MAHARASHTRA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

AURANGABAD

ROLE OF SECURITY COUNCIL IN THE MODERN CONTEXT

III Semester, BA.LLB (Hons.)

Submitted by
SHREYASHI SRIVASTAVA (61)
SOUMIKI GHOSH (10)
SHIKHA (26)
MOHANISH SHARMA (09)
ABHIJEET MITTAL (60)

SUBMITTED BY - OCTOBER, 2019

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF-

MRS. NEHA TRIPATHI (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF LAW)
&
MS. SOUMYA RAJSINGH (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF LAW)
MNLU, Aurangabad

1
 ABSTRACT
This project is based on the role of Security Council in modern context. This project mainly
deals with the primary objective of the UNSC that is maintaining International Peace and
Security. This project starts with the introduction of UNSC, which tells about the functions,
structure and various Peace keeping operations of Security Council. The UNSC function is
international peace and security but it has much wider role. It is the core organ of the UN as it
has a major role in every decision making. Modern era threats to peace and security such as
terrorism, refugee crisis, weapons of mass destruction, cyber attacks and resource crisis are
few of the topics discussed in the following research work. The main objective is to draw the
attention towards 21st century problems and how the security council is recognising, settling
such issues within its given framework ( UN Charter) in a comprehensive manner.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr. No. Topic Page no.

1. List of authorities 4
2. Introduction 5-6
3. Statement of problem 7
4. Hypothesis 7
5. Research questions 7
6. Review of literature 7
7. Chapter I 8-13
8. Chapter II 14-17
9. Chapter III 18-22
10. Chapter IV 23-26
11. Chapter V 27-29
12. Conclusion 30
13. Bibliography 31

3
 LIST OF AUTHORITIES
UN DOCUMENT
 United Nations Charter
 UN Doc. Statement by the President of the Security Council, S/PRST/2006/15, 29
March 2006.
 UN Doc. A/RES/36/148 (16 Dec. 1981)
 UN Doc. S/RES/361 (30 Aug. 1974)
 UN Doc. A/RES/41/70 (3 Dec. 1986)
 UN Doc. S/RES/688 (5 Apr. 1991)
 UN Doc. S/23500 (31 Jan. 1992)

ARTICLES AND REPORTS

 Need for the Reforms in the Unsc in the Changing Political and Economic Times;
Archita Anand
 Rasool Soltani, Maryam Moradi, The Evolution of the Concept of International Peace
and Security in light of UN Security Council Practice (End of the Cold War-Until
Now), OPJS Vol.7 NO.1, (jan, 2017)
 "Security Council, acting on Secretary-General's Africa report, adopts texts of status
and treatment of refugees, illicit arms flow". United Nations. 19 November 1998

BOOKS
‘Law and borders – The rise of law in cyberspace’ by D Johnson and D Post.

ONLINE SOURCES
peacekeeping.un.org
www.unhcr.org
www.unodc.org
uk.reuters.com/article/uk-myanmar-rohingya
www.japantimes.co.
http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/cyb/cybersecurity/docs/itunational-cybersecurity-guide.pdf
accessed 13 October 2014.

4
 INTRODUCTION

The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the United Nations Charter, for the
maintenance of international peace and security. It is for the Security Council to determine
when and where a UN peace operation should be deployed. The Security Council responds to
crises around the world on a case-by-case basis and it has a range of options at its disposal.
The Security Council establishes a peace operation by adopting a Security Council resolution.
The resolution sets out that mission’s mandate and size. The Security Council monitors the
work of UN peace operations on an ongoing basis, including through periodic reports from
the Secretary-General and by holding dedicated Security Council sessions to discuss the work
of specific operations. The Security Council can vote to extend, amend or end mission
mandates as it deems appropriate. Under Article 25 of the Charter, all UN members agree to
accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council. While other organs of the UN
make recommendations to Member States, the Council alone has the power to take decisions
which Member States are obligated to implement.1

