¡.e., tions in 1994 for marine coatings, wood furniture,
dust or vapors that remain suspended). Air emis- and aerospace.14 The major sources generally must
sions that deposit particles on the ground or adja- comply within 3 years after the effective date. Over-
cent properties are covered by CERCLA regulations all, MACT must be in place by the year 2000 for all
discussed in Chapter 27.3.9 source categories.
In 1990, Congress amended the Clean Air The CAAA also addresses the need to control
Act.3 The Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) are HAPS from area sources. These are sources that
summarized in part B of this section. are too small to be regulated as major sources (¡.e.,
2. HAPS less than 10 tons [9Mg] per year of a single HAP
As part of the CAAA, Congress specifically added or 25 tons [23Mg] per year total HAPS) but which
approximately 190 additional Hazardous Air Pollut- collectively emit a substantial volume of HAPS.
ants (abbreviated as HAPS) to the list of sub- A second phase of HAPS implementation en-
stances that required control. This list included tails potential imposition of health-based standards.
many of the common solvents used in paints, such Within 8 years after MACT standards are issued,
as xylene, toluene, and methyl ethyl ketone (see Ta- EPA must issue additional “residual risk” standards
ble l). Previously, under the National Emission if the períormance-basedstandards are determined
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants program, to be inadequate.14
EPA had been charged with regulating HAPS. How- It is important for the industry to coordinate the
ever, there was no significant progress because of control of HAPS under MACT with the control of
the requirement to apply health-based standards VOCs under other provisions of the CAAA, e.g.,
and because of the lack of specific targets. Control Technique Guidelines or National Rules.
The CAAA selected specific HAPS (with provi- Recent activities to establish a combined HAPNOC
sions for adding and deleting substances) and es- control strategy for the shipbuilding industry (marine
tablished a new approach for controlling HAPS. The coatings) are summarized in Section B.6.
190 substances listed will be subject to controls

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SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 7 - L 93 6627940 0004008 765
Table 1 the precursors of ozone and are much more

HAZARDOUS AIRPOLLUTANTS USED readily manageable, EPA and other regulatory
IN PROTECTIVE COATINGS APPLICATIONS
agencies have elected to control the amount of
Chromium Compounds
Epichlorohydrin (Chloro-2,3-epoxypropane) VOCs in paint.
Ethylene Glycol
Formaldehyde
2. €PA Regulation of VOCs
Glycol Ethers EPA defines VOCs as “a group of chemicals that
Hydrochloric Acid react in the atmosphere with nitrogen oxides in the
Isophorone
Lead Compounds
presence of heat and sunlight to form ozone.” Not
Methyl Chloroform (1,1,1 ,-Trichloroethane) included are methane and other compounds deter-
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (2-Butanone) mined by EPA to have negligible photochemical
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (Hexone)
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Methylene Chloride (Dichloromethane)

reactivity. Many solvents used in paints contain
Styrene VOCs.
Toluene VOCs can be controlled in several manners.
Triethylamine
Xylenes (m,o,p or mixed)
One approach (which has been used by EPA for cer-
tain industries) is to limit the total quantity of VOCs
B. OZONE AND VOC that can be emitted from a given facility for a unit
of time (e.g., one ton of VOC per year). The second
1. Regulating Ozone approach is to limit the amount or proportion of VOC
Ozone, a reactive form of molecular oxygen, is a permitted in a coating formulation. This method has
major component of smog. The detrimental effects also been widely employed by EPA and state agen-
of ozone occur when it is found in the lower at- cies. This is the most common method, and will be
mosphere (troposphere), where humans and plant discussed in greater detail below. A third approach
life exist. Here it affects human respiratory function is to control the transfer efficiency of the coating ap-
at high ambient levels and can also damage plant plication. This approach reduces the amount of
life. In the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), coating material that evaporates, rather than land-
however, ozone has a beneficial effect on human ing on the substrate. This is probably the least used
health, helping to absorb solar radiation that could of the three approaches described.
otherwise reach the earth and increase the risk of EPA has classified VOC sources into two broad
skin cancer and other diseases. categories: mobile sources and stationary sources.
The coatings industry is involved in both Mobile sources include cars, trucks, and other ve-
aspects of the ozone problem. First, ground level hicles. The VOCs produced by mobile sources are
ozone is produced by the reaction of volatile organic not relevant for the protective coatings industry.
compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxide. Almost all Fabricating shops that coat steel are included
the organic solvents in coatings are classified as among the stationary sources listed by EPA. There
VOCs, and hence are subject to regulation by EPA are numerous other stationary sources which use
in the effort to control ground-level ozone. other types of coatings being regulated for VOC
Second, in an effort to protect the stratospheric such as furniture, aerospace, and automotive.
ozone from depletion, EPA and other agencies have These are outside the scope of this chapter.
restricted use of certain halogenated compounds Until the passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act
that interact with and deplete the ozone. These com- Amendments, EPA was not mandated to regulate
pounds include degreasing solvents and some sol- VOCs from coating operations. Rather, it was
vents used for dissolving resins and coatings. charged with preparing guidance documents, called
In the early 1970s, EPA established 0.12 ppm Control Technique Guidelines (CTG) which states
as the maximum concentration of ozone consistent and localities could use as a basis for regulating
with human health. To be in compliance, a district or VOC emissions from various shop coating opera-
region must not exceed this level for more than one tions. The CTG for industrial shop coating opera-
hour per year over a three year period. Districts that tions is discussed under item 4, “VOC from
meet this criterion are designated as “attainment Shop-Applied Coatings,” below.
areas”; those that do not are “non-attainment.”
Ozone is not a direct by-product of a painting 3. Clean Air Act Amendments of 7990
operation, but, as indicated above, it is produced The CAAA set forth an ambitious program for reduc-
when VOCs react with nitrogen oxide under the ing air pollution throughout the U.S.3 They were de-
influence of ultraviolet radiation. Therefore, regu- veloped in part, according to one author, because
lating coating operations by requiring that the im- despite the success of the 1977 CAA in reducing
mediate vicinity of a coating application meet emissions from individual sources, ambient air pol-
the 0.12 ppm ozone standard would not achieve lution was still a major health and environmental
air quality objectives. Rather, because they are problem in urban areas. While individual source
emissions were down, the number of polluting

at 303-397-2295.
sources such as automobiles had increased dramat- Typically, these rules are based on a Control
ically since 1977.15 Technique Guideline (CTG) issued in 1978 by the
The EPA has identified four primary goals in EPA as a guidance document for ozone non-
implementing the 1990 CAAA:16 attainment areas (¡.e., that have been designated
to bring all cities into health standards at- as exceeding the national ambient air quality stan-
tainment; dard for ozone).17 In the existing EPA CTG for sur-
to cut air toxic emissions by 75%; face coating of miscellaneous metal parts and
to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions by 10 mil- products, coatings are classified as follows, with
lion tons; and their recommended VOC limitations, based on Ibs
to phase out all chlorofluorocarbons by 1995. of VOC per gal. (911) of coating less water, and the
The 11 titles that make up the CAAA create a definitions generally used to describe the coatings.
framework for achieving these goals. As the sum- a. Air-dried coatings: 3.5 Ibslgal. (420 g/I) - dried
mary given below of the 11 titles indicates, hazard- by the use of air or forced warm air at temperatures
ous airborne emissions from coatings are but one up to 194OF (90OC);
target of the CAAA. b. Clear coatings: 4.3 Ibslgal. (520 g/I) - unpig-
4. VOC from Shop-Applied Coatings mented or transparent coating, lacking color and
The oldest type of VOC rule is the miscellaneous opacity;
metal parts and products rule, which applies to coat- c. Extreme performance coatings: 3.5 Ibslgal. (420
ing operations in fabricating and painting shops and gll) - designed for harsh exposure or extreme en-
vironmental conditions;
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
other stationary facilities. Rules of this type can be
found in force statewide or locally in approximately d. All other coatings: 3.0 Ibslgal. (360 911) - any
33 states. other type of coating.
Many states have established limits for the to-
tal amount of VOC that can be emitted from a facil-
ity in a non-attainment area in a year, a month, a
day, or an hour. The most common limits are for to-
tal emissions per year. There is a great spread
among states with levels ranging from 2.5 tons (2.3
Mg) to 100 tons (91 Mg) per year. Often a state will
impose a lower limit (e.g., 10 tons, or 9.1 Mg) per
year in urban areas with a relatively high ozone lev-
el, and less stringent levels (e.g., 100 tons, or 91
Mg) per year in other areas. This principle has been
followed by the EPA under the Clean Air Act Amend-
ments. The Agency has established major sources
(¡.e., facilities subject to special requirements) for
emission controls and reduction based on the clas-
FIGURE 2 sifications of ozone non-attainment areas shown
Applying coating in the fabricating shop,
below.
Table 2
CLASSIFICATION OF OZONE NON-ATTAINMENT AREAS
Definition of
Designation Ozone (ppm) Major Source
Marginal 0.121 to 0.138 100 Tons (90 Mg)/year
Moderate 0.138 to 0.160 100 Tons (90 Mg)/year
Serious 0.160 to 0.180 50 Tons (45 Mg)lyear
Severe 0.180 to 0.280 25 Tons (22.5 Mg)/year
Extreme >0.280 10 Tons (9.1 Mg)/year

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERU27.1 93 m
Title I - “Provisions for Attainment and Maintenance of Title IV - Acid Deposition Control. Title IV is devot-
National Ambient Air Quality Standards” reaffirms ed to restricting sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emis-
EPA’s original commitment to reduce levels of six types sions from coal-burning electric utility plants to prevent
of air pollutants: ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate what is known as acid rain. Acid rain occurs when “sul-
matter (PM-101, lead, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur diox- fur dioxide and nitrogen emissions are transformed in
ide. Title I sets specific timetables for states to reduce the atmosphere and fall to the earth in rain, fog, and
emissions of these pollutants. In addition, going beyond snow.”16 Acid rain can harm the natural environment
the classification scheme of the earlier Clean Air Act, as well as buildings. It IS also suspected to be hazardous
the 1990 CAAA further classifies areas originally to human health.
described as non-attainment for ozone into the Title V - Permits. Title V calls for states to develop
categories of marginal, moderate, serious, severe, or operating permits for major sources covered under Ti-
extreme. (Table 2) tle l and for sources covered in other titles, including
Of the titles that affect coatings, Titte I is the most Title 111. The permitting program provides a way of track-
relevant, because as noted earlier, most of the organic ing sources and their emissions. Shop painting
solvents used in coatings are volatile organic com- ties are among the sources typically required to
pounds (VOCs) and, as such, contribute to the forma- for operating permits,
tion of ozone. (See section B of this Chapter, “Ozone Title VI - Stratospheric Ozone Protection. Title
and VOC”). provides measures for preventing the depletion of t
Title I affects coatings in two ways. It calls for a fed- stratospheric ozone layer, which is actually beneficial
eral national rule to restrict VOC emissions from coat- or “good” ozone. As described in section B of this chap-
ings applied to stationary structures such as bridges, ter, “Ozone and VOC,” stratospheric ozone absorbs
industrial facilities, and storage tanks. It also calls for cosmic radiation before it reaches the earth. The radia-
a review of existing federal guidance documents and tion IS linked to the risk of skin cancer. Some solvents
issuance of several new guidance documents for the used in degreasing operations or in coatings can con-
states to use to develop rules for controlling VOC emis- tribute to stratospheric ozone depletion. Hence, such
sions from coatings operations at fixed coating facilities. materials are also under the domain of Title VI. (See dis-
These include fabricating shops, auto body shops, and cussion under 8.8 “Compliance with VOC Rules.”)
other sites where coating application is a dailyor at least Title Vfl - Enforcement. Title VI1 significantly
regular operation. strengthens the EPA’s authority to enforce the C A M .
Title II - Mobile Sources. Title II authorizes EPA to The Title authorizes EPA to impose criminal as well as
set and revise emission standards for cars, light trucks, civil sanctions against violators.
urban buses, and non-road vehicles such as locomo- Title Vlfl - Miscellaneous Provisions. Title VIII
tives. It also sets requirements for the use of clean fuels, addresses the control of air pollution on the Outer Con-
reformulatedgasoline, and oxyfuels; bans leaded gaso- tinental Shelf (sources within 25 miles of shore); on the
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
line in motor vehicles after 1995; and authorizes EPA US-Mexico border; and in international border areas -
to regulate refueling operations. (areas in the US that are subject to emissions originat-
Title III - Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPS). Title Ill ing outside the US).
takes a broad approach to regulating toxic air pollutants. Title IX - Clean Air Research. Title IX calls for
These pollutants are air-borne substances that may be research on topics such as monitoring and modeling
hazardous to human health or the environment but that methods, health effects associated with air pollutants,
are not specifically regulated elsewhere in the CAAA. the effects of air pollution on the ecosystem, modeis for
Listed in Title 111 are approximately 190 substances, predicting accidental releases, pollution prevention, acid
many of which are solvents and other VOCs commonly precipitation, and clean alternative fueling.
used in coatings or coating operations. HAPS are regu- iitle X - Disadvantaged Business Concerns. Title
lated by restricting emissions from fixed site sources. X requires EPA to make at least 10 percent of federal
Controls required are based on the amount of real funds for CAAA research available to disadvantaged
or potential emissions from the source. Painting shops, business concerns, which are defined as those that are
dry cleaners, and chemical processing plants are among at least 51 percent owned and controlled by black ameri-
the fixed sources affected by Title III. As pointed out in cans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, Asian
a 1993 article on the CAAA, a VOC in a coating can be Americans, women, or disabled Americans.
regulated under Title I and Title III if the VOC is also a Title XI - Clean Air Employment Transition As-
HAP.’S In a shop painting operation, for instance, the sistance. Title XI amends the Job Training Partnership
VOC emission will be regulated by the state while the Act to include assistance to workers adversely affected
HAP emission will be regulated by a federal rule. by compliance with the CAAA.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z ? . L 93 H 8b2?940 00040LL 2 5 T H
Typical levels for daily emissions are 15 Ibs (6.8 Congress to develop a Control Technique Guide-
kg) with a range of 5-100 among the various states. line (CTG) to reduce emission of VOCs and PM-10
Also, many states have adopted a maximum level from shipbuilding and ship repair operations. EPA’s
of 3 Ibs (1.4 kg) per hour. An application shop would aim was to develop limits for VOCs concurrently with
have to install add-on controls to capture emissions those for HAPS. This was based on the assumption
in excess of these levels. that many shipyards were major sources, for which
HAPS regulations were required by November 15,
5. VOCs from Architectural and Industrial Main-
2000.
tenance (AIM) Coatings Rule
In 1992, EPA surveyed shipbuilders and coat-
Architectural coatings are generally defined as coat-
ing manufacturers to determine the current status
ings applied to stationary structures and their ap-
of regulations and technology.20 Regulations affect-
purtenances, to mobile homes, or to curbs. Several
ing marine coating operations were in effect in
states have architectural coating rules that include
California (several districts), Connecticut, Maine,
specific VOC restrictions on coatings sold for use
Louisiana, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin.
in field painting of bridges and industrial structures
The most comprehensive regulations were those
such as water tanks and plant facilities. As of Janu-
from California and Louisiana, which had specific
ary 1991, such rules were found in parts of Arizo-
rules for shipbuilding operations. From the survey,
na, California, New Jersey, New York, and Texas.18
EPA, working with shipyard representatives, classi-
The CAAA will have a major impact on indus-
fied marine coatings into 12 specialty and 2 gener-
trial maintenance-typecoatings operations through-
al categories. Four coating types (epoxy, alkyd,
out the US. The Amendments call for an
inorganic zinc and anti-fouling coatings) comprise
architectural coatings rule (including industrial main-
90% of the total coatings used for shipbuilding ac-
tenance) to be promulgated by EPA. According to
tivities. Epoxy alone represented 60% of the volume
EPA, such a rule is expected to be in place as early
for the shipyards surveyed. The survey also identi-
as 1996. Unlike EPA CTGs, which are intended for
fied xylene, toluene, and MEK as the three most
guidance on regulation development in ozone non-
commonly used HAPS. Others were MIBK, hexane,
attainment areas, EPA rules, including the antici-
ethyl benzene, and glycol ethers.
pated architectural coatings rule, are expected to
In trying to develop a rule to encompass both
be promulgated nationwide in ozone attainment
HAPS and VOCs, EPA must combine the require-
areas as well as non-attainment areas. States and
ments for these two distinct rules. As discussed in
regions may establish and promulgate rules more
Section A, HAPS require control using Maximum
stringent than the rule EPA eventually proposes, but
Available Control Technology (MACT). Regulation
no less stringent regulations will be allowed. De-
of VOC under the CTG as prescribed in the CAAA
velopment of the national rule began in 1992
requires conformance with Best Available Control
through a process called Regulatory Negotiation or
Measures (BACM). A detailed description of these
“Reg-Neg.”lg Representatives of EPA, the paint in-
terms is beyond the scope of this chapter.
dustry, environmental groups, labor, other regula-
Some examples of approaches to meeting
tors and other affected parties met to discuss, draft,
these requirements are suggested below, based on
debate, and decide on how and at what levels VOCs
proposals by EPA. An example of Best Available
will be regulated in AIM Coatings. In late summer
Control Measure (BACM) would be to adapt the
1993, the “Reg-Neg” committee had reached ten-
most stringent current VOC control regulations for
tative agreement on a two-phase approach to
marine coatings (Le., those in effect in California).
achieve a 45 percent VOC reduction by 2003. In the
For the HAPS, MACT is the average of the best 12%
first phase, a Table of Standards would be estab-
of the control technology. This 12% could be based
lished. This table would set maximum VOC content
on individual coatings or on individual shipyards. For
for 30-40 categories of AIM coatings, which would
example, EPA has characterized epoxy coatings
need to be met by 1996. For industrial maintenance
based on their use and VOC levels. The MACT
coatings, the expected maximum VOC level is be-
would be the average of the 12% of epoxy coatings
tween 340 and 380 gA(2.8 and 3.2 Ibslgal). The sec-
having the lowest VOC requirements. This level is
ond phase would require coating manufacturers to
about 135 g/L (1.1 Iblgal), compared to the overall
achieve overall VOC reductions of 35 percent and
average for epoxies of 350 g/L (2.9 Ibs/gal). Alter-
45 percent by 2000 and 2003, respectively, com-
nately, the MACT could be computed based on the
pared to 1990 emission levels. EPA planned to pub-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
average VOC level for the 12% of the shipyards hav-

