Undergroundcarparks PDF

Over the past 15 months, BRE has seen a rise in the number of underground
car park designs it has been asked to assess for ventilation performance. The
assessments were carried out because Building Control Officers required
assurance that CO levels would be within safety limits. This case study
underlines the value of such checks and demonstrates how they can point the
way to a solution when design modifications are required.
Century Buildings, St Helier, Jersey.
Developer: Dandara of Jersey Ltd.
Architect: Michael Waddington of Naish Waddington Architects
This high quality mixed-use scheme project will be the largest single private
development in Jersey, taking up a whole town block and following the UK and
European pattern of town living. The accommodation comprises a 54,600
square foot office development, a crèche, a shop, a bar and restaurant, a café,
and over 160 apartments with a central landscaped courtyard and basement
parking for over 120 cars. By redeveloping a run-down part of St Helier the
scheme not only provides much needed urban regeneration, but also plays a
major role in preserving Jersey’s green belt by reducing the necessity to re-
zone agricultural land to satisfy the current housing shortage.
The development will have a general height of 22m and be set on a broadly
rectangular site approximately 60m x 70m, close to the centre of St Helier. The
design is set around a central courtyard, with a single-level basement car park.
Vehicle entry and exit will be via a single opening consisting of a ramped tunnel
under the north-east side and terminating in a side road. The basement will contain a
number of plant rooms and storage spaces and the overall area allocated for car
parking is approximately 2500m2. The designer’s preferred option is natural
ventilation, to be achieved via openings on each of the four facades and a central
opening in the roof of the car park, venting into the courtyard. See Figures 1a and
1b.
The problem
When designing a naturally ventilated underground car park, the most common
challenge is incorporating a sufficient number of openings to make the design comply
with Building Regulations. Approved Document F* specifies that the ventilation
requirement will be satisfied if the openings at each car parking level have an
aggregate area equal to at least 1/20th of the floor area at that level, of which at least
half should be in two opposing walls. Sometimes this just is not possible and it is
necessary to adopt the alternative approach in which the ventilation strategy is
designed to limit the concentration of carbon monoxide to an acceptable level over a
set number of hours. With residential developments, this alternative approach is often
appropriate as car park usage is intermittent and there is less likelihood of a build up
of pollutants. In this case study, BRE recommended the design team adopt the
alternative approach and verify the ventilation performance by commissioning the
calculation of the predicted pollutant levels.
VENTILATION ISSUES
Car park ventilation systems have to control the exhaust gases emitted by vehicles
but must also take into account possible fuel spillages and the venting of smoke in
the event of a fire.
Natural ventilation
The performance of natural ventilation depends on many factors including site layout
and orientation, size and siting of air vents, height and proximity of neighbouring
buildings, and local wind conditions. When these are favourable, natural ventilation
will provide both a mean level of air change and be able to cope with peak
conditions. Where conditions are not ideal there will be periods when it is unable to
copy with heavy loads and ventilation rates will fall below a desirable level. In these
circumstances it is necessary to understand just how low those rates could fall and
what impact this would have on air quality and the health and safety of users. The
effect of extended periods of low wind speed, and thus low ventilation rate, on CO
levels is of particular interest.
Concentrations of pollutants
As well as the overall ventilation rate, it is necessary to consider the distribution of
pollutant concentrations within the car park. The assumption that the air is ‘well-
mixed’, i.e. the concentrations are uniform, is often used when predicting
concentrations. However, it is important to examine the factors that may contribute to
non-uniform mixing and to determine the sensitivity of the predicted concentrations to
assumptions about the degree of mixing. The two interacting factors that contribute to
the degree of mixing are (a) the air flow pattern within the space and (b) the location
of the pollutant sources.
Air flow
The principle factor that influences the pattern of air flow is the distribution of air
inlets. The strength of the mixing effect will depend upon the speed of the incoming
air and the size of the inlet opening. With natural ventilation, the speed increases
proportionally with the square root of the applied pressure difference. Air extract
points have a much lower effect on air movement but their location relative to inlets
may be important. Other factors to take into account include the geometry of the
space, convective flows and intermittent turbulent flows.
Source points
With car parks, the pollutant source is moving for much of the time and the
distribution will depend on the routes vehicles have to take. For example, if there is a
single entry and exit point, there will be a higher generation of pollutant on travel
paths in the immediate vicinity. At the same time, the complex interaction of air flow
and pollutant sources makes it very difficult to predict pollutant distribution. An
elongated space with openings at one end is likely to have a non-uniform distribution,
while a single pollutant source close to the openings will have a much lower
concentration than if it were away from these.
DETERMINING THE TRUE SITUATION