Under the United Nations Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council are:

 to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles and
purposes of the United Nations;
 to investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction;
 to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement;
 to formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments;
 to determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to
recommend what action should be taken;
 to call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the
use of force to prevent or stop aggression;
 to take military action against an aggressor;
 to recommend the admission of new Members;
 to exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in "strategic areas";
 to recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General
and, together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the International Court of
Justice.2

1
https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/role-of-security-council
2
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/functions-and-powers

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STRUCTURE

The Security Council consists of fifteen members. The great powers that were the victors of
World War II—the Soviet Union (now represented by the Russian Federation), the United
Kingdom, France, the Republic of China (now represented by the People's Republic of
China), and the United States serve as the body's five permanent members. These permanent
members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the
admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General. The Security Council
also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year term. The
body's presidency rotates monthly among its members.3

The world is changing, but not the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Today the geo-
political and economic scenario of world is quite different from the situation of 1945 when
the UNSC was established by 51 countries 70 years ago. Though it is felt for a long time that
the present structure is flawed, however, to reach the consensus remains out of reach. The
reforms are needed due to following as more number of nations being decolonized and there
are sharp contrast between the number of seats and the total number of member states.4

From growing violence in fragile states to threats posed by climate change, cyber-attacks, and
terrorism, the role of Security Council has increased. it will need to work within its present
institutions by adapting and modernizing the United Nations and related governance
architectures and through building new tools to meet the rising global challenges of the 21st
century.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Today the geo-political and economic scenario of world is quite different from the situation
of 1945 when the UNSC was established. The research project highlights the new modern era
threats that UNSC faces while doing its primary function of securing international peace and
security.

HYPOTHESIS
3
Need For the Reforms in the Unsc in the Changing Political and Economic Times; Archita Anand
4
Ibid.,

6
This project summaries the topic of ‘Role of UNSC in the modern context’ and also discusses
the significant prospective of the same. The project will help us in enhancing our knowledge
about the topic and its significance in international law.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 What is the role of UNSC in combating factors which can lead to third world war?
1. What is the role of UNSC in Combating Terrorism?
2. How use of weapons is a threat to international peace and security?
3. What is role of UNSC in controlling Global Refugee problem?
4. What is the role of UNSC with reference to cyber security?
5. How competition for scarce resources is a risk to international peace and
security?

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 Need for the Reforms in the Unsc in the Changing Political and Economic Times;
Archita Anand
 Rasool Soltani, Maryam Moradi, The Evolution of the Concept of International Peace
and Security in light of UN Security Council Practice (End of the Cold War-Until
Now), OPJS Vol.7 NO.1, (jan, 2017)
 "Security Council, acting on Secretary-General's Africa report, adopts texts of status
and treatment of refugees, illicit arms flow". United Nations. 19 November 1998

CHAPTER I
ROLE OF UNSC IN COMBATING TERRORISM

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Terrorism, a term in common use, has little common meaning among its users. Individual
experience, background, prejudice, and intention may flavour any attempt at definition but
efforts toward increased clarity should continue.

While the term "terrorism" is often indiscriminately used and is difficult to use accurately in a
strictly legal context, it raises little doubt in the mind of the man in the street. Though
definitional precision is difficult, terrorism is not hard to describe and, for those who have
experienced it, is easy to comprehend. "Terrorism is thus an easily recognized activity of a
bad character, subjectively determined and shaped by social and political
considerations."