lish the proposed rule in the federal Register in
ing the lowest average VOC emissions. The regu-
early 1994.
lation was still under development as of Fall 1993.20
6. Control of VOC’s From Marine Coating Oper- EPA’s basic concern is that reducing the VOCs
ations does not increase the level of HAPS content in the
Under the CAAA, EPA was specifically directed by
564
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERx27.L 93 Ab27940 0 0 0 4 0 3 2 396
coating. Most coatings contain a combination of adjust to new equipment, methods and restrictions
HAPS solvents and non-HAPS solvents. The confor applying high solids, high viscosity coatings and
cern of the shipbuilders, the coating manufacturers, water-borne materials.
and others in the marine coating industry is that the Performance properties of coatings have also
resulting regulation not result in a significant loss been at issue because of the need to formulate
in performance or increase in cost. materials with lower VOC levels. With products be-
ing introduced quickly for long-term service, there
7 . State Approaches to Regulating VOCs
is a very limited performance history for many
As of 1993,not all states took the same approach
products and thus little field data for lower VOC
to regulating VOC emissions from paints. For in-
materials relative to the amount of data for older,
stance, states such as Oregon, North Carolina, and
solvent-borne coatings. Hence, specifiers have had
Maryland regulate emissions from shop painting
to select products without strong evidence for or
operations in ozone non-attainment areas only.
against a product. Instead, they have had to rely on
Others, such as Pennsylvania and Ohio, regulate
accelerated test data and on abbreviated field tri-
VOC emissions from shop painting operations
als or manufacturers’ claims. Users have found in
throughout the state, imposing stricter requirements
some instances that the lower VOC products do not
on operations in ozone non-attainment areas.
offer the chemical or weathering resistance or gloss
By the same token, only a few states or air qual-
retention of their solvent-borne counterparts. In
ity districts regulate VOC emissions from coatings
other instances, however, the lower VOC products
applied in the field, and of those that do, VOC limits
have performed as well as or better than their
vary. Hence, New York restricts VOC emissions
solvent-borne counterparts. A larger body of histor-
from industrial maintenance coatings to 3.8 Ibslgal
ical field data is needed to minimize problems with
(450 g/I) whereas California’s South Coast Air Qual-
selection of low VOC products for regulatory com-
ity Management District (SCAQMD) caps them at
pliance. A new SSPC Guide has been drafted which
3.5 Ibs/gal (420 911).
provides recommended procedures for qualifying
Until there is a national rule, states can also
and selecting VOC-compliant coating systems and
continue to differ in their principles of regulation. Air
for preparing specifications.21
quality districts in California and states like New
b. Alternate Approaches for Compliance
York and New Jersey regulate AIM Coatings pri-
A second approach for compliance with VOC
marily by function, such as concrete curing com-
regulations is use of pollution abatement equipment
pounds, industrial maintenance primers, and traffic
that captures emissions. This approach is suited
coatings. Texas, in contrast, regulates many AIM
almost exclusively to shop painting operations, be-
coatings by generic type, such as alkyd varnishes,
cause abatement equipment typically is not porta-
epoxies, exterior alkyds, nitrocellulose lacquers, and
ble. Even for fixed-site facilities such as steel
urethanes.
fabrication and rail car paint application shops, the
8. Compliance with VOC Rules capital costs for this equipment are often extreme-
a. Reducing VOC in Coatings ly high.
VOC regulations affect painting operations from for- A third means of reducing VOC emissions is
mulation through application, performance, and improving the efficiency of the application process.
service life. The principal approach for decreasing Using conventional air spray systems, much of the
VOC emissions is by using coatings with reduced coating may not reach the intended surface, but in-
levels of VOC. This is accomplished by higher solids stead be lost to the atmosphere because of wind,
coatings, solvent-free (¡.e., 100 percent solids) coat- irregular surfaces, or poor applicator skill. Equip-
ings, or waterborne coatings. Some of these new ment such as electrostatic spray or high volume low-
formulations may require special application equip- pressure spray can significantly increase the trans-
ment or specially trained applicators. fer efficiency. In addition, better training of applica-
The coatings industry has committed tens of tors could also reduce the amount of paint and VOC
millions of dollars of resources to develop, evalu- lost during application.
ate, and produce VOC-compliant coatings. Many A fourth approach is the use of non-
technical articles, seminars, and product announce- photochemically reactive solvents, which are ex-
ments address this issue, which has come to empt from the VOC regulation. Exempt solvents that
dominate the technology. have been used are l,l,l, - trichloroethane and
Coatings chemists have thus been forced to methylene chloride which are good solvents for
find substitutes for solvent-borne coatings with high certain alkyd and other resins. There are several dis-
VOC levels, and these substitutes have in some advantages to using these solvents. One is the pos-
cases affected application properties - viscosity, sibility of adverse health effects, as both are listed
for instance. Consequently, applicators have had to as HAPS according to the 1990 CAAA. The second
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

at 303-397-2295.
is that both solvents must be disposed of as
hazardous waste. In addition, there is a strong in-
ternational effort to ban the use of chlorofluorocar-
bons in coatings because they contribute to
destruction of the ozone in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere). The solvent 1,l ,l-trichloroethane is
listed as a Class I substance, ¡.e., as among the
most ozone-depleting substances. Starting in May where
1993, any coating containing this material must car- VOC = VOC content in g/L of coating less water and
ry a warning label stating that the product contains exempt solvent
a substance which harms public health and the en- Wo = Weight percent of organic volatiles (V, - W),
vironment by destroying stratospheric ozone. In ad- W , = Weight percent of water
dition, production must be phased down by the year V, = Volume percent of water (Ww)(Dc/Dw)
2000 to 20% of its 1990 levels.14 D, = Density of coating glL at 25°C
D, = Density of water, g/L at 25OC (0.997 x 103)
9. Methods of Measuring VOC
VOCs are defined as the mass of volatile per volume a. Baking of Multi-ComponentAir-Dried Coatings.
of liquid (less water and exempt solvents). The most Originally, the EPA and ASTM methods determined
widely.used method for measuring VOC content is the volatiles using ASTM D 2369, which requires
EPA Method 24, which is described in 40 CFR 60, heating a sample at 110°C for one hour.24 One prob-
Appendix A.Z2 The procedure for determining VOC lem that arose was that the multi-component coat-
content is also described in ASTM D 3960-91.23 ings were not fully cured before being baked. As a
There are some subtle differences between the EPA consequence, some of the unreacted low molecu-
method and the ASTM method which are discussed lar weight species were volatilized and measured
below. The procedure consists of the following as VOCs although under air-drying conditions they
steps: would become part of the film (Le., non-volatile).
Determinethe percent volatiles by weight in the There was also concern that at 110°C, some film
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
coating. additives, such as plasticizers, might also become
Determine the density of the coating. volatilized, which would give artificially high read-
Determine the water content (percent by ings of the VOC content. In 1992, EPA and ASTM
weight) of the coating, and agreed to allow the test specimens to stand at room
Compute the VOC. The standard equations are temperatures for up to 24 hours to allow the coat-
given below. ings to cure prior to baking.25
Equation 1 is for a solvent-borne coating that b. Low-Solids, Water-Borne Coatings. Several coat-
does not contain water or exempt solvent, and ing manufacturers have pointed out that EPA
Equation 2 for a coating containing both solvents Method 24 is not well suited to measuring the VOC
and water (but no exempt solvents). content of low-solidswaterborne coatings. This can
There have been several concerns or problems be understood by examining Equation 2 for a low-
with using the EPA and ASTM test methods. These solids water-borne coating. Both the numerator and
are summarized below. the denominator become very small, as the ratio of
D,/D, approaches 1 and the W , (weight percent
of water) approaches 100. There are inherent inac-
curacies in dividing one very small number by
another very small number. EPA has agreed to
Table 3
ANALYSIS OF VOC EMISSIONS
Component Density Volume (W Weight (%o)
Water 1.o 240 cc (24) 240 g (27.3)

Solvent 0.75 300 cc (30) 225 g (25.6)
Resin 0.9 460 cc (46) 414 g (47.1)
Coating 0.88 100.00 (100) 879 (100.0)

566
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27=1 9 3 m 8627940 0004014 Th9 m
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
review a proposed revision of the method for this Houston-Galveston-Brazoria, TX

type of coating. Milwaukee-Racine, WI
c. Non-Linearity of VOC Levels. Because of the way New York-N New Jersey-Long Is, NY-NJ-CT
VOC is defined (¡.e., a‘s mass of volatiles divided by Southeast Desert Modified AQMA, CA
volume of coating less water), the VOC content does
not provide a linear measure of the difference in Severe
VOC emitted from different coatings. As noted in Attainment Date 1 1 /1512005
ASTM D 3960, “thus, a coating with VOC content Baltimore, MD
of 3 Ibs of VOC per gallon ...would release about Philadelphia-Wilm-Trent, PA-NJ-DE-MD
85% less VOC than a coating with 6 Ibs of VOC per San Diego, CA
gallon of coating.”23 Ventura County, CA
d. Inability to Compute “Actual” VOC Emitted. Be-
cause the volume of the water is subtracted from Serious
the volume of the paint, it is often difficult to com- Attainment Date 1 1 /I 5/2000
pute the actual amount of VOC emitted for a gallon Atlanta, GA
of paint. Baton Rouge, LA
Consider the following hypothetical example of Beaumont-Port Arthur, TX
a coating with 240 cc of water, 300 cc of organic Boston-Lawrence-Worcester (E.MA), MA-NH
solvent, and 460 cc of resin to constitute 1 liter of EI Paso, TX
coating (1000 cc). Using assumed densities of 1.0 Greater Connecticut
for water, 0.75 for the solvent and 0.9 for the resin Muskegon, MI
we can compute a VOC content of 296 g/L accord- Portsmouth-Dover-Rochester, NH
ing to Equation 2. (Table 3) Providence (All RI), RI
However, from an emissions inventory view- Sacramento Metro, CA
point, each liter of coating that is applied (e.g., at San Joaquin Valley, CA
an application shop) emits 225 grams (300 cc). This Sheboygan, WI
situation can be confusing and can require several Springfield (Western MA), MA
calculations to accurately compute total VOC Washington, DC-MD-VA
emissions.
e. Alternate Definitions of VOC. At least one state Moderate
(Texas) has established a definition of VOC which Attainment Date 11/15/96
is based on mass of volatiles emitted per volume Atlantic City, NJ
of solid (¡.e., grams of VOC per liter of solids).26 This Charleston, WV
definition has the advantage of providing a linear Charlotte-Gastonia, NC
relationship between the VOC content and the VOC Cincinnati-Hamilton, OH-KY
emitted. A significant problem with this, however, Cleveland-Akron-Lorain, OH
is that the numbers required in Texas would be Dallas-Fort Worth, TX
different from the numbers required in the other Dayton-Springfield, OH
states because of the difference in definition. Detroit-Ann Arbor, MI
Another problem is that there is no established Grand Rapids, MI
means of measuring fhe volume solids directly. In- Greensboro-Winston Salem-High Point, NC
stead, the Texas Air Control Board has established Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY
a procedure to calculate its version of VOC from the Kewaunee County, WI
EPA version. This calculation requires assumptions Knox & Lincoln Counties, ME
of densities for the solvents and has added to the Lewiston-Auburn, ME
confusion. Louisville, KY-IN
Manitowoc County, WI
Miami-Fort Lauderdale-W. Palm Beach, FL
Table 4
Monterey Bay, CA
OZONE NONATTAINMENT AREAS IN 1990 Nashville, TN
Parkersburg, WV
Extreme Phoenix, AZ
Attainment Date 1 1 /15/201O Pittsburgh-Beaver Valley, PA
Los Angeles - South Coast Air Basin, CA Portland, ME
Raleigh-Durham, NC
Severe Reading, PA
Attainment Date 11/15/2007 Richmond-Petersburg, VA
Chicago-Gary-Lake County , I L-lN
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 1 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004015 9T5
TABLE 4 (continued) 90-day average meets the criterion.

This regulation affects the coatings industry
Salt Lake City, UT because of the lead dust generated during removal
San Francisco-Bay Area, CA of lead-containing coatings from bridges, water
Santa Barbara-Santa Maria-Lompoc, CA towers, and other industrial structures. The blast
St. Louis, MO-IL cleaning or power tool cleaning of lead paint can
Toledo, OH produce extremely high levels of lead dust in the
workplace.Z* The EPA standard, however, is intend-
ed to protect the public health, not that of the em-
Marginal
ployees, who are covered by the Occupational
Attainment Date 11 Il 5I1992
Safety and Health Administration. Thus, the air is
Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY
typically monitored at the property limits (Le., im-
Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, PA-NJ
mediately outside the location of the structure or fa-
Altoona, PA
cility from which the coating is being removed.)
Birmingham, AL
Buffalo-Niagara Falls, NY 2. Air Monitoring for Lead
Canton, OH Ambient air monitoring for lead is performed rela-
Cherokee County, SC tively infrequently on most industrial projects. One
Columbus, OH reason is that on many projects, the abrasive blast-
Door County, WI ing or removal operation is of short duration, or oc-
Edmonson County, KY curs sporadically, rather than constantly. Also, the
Erie, PA vast majority of regulatory agencies have not en-
Essex County (Whiteface Mtn), NY forced these regulations or notified the facility own-
Evansville, IN ers or contractors that paint removal operations
Greenbrier County, WV were considered in the jurisdiction of these regula-
Hancock & Waldo Counties, ME tions. A few agencies, such as Allegheny County
Harrisburg-Lebanon-Carlisle, PA (Pennsylvania), have established specific limits for
Indianapolis, IN the level of lead dust, based on a 24-hour average
Jefferson County, NY rather than the 90-day limits established by EPA.29
Jersey County, IL Sussex County, DE Currently, under Title X of the 1992 Housing and
Johnstown, PA Community Development Act, the US EPA is con-
Kent and Queen Anne’s Counties, MD sidering developing national guidelines on the need
Knoxville, TN and procedures for monitoring ambient lead.30
Lake Charles, LA 3. Monitoring Procedures
Lancaster, PA When removing lead or other hazardous materials,
Lexington-Fayette, KY measurements for airborne lead and other
Reno, NV hazardous elements can be made by instrument
Scranton-Wilkes-Barre, PA monitoring in accordance with EPA criteria. Levels
Seattle-Tacoma, WA of lead in air are regulated by both the EPA and
Smyth County, VA (White Top, Mtn) OSHA. (For more information on health and safety
South Bend-Elkhart, IN issues associated with lead, see chapter 26.) Mon-
Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, FL itors are placed at appropriate locations based on
Walworth County, WI
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
wind direction and proximity to homes, playgrounds,
York, PA businesses, bodies of water, etc.
Youngstown-Warren-Sharon, OH-PA The following descriptions of methods for
measuring ambient lead are derived from SSPC
C. AIR QUALITY FOR LEAD Guide 61, “Guide for Containing Debris Generated
1. General During Paint Removal Operations,” (March 1992).3l
Lead has been known to be toxic to humans for a. Method 07: €PA Criteria for Lead - High volume
thousands of years. One of the major routes of ex- air samplers equipped for the collection of total sus-
posure to humans is through inhalation of lead dust pended particulate (TSP) are used. The CFR does
particles. In the 1970s EPA established the NAAQS not give specific procedures for number or place-
level of 1.5 micrograms (pg) of leadlm3 averaged ment of air monitors because of the irregular con-
over 90 days.27 This regulation was intended for figuration of water towers, bridges, and other
continuous operations that produced lead dust, such structures. Thus, the placement of monitors must
as battery or pigment manufacturing or lead be determined on a site-specific basis, taking into
smelters. The 90-day provision allows for some var- account wind direction, and proximity to homes,
iations in the daily emission levels as long as the playgrounds, businesses, bodies of water, etc.

568
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S S P C CHAPTER*27.L 93 = 8b27940 00040Lb 831
b. Modification for Under 90 Days - Because paint not be confused with the more specific criteria for
removal operations are not normally conducted con- PM-1O particulates, given below.) Other terms often
tinuously over a 90 day period, it may be appropri- used are air contaminant, fugitive emission, dust,
ate to establish a daily criterion for monitoring. Note and opacity.
that the suggested modification of the procedure Air contaminant means any substance (e.g.,
shown below may not be acceptable to state or local particulate, gas, fumes, smoke) other than water
environmental officials. The appropriate officials vapor that is released or emitted into the at-
should be contacted prior to its implementation. mosphere. A fugitive emission is particulate matter
For example, if a project lasted only 30 days, that is not collected by a catcher system (e.g., stack)
the Daily Allowance would be 4.5 pglm3 based on and is released into the atmosphere at the point of
the formula shown in Equation 3 below. generation. Dust is defined as fine-grained particles
The calculation provides an allowance criterion light enough to be suspended in the air.
for a 24-hour period. In order to convert this value From the previous discussion, it is evident that
to an allowance corresponding to the hours worked, there are numerous sources of air contaminants (fu-
use Equation 4 shown below. gitive emissions) arising from coating operations.
These include dust and particulates from abrasive
blasting, solvent ‘fumes from paint applications,
DA = ~ x 1.5 pglm3 (3) paint or grease removal, or any activity that disturbs
PD solid debris. All of these would be classed as fugi-
tive emissions because they are not discharged in-
where tentionally into the atmosphere by a stack, but rather
escape from the area of operation. Fugitive emis-
DA = Daily Allowance (pg/m3) sions are generally considered undesirable and
PD = Number of preparation days anticipated in a 90 day potentially harmful to humans and the environment.
period 2 . PM-70 Emission Standards
Under the National Ambient Air Quality Standard
24 (NAAQS), in addition to the species identified earlier
ADA = DA x ~
(4) (ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
H
dioxide, lead, and HAPS), EPA regulates any par-
ticulates having a mean diameter of 10 microns or
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
where
less. These are referred to as “PM-10” and are too
ADA = Adjusted Daily Allowance (pg/m3) small to be seen with the naked eye. The smallest
H = Hours worked in 24 hours particle that one can see is about 50 microns in di-
ameter (e.g., dust particles in a ray of sunshine).
These very small particles (regulated under PM-10)
In the above example, if lead dust were
are able to penetrate the body’s filtering mechan-
produced for 8 hours (H = 8), the adjusted daily
ism and enter into and damage the lungs.
allowance would be 13.5 pglm3 (4.5 pg/m3 x 3)
Under 40 CFR 50.6, EPA has established the
c. Method 03: OSHA Criteria for Lead - In this ap-
following criteria for PM-10 emissions:36
proach, air quality measurements for lead are deter-
a. Level not to exceed 150 pglm3 averaged over a
mined in accordance with NIOSH Method 7082
24-hour period. (NOTE: This level may not be
using personal monitors outside of the containment
exceeded more than once per year).
areas.32 PEL lead limits are 50 pglm3 per OSHA
b. Level not to exceed 50 pg/m3 (annual arithmetic
General Industry Standard 29 CFR 1910.1025 and
mean).
Construction Industry Standard 29 CFR 1926.62
As with the regulations for lead, these were not
(see chapter 26).33’34
designed with coating application or removal
Additional details on monitoring air quality for
projects in mind. The ambient air quality standards
lead are given in the industrial Lead Paint Removal
for particulates were based on controlling the over-
Handbook.35
all air quality for relatively large air quality districts,
not for small point source emissions.
There is relatively little information regarding
D. AIR QUALITY FOR PARTICULATES the extent to which these criteria are exceeded in
1. General paint removal jobs. However, it is considered un-
Particulate matter is defined as any finely divided likely that the daily average (150 pglm3) will be
solid or liquid material. For airborne materials, this exceeded outside of the work area except for
definition includes particles with a diameter of 100 extremely dusty operations.
microns or less. (The criteria for particulates should Numerous states and localities have estab-

I
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SSPC CHAPTER+27.L 93 8b27940 00040L7 778 D
lished their own regulations, criteria, and in some (e.g., property line). Possible frequencies include:
cases permitting requirements for particulates and (1) Level O Emissions - No visible emission. Note:
fugitive emissions. This level may not be achievable during abrasive
blasting.
(2) Level 1 Emissions - Random emissions of a cu-
mulative duration of no more than 1% of the work
day (e.g., five minutes in an eight-hour work day).
day (e.g., 24 minutes in an eight hour work day).
day (e.g., 48 minutes in an eight hour work day).
(5) Level 4 Emissions - Emissions are unrestricted
and may occur at any time.
6. Method A-2 - Opacity is the degree of obscuring
of light. It is often measured on a scale of 0-100,
based on the percent of light that fails to penetrate
a plume (e.g., of smoke). Zero percent represents
zero obscuring, and 100% represents complete ob-
scuring of the light. Opacity measurements are
made by trained, certified observers. A scale from
0% to 100%, in 5% increments, is used. Measure-
ments are typically made at 15 second intervals for
given periods of time (e.g., 30 minutes). The accep-
tance criteria must be established by the specifier.
For example, a criterion might restrict the opacity
to no more than 20% for any three-minute period
in 60 minutes. Local regulations may provide
guidance as to the level of opacity that should be
required. Monitoring should be conducted prior to
beginning the work, as appropriate, in order to es-
tablish background levels.
c. Method B: Ambient Air Monitoring for PM-10 -
High volume air samplers equipped with PM-10
heads are used to assess the total amount of par-
FIGURE 3 ticulate matter ten microns (0.39 mils) or less in size
Ambient air monitor for PM-10 particulates. that escape the contained work area. The number
of monitors to be used is based on wind direction
and proximity to homes, playgrounds, businesses,
3. Methods for Assessing Particulate Emissions bodies of water, etc.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Methods for quantifying the amount of dust and If acceptable to local and state air quality
debris escaping the work area are derived from authorities, the EPA level of 150 pg/m3 over a 24
SSPC Guide 6i.(37) Method A (visual assessment) hour period may be modified to 450 pglm3 over an
provides immediate feedback on the emissions eight hour period, provided no emissions occur from
created, while Method B (ambient air monitoring us- the worksite during the remaining 16 hours. Again,
ing high volume samplers) requires two to three monitoring should be conducted for a few days pri-
days to receive results. Users must contact the ap- or to beginning the work (for eight hours to 24 hours
propriate state and local authorities to ascertain per day, as appropriate) in order to establish back-
which of the methods are accepted for monitoring ground levels.
emissions and to establish the appropriate accep-
tance criteria. 4. Determining the Need for Air Monitoring on Paint
a. Method A-1: Visible Emission Duration - Obser- Removal Projects
vations of visible emissions from the work area pro- As noted earlier, existing ambient air quality stan-
vide immediate feedback on the performance of the dards are not being imposed routinely on paint
containment system. Visible emissions are permit- removal projects. As noted, the thrust of such stan-
ted at given frequencies or durations provided they dards is for the continuous monitoring of large areas
do not extend beyond an established boundary line (e.g., entire cities) as compared with individual short-