Predictions of ventilation rate are based on estimates of the effective area of
openings and of surface pressure coefficients. The latter can be obtained from
existing published data; however the coefficient values will be sensitive to local
topographical features and the height and form of neighbouring buildings. It is
therefore necessary to judge the suitability of existing data and in the light of this, to
ascertain the need for wind tunnel tests.
In this instance, BRE used existing published data and advised there was no need to
undertake a wind tunnel test. Hourly ventilation rates were predicted using hourly
mean wind speed data over a 10-year period obtained from the local meteorological
statistics. By determining the expected use pattern of the car park, it was possible to
predict the variation in hourly mean CO concentrations over the 10 year period,
assuming that the pollutants were uniformly distributed. From this, the percentage of
time that 1 hour and 8 hour mean CO concentrations exceeded 50 ppm and 100 ppm
respectively could be determined. The effect of non-uniform mixing on these results
was also investigated.
THE FINDINGS
Predictions of natural ventilation rates over a 10-year period indicated that the
estimated average level of ventilation was lower than would be expected for an
above ground car park that complied with Approved Document F. The predicted car
use and the degree of non-uniform mixing of air meant that CO concentrations were
likely to exceed the acceptable limit, particularly in the north-east area of the car park
where ventilation was relatively poor and pollutant emissions would be high because
of proximity to the entry/exit point. The client was advised that mechanical ventilation
using the rates suggested by Approved Document F should restrict carbon monoxide
levels to well within the prescribed limits even for the highest car usage patterns.
OUTCOME
As a result of the Developer commissioning an independent report, the architects
were able to progress their Application for Jersey Building Bye-Laws more effectively.
The Building Control Department accepted that the case for natural ventilation versus
mechanically assisted ventilation of the Semi-Basement Car Park was not 'black-
and-white', and were therefore prepared to accept BRE’s recommendations.
Although BRE were unable to recommend a cheaper, naturally ventilated strategy,