Terrorism may be committed for several purposes:

1. Individual acts of terrorism may aim at wringing specific concessions, such as the
payment of ransom or the release of prisoners.
2. Terrorism may attempt the gaining of publicity.
3. Terrorism may target the causing of widespread disorder, demoralizing society and
breaking down social order.
4. Terrorism may be aimed at deliberately provoking repression in hopes of inducing
the government to "self-destruct."
5. Terrorism may also be used to enforce obedience and cooperation.
6. Terrorism is frequently meant to punish. Terrorists often declare that the victim of
their attack is somehow guilty of something

Reasons for rise in terrorism:

1. Military Involvement in Domestic Terror Incidents: The use of military force in

domestic situations is severely limited by constitutional and statutory law. These
limitations and some attendant ambiguities are of considerable legal consequence not
only to the policymaking level of government but to local commanders in defining,
planning for, and implementing the military role in domestic terror incidents.
2. Chemicals and Biological Weapon: With all of the interest that has been shown in
terrorism in recent months, relatively little attention has been paid to the possibility
that terrorists could dramatically escalate the type of weapons they use, and so pose a
much greater threat to organized societies and governments than they do at present.

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 What we have in mind is a terrorist group's use, or credible threat to use, mass
casualty weapons-those that can cause several hundred to tens of thousands of
casualties in a single attack.
3. Off-Shore Maritime Terrorism: This is a crime waiting to happen. Even so, that such
maritime terrorism has not yet gripped the public's attention, nor stirred polemical
debate in legal circles, nor produced pronounced policy reactions by governmental
officials is hardly surprising. To date, not a single incident involving an illicit seizure
or destruction of an offshore drilling platform or rig has been reported.
As intimated by the analysis in this study, several conclusions about offshore
maritime terrorism can be posited. First, recent evidence suggests that terrorist
incidents have increased in frequency and pervasion during the last decade. Similarly,
in that same period persistent worldwide demands for additional energy resources
have made offshore hydrocarbon development economically feasible and thus an
attractive exploitation option. This tendency to go offshore can be expected to
continue throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Accordingly, then, offshore drilling rigs
and platforms owned and operated by multinational corporate concerns very likely
may become more favourably viewed as potential targets for attack or extortion by
terrorist groups. Regarding legal jurisdiction over terrorist attacks affecting offshore
drilling facilities, international law plainly assigns responsibility to the coastal State.
Moreover, should the 1982 Draft Convention on the Law of the Sea enter into force,
this legal jurisdiction would be extended seaward to 200 nautical miles for those
States party to the treaty.

Combating International Terrorism: The United Nations Developments5

The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy on 8
September 2006. The strategy is a unique global instrument to enhance national, regional and
international efforts to counter terrorism.

Through its adoption that all Member States have agreed the first time to a common strategic
and operational approach to fight terrorism, not only sending a clear message that terrorism is
unacceptable in all its forms and manifestation but also resolving to take practical steps
individually and collectively to prevent and combat it. Those practical steps include a wide
array of measures ranging from strengthening state capacity to counter terrorist threats to
better coordinating United Nations system’s counter-terrorism activities.
5
https://www.un.org/counterterrorism/ctitf/en/un-global-counter-terrorism-strategy

9
The adoption of the strategy fulfilled the commitment made by world leaders at the 2005
September Summit and builds on many of the elements proposed by the Secretary-General in
his 2 May 2006 report, entitled Uniting against Terrorism: Recommendations for a Global
Counter-Terrorism Strategy.

The Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy in the form of a resolution and an annexed Plan of
Action 6composed of 4 pillars:

1. Addressing the conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism

2. Measures to prevent and combat terrorism
3. Measures to build states’ capacity to prevent and combat terrorism and to strengthen
the role of the United Nations system in that regard;
4. Measures to ensure respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the
fundamental basis for the fight against terrorism.

The Security Council and Entebbe-Invasion or Rescue?

UNSC is the most powerful body of the UN. It constitutes of the Permanent Five members
and 10 other temporary members who have a tenure of up to 2 years. Permanent members are
the UK, US, France, Russia, and China. Its main objective is to maintain peace and security
in the world.