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27-1 93 = 8627940 0004018 6 0 4 =
term projects. However, monitoring is being speci- E. STATE AND LOCAL REGULATION
fied on some paint removal projects. OF AIR QUALITY
Monitoring might be initiated when there is a
A number of state and local air quality agencies have
belief that emissions from a short term paint removal
enacted regulations to control air contamination by paint
project (particularly lead) could have an effect on
removal activities. These were summarized in a special JPCL
the overall air quality in a region. Monitoring may
report on “Coating Regulations.”18 In addition to the impo-
also be imposed when the lead paint removal site
sition of NAAQS, control of emissions has been regulated
is in a residential area, or next to schools, hospi-
by requiring permits (e.g., for abrasive blast cleaning), by
tals, playgrounds, and other areas of public access
general language restricting excessive or objectionable visi-
to better assure public health and welfare. For work
ble emissions, or by limiting the opacity of a dust plume.
already underway, complaints over visible emissions
Agencies that require permits for blast cleaning include
or questions as to the seriousness of emissions
Allegheny County (Pittsburgh) Pennsylvania, the City of St.
could be investigated using monitors. Prior litigation
Louis, and the City of Cleveland, Ohio. Among the agencies
over emissions may also trigger monitoring on fu-
that have instituted some control of opacity are Allegheny
ture projects. For example, monitoring has been re-
County, Pennsylvania, (20%), Washington County, Nevada
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
quired in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, since

(40%), Maricopa County (Phoenix) Arizona (20%), Wayne
1987 for most abrasive blast cleaning projects great-
County (Detroit) Michigan (20%); State of Virginia (20% for
er than 10,000 square feet (900m2) in area as a
short periods and 60% for any period); and the State of
result of earlier litigation over silica contamination.29
California (400/0).’~The State of California, the U.S. Navy,
From the above, it is obvious that the decision
several DOTS and various private facility owners also res-
regarding whether to monitor a given project is not
trict the type of abrasive. California requires that abrasives
clear cut. However, if there is a potential for public
be certified in a biennial program in which abrasives are
exposure to the dust, such monitoring will provide
evaluated for their dusting and breakdown characteristics’8.
a high degree of assurance that emissions are with-
The U.S. Navy specification for abrasives for shipyards in-
in acceptable limits. Without the monitoring, such
cludes limitations on heavy metal content and fine
judgments are strictly subjective. However, for work
(dust-producing) particles.3*
within the confines of a plant, where it can be es-
tablished that dust and debris will not carry across Some agencies have also regulated the airborne level
the property line into a community, such monitor- of silica abrasive. These include several cities in
ing will provide little benefit. Massachusetts; Wayne County, Michigan; and Allegheny
If ambient air monitoring is specified, the costs County, Pennsylvania.18
of the project will increase. The cost will extend be- Silica hazards to workers are discussed in Chapter 26
yond the price of the monitoring and analysis as on Safety and Health.
monitoring will usually necessitate tighter and more
stringent controls over the containment.
5 . Duration of Testing and Placemenf of Monitors
40 CFR 58.13, “Operating Schedule,” identifies the
frequency of monitoring required (e.g., daily, every
other day, etc.). This section is intended for long-
term continuous (permanent) monitoring at sites
across the nation in order to establish air quality
data. As a result, it provides no guidance on the du-
ration of monitoring for short-term projects such as
lead paint removal. Approaches in the industry
include:
Continual monitoring throughout the entire
project;
Monitoring during the initial week or two of the
project; and
Monitoring only when complaints are received.
Regardless of the approach selected, back-
ground levels for the jobsite must be established.
The approach used for monitor placement in Al-
legheny County, Pennsylvania has been reported
by Sadar and Pate1.37 A great deal of judgment is
required for the selection of placement sites. Addi-
tional detail on air particulate monitoring is given
in the Industrial Lead Paint Removal Handbook.35

/
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SSPC CHAPTER*27.L 93 8b27940 00040L9 540 m
REFERENCES
References 1-13 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.0.
14. “The Clean Air Act and The Paint and Coatinas Industrv.” Is-
sue Analysis by National Paint & Coatings Association,
Washington, DC, 1992.
15. Stanley Santire, “1990 Federal Clean Air Act Amendments: An
Overview,” JPCL, September 1993, pp. 46-50.
16. a. “Implementation Strategy for the Clean Air Act Amendments
of 1990, Update 1992.” Publication 400-A-92-004. Washington,
DC: U S . EPA, July 1992.
b. “The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990: A Guide for Small
Business,” U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Radiation Publication
450-K-92-001. Washington, DC: U S . EPA, September 1992.
17. U.S. EPA. Control of Volatile Organic Emissions from Existing
Stationary Sources, Volume VI: Surface Coating of Miscellane-
ous Metal Patts and Products. June 1978 EPA-450-12-78-015,
NTIS PB-286-157.
18. “Update: Regulations on Coating Operations for Heavy-Duty
Industrial Maintenance Painting,” JPCL, February 1991, pp.
55-116.
19. “Negotiating Committee Agrees on VOC Limits: EPA to Draft
Proposal,” JPCL, October 1993.
20. “Summary of BACMIMACT Options, Shipbuilding and Ship
Repair NESHAPICTG,” U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Plan-
ning and Standards, May 25, 1993.
21. SSPC Guide lox, “Guide to Specifying and Testing Coatings
Based on Volatile Organic Content,” Draft #4, July 1993.
22. “Determination of Volatile Matter Content, Water Content, Den-
sity, Volume Solids and Waste Solids of Surface Coatings,”
40 CFR Part 60, Appendix A, Method 24.
23. ASTM D 3690 - Standard Practice for Determining Volatile Or-
ganic Compound (VOC) Content of Paints and Related Coatings.,
American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia: 1991.
24. ASTM D 2369 - Standard Test Method for Volatile Content of
Coatings. American Society for Testing and Materials. Phila-
delphia: 1990.
25. “EPA Revises VOC Test Method,” JPCL, September 1992,
pp. 78-79.
26. “VOCs: Texas Extends AIM Rules; Revises Shop Rules,” JPCL,
August 1992, pp. 41-43.
27. 40 CFR 50.12, “National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Lead”.
28. “Preventing Lead Poisoning In Construction,” DHHS Publica-
tion 91-116, National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health
(1991), JPCL, January 1992, pp. 40-54.
29. K.A. Trimber, G. Manown, and L. Lambert, “Air and Soil
Monitoring During Elast Cleaning Operations,” Lead Paint
Removal from Industrial Structures, SSPC 89-02. Pittsburgh,
SSPC, 1989. pp. 20-25.
30. Housing and Community Development Act of 1992, Title X,
“Residential Lead-Eased Paint Hazard Reduction Act of 1992,”
102nd U.S. Congress, October 5, 1992.
31. “Guide for Containing Debris Generated During Paint Removal
Operations,” SSPC Guide 61 (CON), SSPC 92-07. Pittsburgh:
SSPC, March 1992.
32. NIOSH Method 7082, “Lead,” National Institute of Occupational
Safety ¿? Health.
33. 29 CFR 1910.1025, “Lead,” (3, “Permissible Exposure Limits
(PEL)’’ .
34. 29 CFR 1926.62, “Lead,” 3, “Permissible Exposure Limits
(PEL)”.
35. K. A. Trimber, Industrial Lead Paint RemovalHandbook, second
edition. SSPC 93-02. Pittsburgh: SSPC, 1993.
36. 40 CFR 50.6, “National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Particulate Matter”.
37. A. J. Sadar and H. L. Patel, “Air Monitoring Guidance for Abra-
sive Blasting Operations,’’ JPCL, December 1987, pp. 31-32,
68, 70.
38. Abrasive Blasting Media, Ship Hull Blast Cleaning, MIL-A-2262A
(SH), February 6, 1987. Washington: Naval Sea Systems Com-
mand. 1987.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
572
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SSPC CHAPTER*27.2 93 86279qO OOOLI020 262
CHAPTER 27.2
WASTE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

by
Bernard R. Appleman
A. DEFINITIONS RCRA regulations are published in the Code of Feder-

al Regulations, Title 40, Parts 261-281. Sections of the
Waste is generally defined as any material which is dis-
hazardous waste regulations of most relevance to the pro-
carded and not intended for some other productive use. EPA
tective coatings industry are as follows:
defines solid waste as any garbage, refuse, sludge, or semi-
Part 261 Identification and Listing of Hazardous
solid. The definition also includes liquid wastes which are
Waste
not otherwise regulated under the Federal Water Pollution
Part 262 Standards Applicable to Generators of
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Control Act.
Hazardous Waste
A waste is considered hazardous if it poses a substan-
Part 268 Land Disposal Restrictions
tial present or potential hazard to human health or the en-
vironment. A more formal definition of a hazardous waste is Other portions which are of some interest include:
given below. Part 263 Standards Applicable to Transporters
Hazardous waste is a subset of hazardous substances. of Hazardous Waste
Materials may be defined as hazardous based on charac- Parts 264-265 Standards for Owners and Operators of
teristics such as toxicity, corrosivity, ignitability (¡.e., flash Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage,
point) and reactivity (e.g., explosion hazard). Also included and Disposal Facilities
as hazardous wastes are materials contributing to water pol-
lution, hazardous air pollutants, or other substances defined See Appendix C (Chapter 27.3) for an outline of other
as such by federal agencies. relevant sections of 40 CFR.
Thus, in identifying requirements for handling and treat-
ing wastes and other materials, it is necessary to know the B. CLASSIFYING WASTE
agency or agencies having jurisdiction over the particular The provisions of Subtitle C apply to materials defined
substances. The Federal EPA has jurisdiction over handling as hazardouswaste. There are two means by which a waste
and disposing of hazardous and solid waste. In 1976 Con- can be classified as hazardous: it may be specifically includ-
gress enacted the Resource Conservation & Recovery Act ed on any one of four lists of hazardous wastes, or it may
(RCRA)7 which was amended in 1984 by the Hazardous and have one of the characteristics which define hazardous
Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA).8 RCRA and HSWA are wastes. Therefore, there are two types of hazardous waste:
designed to track and regulate hazardous waste from listed waste and characteristic waste.
manufacture to final disposal. Another federal regulation,
1. Listed Wastes
the Comprehensive Environmental ResponseCompensation
EPA has identified over 400 substances that are
and Liability Act (CERCLA)g, also known as the “Superfund”,
considered hazardous. These include spent paint
was enacted in 1980. CERCLA is intended to control cleanup
solvents, such as xylene, acetone, ethyl acetate,
and designate liability for abandoned, undercontrolled, or in-
and methyl isobutyl ketone, spent halogenated sol-
active waste sites, and to deal with hazardouswaste releases
vents (e.g., methylene chloride, l , I ,l-trichloroe-
in an emergency. CERCLA is discussed in Chapter 27.3.
thane and carbon tetrachloride), cyanide and
Congress’ main goal under RCRA is to reduce or
compounds, toxic organics, and sludges from vari-
eliminate the generation of hazardous waste and ensure that
ous manufacturing and treatment processes. Each
wastes generated are treated, stored, and disposed of so as
of these has been assigned a specific EPA
to minimize present and future threats to human health and
hazardous waste number (e.g., F003 for xylene).
the environment. RCRA regulations include subtitles A
through J. Subtitle C deals with handling, disposal, and treat- 2 . Characteristic Wastes
ment of hazardous wastes. (Subtitle D addresses state or These are substances which are defined as
regional solid waste.) Another subtitle of interest is Subtitle hazardous based on one or more of the following
I, which covers regulations of underground storage tanks. four characteristics:
The remaining subtitles deal with general administrative pro- ignitability
visions of the Act. corrosivity

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27-2 93 m 8627940 0004021 1T9 m
reactivity 3. Other Considerations for Waste Classification

toxicity a. Acutely Hazardous Waste - EPA has established
a. lgnitability - An ignitable waste is a liquid having special requirements for small quantities of waste
a flash point of less than 60% (140°) using a desig- considered extremely hazardous. These include
nated ASTM method. This includes waste from certain pesticides and dioxin-containing wastes.
solvent-bornepaint and degreasing compounds and These are not commonly generated in the protec-
other solvents not covered as listed wastes. See 3(c) tive coating industry, but do require special treat-
in this section for the definition of the minimum ment and reporting.
quantity of paint in a container designated as a b. Recycledor ReusedHazardous Waste - A waste
hazardous waste. that is classified as hazardous according to the
6. Corrosivify - This category includes materials that above criteria, but which is to be reused or recycled
have low or high pH (less than 2 or greater than in some beneficial fashion, is not subject to the re-
12.5) or are excessively corrosive to steel. These quirements of Subtitle C (See 40 CFR Part 260, Ap-
include rust removers, and acid or alkaline clean- pendix I, Figure 3 for special provisions for certain
ing fluids (e.g., certain chemical strippers). hazardous wastes which are intended to be legiti-
c. Reactivity - This characteristic applies to materi- mately and beneficially used, re-used, recycled, or
als that are unstable or undergo rapid or violent reclaimed.)
chemical reactions with water or other materials. Ex- c. Residues of Hazardous Waste in an Empty Con-
amples are cyanide, plating waste, waste bleaches, tainer (40 C f R 267.7) - Definitions of an “empty”
and other oxidizers. container are as follows:
d. Toxicity - These are wastes which, when subject- (1) All wastes have been removed using com-
ed to an extraction procedure using an acid, are monly employed procedures for emptying the
found to contain high concentrations of heavy me- container.
tals or pesticides that could be released into ground (2) No more than 1 inch (25 mm) of residue re-
water. This is the characteristic by which lead paint mains on the bottom of the container.
residues may be classified as hazardous waste, and (3) No more than 3% by weight of the capaci-
the RCRA provision having the greatest impact on ty of the container remains in containers of a
the protective coatings industry. Other metals that capacity of 110 gal. (418 L) or less.
may cause the waste to be classified as toxic include (4) No more than 0.3% of the weight of the to-
chromium, barium, cadmium and mercury. tal capacity remains in containers of a capaci-
The test method for determining if a waste is ty of greater than 110 gal. (418 L).
hazardous is the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching An “empty” container as defined above would
Procedure (TCLP) (EPA Method 131l).39The abra- not be subject to RCRA rules. If the container con-
sive, paint, or other waste is broken up into small tained more than this amount of solvent-thinned
pieces and agitated in an acid for 24 hours. If the paint, there is a strong likelihood that the waste
amount of lead or other metal which leaches (dis- would require treatment as hazardous waste. Some
solves) into the acid is greater than or equal to the disposal facilities may have more stringent criteria
threshold value, the debris is considered hazardous. for a container to be considered empty.
A waste from which 5 mg/l of lead or more leaches d. Disposal of Scrap Metal - Scrap metal, even if
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is considered a hazardous waste.40Such a waste coated with lead paint, is considered a recyclable
is described as a “characteristic waste”, and more material and not subject to the requirementsof Sub-
specifically, a toxic waste. Table 5 below gives the title C. For this exemption to apply, the scrap metal
threshold limits for the other metals. Each metal is must be reused by a steel mill or ferrous foundry
assigned a specific waste code. The “D” series is as part of the raw materials for the process. If the
designated for characteristic wastes (e.g., lead is scrap metal is simply to be discarded, then it would
D008). need to be handled and treated as a potentially
hazardous waste and be tested by TCLP.
Table 5
CHARACTERISTIC LEVELS FOR TOXIC METALS40
Code Metal Threshold Concentration C. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR HAZARDOUS
DO04 Arsenic 5.0 milligrams per liter (ppm) WASTE
DO05 Barium 100.0 milligrams per liter (ppm)
DO06 Cadmium 1.O milligrams per liter (ppm) 1. Major Parties
DO07 Chromium 5.0 milligrams per liter (ppm) Under RCRA, EPA was directed to establish a pro-
DO08 Lead 5.0 milligrams per liter (ppm)
DOO9 Mercury 0.2 milligrams per liter (ppm) gram designed to control the management of
DO1 O Selenium 1.O milligrams per liter (ppm) hazardous waste from its generation to its ultimate
DO1 1 Silver 5.0 milligrams per liter (ppm) disposal (¡.e., from “cradle” to “grave”). EPA has
assigned responsibility for three key groups:

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERx27.2 93 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0004022 035
the generator of the waste; shipper (transporter) of generation site. (NOTE: Only licensed transporters
the waste; and the treatment, storage and disposal may be involved in shipping hazardous waste). Un-
(TSD) facility. The protective coatings industry is der some circumstances the waste generator may
generally not primarily involved in transporting, treat- deliberately or inadvertently “treat” the hazardous
ing, or disposing of hazardous waste, although waste. It is important to understand what types of
these activities may be an incidental part of the work treatments or processes are regulated and what the
done by a painting contractor or a facility owner. The permitting or reporting requirements are.
major role of owners and contractors is that of The responsibilities and regulations affecting
generator. generators, transporters, and TSD facilities are
described below.
2. Responsibility of Generators
Generators are classified based on the amounts of
hazardous waste generated. These are as follows:
+ Large quantity generator - Generates greater
than or equal to 1,000 kg (2,200 Ib) per month,
or accumulates more than 6,000 kg (13,200 Ibs)
at the site at any one time.
+
Small quantity generator - Generates between
100 kg and 1,000 kg (220-2,200 Ibs) per month
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and accumulates less than 6,000 kg.
+ Conditionally exempt small quantity generator
- Generates less than 100 kg (220 Ib) per
month.
FIGURE 4 A large quantity generator must comply with all
Clean-up of polluted waste site. the requirements listed below. There are some
minor differences in the requirements for a small
A “generator” is defined by EPA as any per- quantity generator.35 A conditionally exempt small
son whose act or process produces hazardous quantity generator does not need to follow the
waste. A facility owner is the primary generator of reporting requirements, but still must assure that the
the hazardous waste produced by removing coat- waste is properly tested and disposed of. The fol-
ings from structures. This is true even though a con- lowing activities are the responsibility of the
tractor may be the party that actually physically generator:
removes the paint (e.g., by abrasive blast cleaning). a. Identification of Waste (40 C f R 262.11). - This
In some states, the contractor has been designat- regulation requires that the generator determine if
ed as “Co-generator,’’ indicating a shared respon- the waste is hazardous. This is accomplished by ap-
sibility. However, this designation does not relieve plying knowledge of the hazardous characteristics
the facility owner from full responsibility for ensur- of the material in light of the process used, or
ing that all operations (¡.e., generation [by removal], through laboratory testing. If a project is consistently
transportation and disposal) and the other activities producing material with a similar composition and
described below are performed in accordance with consistency, the generator can utilize documented
RCRA rules. process and test data as evidence of the material
The disposal of waste paints or thinners deter- characteristics. For paint removal projects, the varia-
mined to be hazardous may sometimes be the bility is such that the “authoritative sampling” is not
responsibility of the contractor who purchased them. appropriate, and representative samples must be
If the coatings have been used in shop application taken for different waste streams and tested in a
(e.g., rail car or steel fabricating shop) the shop fa- laboratory.
cility is the waste generator. Laboratory testing is intended to simulate the
A transporter is defined as the person engaged type of long-term leaching that could occur in sani-
in the offsite transportation of hazardous waste. Ac- tary landfills. In the case of lead paint debris, if the
cordingly, transporting the waste within a site (¡.e., leaching meets or exceeds the allowable levels
relocating to a special storage area from the gener- described above, the debris is considered to be
ation area) does not fall within 40 CFR Part 263, and hazardous due to toxicity.
may be performed by the generator without any ad- b. EPA Identification Number (40 CFR 262.12) - The
ditional permit. generator must obtain a number to treat or store
Treatment and disposal of hazardous waste are hazardous waste, or dispose of, transport, or offer
most commonly performed by specially licensed fa- it for transportation. This number is o’btained from
cilities located off the premises of the waste the state or local EPA office. Different types of EPA
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27.2 93 8627940 0004023 T7L
identification numbers are available. The owner 262.30 through 262.33)- The waste must be pack-
should determine the type needed. The different aged in accordance with the requirements of the 40
types are: CFR 262 sections identified above, as well as
(1) Regular - Permanent ID numbers are in- Department of Transportation Regulations present-
tended for facilities that will generate a ed in 49 CFR 173, 178, and 179, with labeling ac-
hazardous waste on a long term, constant ba- complished in accordance with 49 CFR 172.(401)
sis. Owners may desire to obtain a permit for Essentially, these parts require that the packaging
all of their facilities where lead-containing be capable of preventing leakage of the waste dur-
debris will be generated under one ID number. ing normal transportation conditions as well as up-
(2) Site Specific ID numbers are intended for set conditions (e.g. the container falls out of a truck).
facilities that will generate a hazardous waste The rules also require the use of labels, marking,
once. Owners may desire to identify each site, or placards to identify the characteristicsor dangers
such as individual water towers, bridges, tank associated with transporting the waste.
farms, etc., and have a unique ID number for f. Container Enclosure Requirements (40CFR 265)
each one. - The requirements vary for the large and small
(3) Provisional ID numbers are intended for un- quantity generator, but both essentially require the
foreseen circumstances where a large amount use of leak-proof drums or bins with secure lids or
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(greater than 1,000 kg [2,200 Ibs]) of hazardous covers for containing the material, with the storage
waste is generated. An example would be site locked and located on well-drained ground. The
clean-up of soil from an accidental spill of diesel containers must be inspected for corrosion and
fuel. leaking.
The owner may delegate obtaining Site Specif- g. Contingency Plan and Training (40CFR 265 and
ic and Provisional EPA ID numbers to the contractor. -
40 CFR 262.34) These sections require that the
c. Notificationand Certification (40CFR 268.7 and personnel involved with the handling of hazardous
40 CFR 268.9)- Notification and certification must waste be trained to respond effectively to emergen-
be provided by the generator for each shipment of cies. Paint removal crews must be trained. Basic
debris. The specific wording is found in the regula- safety information must be available, including haz-
tions, and it varies according to whether the restrict- ard labels on containers, the date that the accumu-
ed waste tests hazardous, non-hazardous, or has lation begins, the name and telephone number of
been treated to render it non-hazardous. Informa- a site employee who is the emergency coordinator,
tion required can range from an identificationof the telephone number of fire department, location of fire
treatment standards that should be used for the extinguisher, and other similar contingency items.
debris, to certificationsof personal knowledge of the h. Waste Analysis Plans for On-Site Treatment (40
waste, treatment process, and test results. False CFR 268.7)- If the generator decides to treat the
certification can result in a fine and/or imprisonment. waste on-site to render it non-hazardous, a written
d. Manifesting the Waste (40 CFR Part 262.20 waste analysis plan must be filed with the EPA
through 262.23)- The generator must complete a regional administrator a minimum of 30 days prior
hazardous waste manifest that accompanies each to the treatment activity.
shipment. The manifest includes a description of the i. Waste Accumulation Time (40 CFR 262.34) -
waste, the name of the facility permitted to handle There are restrictions on the length of time that the
the waste, and an alternate facility. The generator waste may accumulate on-site. The large quantity
signs the manifest as does each transporter and the generator may accumulate hazardous waste on-site
final disposal facility. The completed manifest must for 90 days or less without a permit from the EPA.
be returned to the generator within a designated An extension of up to 30 days may be granted due
number of days (45 days for large quantity genera- to unforseen, temporary, or uncontrollable circum-
tors and 60 days for small quantity generators). If stances. The small quantity generator may accumu-
the manifest is not received, the manifest and debris late waste on-site for 180 days with a possible
must be tracked and located. The manifest assures exemption permitting up to 270 days. If these time
that the waste is properly handled from the collec- limits are exceeded, the generator may be consid-
tion of the debris to its final disposal. The manifest ered an operator of a storage facility, and subject
must be obtained from the state where the waste to very extensive requirements.
is being disposed of, if that state requires its use. i. Recordkeeping and Reporting (40 CFR 262.40
If the disposal state does not supply the manifest, through 262.44) - The signed manifests and as-
the form from the state where the waste is generat- sociated documentation must be maintained for at
ed should be used. If neither state requires a specif- least three years. For generators who treat the waste
ic manifest, a standard form can be used. on-site, the recordkeeping requirements can be
e. Packaging and Labeling Requirements (40 CFR more elaborate.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 2 93 8h27940 0004024 908
3. Responsibilities of Transportersand TSDF (Treat- pers can be readily accomplished in the field using standard
ment, Storage and Disposai Facilities) pH paper. The manufacturer’s material safety data sheets
a. Transportation - Waste containers can be trans- (MSDS) will identify the characteristics of the material, in-
ported on-site to temporary holding areas by the cluding the pH and any toxic components. Unless the materi-
generator without special hauling permits. However, al has been diluted, mixed, or otherwise altered, one should
for off-site transportation, the requirements of 40 assume that the most hazardous properties of the material
CFR 263, “Standards Applicable to Transporters of are also true of the waste.
Hazardous Waste,” apply.41 For solid paint waste or abrasive residue suspected of
b. Treatment, Storage and Disposal - Treatment, containing lead or other heavy metals, a laboratory test is
storage, and disposal are defined as follows under normally required to determine the leachate concentration
40 CFR 260.10, “Definitions.” of the metals. The collection and sampling of the waste to
(1) Treatment - Any method, technique, or be tested must be performed according to EPA procedures.
process, including neutralization, designed to For example, the sampling must be taken from a homogene-
change the physical, chemical, or biological ous mix, using random sampling techniques. Typically, a
character or composition of any hazardous minimum of four samples is required to demonstrate that a
waste so as to neutralize such waste, or so as sample is non-hazardous (e.g., less than 5 mg/l for lead.) If
to recover energy or material resources from the generator is willing to handle and dispose of the materi-
the waste, or so as to render such waste non- al as a hazardous waste, it is not necessary to test for the
hazardous, or less hazardous; safer to trans- presence of lead or other heavy metals. However, at least
port, store, or dispose of; or amenable for one sample is recommended for historical records and to
recovery, amenable for storage, or reduced in guide the disposal facility in the appropriate treatment
volume. procedures.
(2) Storage - The holding of hazardous waste Samples required for the TCLP test normally must be
for a temporary period, at the end of which the about 100 g (1/4 Ib), placed in labeled containers. Testing
hazardous waste is treated, disposed of, or should be done by a qualified lab experienced in TCLP test-
stored elsewhere. ing. The test itself normally takes about 24 hours. Addition-
(3) Disposal- The discharge, deposit, injection, al information on sampling procedures is contained in
dumping, spilling, leaking, or placing of any references 42-44.
solid waste or hazardous waste into or on any
land or water so that such solid waste or E. TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF
hazardous waste or any constituent thereof HAZARDOUS WASTE
may enter the environment or be emitted into If a waste that has been collected and tested is deter-
the air, or discharged into any waters, includ- mined to be hazardous, the generator must arrange for some
ing ground waters. type of treatment to render the waste non-hazardous. This
The TSDF is the last phase in the cradle-to- requirement is based on the 1990 Land Disposal Restrictions
grave concept of handling hazardous waste. The fa- (“Land Ban”) (40 CFR 268). This regulation prohibits the land
cility must return the signed manifest to the gener- disposal of any hazardous waste. Typical treatments for lead
ator and comply with requirements for the ultimate containing wastes are summarized below. Treatment is not
disposition of the waste. The extensive require- required if the material is to be recycled or reused for benefi-
ments for these facilities are described in 40 CFR cial purposes. As noted above, such materials are not clas-
Parts 264 and 265.4* Details of generators’, trans- sified as hazardous waste and are not subject to these RCRA
porters’ and TSDFs’ responsibilities and specific ap- requirements.
plication to hazardous lead paint are given in the For hazardous waste, treatment can be performed on-
Industrial Lead Paint Removal Handbook.35 or off-site. On-site treatment is permitted by EPA under very
special circumstances as described below. Off-site treatment
D. SAMPLING AND TESTING services are offered by a number of firms that specialize in
As noted above, it is the generator’s responsibilityto de- this type of technology.
termine if the waste is hazardous. For listed wastes, such 1. Off-Site Treatment of Hazardous Wastes
as xylene and other solvents, there is no need for testing. a. Treatment Methods - One particularly common
The waste is hazardous by definition. For waste paints, the treatment method is the use of lime or portland ce-
determining factor for ignitability is the flash point. This ment. Lime stabilizes lead-containing debris by
may be obtained from the manufacturer; alternatively, an out- pH control. Addition of lime is effective at a level of
side testing laboratory or an in-house testing facility could
about 10-15 percent by weight. Lead compounds
easily determine it using the ASTM method prescribed. For are amphoteric, meaning they are soluble in acidic
solvent-borne paints, it may be prudent to assume that the and alkaline solutions. Adding too much lime will
waste is hazardous and handle and treat it accordingly. De- raise the pH and may result in a leachable lead con-
termining the pH of acid or alkali cleaners or chemical strip-
centration above 5 mgll. Laboratory testing is need-
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at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 2 93 = 8b27940 0004025 B Y Y
ed to determine the proper amount of lime to add. licensed hazardous waste haulers can be obtained
EPA Method 132045is designed to simulate the from the appropriate state agency.
long-term effect of leaching of landfills by ground 2. On-Site Treatment of Hazardous Waste
water. It consists of successive leaching tests simi- Generators can treat the waste on-site in 90-day
lar to TCLP on a waste sample. There are no known holding containers or tanks, if approved by the state
available results of this test being run on the lime- or regional EPA office. A waste analysis plan must
stabilized, lead-bearing waste.de be submitted prior to treatment. The waste must be
Stabilizing lead with portland cement can be treated within the 90-day holding period allowed for
performed either as a dry addition or with water to waste accumulation. Once the waste has been treat-
make concrete. Adding portland cement at a level ed and is determined to be non-hazardous (e.g.,
of 10 percent by weight or higher typically results leachable lead level below 5 mgíl as measured by
in very low leachable lead concentrations, usually TCLP), it can be disposed of at a Subtitle C or Sub-
0.05 to 0.1 mgil. Concretes can be made using a
title D landfill.
waterícement ratio of 0.5. A representative mixture
design to form blocks is 300 pounds (136 kg) of 3. Pretreatment of Blast Abrasives
debris, 94 pounds (43 kg or one sack) of cement, There are several kinds of materials that, when ad-
and 7.5 gallons (28 I)of water. Wastes stabilized in ded to abrasives prior to blasting lead containing
this manner have been evaluated for long term sta- paint, will result in a non-hazardous waste being
bility by EPA Method 1320 and show no increase generated. Examples are steel grit and a proprietary
in leachable lead concentration for ten (10) cycles.47 cementitious-type material. These additives chem-
Fine-grained wastes such as dust from dust ically react with the lead during the TCLP digestion
collectors or the fines from steel recycling units have procedure and will reduce the solubility below the
been successfully stabilized with portland cement. threshold limit of 5 mg/l.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
However, more water must be added to the mixture a. Steel Grit - A Federal Highway Administration
for these wastes. The above mixture design is not (FHWA) studyde has shown that adding 3-6% by
appropriate for fines. Laboratory tests must be per- weight of G-80 steel grit to conventional expenda-
formed to determine an adequate amount of water. ble abrasives has reduced the leachable level of
Fines from dust collectors may be classified as a lead from over 50 mgíl to less than 1-2 mg/l. The
hazardous waste unless in-process treatment was same study, and other field histories, have indicat-
performed. ed that the “stabilization” of lead may not be per-
Once treated and found to be below the regula- manent, because over time the lead solubility could
tory limit, EPA regulations permit the material to be increase as the steel grit oxidizes. Thus, this treat-
disposed of in a Subtitle C (hazardous) or Subtitle ment, while satisfying the letter of the RCRA law,
D (nonhazardous) landfill. However, states may could lead to leaching of lead into the environment,
have additional requirements for testing and after the waste has been landfilled. Leaching, in
manifesting the waste. turn, could cause significant problems for the gener-
Waste thinners and paints are typically inciner- ator. A potential solution to this problem is to fur-
ated, because once the solvent is burned, the ex- ther treat the grit-stabilized lead waste with one of
plosion or fire hazard has been eliminated. Acids the cementitious materials described above. In this
and bases can be readily treated by neutralizingwith case, however, the recordkeeping would be simpli-
other bases or acids respectively. fied because the waste is not hazardous and the re-
b. Disposal Procedure - The generator normally quirements for holding containers and the waste
does not treat the waste. It is necessary to select analysis plan are not in effect.
a treatment and disposal facility. There are numer- b. Proprietary Additives - Proprietary additives are
ous hazardous waste treatment facilities available typically incorporated at 15-18% of the weight of the
in the United States. The state or regional EPA office conventional abrasive (e.g., coal slag, copper slag,
can provide assistance in identifying these. The silica sand). One such addition has been found to
generator must inform the treatment facility of the effectively reduce the leachable lead content to ap-
quantity and hazardous nature of the waste, so the proximately 0.1 mgll, well below the threshold lev-
facility can treat it prior to disposal. It is the genera- el.47 This stabilization method, as identified by the
tor’s responsibility to assure that the disposal facil- manufacturer, involves pH control and encapsula-
ity is permitted and reputable. tion. Unlike waste containing steel grit additives,
It is also necessary to select a hazardous waste waste containing this proprietary material shows
hauler. Hauling of the waste from the temporary no increase in leachable content after running mul-
storage site to the treatment, storage, or disposal tiple leaching procedures. Because this material is
(TSD) facility must be performed by a transporter blasted onto the surface along with the abrasive, it
having an EPA identification number. A list of should be manufactured or treated to reduce dust-
ing and to avoid leaving a soluble deposit on the

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 7 . 2 93 8b27940 000402b 7 8 0 W
steel to be subsequently painted. NOTE: The above the landfill operators are reluctant to accept wastes that
discussion is derived from a proposed revision of although non-hazardous by the TCLP, may still present a risk
SSPC Guide 7.48 because they contain lead or other hazardous constituents.
F. STATE REGULATION OF HAZARDOUS AND REFERENCES

NON-HAZARDOUS WASTE References 1-13 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.0. References
14-38 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.1.
RCRA also provides for state regulation of the
hazardous waste operations. States meeting certain EPA 39 40 CFR 261, Appendix II, Method 1311, “Toxicity Characteris-
regulations may assume responsibility for hazardous waste tic Leaching Procedure.”
control. States also have the authority to establish more strin- 40. 40 CFR 261.24, Table 1, “Maximum Concentration of Con-
taminants for the Toxicity Characteristic.”
gent requirements. However, if state laws are less stringent 41. 49 CFR 172-179, U.S. Dept. of Transportation Regulationc on
than federal, states will not be given this authority. In 1989, Transporting Waste.
approximately 45 states had received such authority from 42. G. Tinklenberg and L. M. Smith, “The Criticiality of Sampling
and Quality Control for Hazardous Waste Testing,” JPCL, April
EPA. Authority is not absolute and requires participation by 1990, pp. 36-44.
regional EPA offices. 43. “Guide for the Disposal of Lead-Contaminated Surface Prepa-
Almost every state has enacted regulations regarding ration Debris,” SSPC Guide 71 (DIS), SSPC 92-07. Pittsburgh:
production, storage, transport, treatment, or disposal of SSPC, March, 1992.
44. ‘Sampling for Lead Analysis,” G. Tinklenberg, SSPC Lead Paint
hazardous substances or waste. RCRA encourages states Bulletin, Summer 1993.
to assume some of the federal responsibilities for operating 45. EPA Method 1320, published in EPA SW-846, “Testing Method
for Evaluating Solid Wastes: PhysicallChemicalMethods,” third
their own waste programs. In general, state laws and stan- ed. Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, November
dards are required to be equivalent to or more stringent than i986.
federal requirements. There are some variations from state 46. FHWA Contract DTFH61-89-C-00102 with S. G. Pinney & As-
to state, and certain states have enacted more stringent sociates, 1989. “Removal, Containment & Disposal of Lead
Paint From Highway Bridges.” Preliminary results submitted
hazardous waste requirements. for publication in SSPC Tutorial on “Industrial Lead Paint
For example, California has established limits for leach- Removal,” by Principal Investigator L. M. Smith.
47. L. M. Smith, “Pre-and Post-Blast Additives for Stabilizing Lead
able content of heavy metals (Soluble Threshold Limit Con- Waste,” unpublished presentation, SSPC 6th Annual Confer-
centration [STLC]), and for total heavy metal concentration ence on Lead Paint Removal & Abatement, March 15-17,1993.
(Total Threshold Limit Concentration [TTLC]).49 California, 48. Appendix D, Proposed Revision to SSPC Guide 7, “Guide for
the Disposal of Lead-Contaminated Surface Preparation
under Title 22, has also added several metals that are not Debris,” August 1993.
on the EPA hazardous waste list, most notably zinc and zinc 49 California Administrative Code, Title 22, Section 66261.24.
compounds. Thus, if zinc exceeds 250 mg/l in the STLC 50 “The Effect of Zinc-Rich Coatings on the Environment,” pre-
pared by the SSPC Zinc-Rich Task Force, JPCL, July 1992, p.
leach test or 5,000 mglkg under TTLC (total concentration), 45-53.
it is classified as a hazardous waste, so that disposal of spent 51 “Illinois Issues Fact Sheet on Disposal of Lead-Based Waste,”
zinc-rich paint may require testing to determine if waste is JPCL, March 1992, p. 45.
hazardous in California. Michigan also includes zinc as a me- 52. “Guidelines for Disposal of Residual and Household Waste,”
Pennsylvania Dept. of Environmental Resources, 1992.
tal that may be classified as hazardous.50
States are also responsible for the disposal of non-
hazardous waste, which is not included under RCRA. Non-
hazardous wastes are often classified as municipal and spe-
cial, industrial, or residual wastes. Municipal wastes can be
disposed of in a municipal landfill, along with household gar-
bage. Non-municipal wastes often require special handling
and paperwork. For example, Illinois EPA requires that any
waste from abrasive blasting or other lead removal
projects be tested and manifested, even if it is below the 5
mg/l threshold level for hazardous waste.51 For this “indus-
trial” waste, licensed haulers must be utilized. Pennsylva-
nia also has special regulations for “residual” wastes, which
again require special handling and recordkeeping.52 In these
instances, the cost of disposing of non-hazardouswaste may
approach that of hazardous waste, because ultimately the
same standards are being applied. In states where there are
no special requirements for non-hazardous wastes, costs for
disposal are significantly lower than for disposal of hazardous
waste (e.g., on the order of $100 per ton rather than $400
per ton). In the future, more states are expected to establish
special regulations for non-hazardous waste. In many cases,
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27-3 93 m 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004027 617 m
CHAPTER 27.3
OTHER REGULATIONS AFFECTING

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
by
Bernard R. Appleman and Monica Madaus
I. WATER QUALITY B. REPORTABLE QUANTITIES FOR

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
A. FEDERAL CLEAN WATER ACT Approximately 300 chemicals have been designated by
The 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA)4 EPA as potential hazards when dissolved in water. Any dis-
and subsequent amendments in 1977 and 19875established charge exceeding the reportable quantity is in violation of
the current framework for water quality controls. The goal the Clean Water Act and must be reported. The list includes
of this legislation is to minimize pollutant discharge into only a few materials commonly used in protective coating
navigable waters (lakes, streams, oceans) and achieve water activities, such as toluene, xylene, and sodium nitrite (a wet
that is suitable for human recreation and aquatic organisms. blast inhibitor). Certain lead compounds are on the list, but
The two basic approaches utilized are: not the type that have been used in painting of industrial
Controlling the concentrations of toxics in the water; structures.
Controlling discharge of toxics into the water at the However, when the material being discharged is a waste
point of discharge. product, the activity would be subject not only to FWCPA,
Both of these approaches are incorporated into the but also to CERCLA (discussed under Part IIB of this chapter).
FWPCA, commonly referred to as the "Clean Water Act." Reportable quantities for lead or lead compounds and other
As with other environmental statutes, the Clean Water toxic metals such as chromate are covered in that section.
Act is a far-reaching, comprehensive, multi-faceted feder-
al/state program. Several of the provisions of the Clean Water C. WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
Act potentially impact protective coatings activities, includ- EPA has established National Ambient Water Quality
ing the following: Standards for a variety of materials including lead, chromi-
Reportable quantitiesforhazardoussubstances (40 um, copper and cadmium, These place limits on the maxi-
CFR 117). mum concentration of material at a given site for a one-hour
Discharge permits under the National Pollutant Dis- period (acute) or over a four-day period (chronic). Standards
charge EliminationSystem (NPDES) (40 CFR 122). are set for human consumption (ground or drinking water)
. Water Quality Standards (40 CFR 131).
National Drinking Water Standards (40 CFR 141).
and for aquatic life.
1. Water Standards for Aquatic Life
The ambient water quality standards for toxic me-
tals address fresh water and salt water conditions.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table 6
FEDERAL AMBIENT WATER
QUALITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTED METALS53
Freshwater Aquatic Life (pgll) Saltwater Aquatic Life (pgll)
1 hr.' 4 day 1 hr." 4 day
Cadmium 3.9' 1.1** 4.3 9.3
Chromium (Vi) 16 11 1100 50
Copper 18** 12 2.9 -
Lead 83* * 3.2* * 140 5.6
Mercury 2.4 0.012 2.1 0.025
Aluminum 750 87 - -
Zinc 120" 110** 95 86
'These levels may be exceeded only once every three years.
**This level is based on a water hardness of 100 g Caco3. Allowable level is increased as hardness increases.