the exercise avoided considerable potentially abortive work by the Design Team and
loss of time by the Client. The Design Team was able to concentrate on the complex
structural and M&E co-ordination from the earliest stages, with a very clear idea of
the proposed final concept.
Ursula Garner, February 2001.
*Approved Document F specifies that the ventilation requirement will be satisfied if the openings at each
th
car parking level have an aggregate area equal to at least 1/20 of the floor area at that level, of which
at least half should be in two opposing walls (Paragraph 2.8). This may often be difficult to achieve in
practice, particularly if the car park is below ground level.
It is sometimes the case that sufficient ventilation is provided even if the opening area and distribution
requirement is not fulfilled; for example, residential use where the car park is not used as frequently as a
shopping centre car park. Approved Document F also allows an alternative approach, in which the
requirement will be satisfied if the mean predicted pollutant levels are calculated and the ventilation
designed to limit the concentration of carbon monoxide to not more than 50 parts per million average
over an eight hour period and peak concentrations, such as by ramps and exits, not to go above 100
parts per million for periods not exceeding 15 minutes.
Ventilation rate (ach)
Distribution of
Shielding Open Scattered Urban City
openings
Exposed Uniform 53.8 43.9 33.0 23.5
Partial shielding Uniform 43.0 35.2 26.4 18.8
Full shielding Uniform 29.2 23.9 17.9 12.8
Note: Emboldened results indicate most likely combinations.
Table 1 Range of ventilation rates (in air changes per hour) for a 'typical' three-storey,
naturally ventilated car park, showing the influence of shelter and terrain
Location Area (m2)
Façade 1 (Esplanade) 5.7
Façade 2 (Patriotic Street) 16.2
Façade 3 (Patriotic Place) 25.3
Façade 4 (Gloucester Street) 12.5
Courtyard 86.2
Table 2 Aggregated areas of opening for the principal facades and the courtyard
Wind direction
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330
Wind pressure coefficient
Façade 1 (Esplanade) -0.24 -0.14 -0.06 -0.14 -0.24 -0.01 0.23 0.50 0.60 0.50 0.23 -0.01
Façade 2 (Patriotic Street) -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10
Façade 3 (Patriotic Place) -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10
Façade 4 (Gloucester Street) -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10 -0.10
Courtyard -0.04 -0.10 -0.13 -0.10 -0.04 -0.06 -0.09 -0.19 -0.31 -0.19 -0.04 -0.05
Interior (from calculations) -0.062 -0.100 -0.119 -0.100 -0.062 -0.069 -0.091 -0.152 -0.229 -0.152 -0.051 -0.062
Courtyard-interior 0.022 0.000 -0.011 0.000 0.022 0.009 0.001 -0.038 -0.081 -0.038 0.011 0.012
Table 3 Pressure coefficients measured at the opening locations (reference wind speed measured at building height of 22m)
Wind direction
Area 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330
(sq m) Ventilation coefficient Cven ( m3/s per m/s)
Façade 1 (Esplanade) 5.7 -1.10 -0.52 0.64 -0.52 -1.10 0.63 2.26 3.23 3.64 3.23 1.38 0.59
Façade 2 (Patriotic Street) 16.2 -1.44 0.06 1.03 0.06 -1.44 -1.31 -1.10 2.58 4.08 2.58 -1.64 -1.45
Façade 3 (Patriotic Place) 25.3 -2.25 0.09 1.61 0.09 -2.25 -2.04 -1.72 4.03 6.37 4.03 -2.57 -2.27
Façade 4 (Gloucester Street) 12.5 -1.11 0.05 0.80 0.05 -1.11 -1.01 -0.85 1.99 3.15 1.99 -1.27 -1.12
Courtyard 86.2 5.89 0.32 -4.07 0.32 5.89 3.72 1.42 -11.84 -17.23 -11.84 4.10 4.25
Total ventilation flow rate 5.89 0.52 4.07 0.52 5.89 4.36 3.68 11.84 17.23 11.84 5.48 4.84
Table 4 Variation with wind direction of the total ventilation coefficient, Cven, and flow coefficients for flow through the individual
flow paths (Note: negative value for the flow paths indicates that flow is out of the car park)
Ratio of source strength
relative to average for
Zone
whole car park area
A 0.55
B 0.95
C 0.55
D 1.50
E 1.75
F 0.55
G 3.40
Table 5 Local carbon monoxide production rates relative to the average
for the whole car park

Use profile A1 B1 A2 B2 A3 B3
Average annual mean concentration (ppm) 3.03 3.04 6.05 6.08 9.08 9.13
Average annual maximum 1-hour mean concentration - C(1h) (ppm) 237 238 474 476 711 714
Average % time annually that C(1h) > 100 ppm 0.17% 0.19% 0.66% 0.67% 1.15% 1.13%
(a) Uniform mixing
(b) Some part of car park with 3 times average concentration
(c) Some part of car park with 5 times average concentration
Table 6 Summary of carbon monoxide concentration statistics given in terms of annual means averaged over 10 years
without zero wind speed adjustment
(i) Uniform mixing
(b) Some part of car park with 3 times average concentration