UNSC meets regularly to assess the security scenario in the world and take measures against
nuclear proliferation, gender-based crimes, human rights violations and civilian killings at the
time of war, etc. This all lies under the purview of the council. UNSC strives to maintain a
peaceful world. UNSC can use sanctions to change the behaviour of a country or regime,
involved in the above-mentioned cases. It believes that sanctions are one method to keep non-
compliant entities in line and adhere to what UNSC considers is helping in maintaining
international peace and security. The first sanction ever to be used by UNSC was in 1966 on
Southern Rhodesia condemning the illegitimate seizure of power.

One more method to maintain stability around the world, used by the Security Council, is the
deployment of the Peacekeeping Forces. Peacekeeping missions mean that the UN designated
army and police will be sent to these disturbed areas to confront the forces that disrupt the
country by inflicting violence.

6
(A/RES/60/288)

10
All of this seems good only on paper, and not in reality, because of the Veto Power enjoyed
by the permanent members of the UNSC. Many times, this power wielded by the Permanent
five members has been used by them to protect their own interests, keeping the larger global
cause at stake.

Analysis of The Use of Veto Power

The first Veto was used by USSR regarding a resolution concerning the withdrawal of troops
from Lebanon and Syria. Veto power is only a prerogative of the permanent five countries
and can halt or change any decision being discussed or taken by the council. In the initial
years, especially during the cold-war period, USSR used the veto power to prevent any new
country from joining the council. The US exercised its first veto on March 17, 1970. Since
then it has cast 83 vetoes, mostly against UN’s resolutions on Israel. Similarly, United
Kingdom cast its first veto on October 30, 1956, France on June 1946, and for China on
December 13, 1955.

In the past there has emerged a pattern in the use of the Veto power by the Permanent
Members. Nowadays, veto power is used mostly in the cases of resolutions which condemn
mass violence or genocide in a country. Most of the Permanent member has vetoed these
resolutions to protect their and their ally’s interests. Like, Russia and China use this power to
reject any resolution which is against the Syrian regime. The US has used its veto power
many times to protect Israel from the condemnation of its armed actions in the Gaza Strip.

Veto Power Used for Vested Interests:

There have been several instances when personal biases of the five UNSC representatives,
have trumped as a priority over a humanitarian crisis. This claim is evident by the
contentious issue of the Gaza Strip and the Syrian crisis.

Israel has had a long history in the Gaza Strip. After Israel was declared as a sovereign nation
by David Ben-Gurion in 1948, a war between the Arabs and the newly established Jewish
state broke out. After an armistice was agreed upon by the warring nations, Israel decided to
keep the small Gaza Strip of length 25 miles and width 5 miles under the control of Egypt.
Then in 1956, after the Suez Canal crisis, Israel snatched Gaza Strip from Egypt but had to
return it after bending to international pressure. Then again after the Six Day War, Israel
invaded Gaza strip and captured it. But after signing the Oslo Peace Accord, again had to
give it up.

11
Due to this topsy-turvy history of the area, it is sometimes difficult to keep account of who is
in control of Gaza Strip. As of now, it is a self-governing Palestinian territory which borders
Israel from the east and north side. Hamas won the elections to govern the land in 2006 and is
governing till now. There have been many instances of rocket attacks from Gaza to Israel.
This has led to retaliation from the Israel side. Last year in November, Gaza launched 300
rockets towards Israel. Israel responded in its own way by launching missiles attacking 70
posts of Hamas, including militant compounds and rocket launcher pads. This issue has been
discussed by the UN. Most of the countries in the UNSC believe that the violence in Gaza
Strip is Israel’s fault. But not the US. America has vetoed any resolution that is aimed at
condemning Israel and has tried to introduce a new resolution condemning Hamas and their
operations against Israel.US has also recognized Jerusalem as the Israeli capital and has
vetoed a UNSC resolution condemning the same. More than 40 times, the US has used its
veto power to save the interests of Israel.