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27.3 93 W 8b27940 0004028 553 =
In fresh water for several metals the acute and ganisms to suspended or dissolved substances
chronic levels are based on hardness. Some exam- resulting from new paint materials and paint and
ples are given in Table 6. abrasive debris. In two studies (described below),
there was evidence of toxic effect from some sur-
2 . Drinking Water Standards face cleaning compounds used to pre-wash a bridge
EPA has also established standards for maximum and from lead and other paint ingredients. The lev-
content of metals and other constituents in drink- el of concentrations used in these studies exceed-
ing water. Some of the criteria are listed below. ed levels measured in field analyses.
Table 7 A California Dept. of Transportation study in-
FEDERAL DRINKING WATER STANDARDS vestigated the effects of bridge painting operations
FOR SELECTED METALS4 on fathead minnows, rainbow trout, and other spe-
Cadmium 10 pgll
c i e ~ The
. ~ ~results indicate that lead pigmented
Chromium (Vi) 50 pgll paints and zinc-rich paints may cause toxicity. Bio-
Copper 10 pgll cides from waterborne paints and cleaning deter-
Lead 15 pgll
gents tested were highly toxic. A set of guidelines
Zinc 5000 pgll
was developed to assist highway officials in deter-
There is a direct relationship between the lev- mining and mitigating the impact of bridge painting
el for drinking water and the level for certain heavy projects on the aquatic environment. Blasting abra-
metals under the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching sives range in toxicity from somewhat toxic to in-
Procedure (TCLP). EPA assumes that water leached nocuous.
from a landfill will be diluted by a factor of 100 be- The Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans of Vancou-
fore it can penetrate into drinking water sources. For ver, British Columbia, has also issued guidelines for
example, chromium-containing waste cannot be the protection of fish and fish habitats during bridge
land-disposed unless the leachable chromium con- maintenance.57 These are based on a series of tests
tent is less than 5000 pg/l(5 mg/l) which is 100 times on the effects of abrasives, paints, and surface
the drinking water standard of 50 g/I. The drinking cleaning agents on rainbow trout and other species.
water standard for lead has recently been reduced The degree of toxicity depended on the specific
from 50 pg/l to 15 pg/l. The TCLP level for lead paint formulation, with some chemical species found
however, is still at 5 mgll. It is anticipated that with- to have lethal effects and long-term damage. The
in the next few years, the criteria for lead as a guidelines provide procedures and strategies, in-
hazardous waste will also be reduced from 5 mg/l cluding regular meetings among the affected par-
to 1.5 mgll. ties, scheduling to avoid spawning seasons,
pre-testing of cleaning agents, greater control of
degreasing, use of pressurized water jetting without
abrasives, and containment.
Even if federal water quality standards are not
exceeded, it is prudent to avoid contaminating any
bodies of water with paint or abrasive materials or
waste. A number of states have more stringent regu-
lations than EPA. For example, North Carolina Di-
vision of Environmental Management has an action
level of 50 pg/l for zinc in fresh water.58
In addition, visible evidence of inadequate con-
tainment of debris from a structure (e.g., paint chips
and residues floating on surface) can result in local
complaints. At the least such actions will generate
FIGURE 5 bad publicity for the facility owner and the contrac-
Contamination of water from blasting debris.
tor. Citations for violating local nuisance ordinances,
fines, and delays or shutdowns are also likely to
3 . Impact of Paint Removal on Aquatic Life
occur.
Smith55 has reviewed a number of studies on the
effect of lead paint removal and other painting ac-
tivities on aquatic life. These studies present no evi-
dence that such activities have resulted in any
D. NATIONAL POLLUTANT DISCHARGE
long-term or immediate violation of the Clean Water
ELIMINATION SYSTEM
Act. 1. Point Source Discharge and Permits
A few researchers have conducted bioassays Because of the potential for damage to human and
of fish to determine the sensitivity of various or- aquatic life, EPA seeks to regulate discharge of
581
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at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R m 2 7 . 3 93 = 8b27940 0004029 4 9 T
industrial and other wastes into streams, lakes, and into water bodies. Some states may issue ordinances
oceans. The Clean Water Act requires that states regarding floating objects or debris, scum, oil or other
and the Federal Government establish a permit sys- materials, frequently described as “nuisance or-
tem to limit the discharge of effluent. This is the Na- dinances.” A report by the National Cooperative
tional Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Highway Research Program60 has identified sever-
(NPDES)permit system. ‘NPDES permits are real states with nuisance and discharge regulations,
quired for all point sources of discharge of effluent. including examples of permitting and reporting re-
A point source is normally an industrial or municipal quirements.
discharge which is designed to emit effluent into a
water body. Thus it covers operations at manufac- E. POTABLE WATER IN STORAGE TANKS
turing plants, fabrication shops, mills, and ship-
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 19746 charged
yards. An example of a non-point source would be
EPA with the responsibility for issuing guidance to states on
municipal or agricultural runoff. These are not
additives to drinking water. The EPA program, which includ-
covered under the NPDES permit system. Dis-
ed a list of approved coatings for potable water tank interi-
charges from painting of bridges or other structures
ors, expired in April 1990. In its place, NSF International
over or near water are not point sources, because
(Formerly National Sanitation Foundation) established volun-
there is normally not an intent to discharge into the
tary standards in conjunction with the American Water Works
body of water. However, these discharges may be
Association, the Conference of State, Health, and Environ-
treated as described below.
mental Managers (COSHEM), and the Association of State
Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA)61. The goal was to
develop third-party standards for evaluating the health effects
of additives to drinking water. The principal standard of in-
terest is ANSIINSF Standard 61, “Drinking Water System
Components Health Effects” which deals with indirect addi-
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tives that may contaminate drinking water. It was approved
by NSF and ANSI in 1989. Section 5 (Protective Barrier Materi-
als) of ANSIINSF 61 includes requirements for submittal and
testing of coatings intended for use in potable water systems.
The testing is designed to measure the quantity of heavy
metals and organics leached from cured film applied to a glass
substrate. The maximum allowable levels (MALs) of these con-
taminants is set at 10% of the maximum contaminant level
(MCL) from EPA’s Primary Drinking Water Standards, or by
FIGURE 6 an alternate procedure outlined in Standard 61. The standard
Another case of water contamination. also evaluates the ability of coatings to support microbial
growth.
2. Storm Water Discharge As part of the submittal, coating manufacturers must fur-
In 1990, EPA started requiring industrial facilities nish composition data and product data sheets, including use
and municipalitiesto acquire permits for storm water and application instructions. An important variable, which af-
discharge and municipal storm water systems.59 An fects the solubility of a leachate, is the ratio of the surface
exception is that permits are not required for pub- to volume of the vessel. This ratio increases as tank size
licly owned treatment works facilities. Industries af- decreases. Thus, the standard includes a normalization fac-
fected include waste treatment facilities, metal scrap tor for MALs to account for this variation.
reclaimers, and construction activities affecting five Coatings meeting the criteria of this health-based stan-
or more acres. Also affected would be paper mills, dard will be certified by NSF. A large majority of the states
chemical plants, primary metals industries, and contacted in a 1990 survey indicated their intention to adopt
fabricators of structural metal. the NSF standards.62 The NSF has also established a pro-
Paint and surface debris from a painting or gram to evaluate coatings against this standard. Other third-
paint removal activity which is not properly con- party organizations may also serve as certifying bodies.
tained and collected could be considered an unper- The coatings submitted for testing are classified based
mitted discharge. Such discharge may be limited by on the temperature of the intended service and the size of
state or federal regulation of water quality standards the tank. Examples of coatings that have met the require-
or other state or local ordinances. ments of ANSIINSF 61 are shown below.63
Water tanks greater than 500 gallons (1,900 L)
3. State and Local Ordinances (cold) - epoxy:
EPA has given states much of the responsibility to Water tanks greater than 1,000 gallons (3,800 L)
enforce the Clean Water Act and eliminate discharge (cold) - epoxy, vinyl, polyurethane;
582
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27.3 93 8b27940 0004030 L O I
Water tanks greater than 1,000 gallons (3,800 L) coatings developers. A chemical may be considered
(tested at 18OOF (82OC)) - phenolic epoxy; new if it does not appear on the TSCA Inventory,
Water tanks greater than 50,000 gallons (190,000 L) a list of chemicals published by EPA. Formulators
(cold) - epoxy; must file a Premanufacture Notice (PMN) for such
Four-inch (100 mm) pipe and greater (cold) - asphal- a chemical unless they qualify for exemptions such
tic coating; as the one available for chemicals used only for
Six-inch (150 mm) pipe and greater (cold) - poly- research and development. Reviews may also be
urethane; and expedited for chemicals made or imported in quan-
Repair materials - epoxy filter. tities of less than 2200 pounds (1,000 kilograms) per
Information on specific test requirements and a list of year.
approved systems can be obtained from NSF International. The PMN should contain information on the
As noted, ANSIINSF61 is a health-based standard and chemical identity, how it is going to be used, the
does not address performance aspects such as durability, volume to be produced, by-products, the number of
resistance to undercutting, and application tolerance. These people likely to be exposed through manufacturing,
properties must be ascertained by the specifier or owner, as and the intended means of disposing of it. The EPA
is done for other immersion-type linings. In addition, this stan- normally has 90 days to review the information and
dard does not evaluate taste or odor. to evaluate the risks of the chemical usually using
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
existing chemical literature and comparison to simi-

lar chemicals. A notice of the review must appear
II. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS in the Federal Register.
In some cases, the EPA may extend the review
A. TOXIC SUBSTANCES CONTROL ACT and request additional information. The agency has
authority to temporarily or permanently ban materi-
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), passed in
als under review, but generally prefers to develop
1976, was intended to cover uses and exposures to toxic
consent agreements under which the manufacturer
chemicals not covered specifically under other environmen-
agrees to restrictions on the use of the chemical.
tal or health and safety regulations.” Substances which are
Restrictions may involve the amount of a material
covered by other regulations, such as pesticides, are not cov-
used, the way it is used, or personal protective
ered by TSCA.
equipment required for those exposed to it. By is-
TSCA is often thought of as a set of regulations that
suing a significant new use rule (SNUR), the EPA
primarily affect paint formulators, and several sections are
can extend the restrictions in such an agreement
important to this segment of the industry. However, other sec-
to other companies interested in manufacturing, us-
tions of the act can soon be expected to affect the kinds of
ing or importing the substance.
paint end users can use.
The EPA can also use TSCA to require
1. Provisions Which Will Affect End-users manufacturers to test chemical substances that are
EPA intends to use TSCA to respond to broad con- already in use, if insufficient information is availa-
cerns about exposure to lead, as it has in the past ble and the substances pose an unreasonable risk
to regulate asbestos and PCB’s. It is in the process or are used in sufficiently large quantities to make
of conducting a comprehensive review of lead un- exposure or release particularly significant.
der the act and is considering a variety of steps up There are also several requirements for record-
to and including a ban or severe restrictions on the keeping and reporting. For instance, chemical
use of lead pigments in industrial paint. A variety manufacturers, processors and distributors are re-
of possible approaches were outlined in an Advance quired to keep records of health or environmental
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking published in the effects such as those reported by employees or con-
Federal Register on May 13, 1991. Other options sumers. They are also required to report any study
would include economic incentives for reductions in or event which suggests that a particular chemical
the use of lead. poses a substantial risk to the EPA within 15 work-
2. Provisions Primarily Affecting Formulators ing days. A description of the steps required by a
The act authorized EPA to obtain and evaluate in- manufacturer in producing a new material is provid-
formation on the health and environmental effects ed in Reference 64.
of chemicals. If EPA concludes that particular sub-
stances pose an unreasonable risk, it also has the B. CERCLAANDSUPERFUND
authority to restrict, or even ban, use and manufac- The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Com-
turing of the material. pensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), issued in 1980, is in-
A manufacturer is required to notify the EPA tended to prevent and correct spills and releases of
before manufacturing, using or importing a new hazardous substances and wastes.9 It is also known as “Su-
chemical. This section of TSCA primarily affects perfund”, because the act establishes a fund to clean up
583
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 3 73 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0 0 0 4 0 3 1 O48 =
hazardous waste sites. The act was extended in 1986 un- c. Threat of Release - Even if a release does not oc-
der the “Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act” cur, a party can be held liable for remedial costs
(SARA), which clarified provisions of CERCLA and increased based on a “substantial threat of release.” Exam-
the funds for clean-up.10 ples include lead lying on the ground, badly corrod-
CERCLA authorizes EPA to force responsible parties ed chemical storage tanks, or abandoned drums.
to remove and remediate any release of hazardous sub- d. Environment - The environment is defined broad-
stances into the environment. The definitions of these terms, ly to include surface water, ground water, drinking
given below, provide EPA with very broad power. water supplies, land surfaces, subsurface strata,
and ambient air.
1. Definitions
a. Hazardous Substance - Hazardous substances 2. Violations Triggering CERCLA Actions
are defined by reference to substances listed or Examples of leaks and spills that have triggered
designated under other statutes. These include list- CERCLA actions are as follows:68
ed or hazardous wastes under RCRA (40 CFR 261), a. Depositing of hazardous lead waste onto ground
hazardous substances (Section 311) and toxic pol- adjacent to paint removal operations on bridges and
lutants (Section 307) under the Clean Water Act, tanks.
hazardous air pollutants (Section 112) of the Clean b. Leaks from tanks containing solvents and other
Air Act, hazardous chemicals (Section 7) of TSCA, chemicals. (NOTE: Petroleum products are specif-
in addition to substances listed under Section 102 ically exempt from CERCLA.)
of CERCLA. c. Leaching of metal (e.g., lead) from a hazardous
b. Release - A release is defined as a discharge or waste landfill. (NOTE: If the material has passed the
spill of any amount of the hazardous substances TCLP and been properly buried, there is no longer
identified above. Thus there is no minimum quanti- any liability under RCRA. CERCLA liability,
ty below which a facility owner is exempt. Under however, extends indefinitely.)
CERCLA, EPA also requires that any release at or CERCLA violations can be brought to EPA’s at-
above a designated quantity (the reportable quan- tention by reports submitted to EPA from the Na-
tity) be reported to the National Response Center. tional Response Center, by investigations or
For example, for lead compounds, the reportable inspections conducted by state and local officials,
quantity is 10 Ibs (4.5 kg) of hazardous lead waste or by citizen complaint.
released within a 24 hour period. Amounts less than
the reportable quantity need not be reported but are
still sufficient to establish liability.
Table 8
SELECTED LIST OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
AND REPORTABLE QUANTITIES
(40 CFR 302.4, Appendix A)
Hazardous Reportable
Substance Quantity” Comments
Lead (as hazardous waste) 10 Ibs (4.5 kg) Report if 2 5 mg/l per TCLP
Hydrochloric Acid 5,000 Ibc (2,270 kg) Used for etching concrete
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 5,000 Ibs (2,270 kg) Paint solvent
Methylene Chloride 1,000 Ibs (454 kg) Paint stripper
Sodium Hydroxide 1,000 Ibs (454 kg) Paint stripper, neutralizing agent
Sodium Nitrite 10 Ibs (4.5 kg) Wet blast inhibitor
Toluene 1,000 Ibs (454 kg) Paint solvent
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1,1,1,-Trichloroethane 1,000 Ibs (454 kg) VOC-exempt paint solvent

Trichloroethylene 100 Ibs (45 kg) Degreasing solvent
Xylene 1,000 Ibs (454 kg) Paint solvent
Zinc Metal 1,000 Ibs (454 kg) Zinc-rich paints, galvanizing
*The spill must be reported if this amount of waste is spilled in a 24-hour period.
584
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERm27.3 93 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004032 T 8 4
As noted, the major purpose of the regulation participate in local emergency planning.
is to provide the organizational structure and proce- Comparing quantities of pure substances to the
dures for preparing for and responding to dis- TPQ is relatively straightforward, but requires ac-
charges of oil and releases of hazardous curate recordkeeping. However, a mixture is as-
substances, pollutants, and contaminants. sumed to present the same health hazards as any
of the components that comprise one percent (by
3 . Other Requirements of CERCLA Regulations
weight or volume) or greater of the mixture. There-
The regulations provide details on the following
fore, the quantity of a material on site must be mul-
procedures:
tiplied by the percent of any extremely hazardous
Setting priorities for cleanup;
substance present in the material, and the result-
Identifying remedial actions;
ing figure must be compared to the TPQ. This
Identifying responsible parties;
means that components that make up a small quan-
Determining liability for cleanup costs;
tity of a material may exceed the TPQ if a facility
Enforcement and inspection of cleanup: and
uses a large enough quantity of the mixture, or the
Recordkee ping.
component is considered particularly hazardous.69
4. Superfund
2 . Emergency Notification
Portions of the clean-up are to be paid for from a
To comply with section 304 of SARA Title III, com-
national fund, “Superfund”, created by taxes on
panies must determine whether they produce, use
petroleum and the chemical industry, environmen-
or store a hazardous substance that is included on
tal taxes on corporations and general revenues.
1) the list of extremely hazardous substances (40
Overall, the Superfund program as administered by
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CFR 355) or 2) the list of substances subject to

EPA has made little progress in achieving the in-
emergency notification requirements, found under
tended cleanups. Over 50% of the several billion
CERCLA (40 CFR 302.4)70. A company that does
dollars that make up the fund have gone to adminis-
produce, use or store such a substance is covered
trative and legal fees.
by section 304. It must notify the National Response
Examples of some hazardous substances and
Center, and the state and local emergency planning
reportable quantities are given in Table 8.
committees if it spills or otherwise accidentally
releases more than the reportable quantity of any
C. SARA Title III (“Right-To-Know”) such substance that may result in exposure outside
The use of industrial chemicals is also affected by report- the company site. This does not include releases
ing regulations developed under the Emergency Planning such as permitted discharges to water or emissions
and Community Right to Know Act (EPCRA). EPCRA was to air. The notification should include:
included in the legislation that reauthorized the Superfund a. the chemical name;
program in 1986, known as the Superfund Amendments and b. an indication of whether the substance is
Reauthorization Act (SARA), also known as SARA Title 111.’0 extremely hazardous;
The legislation established requirements for federal, c. an estimate of the quantity released into the
state and local governments and industry regarding emer- environment;
gency planning and “community right-to-know” reporting on d. the time and duration of the release;
hazardous and toxic chemicals. e. known or anticipated acute or chronic health
1. Planning and Response effects;
Sections 301-303 of SARA Title III require state and f. proper precautions; and
local governments to develop or designate emer- g. name and phone number of a contact
gency planning and response commissions. person.
Another provision requires companies to determine A written emergency notice should include any
whether any chemical found on a list of over 300 more recent information including response actions
extremely hazardous substances (40 CFR 355) was and any need for medical attention for those
present at their facility at any one time in an amount exposed.
exceeding the Threshold Planning Quantity (TPQ), 3 . Material Safety Data Sheet
a quantity that triggers regulation. The threshold Sections 31 1-312 of SARA Title III may apply to any
planning quantity is 10,000 pounds (4540 kgs) for company that must prepare or maintain a material
many extremely hazardous substances that do not safety data sheet (MSDS) for any of the materials
have their own TPQ. However, it may be 500 pounds it uses, stores or manufactures. An MSDS is re-
(227 kgs) for some, particularly powdered solids, quired for any material that is a physical or health
and as low as 10 pounds (4.5 kgs) for the most hazard, including materials that can catch fire; are
hazardous. Companies that determine that they suspected of causing cancer: can cause central ner-
have had more than the TPQ on-site must notify vous system effects; or can irritate skin, eyes or
authorities and appoint a facility coordinator who will