(c) Some part of car park with 5 times average concentration
Table 7 Summary of carbon monoxide concentration statistics given in terms of annual means averaged over 10 years
- with adjustment for zero wind speed

No. of combined outward/return Pollutant distribution
journeys per parking place per day
Uniform 3 times mean 5 times mean
1 0.3% 2.0% 4.1%
2 1.1% 5.4% 12.6%
3 2.0% 10.6% 22.4%
Table 8(a) Predicted percentage of time that 8-hour mean CO concentration is greater
than 50ppm, showing sensitivity to car park use and degree of uniformity of mixing - with no
adjustment for zero wind speed.
No. of combined outward/return Pollutant distribution

journeys per parking place per day
Uniform 3 times mean 5 times mean
1 0.0% 0.1% 1.2%
2 0.0% 2.5% 10.6%
3 0.1% 8.4% 21.2%
Table 8(b) Predicted percentage of time that 8-hour mean CO concentration is greater
than 50ppm, showing sensitivity to car park use and degree of uniformity of mixing - with
adjustment for zero wind speed.
Use profile A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
Mean daily concentration (ppm) 2.2 2.2 4.3 4.3 6.5 6.5
Maximum daily 1-hour mean 2.9 4.3 5.8 8.7 8.7 13.0
concentration (ppm)
Maximum daily 8-hour mean 2.9 3.0 5.8 6.0 8.7 9.0
concentration (ppm)
Table 9 Predicted carbon monoxide concentrations for mechanical ventilation,
assuming an air change rate of 6ach and uniform mixing.

Use profile A1 A2 A3
Annual mean concentration (ppm) 0.35 0.69 1.04
Annual maximum 1-hour mean concentration - C(1h) 60.1 120.2 180.3
% time that C(1h) >100 ppm over the year 0.0% 0.01% 0.02%
% time that C(8h) >50 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
% time that C(8h) >10 ppm 0.13% 0.46% 1.11%
(a) With no adjustment for zero wind speed.
% time that C(8h) >50 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
% time that C(8h) >10 ppm 0.0% 0.01% 0.30%
(b) With adjustment for zero wind speed
Table 10 Courtyard carbon monoxide concentration statistics (1990 wind data)
- with naturally ventilated car park

% time that C(8h) >50 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
% time that C(8h) >10 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
(a) With no adjustment for zero wind speed.
% time that C(8h) >50 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
% time that C(8h) >10 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
(b) With adjustment for zero wind speed.
Table 11 Courtyard carbon monoxide concentration statistics (1990 wind data)
with mechanically ventilated car park.

Figure 1(a) Century buildings - plan view of proposed layout
Figure 1(b) Century Buildings - Section on AA
Figure 2a General location of the site (approximate scale 1:17000)
Figure 2b Expanded view showing immediate surroundings of the site
(approximate scale - 1:4000)