There is one more issue which has been shot down by the gun called Veto. This is the
chemical attacks conducted by the Syrian regime. Most of the UNSC members, both the
permanent ones and the temporary ones, believe that the Syrian president Bashar al-Assad
has been using chemical weapons against his citizens. But Russia and China seem to believe
otherwise. Whenever a resolution is tabled in the Security Council regarding the same, Russia
has always vetoed it and China had sometimes vetoed it and sometimes abstained. Russia has
also vetoed resolutions which condemned Syrian president for suppressing any opposition he
faces, they also vetoed resolutions threatening to impose sanctions on Syria. More than 10
vetoes have been used by Russia to protect the interests of the Bashar al-Assad regime.

The aerial hijack that led to Israeli action and that action itself at Entebbe Airport on 4 July
1976 precipitated a meeting of the Security Council. The Security Council held its first
session on 9 July 197641 on the complaint dated 6July 197642 of the Prime Minister of
Mauritius on behalf of the Organization of African Unity, Heads of State and Government
who were then present at the Organization's meeting then being held in Mauritius. The
African complaint stemmed from the unpermitted use of force on Ugandan soil-President
Amin never having agreed to the landing of Israeli forces. The subsequent meetings of the
Security Council were inconclusive. Whereas one group of States, including the United States
and the United Kingdom, stressed the need to condemn aerial hijacking, both in general and
specifically with regard to the case before the Council, the Arab and African States stressed
the need to condemn the action of the Israeli forces as contrary to Article 2 (4) of the United

12
Nations Charter. Each side presented a draft resolution43 that reflected the aspect of the
debate it was stressing. Neither draft resolution was adopted. No permanent member of the
Security Council used its veto power. The somewhat analogous Mogadishu air rescue of the
passengers of a Lufthansa aircraft by special forces of the Federal Republic of Germany over
a year later did not stimulate the calling of a meeting of the Security Council because the
Government of Somalia permitted the landing of the rescue team.

13
 CHAPTER II

USE OF WEAPONS AS A THREAT TO INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND

SECURITY

Threat to international peace and security comes from the existing stockpile of weapons. Also
after the reduction in the stockpile after Cold War there are more than 23000 nuclear
warheads existing, with the combined destructive capabilities of 150000 Hiroshima or
Nagasaki Sized bomb. Somewhat 9000 nuclear warheads are with America, 13000 with
Russia and 1000 with other nuclear armed states like China, India, France, UK, Israel,
Pakistan and North Korea. More than 7000 warheads are operationally ready to be deployed
and more than 2000 warheads of US and Russia remain on dangerously high alert, ready to
be launched on the directions of President within four to eight minutes.

Another threat is proliferation of use of weapons. Now more and more states are adding to
their Stockpiles, with this there comes a risk of inadvertent use of the same. Psychology plays
a major role here, as long as any state have nuclear weapons, other will want them too. They
too want to have equivalent prestige and honour in the society and to immune themselves
from attack.

UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL’S RESOLUTIONS ON NORTH KOREA

UNSC has adopted nine resolutions since 2006 on North Korea in response to use of nuclear
weapons and missile activities. Every Resolution deprecate North Korea’s nuclear and
ballistic missile activity and to stop North Korea its unlawful and immoral activities. Except
Resolution 2087 (2013), all other unanimously adopted Resolutions are in reference to
chapter VII, Article 41 of Charter of the United Nations.

This sanction gives power to UN member states to inspect the cargo of North Korea within
their territory and to seize the illegal materials in it.

All these Resolutions invite North Korea to rejoin the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT). North Korea acceded to it in 1985 and withdrew from it in 2003, after the allegation
of the Unites States on North Korea that they are pursuing unlawful Uranium enrichment
programme. The UNSC also invited North Korea to return Six party Talks, which includes
South Korea, North Korea, China, Russia, Japan and United States. The Six party talk, which
held from 2003 to 2009, resulted in joint statement of denuclearisation.