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R 1 2 7 . 3 93 Ab27940 0004033 9 L O
the respiratory system. The regulations therefore term “manufacturing” also applies to a toxic
apply to a very broad range of chemicals including chemical that is produced coincidentally during the
solvents, paints and most other materials commonly manufacture, processing, use or disposal of another
used in the coatings industry. This section may ap- chemical or mixture of chemicals, including a toxic
ply to many firms that produce or apply coatings. chemical that is a by-product or an impurity.
Once again, regulations apply only to materi- The term “processing” applies to the prepa-
als that exceed the TPQ. The TPQ is 10,000 pounds ration of a toxic chemical, after its manufacture, for
(4540 kgs) for any material that does not have its distribution in commerce, whether in the same form
own substance-specific TPQ and 500 pounds (227 or physical state, or a different form or physical
kgs) for extremely hazardous substances that do not state, than that in which it was received by the per-
have their own TPQ. Hazardous components of mix- son preparing such a substance. “Process” also ap-
tures must again be taken into account in calculat- plies to the processing of a toxic chemical contained
ing TPQs and the amount of a chemical on-site. in a mixture or trade name product. In addition, the
Carcinogenic compounds that make up 0.1 percent term processing applies to toxic chemicals a facili-
of a mixture or greater must also be included for this ty adds to an article.
sect ion. The term “otherwise use” includes any use of
Those to whom section 31 1 and 312 apply must a toxic chemical that is not covered by the terms
annually develop a list of all chemicals present in “manufacture” or “process”. This includes use of
quantities exceeding the TPQ. The information must a toxic chemical contained in a mixture or trade
be provided by March 1 to the State Emergency name product. Relabeling or redistributing a con-
Response Commission, the local Emergency Plan- tainer of a toxic chemical where no repackaging of
ning Committee and the local fire department. A the toxic chemical occurs does not constitute use
form known as the Tier I form is used. Alternative- or processing of the toxic chemical.
ly, the company may submit the MSDS for each of Generally, the manufacturing and processing
these materials. The company must also notify categories will apply to formulators and the other-
these groups of the average daily amount on site, wise used category will apply to applicators.
the maximum amount on site on any day during the However, if a company coats a product that it sells
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
year, and the locations of these chemicals. Addition- (shop-applied coatings), coating application would
al information contained on a Tier II form may be then be considered processing.
requested. In determining whether they manufacture,
4. Toxic Chemical Release Forms process or store more than the TPQ of any chemi-
Companies with more than 10 employees must de- cal, employers must again consider the components
termine if section 313 applies to them. They must of mixtures. Similar to sections 31 1-312, compo-
first determine whether they “manufacture, process nents that make up 1 percent of a mixture, or com-
or otherwise use” any material on the list of chemi- ponents that are carcinogens and make up 0.1
cals found in that section. Many materials commonly percent of a mixture must be considered.
used in coating operations are found on the list, in- Under the regulations, suppliers are required
cluding solvents such as methanol, n-butyl alcohol, to inform their customers of the identities and con-
methyl ethyl ketone, 2-nitropropane, toluene and xy- centrations of the materials that make up their
lene, and pigments such as lead chromate, red lead, products.
zinc dust, zinc chromate, titanium dioxide, and nick- To meet the requirements of 313, companies
el titanate. Some paint additives and resin compo- that exceed the TPQ must annually report routine
nents are also found on the list, including melamine, emissions of each such chemical, including releases
dibutyl phthalate, diethanolamine, ethyl acrylate, for- into water, air or soil during the preceding year. Fil-
maldehyde, vinyl chloride, methyl methacrylate and ing these reports can be a complicated process that
toluene-2,3-diisocyanate. may require the help of an engineer or other per-
Companies must next determine if their use of son with appropriate training.
these materials exceeds the TPQ. The TPQ for A company that has determined that the pro-
materials that a company “manufactures or visions of 313 apply to one or more of its materials
processes” is 25,000 pounds (1 1,360 Kg). The TPQ should draw a process flow diagram to determine
for a material that is “otherwise used” is 10,000 each point at which the material leaves the system.
pounds (4,540 Kg). For many coating operations, the primary release
Obviously, the distinction between manufactur- is the evaporation of solvents and other materials
ing or processing and otherwise using is important. in a coating as it is applied. However, material col-
According to the regulatory definition, a firm is con- lected by vapor control systems, discharged to
sidered to be “manufacturing” a material if it wastewater facilities or otherwise disposed of must
produces, prepares, imports or compounds it. The also be considered.
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTERr27.3 93 = 8627940 0004034 8 5 7
After identifying all sources of chemical taining hazardous waste must be equipped with
releases, the quantity released must be determined secondary containment structures. An exemption is
for each chemical that exceeds the TPQ. A num- provided for hazardous waste that contains no free
ber of approaches and formulas can be used to do liquids and is stored inside a building with an im-
this, including direct measurement, mass balance permeable floor.
formulas and engineering calculations. Overspray In order to prevent migration, a secondary con-
releases are often the most important factor in es- tainment system must be capable of containing
timating releases from coating operations, and pub- spills and leaks, and must be equipped with a leak
lished estimates are available for some types of detection system to alert owners and operators to
spraying methods and surfaces. However, site- such an event. A containment system must also be
specific calculations may be required. made of or lined with materials compatible with the
Current SARA 313 thresholds require only larg- waste stored in the system. The system must in-
er coating operations to report. These businesses clude an appropriate foundation or base and be
often have greater resources and specialized per- sloped or designed in such a way as to permit drain-
sonnel, and are better able to comply with 313 re- ing and removal of liquids.6566
quirements. Proposals to lower TPQs would result The Oil Pollution Act of 199067 required EPA
in smaller operations, perhaps those using as little to study the need for similar regulations applicable
as 500 gallons (1,900 L) of paint, also being required to above ground tanks used to store petroleum
to report under 313. EPA estimates, which are often products.
low, show that reporting would mean 34 hours of b. Acceptable Containment Structures - Contain-
additional work for small businesses. Using in-house ment may be provided by an external liner, vault,
personnel is estimated by EPA to cost $40 an hour; a double walled tank, or an equivalent device. Ex-
however, small businesses may not have the exper- ternal liners and vaults must be capable of contain-
tise to estimate releases and may need to hire con- ing 100 percent of the capacity of the largest tank
sultants at considerably higher rates. within their boundary. They must also prevent rain
from entering the secondary containment system
unless the containment system has the capacity to
111. REGULATING STORAGE VESSELS hold the extra liquid.
(1) External liner systems must surround the
A. SECONDARY CONTAINMENT tank completely and cover any surrounding soil
likely to come in contact with leaked or spilled
1. Affect on Coating Suppliers and Contractors
waste.
Federal regulations require that some tanks be sup-
(2) Vault systems must include water stops
plied with secondary containment, structures capa-
which are capable of resisting the waste in all
ble of preventing material stored in a tank from
joints, and must be coated with a waste-
migrating to soil, groundwater or surface water.
compatible lining that will prevent the waste
Other considerations such as CERCLA and civil lia-
from permeating the concrete. They must also
bility associated with a spill prompt companies to
be able to prevent the formation of and ignition
invest in such systems.9 The need for secondary
of vapors within the vault.
containment systems provides a business opportu-
(3) Double walled tanks must be designed so
nity for coatings suppliers and contractors. Concrete
that the outer tank completely surrounds the
is the material most often used for secondary con-
inner tank, preventing any releases and pro-
tainment structures. Coatings are an integral part
tecting the exterior of the inner tank from cor-
of such designs because they increase the im-
rosion.
permeability and chemical resistance of concrete
Materials that could cause the tank or an-
and prevent cracking.
cillary equipment or the containment system to
2 . Regulatory Requirements rupture, leak or fail may not be placed in the
a. Applicable Regulations - Tanks used to store and tank. Owners and operators must use appropri-
treat hazardous wastes are subject to 40 CFR Part ate measures to prevent spills and overflows
264 of Subpart J of the Standards for Owners and and must visually inspect visible portions of the
Operators of Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage tank and review data from monitoring and leak
and Disposal Facilities (part of RCRA). detection equipment at least once each oper-
The title of this section is somewhat mislead- ating day.
ing. The requirements apply both to treatment,
3. Coating Choices for Secondary Containment
storage and disposal facilities and to large quantity
Systems
generators (those who generate more than 1,000 kg
A secondary containment system must be able to
(2,200 Ib) of hazardous waste a month and store the
survive contact with the substance in the tank until
material for more than 90 days on site). Tanks con-
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
at 303-397-2295.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 3 93 = 8627940 0004035 793 D
a leak or spill can be removed. Since leaks and spills c. Reinforced Thick-film Systems - Reinforced thick-
should be infrequent and a detection system is often film systems can be used to create films of more
required, secondary containment components are than 80 mils (2 mm). Glass cloth or synthetic fibers
usually only exposed to the material for a short peri- are chosen on the basis of their resistance to a par-
od of time. When a tank is used to store an extreme- ticular chemical. These systems can be effective in
ly toxic or dangerous material, the secondary preventing some cracks, and should be designed
containment system should be more durable, and to withstand exposure to the most aggressive chem-
more expensive than it would be for a less icals, for up to 72 hours. A resinous topcoat im-
hazardous material. Choice is complicated by the proves their chemical resistance. Coats of
fact that a coating may need to be capable of resist- reinforced paint with one layer of reinforcement may
ing several different materials. Types of coatings be less expensive but also less chemical resistant
commonly used to protect secondary containment than those with multiple layers.
systems include the following:
a. Thin Films - Thin films (10 mils [0.25 mm]) of un- B. UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS
reinforced spray-applied coatings are adequate for
1. Introduction
containment of less hazardous materials, and are
Certain underground storage tanks are regulated
less expensive than other approaches. However,
because they may leak and pose a threat to the en-
some may not withstand long periods of chemical
vironment and human health. Coatings and lining
exposure. Epoxies, vinyls, chlorinated rubber, and
systems are among the accepted means of prevent-
urethanes are commonly used in this way.
ing leaks in underground storage tanks (USTs) and
b. Flake and Fiber-filled Coatings - Flake and fiber-
complying with federal and state regulations.
filled coatings typically result in films of 40 to 80 mils
There are several million underground storage
(1 to 2 rnm). They cost more than thin film coatings.
tanks in the USA, containing petroleum or
Some may provide a longer period of containment.
hazardous chemicals. The tank system consists of
the tank itself and associated piping. A tank system
is considered underground if at least 10% of the
volume is below grade level. The vast majority of
underground storage tanks (in particular those in-
stalled before 1980) were constructed of bare car-
bon steel. As a result of differential aeration of soils,
aggressive soil conditions, pH variation, and the
presence of water and other corrosive materials in-
side the tank, there is the possibility of severe cor-
rosion of both the interior and exterior of tanks and
piping.
t As a result of corrosion as well as piping and
mechanical failures and installation mistakes, many
thousands of USTs are leaking. Leaks may also
result from spills and overfills during filling, empty-
ing, or operation of the tanking system. Leaking un-
derground storage tanks can contaminate
groundwater, which is a major source of drinking
water for US populations. EPA estimates that as
many as a quarter of all the tank systems in the US
are leaking.71
2 . 7984 Federal Regulations
In 1984, Congress included requirements for “tech-
nical standards and corrective action requirements
for owners and operators of underground storage
tanks,” when passing the legislation that led to the
RCRA regulations discussed under chapter 27.2.
The underground storage tank regulations (40 CFR
Part 280) are intended to achieve the following
goals:
a. Prevent leaks and spills;
FIGURE 7 b. Identify and correct problems; and
Installing an underground storage tank.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 * 3 73 8627740 000403b b 2 T D
c. Ensure that owners and operators are able to pay c. Use both an internal lining and cathodic pro-
for spill prevention and correction. tection.
The regulations apply only to USTs storing d. Use a thick liner bonded to the exterior of the tank.
petroleum or hazardous chemicals. Some tanks are This requires excavations around the tank and is not
specifically excluded from the regulations including often feasible for existing tanks.
certain residential motor fuel and heating oil tanks Metal piping must be upgraded using a cathod-
and pits. Responsibility for complying with the regu- ic protection system. Upgrading of corrosion protec-
lations falls on the owners and operators of the tion systems for all tanks and piping must be
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tanks. completed by December 1998. All new and exist-
The specific requirements depend on the date ing tanks must also have leak detection installed by
of installation of the tank. December 1993.
The regulations also provide instructions on
3. New Petroleum USTs
how to correct problems caused by leaking, how to
New USTs, those installed after December 1988,
permanently or temporarily close (take out of serv-
must meet the following requirements:
ice) a tank system, and how to meet the extensive
a. Be properly installed - by qualified installers fol-
record keeping and reporting requirements.
lowing industrial codes such as those established
by Steel Tank Institute, American Petroleum Insti- 5 . Underground Chemical Tanks
tute, National Leak Prevention Association, Petrole- Underground storage tanks containing hazardous
um Equipment Institute, National Association of chemicals are also regulated under 40 CFR Title I
Corrosion Engineers, and other organizations. (part 280). Hazardous chemicals are those that are
b. Be equipped and used to prevent spills and over- listed in CERCLA (40 CFR 302.4, Table 1). CERC-
flow - through proper filling procedures, catchment LA is discussed in Section II of this chapter.
basins, and alarms. Hazardous wastes are excluded from this section
c. Detect leaks. of the regulation because they are covered under
d. Protect the tank from corrosion - Among the other provisions of RCRA.
methods to ensure proper corrosion protection for a. Corrosion Protection - These underground chem-
new tanks are the following: ical storage tanks are subject to many of the same
1) Use of a corrosion resistant coating together regulations as petroleum tanks. All chemical USTs
with cathodic protection; installed prior to December 1988 must be upgrad-
2) Construction of non-corrosive material (e.g., ed by December 1998. As with petroleum tanks, the
FRP); corrosion protection can consist of installation of a
3) Installation of bonded, secure system liner liner, a cathodic protection system, or a combina-
(note: the liner is not acceptable for piping); tion. The tank must also be provided with devices
Special instructions are given for tanks depend- that prevent spills, overfills, and detect leaks. New
ing on the size and age and for piping (depending tanks (those installed after December 1988) must
on whether it is pressure or suction type). These meet the same requirements as the new petroleum
cover topics such as monitoring of vapors from soil, USTs (¡.e., properly installed, spill and overfill pro-
monitoring liquid in groundwater, automatic tank tection, protection from corrosion, and equipped
gauging and automatic shutoff and tightness tests. with leak detection).
4. Existing Petroleum USTs
b. Secondary Containment - In addition, new tanks
containing hazardous materials must be provided
For tanks built before December 1988, EPA has set
with secondary containment. The primary contain-
deadlines for establishing corrosion protection, in-
corporating filling devices to prevent spills and over- ment is the tank or pipe wall itself. Secondary con-
tainment systems are designed to prevent
fill as well as leak detection systems.
For corrosion protection, the following options hazardous materials from entering the environment
are available for upgrading tanks: if there is a leak or break in the primary system. (See
a. Install an interior lining. The lining must be in- discussion under Part A of this section.)
There are three types of secondary contain-
spected within 10 years after installation and every
5 years thereafter. (40 CFR 280.3 gives requirement used for underground tanks and piping:
(1) Double-walled systems in which one tank
ments for the inspection).
is placed inside another, or one pipe inside
b. Install cathodic protection systems. The tank
another;
must be internally inspected to ensure that it is free
(2) Concrete vaults which surround tank and
of corrosion holes by various methods described in
piping systems and isolate this from the
40 CFR 280.21. NACE RP02-85, may be used to
ground;
verify proper inspection and operation of a cathod-
ic protection

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S S P C CHAPTER*27.3 93 Ab27940 0009037 5bb m
(3) Chemical resistant liners placed around the epoxy, glass-flake-filled polyester and fiber-
underground storage tank to isolate it from the reinforced polyesters.
ground. c. Cathodic Protection - This consists of applying
In addition to the above, the chemical USTs an external electric current to force the steel to be-
must have a leak detection system that can detect have as a cathode. An electrical circuit resulting in
a leak in the “interstitial” space between primary corrosion and loss of metal occurs only at the anode,
and secondary containment. where the metal gives up electrons. Two types of
These requirements for secondary containment cathodic protection have been developed: sacrifi-
of underground chemical storage tanks are essen- cial anodes and impressed current. Sacrificial
tially the same as the requirements for secondary anodes are metals such as zinc or magnesium,
containment of storage tanks containing hazardous which are consumed (sacrificed) while the steel re-
waste. Additional discussion on the design of secon- mains intact. Impressed current cathodic protection
dary containment and the performance and chemical sends a continuous stream of DC electrical current
resistance properties of liners and concrete struc- through the steel. The current ensures that the steel
tures are discussed in section HIA of this chapter. cannot discharge current (¡.e., form ferrous ions) into
the environment. Cathodic protection is also an in-
6. Corrosion Protection of Underground Storage tegral part of the STI-P3 system described
Tanks
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d. External Coating Plus SacrificialAnodes - For new

The basic means of preventing corrosion are as tanks, a combination of a dielectric coating and
follows: sacrificial anodes has proven to be extremely effec-
An external coating system applied to the ex- tive over the last 30 years. The Steel Tank Institute
terior of the tank; has developed an industry standard known as STI-
A lining system applied to interior of tank; P3, which combines dielectric coating, sacrificial
Cathodic protection applied to the exterior of anodes, and electrical The dielectric
the tank; and coating (e.g., typically coal tar epoxy, polyurethane,
FRP construction. or FRP) serves as the first line of defense, with a
a. External coating system - A coating system is complete covering of the external surface of the
designed to isolate the steel of the tank from corro- tank. The galvanic anodes provide protection from
sive soil conditions, thereby preventing the corro- nicks and scratches in the coating, which are often
sion cell from being completed. A significant amount produced during transportation and installation or
of testing, research, and evaluation has been con- settling. Anodes are constructed of zinc or magnesi-
ducted on underground coatings. Among the most um. The third component of the system is to pre-
important properties are adhesion, impact vent stray currents from entering the tank via the
resistance, and impermeability. Among the most piping system or at other potential areas of metal-
widely used coating systems are asphalt cutbacks, to-metal contact. STI also has established a quality
coal tar epoxy, polyurethane coating systems, and assurance system for the testing of the coatings, the
FRP coatings. Several of these systems have been fabrication of the tanks, and installation, to help as-
approved by the Steel Tank Institute under their sure long-term protection.
STI-P3 ~ystern.~3 e, Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Construction - FRP
Application of a coating to a new steel tank can is a composite consisting of a chemically reacted
be accomplished under factory shop conditions, resin impregnated with glass fibers. The resin sys-
which allows much greater control of the quality of tem when reacted and cured, forms a strong, rela-
the surface preparation, application, and environ- tively impermeable barrier to moisture, while the
mental conditions. Applying an external coating to fibers impart tensile strength. This results in a high
upgrade an existing tank requires excavating strength-to-weight ratio for these light materials, and
around the tank and back filling after application of provides an optimum combination of corrosion
the coating. resistance and strength. FRP, like other construc-
b. Internal Lining System - To upgrade an existing tion and corrosion protection materials, must be
tank, the lining can also be applied to the interior carefully selected, tested, designed, and installed
of the tank. The API has issued recommended prac- to ensure proper performance and compliance with
tice RP1631, ”Interior Lining of Underground design criteria.
Storage Tanks,” which describes the various steps More detailed discussions of corrosion protec-
in preparing the tank and applying the lining, includ- tion alternatives and materials are given in various
ing qualification of applicators and testing of lin- publications available from STI, NACE, and SSPC.
ings.74 A number of coating systems have been (See Appendix for addresses.)
used for lining of petroleum tanks, including epoxy
polyamide, epoxy phenolic, epoxy amine, coal tar 7 . State Regulation of Underground Storage Tanks
The underground storage tank program, like many