20.0
15.0
Cven
10.0
5.0
0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Wind direction
Figure 3 Variation of car park ventilation coefficient with wind direction
50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Wind direction
Figure 4 Variation of car park air change rate at 50% wind speed with wind direction
Appendices
Appendix 2 Calculation of ventilation rates in a 'typical' above ground naturally
ventilated car park
For the purpose of comparison with the development at Les Vanniers, a typical above ground
car park has been defined as consisting of three floors with a total height of 9m and having a
length to width ratio in plan of 2:1. Wind pressure coefficient data for this built form are given
in Reference A2-1, for a range of wind directions and the following three levels of local
shielding:
Exposed Open countryside with no obstructions
Semi-sheltered Some obstructions with a height approximately half the height of the
building
Sheltered Surrounded on all sides by obstructions of similar size.
It is assumed that each floor is provided with openings with a total area equal to the minimum
requirement of AD F1, i.e.5% of the floor area. Three possible distributions of this open area
are considered:
Uniform Area uniformly distributed at all four walls.
Non-uniform Distributed in the ratio 3:1 between the two long sides only.
Non-uniform Distributed in the ratio 3:1 between the two short sides only.
The non-uniform cases represent the restriction in AD F1, which requires that " …at least half
[of the area of opening] should be in two opposing walls."
The general principles underlying the calculation are set out in References A2-1, A2-2, A2-3,
A2-4]. The pressures generated at ventilation openings are calculated using pressure
coefficient data together with a wind profile appropriate to the terrain over which the wind
passes prior to its interaction with the building. Four types of terrain are identified:
(i) Open flat country
(ii) Country with scattered wind breaks
(iii) Urban
(iv) City
These profiles enable the wind data (which are standardised to a height of 10m in open
country) published by the meteorological authorities to be corrected for the location of the
building. The meteorological wind speed varies with time but published statistics indicate that
the frequency distribution of wind speed follows a broadly similar curve if it is normalised by
U50, the wind speed exceeded for 50% of the time at any site. This means that the wind speed
distribution at any location can be determined from a single basic curve and a contour map
showing the values of U50 such as Figure 1 of Reference A2-4. For the purpose of the present
comparison, all ventilation rates have been calculated using U50.
Table A1 sets out the results of the calculations for the 'standard' building. These are given in
air changes per hour (based on an assumed height of each floor of 2.5m) and are based on a
value of U50 of 4 m/s, which is typical for much of the inland area of England.
Table A1 Calculated ventilation rates for the 'standard' building for a range of
conditions at the 50% wind speed
Distribution of
Shielding Open Scattered Urban City
openings
Exposed Uniform 53.8 43.9 33.0 23.5
Long - 3:1 32.4 26.4 19.8 14.2
Short - 3:1 28.4 23.3 17.4 12.5
Partial shielding Uniform 43.0 35.2 26.4 18.8
Long 3:1 25.7 21.0 15.7 11.3
Short 3:1 25.8 21.1 15.8 11.4
Full shielding Uniform 29.2 23.9 17.9 12.8
Long 3:1 16.7 13.7 10.2 7.3
Short 3:1 20.0 16.7 12.6 9.0
Note: Emboldened results indicate most likely combinations.