14
List of Resolutions passed by UNSC on North Korea7:

1. Resolution 1718 (2006)

2. Resolution 1874 (2009)
3. Resolution 2087 (2013)
4. Resolution 2094 (2013)
5. Resolution 2270 (2016)
6. Resolution 2321 (2016)
7. Resolution 2371 (2017)
8. Resolution 2375 (2017)
9. Resolution 2379 (2017)

HOW UNSC TRIED TO REDUCE THE USE OF WEAPONS BY NON STATE ACTORS?

The Security Council of United Nations, with agreement of every state, adopted the
resolution 1540 (2004) under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations on 28 April
2004. The Resolution (1540) is legally binding on all the member states of the United
Nations, which obliges them to take steps and actions to prevent the proliferation and use of
nuclear, biological, chemical weapons and their system of delivery, related materials,
especially by non-state actors like Terror Groups.

One of the main concerns due to which this Resolution was adopted proliferation and use of
chemical, biological and nuclear weapons, Weapons of Mass Destruction(WMD), their
delivery systems and related materials. Disarmament, arms trade control and Non-
proliferation of the Weapons has always been the main concern of International Community.
The Security Council found the possible link between the Terrorism and WMD before in the
resolution of 1373 (2001), they recognized the close link between International Terror groups
and illegal trafficking of arms and movement of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons.

7
Kelsey Davenport, Director for Nonproliferation Policy, UN Security Council Resolutions on North Korea,
Arms Control Association(Apr, 2018), https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/UN-Security-Council-
Resolutions-on-North-Korea.

15
THE RESOLUTION

Considering the use of WMD as threat to International peace and security, UNSC adopted
this resolution under Chapter VII, and to lay down binding rules,

1. To refrain from providing any support to non-state actors who are attempting to
manufacture, possess, transport or use WMD and their means of delivery

2. To prohibit in their domestic law any such activities by non-state actors, particularly for
terrorist purposes, and to prohibit any assistance or financing of such activities;

3. To adopt domestic measures to prevent the proliferation of WMD, their means of delivery
and related materials, including by accounting for and physically protecting such items;
establishing and maintaining effective border controls and law enforcement measures; and
reviewing and maintaining national export and trans-shipment controls (with appropriate
criminal or civil penalties).8

The resolution created a committee of the Council to keep a check on its implementation.
The main impact of this Resolution is on the states that are providing and delivering arms and
weapons to non-state actors.

APPROACH OF SECURITY COUNCIL REGARDING IRAN’S NUCLEAR ISSUE

Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency on February 4, 2006 decided
to send the case report nuclear activities of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Security
Council9. This action was performed after the March forum by the agency general secretary.
From then, along the International Atomic Energy Agency which already had monitor on
Iran’s nuclear program, The UN Security Council adopted decisions in this regard which in
many aspects from the perspective of international law, is noticeable. After reception of
IAEA Director, the Security Council put issue in its agenda and in the first step issued a
presidential statement quickly. Argentinean Director of the Security Council announced
reference position in relation to Iran’s nuclear program in a statement on March 29, 200610. In
this statement despite emphasizing the right of States Parties to the Non Proliferation Treaty

8
Gabriel H. Oosthuizen and Elizabeth Wilmshurst, Terrorism and Weapons of Mass Destruction: United
Nations Security Council Resolution 1540, CHATHAM HOUSE, (sep, 2004),
https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/International%20Law/ILP0904bp.pdf
9
IAEA Doc. Resolution of Board of Governors, GOV/2006/14, 4 February 2006. Available at:
http://www.iaea.org
10
UN Doc. Statement by the President of the Security Council, S/PRST/2006/15, 29 March 2006.