590
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SSPC CHAPTER*27.3 93 8627940 0004038 4 T 2
federal laws, is delegated to the states. Many states perature and sterilization conditions required. The
have adopted existing federal regulations for up- FDA does not approve coatings, but sets the guide-
grading USTs or installing new USTs. Several states lines as described above. It is the manufacturer’s
have adopted or proposed to adopt their own regu- responsibility to ensure that the raw materials and
lations, which may be more stringent than the fed- test results comply with the federal regulations. An
eral regulations. For example, some states, such as appropriate statement by a manufacturer would be
Connecticut, limit the number of times that a tank that the coating will meet the requirements of CFR
lining can be used to extend the life expectancy of 175.300 (FDA) for use in contact with specific food-
a tank. Other states (e.g., Massachusetts and stuffs. The phrase “approved by FDA” is not valid.
Maine) require double walls in all new tanks. Several
2. USDA
states require that all new tanks (including petrole- The U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, through its Food Safe-
um as well as chemical storage tanks) be provided ty & Inspection Service Division (FSIS), is respon-
with secondary containment. Certain states also re- sible for inspecting and approving coatings used in
quire that installers be certified (e.9. Florida, Arkan- incidental contact areas at food and poultry
sas, and California.) plants.76’77 These areas include warehouses, non-
Two standards, the Uniform Fire Code (UFC) process areas, and upper walls and ceilings of
79 and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) process areas where direct contact with food is not
30, are frequently cited in state UST regulations. normally expected. However, these areas may re-
The standards outline safety parameters for tank lin- quire resistance to spills of food and to various
ing procedures. UFC 79 does not permit repairs to sanitizing operations.
USTs; NFPA 30 allows USTs to be repaired and The USDA determines the suitability of coat-
lined. Refer to the February 1991 Journalof Protec- ings based on a review of the formulation, MSDS,
tive Coatings and Linings for a recent update on and results of product testing supplied by the
state UST requirements.’* manufacturer. In addition, manufacturers may also
be asked to supply a sample of the cured coating
to verify that it will form a hard, intact film.
IV. MISCELLANEOUS REGULATIONS If the Department’s criteria are met, USDA will
issue a letter to the manufacturer indicating that the
A. REGULATING COATINGS FOR FOOD & coating that has been submitted is approved for use
BEVERAGE FACILITIES on incidental surfaces of meat and poultry plants.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The Federal Government regulates coatings intended These letters are furnished to the owners and opera-
for surfaces at food and beverage plants, to assure that sani- tors of plants, who are ultimately responsible for
tary conditions are maintained. The food and beverage in- complying with the USDA as well as FDA regu-
dustry consists of production, processing, and distribution lations.
facilities for fruits and vegetables, grain, meat and poultry,
soft drinks, beer and other alcoholic beverages, and phar- B. SOIL QUALITY REGULATIONS
maceuticals (because the end products are consumed). Fed- Soil can become contaminated with dust, paint, and
eral agencies having jurisdiction are the Food and Drug abrasive debris. One of the primary concerns is lead con-
Administration (FDA) and the US Department of Agriculture tamination of soils, because of the potential health effect on
(USDA). children in nearby communities. As of 1993, EPA had not
1. FDA issued a regulation on lead in soil. It is anticipated, however,
The FDA regulates coatings that come into direct that as part of the EPA’s mandate under Title X of the 1992
contact with food and beverages under 21 CFR 175, Housing and Community Development Act, EPA will issue
Parts 300-390. These include coatings applied to guidelines or regulations on acceptable levels of lead in soi1.30
floors, walls and counters, as well as containers and These regulations may also require remediation or other
vessels. The FDA limits ingredients to those that are treatment for soil exceeding a defined level of lead.
listed in the CFRs or that are generally recognized Because of extensive use of leaded gasoline and lead-
as safe for food. In addition, the cured film must containing traffic marking and bridge coatings, much of the
meet limits for the maximum amount of extractable soil in the US contains measurable amounts of lead. The ge-
material. According to Boyer76, there are no limita- ometric mean in the US is 16 mglkg (ppm), but in urban or
tions on solvents, and a wide range of organic industrial areas or along roadways, concentrations often ex-
binders is permitted. There are, however, limitations ceed 100 mglkg.78 In 1989, EPA adopted an interim guide-
on the color of pigment allowed. line for cleanup of soil at Superfund sites of 500-1000 mglkg,
The extraction tests are based on the food with the lower end of the range being considered more ap-
types (e.g., acid, non-acid, dairy products, bever- propriate for residential areas and the upper end for use in
ages, bakery products, and dry solids) and the tem- industrial settings.79

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 93 8627940 0004039 339
A review of guidelines and soil clean-up levels for lead REFERENCES

in several states indicates a range from approximately
References 1-13 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.0. References
100-1000 mg/kg, with most values in the range between 250 14-38 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.1. References 39-52 are
and 500 mgikg.78 listed at the end of Chapter 27.2.
53. FederalRegister. Volume 50, 30784 (July 29, 1985). “Water Quali-
C. REGULATION OF ANTIFOULING COATINGS ty Criteria; Availability of Documents.” 52 FR 62143 (Zinc), Appen-
dix A - Summary of Water Quality Criteria for Zinc.
1. Use
54. Criteria and Standards Division, Office of Drinking Water, Environ-
Antifouling paints are used to discourage colonies mental Protection Agency, Washington DC 20460.
of sessile marine organisms such as barnacles, mol- 55. “Water Quality,” Progress Report prepared by L. M. Smith for
FHWA Contract DTFH61-89-C-00102. 1989.
lusks, sponges and algae from building up on the
56. H. Hunt and J. Gidley, ”The Toxicities of Selected Bridge Painting
bottoms of ships. Fouling increases the weight of Materials and Guidelines for Bridge Painting Projects,” Report
ships, reducing speed and increasing fuel consump- FHWA/CA/TL/90/08, California Dept. of Transportation, September
tion. It also interferes with the operation of moving 1990.
57. “Canadian Fisheries Dept. issues Guidelines on Protecting Aquatic
parts. Antifouling coatings are also being used to Life During Bridge Painting.’’ JPCL, January 1992, pp. 32-34.
prevent zebra mussels from fouling fresh water in- 58. G . Thorpe, “Water Quality Impact: Environmental Viewpoint,” Lead
Paint Removal from Steel Structures, SSPC 86-01, 1988, pp. 50-54.
takes on power stations. Power stations have report-
59. Car Department Officers’ Association Protective Coatings Commit-
ed condenser tube blockage in unheated intakes.81 tee. €PA Update Paper: Overview of the Stormwater Permit Program.
Protective coatings have been evaluated as alter- September 21, 1992.
60. M. K. Snyder and D. Benderski. National Cooperative Highway
natives to chlorination or water filtration and other
Research Program, Report 265. Removal of Lead-Based Bridge
chemical and physical treatment. Paints. Washington DC: Transportation Research Board, Decem-
ber. 1983.
2. Organotin Antifouling Paint Act 61. M. Bauer, “Changing Regulations on Coatings for Contact with
Until 1988, copper and organotins (such as tributyl Potable Water,” JfCL, December 1988, pp. 27-33 and 89-90.
tin) were the compounds most commonly used to 62. “Majority of States Plan to Adopt NSF Standards for Potable Water
Contact,” JPCL, October 1990, pp. 39-40 and 97-99.
prevent fouling of underwater hulls of ocean-going 63. “Environmental Health & Safety Regulations,” Unit 7 from SSPC
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ships. Both types kill target organisms by releasing 5-Day course on “Specifying and Managing Protective Coating
small quantities of materials toxic to them. Concern Projects.” SSPC, May 1993.
64. G. Rauscher, “Compliance with TSCA for Product Develop-
about effects of organotin compounds on non-target ment,’’ J f C L , May 1990, pp. 68-72.
organisms such as oysters and crabs led to passage 65. P. R. Nau and B. S. Fultz. “Coatings and Linings for Secondary
of the Organotin Antifouling Paint Control Act in Chemical Containment in Power Plants,” JPCL, October 1990, pp.
42-49.
1988.80The act limited releases of tin from such 66. K. A. Kapsanis, “Coating Concrete: A Review of Regulations, Tech-
coatings to 4 pg/cmn/day. The legislation also re- nical Activities, and Resources,” JPCL, August 1991, pp. 58-65.
quired each state to set up a plan to certify applica- 67. Oil Pollution Act: Public Law 101-380, August 18, 1990.
68. EnvironmentalLaw Handbook, 12th Edition. Rockville, MD, Govern-
tors of these coatings. Organotin coatings are now ment Institutes, Inc., 1993.
seldom used except on aluminum boats, where cop- 69. U.S. EPA. Title 111 Fact Sheet: Emergency Planning and Community
per (for which there is no release rate) cannot be Right-To-Know. April 1988.
70. Guide to Pollution Prevention: The Fabricated Metal Products lndus-
used. Some states, for instance New York, also try, Report EPA/65/7/90/006. Washington, DC, U S . EPA, 1990.
regulate such materials under their water quality 71. U.S. EPA, Office of Underground Storage Tanks, Musts for Usts.
regulations. July 1990, EPA/530/ UST-88/008.
72. “Control of General Corrosion on Metallic Buried, Partially Buried,
3. FIFRA or Submerged Liquid Storage Systems,” NACE RP02-85. Houston,
NACE International, 1985.
Biocides like copper and organotin compounds are 73. R. C. Cronau, ”Protecting Underground Storage Tanks,” JPCL, Au-
considered pesticides and must also be registered gust 1988, pp. 48-49.
under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and 74. Interior Lining of Underground Storage Tanks, API RP 1631, 2nd
ed. Washington DC, American Petroleum Institute, December, 1987.
Rodenticide Act.12 According to some paint 75. “Sti-P3 Single Wall Steel Underground Tanks: The Iron-Clad
manufacturers, meeting all the requirements for Storage Solution,” Publication 3500M20. Northbrook, IL: Steel Tank
registering a new biocide is so prohibitively expen- Institute, 1987.
76. C. Boyer, “Protective Coatings for Food and Beverage Plants:
sive ($2-5million) as to effectively preclude any uses Regulatory and Formulating Issues.” JPCL, July 1990, pp. 36-39.
of new materials. 77. D. Finch, “Coating Selection for Food and Beverage Facilities:
Regulatory Compliance and Corrosion Protection,” JPCL, Septem-
4. Foulant Release Coatings ber 1992, pp. 62-72.
Some ship and power plant operators have begun 78. P. K. LaGoy and W. Wilder, “Evaluation of the Potential for
Environmental Exposure to Lead Released from Paint Contain-
to use silicone, siloxanes and fluorinated resins be-
ing Zinc Dust,” JPCL, March 1993, pp. 24-36.
cause these materials do not need to be registered 79. “Interim Guidance on Establishing Soil Lead Cleanup Levels at Su-
under FIFRA. They are not considered pesticides perfund Sites,’’ Directorate 9355.4-02, EPA Office of Solid Waste
because they do not kill sessile organisms, but make & Environmental Response, September 7, 1989.
80. Organotin Antifouling Paint Control Act, Public Law 100-333, June
it difficult for them to attach to the painted surface.81 16, 1988.
81. E.G. Leitch and F.Z. Puzzuoli, “Evaluation of Coatings to Control
Zebra Mussel Colonization: Preliminary Results, 1990-1991,” JPCL,
July 1992, pp. 28-38.
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SSPC C H A P T E R u 2 7 - 3 93 m 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0004040 O50 m
APPENDIX A National Fire Protection Association

1 Batterymarch Park
HOTLINES AND OTHER PHONE NUMBERS P.O. Box 9109
Quincy, MA 02269
Clean Air Act Computer Bulletin Board (919) 541-5742 (617) 770-3000
Emergency Planning and Community Right National Lead Abatement Council
to Know (EPCRA) Information Hotline (703) 412-9877 105 Campus Drive
(800) 535-0202 University Square
Emission Measurement Technical Information Princeton, NJ 08543-7006
Center (CAAA) (919) 541-1060 (604) 520-1414
Environmental Test Methods (SW 846 Manual) (703) 821-4789
National Leak Prevention Association
EPA Control Technology Center (CAAA) (919) 541-0800 P.O. Box 1643
FIFRA/General Pesticide Information (800) 858-7378
Boise, ID 83701
National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse (919) 541-0850
(208) 389-2074
National Lead Information Center (800) LEADFYI (532-3394)
(208) 389-2074
National Response Center (800) 424-8802
RCRAKERCLA Hotline (703) 305-5938 National Paint & Coatings Association
(800) 424-9346 1500 Rhode Island Ave, NW
Safe Drinking Water (800) 426-4791 Washington, DC 20005
Small Business Ombudsman (202) 462-6272
Clearing houselHotline (800) 368-5888 NSF International
(703) 305-5938 150140 Plymouth Road
Solid Waste Assistance Program (800) 677-9424 P.O. Box 1468
Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures Ann Arbor, MI 48113
(e.g., aboveground storage tanks) (202) 260-2342 (313) 769-801O
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
Information Source (202) 554-1404 Painting & Decorating Contractors of America
3913 Old Lee Highway, Suite 338
PUBLICATIONS Fairfax, VA 22030
U S . EPA Public Information Center (PIC) (202) 260-7751 (703) 359-0826
U.S. EPA National Center for Environmental Petroleum Equipment Institute
Publications and Information (NCEPI) (513) 569-7980 Box 2380
U S . EPA Center for Environmental Research Tulsa, OK 74101
Infor matio n (CERI) (513) 569-7562 (918) 494-9696
National Technical Information Service (NTIS) (703) 487-4650
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
EPA - FEDERAL ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES 1010 North 12th Ave.
Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Pensacola, FL 32501-33,07
Prevention Office (202) 260-8600 (904) 469-1500
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response Steel Structures Painting Council
(OERR) (Superfund) (202) 260-2180 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (202) 260-5543 Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728
Office of Solid Waste (412) 687-1113
and Emergency Response (OSWER) (202) 260-4267
Office of Underground Storage Tanks (OUST) (703) 308-8850 Steel Tank Institute
Office of Waste Programs Enforcement (OWPE) (202) 260-4814 570 Oakwood Road
Lake Zurich, IL 60047
(708) 438-TANK (8265)
Water Environment Federation
APPENDIX B 601 Wythe St.
PROFESSIONAL AND TRADE ORGANIZATIONS Alexandria, VA 22314
(703) 684-2400
Air and Waste Management Association
P.O. Box 2861
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 APPENDIX C
(412) 232-3444 SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL
American Petroleum Institute REGULATIONS FROM TITLE 40 OF THE CODE OF
1220 L Street, N.W. FEDERAL REGULATIONS.
Washington, DC 20005 PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT*
(202) 682-8000
American Water Works Association 40 CFR 50-99 Air Pollution Control Regulations
6666 W. Quincy Ave. 50 National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air
Denver, CO 80235 Quality Standards
(303) 794-7711 51 Requirements for Preparation, Adoption and
Submission of Implementation Plans
NACE International 53 Ambient Air Monitoring Reference and Equivalent
P.O. Box 218340 Methods
Houston, TX 77218-8340 60 Standards of Performance for New Stationary
(713) 492-0535 Sources
National Association of Environmental Professionals 61 National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
5165 MacArthur Blvd., NW Pollutants
Washington DC 20016-3315 66 Assessment and Collection of Noncompliance
(202) 966-1500 Penalties by EPA
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
593
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SSPC CHAPTER*27*3 93 8627940 0004041 T 9 7
81 Designation of Areas for Air Quality Planning 370 Hazardous Chemical Reporting
Purposes 372 Toxic Chemical Release Inventory Reporting,
40 CFR 100-149 Clean Water ActlSafe Drinking Water Act Regu- Community Right-to-Know
lations 40 CFR 400-699 Clean Water Act (CWA) Regulations
112 Oil Pollution Prevention 40 CFR 700-799 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Regu-
116 Hazardous Substances Under Federal Water Pol- lations
lution Control Act 71O Inventory Reporting Requirements
117 Determination of Reportable Quantities for 720 Premanufacture Notice
Hazardous Substances 72 1 Significant New Use of Chemical Substances
122-125 National Pollution Discharge Elimination System 723 Premanufacture Notice Exemptions
Permits
136 Test Procedures for the Analysis of Pollutants 'Citations include some sections reserved for future regulations.
141-149 Drinking Water
40 CFR 150-189 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA) Regulations
152 Pesticide Registration and Classification ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Procedures The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active partic-
155 Registration Standards ipation of the following in the review of this chapter: Kenneth Trimber,
156 Labeling Requirements for Pesticides and Mike Bauer, and John Montle.
Devices
40 CFR 240-299 Solid and Hazardous Waste Programs
260 General Guidelines for Hazardous Waste
BIOGRAPHY
Management
26 1 Identifying Hazardous Waste A portrait and biographical sketch of Bernard R. Appleman
262 Hazardous Waste Generators appears at the end of the Foreword.
263 Hazardous Waste Transporters
265 Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Fa- BIOGRAPHY
cilities
266 Standards for Management of Specific Karen Ann Kapsanis is the editor of the Journal of Protective Coat-
Hazardous Wastes and Facilities ings and Linings (JPCL). Since joining the staff of JPCL in 1988, she
267 Interim Standards for Owners and Operators of has written extensively on environmental regulations that affect indus-
New Hazardous Waste Land Disposal Facilities trial maintenance painting operations.
268 Land Disposal Restrictions
280 Underground Storage Tank (UST) Regulations
40 CFR 300-399 Superfund, Emergency Planning, and Community BIOGRAPHY
Right-to-Know Programs
300 National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Monica Madaus has worked as a technical writerleditor for a num-
Contingency Plan ber of environmental and health and safetyfirms. She worked as a tech-
302 Designation, Reportable Quantities, and Notifi- nical editor and regulatory assistant for the Center for Hazardous
cation Materials Research where she assisted with a newsletter and a techni-
355 Emergency Planning and Notification cal and regulatory hotline.
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594
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 3 93 8627940 0004042 923
Appendix
APPENDIX A: ABBREVIATIONS DOC - Department of Commerce
DOD - Department of Defense
The abbreviations and acronyms listed below include DODIS - Department of Defense Index of Specifications
those used in this manual along with a few others that may
DOE - Department of Energy
help to clarify paint technology and regulatory language.
DOL - Department of Labor
AAQS - Ambient Air Quality Standards
AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and
DOT -
Department of Transportation
Transportation Officials EP - Extraction Procedure
ACGIH - American Conference of Governmental Industri- EPA - Environmental Protection Agency
al Higienists EPCRA -
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-
AIHC -
American Industrial Health Council Know Act
AIM - Architectural and Industrial Maintenance (Coating) F - Degrees Fahrenheit
ANSI -
American National Standards Institute (formerly FAR - Federal Acquisition Regulation
ASA) FDA -
Food and Drug Administration
APCA - Air Pollution Control Association (now AWMA) FGD - Fuel Gas Desulfurization Systems
APCD - Air Pollution Control Districts FHWA -
Federal Highway Administration
AQCR - Air Quality Control Regions FIFRA - Fedral Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act
AQMD - Air Quality Management District FSCT -
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology
ARBBA - American Railway Bridge and Building As- FTC - Federal Trade Commission
sociation GFCI - Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter
AREA - American Railway Engineering Association GSA - General Services Administration
ASA -
American Standards Association (now ANSI) HEW -
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials HRB - Highway Research Board
AWS -
American Welding Society IS0 -
International Organization for Standardization
AWMA - Air and Waste Management Association (former- JAN - Joint Army-Navy
ly APCA) LAER - Lowest Achievable Emission Rate
AWWA - American Water Works Association LEL - Lower Explosive Limit
BACT - Best Available Control Technology LC - Lethal Concentration
BAT - Best Available Technology LD - Lethal Dose
BATRA - Best Available Technology Reasonably Available LOCA - Loss of Coolant Accident
BCT - Best Conventional Technology LOSOLVE - Evaluation of Low-Solvent Maintenance Coat-
C -Degrees Centigrade ings for Highway Structural Steel
CAA - Clean Air Act LQG - Large Quantity Generator
CAAA - Clean Air Act Amendments (1990) MAC - Maximum Allowable Concentration
CERCLA - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Com- MARAD - Maritime Administration
pensation and Liability Act MEK - Methyl Ethyl Ketone
CFM - Cubic Feet Per Minute MFFT - Minimum Film Forming Temperature
CFR - Code of Federal Regulations MPIP - Meat and Poultry Inspection Program
CMA - Chemical Manufacturers Association mil - 0.001 inches
COE - Corps of Engineers (US. Army) MSDS - Material Safety Data Sheet
COH - Coefficient of Haze MSHA - Mine Safety and Health Administration
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CPSC - Consumer Product Safety Commission MVT - Moisture-Vapor Transmission Rate