It is clear that the requirements of AD F1, when applied to a typical above ground car park
encompass a wide range of potential ventilation rates, ranging from approximately 10 to 55 air
changes per hour (at the 50% wind speed), depending upon location and surroundings.
References
A2-1 Orme M, Liddament M W & Wilson A. 'Numerical data for air infiltration and natural
ventilation calculations'. Technical Note AIVC 44. Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre, 1998.
A2-2 'Principles of natural ventilation'. Building Research Establishment Digest 210. 1978.
A2-3 BS5925:1991. 'Code of practice for ventilation principles and designing for natural
ventilation.' . British standards Institution, London.
A2-4 CIBSE Guide Book A, Section A4. 'Air infiltration and natural ventilation'. Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers. 1986.
Appendix 3 Records of low wind speeds
Meteorological records are based upon readings using a standard Munro Mk IV anemometer.
While this is robust, it suffers from the disadvantage that it has difficulty in measuring low wind
speeds i.e. below about 5 knots (2.5 m/s). In particular, once stationary it may require a wind
speed of about 5 knots to restart. This feature results in considerable uncertainty in relation to
the prediction of ventilation rates in buildings at low wind speeds. Recent studies [A3-1,A3-2]
have sought to investigate this effect by comparing simultaneous records made using a
standard Munro anemometer with those from more sensitive instruments capable of operating
accurately at very low wind speeds. Figure A3-1 and A3-2 illustrate the degree that the
standard instrument deviates from real conditions. While this work is continuing the results
show that standard meteorological records considerably over-predict the incidence and extent
of periods of zero and very low wind speed.
It is not possible to correct directly for this anomaly by applying a factor to the recorded values
since, as Figure A3-2 indicates, a recorded zero wind speed could occur when the actual
wind speed was in a range from zero to 1.8 m/s. Analysis by Deaves et al [A3-1] indicates the
probability of wind speed being below 0.5 m/s (1 knot) for longer than 10 minutes is about
0.4% and lower than 1 m/s (2 knots) for more than an hour is about 0.7%. On this basis, a
conservative measure of the likely performance of the ventilation system in practice may be
obtained by substituting recorded periods of zero wind speed by a speed of 0.5 m/s.
References
A3-1. Deaves D M & Lines I G. The nature and frequency of low wind speed conditions.
Journal of Wind Engineering, 73, pp1-29, 1998.
A3-2 Levermore G J, Dewsbury J & Gadian A. Improved low wind speed and high
frequency wind data for natural ventilation of buildings. Department of Building Engineering,
UMIST. Interim Report on EPSRC Research Grant GR/L23288. February 2000.
Figure A3-1 Comparison of wind speeds measured using a Munro anemometer with
those measured by a Windmaster ultra sonic anemometer (August 1998, East Kilbride) [from
ref. A3-2]
Figure A3-2 Comparison of hourly average wind speeds measured using a Munro
anemometer with those measured by a Gill ultrasonic anemometer, expressed as ratio of
Munro to Gill reading v Gill reading. (June/July 1994, Camborne) [from ref. A3-1]
Appendix 4 Human exposure to carbon monoxide
When inhaled carbon monoxide, which is colourless and odourless, combines with
haemoglobin in the blood to form carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) which inhibit the oxygen
carrying capacity of the blood. Levels of below 5% COHb in the blood are likely to have only
minor, unnoticeable, effects on physical performance and no effects on vigilance after
exposure. At 10% to 20%, symptoms such as breathlessness on exertion will occur and at
30% symptoms such as severe headache, dizziness, dimness of vision, disturbed judgement
and nausea occur [A4-1]. Levels above 60% can lead to coma, respiratory failure and death.
Typical levels found in the population at large are of the order of 1% due to general exposure
to carbon monoxide. Tobacco smokers have higher concentrations typically in the range 4 -
8% [A4-1].
Levels of COHb in the blood are determined both by the level of carbon monoxide in the
inspired air and the length of time of exposure. Thus higher levels can be tolerated for shorter
periods. Table A4-1 sets out World Health Authority guideline concentrations for exposure to
limit COHb levels to 5% [A4-2]. Lower levels of 90 ppm for 15 minutes; 25 ppm for 1 hour and
9 ppm for 8 hours are suggested by WHO to achieve the much lower levels of 2.5 to 3%
COHb [A4-1]. A recent extensive review of criteria for air quality in enclosed car parks by
Burnett and Chan [A4-3] considers a wide range of guidelines, research and medical data on
carbon monoxide exposure. They note, in particular that the WHO guidelines come with the
provision that they " …should be considered as desirable rather than maximum acceptable
limits." Burnett and Chan note that car park users carrying objects to and from a vehicle (light
work) and exposed to 100 ppm for a duration of 15 minutes are subject to a very low health
risk and conclude that in car parks "…it should be possible to allow levels up to 200 ppm for
durations of up to 15 minutes.
References
A4-1 Raw G J and Hamilton R M (Eds). Building Regulation and Health. BRE Report
BR289 August 1995
A4-2 World Health Organisation . Carbon monoxide Environmental Health Criteria. 13.
Geneva. 1979.
A4-3 Burnett J and Chan M Y. Criteria for air quality in enclosed car parks. Proc. Instn. Civ.
Engrs. Transp.. vol 123, pp102-110, May 1997.
Carbon monoxide Exposure time not to be Concentration to produce 5% Safety factors implied in values
concentration exceeded COHb given in column 1
3
Ppm mg/m Light work Heavy work Light work Heavy work Light work Heavy work
200 230 15 min. - 298 - 1.5 -
100 115 30 min 15 min 157 193 1.6 1.9
75 86 60 min 30 min 87 105 1.2 1.4
50 55 90 min 60 min 64 62 1.3 1.2
35 40 4 hours 2 hours 37 41 1.1 1.2
25 29 8 hours 8 hours 31 30 1.2 1.2

Table A4-1 Guidelines for exposure conditions that would prevent carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) levels exceeding 5% in the non-
smoking population , World Health Organisation [A4-2] (taken from reference A4-1).