16
(NPT) to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination, the Council
expressed serious concern, asked Iran to take steps for requirements of Board of Governors in
particular full and stable suspension of enrichment. Subsequently, according to lack of
acceptance of Council demands contained in Security Council presidential statement by Iran,
after the publication of the Council demanded report requested from the international atomic
energy agency Director General, Security Council was adopted 1696 resolution on 31 July
2006 in accordance with Article 40 of the Charter. In this resolution, the Council stressed on
agency previous resolutions and its former statements, along with a series of demands,
notably asked from Iran to suspend all activities related to enrichment and Reprocessing.
Council introduced this request with reference to 40 Article of the Charter of the United
Nations with the goal to non-binding suspension. Failure to comply with resolutions 1737,
1747, 1803 and 1929 requests followed under article 41 that asked from Iran and other
members of the United Nations to enforce certain sanctions And in fact Iran’s nuclear
activities was considered by the Council as a threat to international peace and security.11

CHAPTER III
11
Rasool Soltani, Maryam Moradi, The Evolution of the Concept of International Peace and Security in light of
UN Security Council Practice (End of the Cold War-Until Now), OPJS Vol.7 NO.1, (jan, 2017),
https://m.scirp.org/papers/73252

17
 ROLE UNSC IN CONTROLLING GLOBAL REFUGEE PROBLEM

The world is witnessing the maximum levels of displacement on record. An unprecedented

70.8 million individuals round the world are forced from home by conflict and persecution at
the end of 2018. Among them are, nearly thirty million refugees, over half whom are below
the age of eighteen. Also there are millions of stateless individuals, who are denied a
nationality and access to basic rights like education, healthcare, employment and freedom of
movement. The United Nations agency that helps refugees is UNHCR (also called the UN
Refugee Agency), that emerged within the wake of war II to assist Europeans displaced by
that conflict. UNHCR was established on December 14, 1950 by the UN General Assembly
with a three-year mandate to finish its work and then disband. The following year, on July 28,
the legal foundation of serving to refugees and also the basic statute guiding UNHCR's work,
the United Nations Convention relating to the status of Refugees, was adopted. So rather
than ending its work after 3 years, UNHCR has been operating ever since to assist refugees.
In a world wherever nearly one person is forcibly displaced every 2 seconds as a result of
conflict or persecution, the work of UNHCR is now a lot of necessary than ever before.12

The possibility that the Security Council make use of its competencies to promote the
development of international refugee protection was first officially acknowledged by the
Group of Governmental Experts on International Cooperation to Avert New Flows of
Refugees in 1986. The Group was established in 1981 by General Assembly Resolution
36/148 during which the Assembly expressed its grave concern over the continued huge
flows of refugees in several parts across the globe and also the human suffering affecting
millions of refugee men, women and children. 13 The General Assembly conjointly stressed
“that massive flows of refugees may not only effect on the domestic order and stability of
receiving States but also jeopardize the political and social stability and the economic
development of entire regions and thus endanger international peace and security”. 14 The
Security Council had before noted various aspects of international exile protection, as an
example, by emphasizing the right to return of Cypriot refugees. 15 However, when the
General Assembly supported the Report of the Expert Group, it urged “the main organs of the
United Nations to make fuller use of their respective competencies under the Charter of the
United Nations for the prevention of new massive flows of refugees, as envisaged in
12
https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/refugees/
13
UN Doc. A/RES/36/148 (16 Dec. 1981), preamble
14
Ibid.
15
UN Doc. S/RES/361 (30 Aug. 1974), para. 4.