CPVC - Critical Pigment Volume Concentration NAAQS - National Ambient Air Quality Standards
CTG - Control Technique Guidelines NACE - National Association of Corrosion Engineers
DBA - Design Basis Accident NAD -
Non-Aqueous Dispersion
DEP - Department of Environmental Protection (States) NAS - National Academy of Sciences
DER -
Department of Environmental Resources (States) -
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
DFT - Dry Film Thickness
at 303-397-2295.
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 93 W 8627940 0004043 8 b T W
NESHAP - National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air APPENDIX B: DEFINITIONS

Pollutants These definitions deal with some of the more special-
NFPA - National Fire Protection Association ized terms used in this manual. SSPC reports and manuals,
NIOSH - National Institute for Occupational Safety and the various regulations, ASTM methods and standards, and
Health the open literature are sources for many of these definitions.
NPCA - National Paint and Coatings Association Other sources include the PaintKoating Dictionary published
by the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology
NRC - Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(FSCT) and Chapter 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
NSPS - New Source Performance Standards
Some definitions have been modified, when appropri-
NVM - Non-Volatile Matter
ate, to more fully reflect their common usage in coatings tech-
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
nology or regulation terminology (air pollution, toxic
PACE - Performance of Alternative Coatings in the En- substances and health and safety) relating to the corrosion
vironment protection of structural steel.
PCB -
Polychlorinated Biphenyls ABATEMENT -The reduction in degree or intensity of pol-
PDCA - Painting and Decorating Contractors of America lution.
PEL - Permissible Exposure Level ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANK - A device meeting the
PMN - Premanufacture Notice definition of tank that is situated in such a way that the en-
PRA - Paint Research Association tire surface area of the tank is completely above the plane
of the adjacent surrounding surface and the entire surface
PSD - Prevention of Significant Deterioration
area of the tank (including the tank bottom) is able to be
psi - Pounds Per Square Inch
visually inspected.
PVC - Pigment Volume Concentration ABRASION RESISTANCE - The ability of a coating to resist
QPL - Qualified Products List being worn away and to maintain its original appearance and
RACT - Reasonably Available Control Technology structure when subjected to rubbing, scraping, or wear.
RCRA - Resources Conservation and Recovery Act ABRASIVE - A fine graded (sized) granular or spherical
CAE - Society of Automotive Engineers material which is used in a blast cleaning process for struc-
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope tural steel.
SFSA - Steel Founders Society of America ABRASIVE BREAKDOWN - A measure of particle break-
down after impact.
SIP - State Implementation Plan
ACCELERATED AGING -Any set of conditions used in an
SNAME - Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
attempt to produce in a short time the results obtained un-
SNUR - Significant New Use Rule
der normal conditions of aging. In accelerated aging tests,
SQG - Small Quantity Generator the usual factors considered are heat, light, or oxygen, either
SSPC - Steel Structures Painting Council separately or combined.
TACB - Texas Air Control Board ACCELERATED TESTING - A set of conditions intended
TCLP - Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure to simulate those encountered in practice, but which have
Tg - Glass Transition Temperature been accentuated artificially in an attempt to provide useful
performance results in shorter periods of time. Coatings do
TLV - Threshold Limit Value
not necessarily behave under such tests exactly as they will
TRB - Transportation Research Board under actual conditions, but many coatings which give good
TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act performance under these tests have possibilities which are
TPQ - Threshold Planing Quantity worthy of further considerations and experiments.
TWA - Time Weighted Average ACCELERATED WEATHERING - Tests designed to simu-
UEL -
Upper Explosive Limit late, but at the same time to intensify and accelerate, the
UK - United Kingdom destructive action of natural outdoor weathering on coating
films. The tests involve exposure to artificially produced com-
USDA - United States Department of Agriculture
ponents of natural weather, e.g., light, heat, cold, water
UST - Underground Storage Tank vapor, rain, ionic solutions, etc., which are arranged and
VLCC - Very Large Crude Carrier repeated in a specific cycle. There is no universally accept-
VOC - Volatile Organic Compounds ed test, and different investigators have found widely differ-
VSMF -
Visual Search Microfilm ent cycles to be useful.
WFT - Wet Film Thickness ACCEPTANCE TESTING - The purchaser’s testing of
received products to determine that the quality of manufac-
tured products meets specified requirements.
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596
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S S P C CHAPTER*27.3 73 8627740 0004044 7 T b
ACRYLIC LATEX - Aqueous dispersion, thermoplastic or creased human death rates, to increased serious irreversi-
thermosetting, of polymers or copolymers of acrylic acid, ble illnesses, or to increased incapacitating reversible
methacrylic acid, esters of these acids, or acrylonitrile. illnesses.
ACRYLIC RESIN - A synthetic resin made from derivatives AIR POLLUTION -
The presence in the outdoor at-
of acrylic acid. mosphere of any dust, fumes, mist, smoke, other particulate
ACTINIC LIGHT - Light that effects chemical changes in matter, vapor, gas, odorous substances, or a combination
a coating. thereof, in sufficient quantities and of such characteristics
ACTIVE INGREDIENT - Ingredient that has the capability and duration as to be, or likely to be, injurious to health or
by itself, when used as directed at proper dilution, to func- welfare, animal or plant life, or property, or as to interfere
tion as a pesticide, or an ingredient that has the ability to with the enjoyment of life or property.
elicit or enhance a pesticide effect in a second compound AIR POLLUTION REGULATIONS - Legal constraints on
whose pesticidal activity is substantially increased due to the pollutant emissions, production processes, or control
introduction of the first. Compounds which merely enhance systems.
or prolong the activity of an active ingredient are not con- AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATOR - Protects the wearer by
sidered active ingredients themselves. preventing the entrance of airborne particulates such as dust,
ACUTELY HAZARDOUS WASTE - Wastes considered ex- mist, metal fumes and smoke. Cannot protect the wearer
tremely hazardous, including certain pesticides and dioxin- from materials such as poisonous gases, because these
containing wastes. These are not commonly generated in the materials can pass through the filter.
protective coating industry, but do require special treatment AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS (AQCR) - Geographi-
and reporting. cal units of the country, sometimes involving several states,
ACUTE TOXICITY - Any poisonous effect produced within as required by U.S. law, reflecting common air pollution
a short period of time following exposure, usually up to 24 problems, for purposes of reaching national standards. The
to 96 hours, resulting in severe biological harm and often state implementation plans must provide for achievement of
death. NAAQS in every AQCR.
ADDITIVE - Any substance added in small quantities to AIR QUALITY CRITERIA - The level of pollution and
another substance, usually to improve properties. lengths of exposure above which may occur adverse effects
ADHESION - State in which two surfaces are held together on health and welfare.
by interfacial forces which may consist of valence forces or AIR QUALITY STANDARDS - The level of pollutants
interlocking action, or both. prescribed by law or regulation that cannot be exceeded dur-
ADSORPTION - Concentration of a substance at surface ing a specified time in a defined area.
or interface of another substance. ALIPHATIC SOLVENTS - Hydrocarbon solvents com-
ADVANCE NOTICE OF PROPOSED RULEMAKING - Used pounded primarily of paraffinic and cycloparaffinic (naphthen-
by a regulatory agency to solicit information that can be used ic) hydrocarbon compounds. Aromatic hydrocarbon content
to develop a first draft of a new regulation. Published in the may range from less than 1% to about 35%.
Federal Register. ALKYD RESINS - Synthetic resins formed by the conden-
AERIAL SUPPORTS - Rigging supported from above or sation of polyhydric alcohols with polybasic acids. They may
be regarded as complex esters. The most common poly-
attached to the steel.
hydric alcohol used is glycerol, and the most common poly-
AGING - Storage of paints, varnishes, etc. (under defined
basic acid is phthalic anhydride. Modified alkyds are those
conditions of temperature, relative humidity, etc.) in suitable
in which the polybasic acid is substituted in part by a mono-
containers, or as dry films of these materials, for the purpose
basic acid, of which the vegetable oil fatty acids are typical.
of subsequent tests.
ALLERGIC RESPONSE - The first exposure causes no evi-
AIR CONTAMINANT -Any substance of either man-made
dent effect, but sensitizes the subject. After about two weeks,
or natural origin in the ambient air, such as particulates (dust,
an identical exposure of the subject can result in a severe
fly ash, smoke, etc.), mists (other than water), fumes (gases),
asthmatic response or skin eruption.
etc.
ALLIGATORING - A type of crazing or surface cracking of
AIR EMISSIONS - The release or discharge of pollutants
a definite pattern, as indicated by name. The effect is often
into the ambient air.
the result of weather aging of a coating.
AIRLESS SPRAYING - Process of atomization of paint by
ALTERNATE IMMERSION (WATER) - An exposure in
forcing it through an orifice at high pressure. This effect is
which a surface is in frequent, perhaps fairly long, immer-
often aided by the flashing (vaporization) of the solvents, es-
sion in either fresh or salt water alternated with exposure to
pecially if the paint has been previously heated.
the atmosphere above the water.
AIR POLLUTANT - Dust, fumes, mist, smoke, and other
ALUMINUM PAINT - Coating consisting of a mixture of
particulate matter, vapor, gas, or odorous substances.
metallic aluminum pigment in powder or paste form dis-
AIR POLLUTANT, HAZARDOUS - Materials discharged persed in a suitable vehicle.
into the atmosphere that have a proven relationship to in-
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SSPC CHAPTERa27.3 93 m 8627940 0004045 632 m
ALUMINUM PASTE - Metallic aluminum flake pigment in major impact on industrial maintenance-type coating opera-
paste form, consisting of aluminum, solvent, and various ad- tions throughout the US. The rule will be promulgated na-
ditives. The metallic aluminum pigment can be in the form tionwide in ozone attainment areas as well as non-attainment
of very small, coated leaves or amorphous powder, known areas.
under the respective designations of “leafing” and “non- ARCHITECTURAL COATING - Coating intended for on-site
leafing.” application to interior or exterior surfaces of residential, com-
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY - Average atmospheric purity, as mercial, institutional, or industrial buildings - as opposed
distinguished from discharge measurements taken at the to factory applied (industrial) coatings. They are protective
source of pollution. The general amount of pollution present and decorative finishes applied at ambient temperatures.
in a broad area. -
AROMATIC SOLVENTS Hydrocarbon solvents comprised
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARD (AAQS) - A feder- wholly or primarily of aromatic hydrocarbon compounds. Aro-
ally promulgated maximum level of an air pollutant that can matic solvents containing less than 80% aromatic com-
exist in the ambient air without producing adverse effects to pounds are frequently designated as partial aromatic
humans or to the public welfare. solvents.
AMERICAN CONFERENCE OF GOVERNMENTALINDUS- ARTIFICIAL WEATHERING - See ACCELERATED
TRIAL HYGIENISTS (ACGIH) - An organization of health W EATHER1NG.
and safety professionals employed by governmental agen- ASPHALT MASTIC - A dense mixture of sand, crushed
cies or educational institutions. Known particularly for de- limestone and fiber bound with a select air-blown asphalt.
--````,,`,,`,```,```,``,,`,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
veloping threshold limit values. ATMOSPHERE - The air surrounding the earth. Also called
AMPHOTERIC - Exhibiting both basic and acidic charac- troposphere.
teristics. ATTAINMENT AREA - An area which meets National Am-
ANCHOR PATTERN See PROFILE. - bient Air Quality Standards for a particular pollutant such as
ANTI-CORROSION PAINT OR COMPOSITION Coating - ozone, lead and four other common pollutants. See NON-
used for preventing the corrosion of metals and, more par- ATTA1NMENT AREA.
ticularly, specially formulated to prevent the rusting of iron BACKGROUND LEVEL - With respect to air pollution, the
and steel. amounts of pollutants present in the ambient air due to natur-
ANTI-FOULING PAINT - Paint used to prevent the growth al sources.
of barnacles and other organisms on ships’ bottom usually BACTERIAL CLEANING - Removal of scale and rust by
containing substances poisonous to organisms. spraying or dipping the steel into a solution containing a bac-
ANTI-LIVERING AGENT - Additive used to prevent the terium, an inorganic salt and glucose.
livering of a coating. BAKING FINISH - A paint or varnish that requires baking
ANTI-SAG AGENT - Additive used to control sagging of at temperatures above 150OF for the development of desired
a coating. properties.
ANTI-SETTLING AGENT - Substance incorporated into a BARIUM METABORATE - White crystalline pigment pre-
pigmented paint to retard settling and to maintain uniform pared by precipitation from aqueous solution. Used in paint
consistency during storage or painting operations. These ad- as an anti-corrosion pigment.
ditives normally function by altering the rheological proper- BARRIER COAT - Coating used to isolate a paint system
ties of the paint. from the surface to which it is applied in order to prevent
ANTI-SKINNING AGENT - Any material added to a coat- chemical or physical interaction between them, e.g., to pre-
ing to prevent or retard the processes of oxidation or poly- vent the paint solvent attacking the underlying surface or to
merization which results in the formation of an insoluble skin prevent bleeding into the new paint system.
on the surface of the coating in a container. BASIC LEAD SILICO CHROMATE - Calcined basic lead
ANTI-WRINKLING AGENT - Material added to surface chromate - basic lead silicate complex on a silica core, used
coating compositions to prevent the formation of wrinkles in as a corrosion-inhibitive pigment.
films during drying. BASIC ZINC CHROMATE - Yellow pigment used primari-
APPLICATION - Process by which surface coating com- ly for its corrosion-inhibiting properties.
positions are transferred to a variety of surfaces, such as: BEST AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY - An emis-
brushing; spraying (cold or hot); dipping (simple immersion); sion limitation based upon the maximum degree of reduc-
roller coating; flushing; and spreading. tion for each pollutant subject to regulation which would be
ARCHITECTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE emitted from any major stationary source or major modifica-
(AIM) COATINGS - Architectural coatings are coatings ap- tion thereof. In no event is the application of “best available
plied to stationary structures and their appurtenances, to mo- control technology” to result in emissions of any pollutant
bile homes, or to curbs. The Clean Air Act Amendments call which would exceed the emissions allowed by any applica-
for an architectural coatings rule (including industrial main- ble standard.
tenance) to be promulgated by EPA which will have a

at 303-397-2295.
SSPC CHAPTER*27.3 93 8627940 0 0 0 4 0 4 6 579
BINDER - Nonvolatile portion of the liquid vehicle of a coat- manufacturers can control pollution from individual sources
ing. It binds or cements the pigment particles together and within their plants as they see fit, provided the air escaping
the paint film as a whole to the material to which it is applied. from the top of the imaginary bubble meets the standards.
The amount of binder needed to completely wet a pigment See also OFFSETS.
is determined primarily by the particle size, shape, chemi- BUBBLING - Film defect, temporary or permanent, in which
cal composition, and density of the pigment; and the parti- bubbles of air or solvent vapor, or both, are present in the
cle size, degree of polymerization and wetting properties of applied film.
the binder. See also VEHICLE. -
BUILD Real or apparent thickness, fullness, or depth of
BIOSPHERE - The portion of Earth and its atmosphere that a dried film.
can support life. CALCAREOUS DEPOSITS Deposits containing calcium -
BITUMINOUS COATING - Asphalt or tar compound used or calcium compounds.
to provide a protective finish. CATALYTIC CURING - Mechanism by which a coating is
BLAST CLEANING -Cleaning and roughening of a surface cross-linked by the action of a catalyst as opposed to oxida-
(particularly steel) by the use of metallic or nonmetallic grit tion, etc. Examples of such systems are two-part epoxies and
or metal shot (usually steel), which is projected against a sur- polyurethanes.
face by compressed air, centrifugal force, or water. CATHODIC PROTECTION -A technique to reduce the cor-
BLASTING CAGE - A movable enclosure around the rosion rate of a metal surface by making it a cathode of an
blaster that contains dust and paint. electrochemical cell.
-
BLEEDING The diffusion of colorants through a coating -
CAVITATION The formation and rapid collapse within a
from a previously painted substrate. liquid of cavities or bubbles that contain vapor or gas or both.
BLISTERING - Formation of dome-shaped projections in CAVITATION EROSION - Progressive loss of original
paints or varnish films resulting from local loss of adhesion material from solid surface due to continuing exposure to
and lifting of the film from an underlying paint film (intercoat cavitation.
blistering) or the base substrate. CEMENT PAINT - Paint supplied in dry powder form, based
-
BLUSHING A film defect that appears as a milky opales- essentially on Portland cement, to which pigments are some-
cence as the film dries. times added for decorative purposes. This dry powder paint
BODY -Apparent consistency or viscosity of a paint as as- is mixed with water immediately before use.
sessed subjectively. A practical term widely used to give a CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM EFFECTS - Symptoms in-
qualitative picture of consistency. For Newtonian liquids, volving the brain and spinal chord, affecting sensory im-
body is the same as viscosity. pulses, thought and motor control.
BOSUN’S CHAIR - A rigging system for a single individual CENTRIFUGAL BLAST CLEANING Use of motor-driven, -
that allows access to heights. bladed wheels to hurl abrasive at a surface by centrifugal
BOTTOM-DRYING - Drying of a film from the bottom force.
towards the top of the film. CHALKING - Formation of a friable powder on the surface
BOXING - Pouring paint from one container to another of a

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Custodians: Adopting Activity

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Custodians: Adopting Activity:

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is

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Custodians: Adopting Activity:

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SSPC = GUIDE 61 (CON)

SSPC = GUIDE 71 (DIS)

These specifications, guides and recommendations

Copyright 1992 by Steel Sîructures Painting Council

Ali Right Reserved

This book or any pati thereof must not be reproduced in

STEEL STRUCTURES PAINTING MANUAL

GOOD PAINTING PRACTICE

STEEL STRUCTURES PAINTING COUNCIL

4516 HENRY STREET, SUITE 301 PITTSBURGH, PA 15213-3728

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

Copyright, 1993, by Steel Structures Painting Council

First Printing, January 1994

Chapter 7.1 QUALITY CONTROL O F PAINTS - AS MANUFACTURED

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings VI

Chapter 21 .O HOT DIP GALVANIZING

SSPC T I T L E f A ft m 8627940 0003428 2îT m

Number Name Chair 0 METHODS FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE

c.4.5 Bridge Painting Research John Peart IV. PUBLICATIONS

C.A.l Local Chapters Ed Feige1

NACEISSPC JOINT TASK GROUPS

SSPC/NACE TG A Abrasive Blasting Ken Trimber

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 2

IV. CORROSION AT DISCONTINUITIES IN A EFFECTS OF POLARIZATION AND RESISTANCE

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

Bonderito Troated Surface

pre-treatment of the steel before painting. As measured by ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 8

He influenced several professional areas within the scope of

PAINTS FOR ANTI-CORROSION SERVICE

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

6. Pre-Construction Primers twice the coefficient of expansion of steel.

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 15

Oil Paints F F P F G F F F P P P F Oil Paints

raw materials suppliers, the mili-

I. INTRODUCTION high-pressure water blasting and high-pressure blasting

Maximum Typical Profile Height, (mils)

Mineral 81 Slag Abrasives

machines. To m i n i m i z e subsequent environmental prob- BIOGRAPHY

MECHANICAL SURFACE PREPARATION

5DUST I. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

EXIT ROLL CONVEYOR

DRAG CHAIN CONVEYOR

DRAG CHAIN CONVEYOR

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings 24

ROOF SLOT FOR OVERHEAD

volume. Although larger and smaller machines are escaping.

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

FIGURE 13A FIGURE 138

Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

Racks can be mounted on work cars for stacking and

DUST AND nisms - presents an array of system combinations too