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Over the past 15 months, BRE has seen a rise in the number of underground

Century Buildings, St Helier, Jersey.

Developer: Dandara of Jersey Ltd.

Architect: Michael Waddington of Naish Waddington Architects

DETERMINING THE TRUE SITUATION

Although BRE were unable to recommend a cheaper, naturally ventilated strategy,

Ursula Garner, February 2001.

Exposed Uniform 53.8 43.9 33.0 23.5

Partial shielding Uniform 43.0 35.2 26.4 18.8

Full shielding Uniform 29.2 23.9 17.9 12.8

Note: Emboldened results indicate most likely combinations.

Location Area (m2)

Façade 1 (Esplanade) 5.7

Façade 2 (Patriotic Street) 16.2

Façade 3 (Patriotic Place) 25.3

Façade 4 (Gloucester Street) 12.5

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330

Wind pressure coefficient

Area 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330

(sq m) Ventilation coefficient Cven ( m3/s per m/s)

for the whole car park

(a) Uniform mixing

(b) Some part of car park with 3 times average concentration

(c) Some part of car park with 5 times average concentration

without zero wind speed adjustment

Average annual maximum 8-hour mean concentration - C(8h) (ppm) 18 19 36 37 54 56

(i) Uniform mixing

(b) Some part of car park with 3 times average concentration

(c) Some part of car park with 5 times average concentration

- with adjustment for zero wind speed

1 0.3% 2.0% 4.1%

2 1.1% 5.4% 12.6%

3 2.0% 10.6% 22.4%

No. of combined outward/return Pollutant distribution

1 0.0% 0.1% 1.2%

2 0.0% 2.5% 10.6%

3 0.1% 8.4% 21.2%

Table 9 Predicted carbon monoxide concentrations for mechanical ventilation,

assuming an air change rate of 6ach and uniform mixing.

Annual mean concentration (ppm) 0.35 0.69 1.04

Annual maximum 1-hour mean concentration - C(1h) 60.1 120.2 180.3

Annual maximum 8-hour mean concentration - C(8h) 14.9 29.9 44.8

% time that C(8h) >50 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

% time that C(8h) >10 ppm 0.13% 0.46% 1.11%

(a) With no adjustment for zero wind speed.

Annual mean concentration (ppm) 0.30 0.60 0.89

Annual maximum 1-hour mean concentration - C(1h) 11.6 23.3 34.9

Annual maximum 8-hour mean concentration - C(8h) 5.1 10.2 15.4

% time that C(8h) >50 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

% time that C(8h) >10 ppm 0.0% 0.01% 0.30%

(b) With adjustment for zero wind speed

Table 10 Courtyard carbon monoxide concentration statistics (1990 wind data)

- with naturally ventilated car park

Annual mean concentration (ppm) 0.34 0.68 1.04

Annual maximum 1-hour mean concentration - C(1h) 2.9 5.8 8.7

Annual maximum 8-hour mean concentration - C(8h) 2.5 5.0 7.5

% time that C(8h) >50 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

% time that C(8h) >10 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

(a) With no adjustment for zero wind speed.

Annual mean concentration (ppm) 0.33 0.66 0.98

Annual maximum 1-hour mean concentration - C(1h) 1.9 3.7 5.6

Annual maximum 8-hour mean concentration - C(8h) 1.7 3.5 5.2

% time that C(8h) >50 ppm 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%