18
paragraph 68 of the report”.16 This call was answered by the Security Council for the very
first time in 1991, with a recognition in resolution 688 regarding Iraq that the repression of
the civilian, in particular Kurdish, population by its own government wasn't primarily among
the domestic jurisdiction of Iraq. In order to legitimize this finding, the Council stated that a
massive flow of refugees caused by the actions of the Iraqi government contributed to the
threat to the peace and security in the region under Article 39 of the UN Charter. 17 This
determination – reminiscent of the language of the above-named General Assembly
resolution – was solely the start of a full series of comparable SC resolutions, often followed
by measures adopted under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. By linking refugee flows to
threats to peace and security, the Security Council thus gradually became part of the
institutional protection framework. UN Charter circumscribes the Council’s principal
function and powers in Article 24 which gives the Council the primary responsibility for the
“maintenance of international peace and security”. The specific powers of the Security
Council are further mentioned in Chapters VI (Pacific Settlement of Disputes), VII (Action
with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression), VIII
(Regional Arrangements) and XII (International Trusteeship System). The Council’s powers
are only expressly limited by Article 24 (2), obliging it to act in accordance with the
purposes and principles of the United Nations. As early as 1992, the Council emphasized that
“the non-military sources of instability in the economic, social, humanitarian and ecological
fields have become threats to peace and security”.18 The UN Charter does not explicitly
prescribe any particular manner in which measures need to be taken, ranging from inaction
through recommendations, calls for provisional measures, mandatory non-forcible measures,
to military force. In this discretionary framework of the UN Charter, it is tough to ascertain
the precise normative authority of the Security Council’s actions and their effects on
international exile protection.

United Nations Security Council resolution 1208, adopted unanimously on 19 November

1998, after recalling Resolution 1170 (1998) on continent, the Council mentioned the
treatment and standing of refugees on Africa, the Council discussed the treatment and status
of refugees on the continent.19 It was important that refugees were protected and the

16
UN Doc. A/RES/41/70 (3 Dec. 1986), para. 4
17
UN Doc. S/RES/688 (5 Apr. 1991), preamble
18
UN Doc. S/23500 (31 Jan. 1992)
19
 "Security Council, acting on Secretary-General's Africa report, adopts texts of status and treatment of
refugees, illicit arms flow". United Nations. 19 November 1998

19
humanitarian character of refugee camps preserved.20 The Security Council recognised the
experience African countries had in dealing with exiles and refugee camps. There was
insecurity in some camps due to the presence of armed groups which did not qualify for
international protection, differences within the refugee population, crime, banditry, and the
flow of weapons. It stressed the necessity to help African countries to produce security for
refugees, maintain the humanitarian character of refugee camps and protect vulnerable groups
such as women, children and the elderly.

The UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Filippo Grandi, on 9th April, 2019 reminded
international leaders at the United Nations Security Council of their critical role in finding
immediate responses to the displacement crises around the world at a time when toxicity in
language about refugees and migrants is very high. In a speech to the UN Security Council in
New York, Grandi identified the way forward to address the many crises unfolding
worldwide. The UNHCR chief created 3 appeals to the members of the Security Council.
First, he urged the safety Council to figure conjointly to deal with the lack of peace and
security, the root cause of crises. Grandi also appealed to Member States to give support for
host countries. “85 per cent of the world’s refugees are in poor or middle-income countries.
That’s where the crisis is. Support must be stepped up,” he said. “Their hospitality must not
be taken for granted.” The UN Refugee Chief highlighted “outstanding” Latin American
solidarity in the face of the outflow of 3.4 million Venezuelans to 15 countries in the region,
including Colombia, Peru, Ecuador and Brazil. He added that the Global Compact on
Refugees – a new international framework agreed upon by Member States last December –
will ensure shared responsibility to support those forced to flee conflict and persecution, as
well as the communities which host them. Grandi also urged Security Council members to
work collaboratively to remove obstacles that prevent people from voluntarily returning in
safety and dignity to their countries of origin. “We think return is a right,” Grandi said. “But
it is equally a right to choose not to return.” 21

The United States was the only country on 13th November, 2018 to oppose an annual draft
U.N. General Assembly resolution on the work of the U.N. refugee agency (UNHCR) as it
told components of the text ran counter to the Trump administration’s sovereign interests.
The resolution has been approved by consensus for quite sixty years. But this year
20
Fischer, H. (2000). Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law: 1999, Volume 2; Volume 1999. Cambridge
University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-90-6704-119-5.
21
https://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/2019/4/5cad10c74/un-refugee-chief-urges-security-council-firm-
response-record-high-displacement.html

20
Washington asked for a vote. The draft text was adopted by the General Assembly human
rights committee with 176 votes in favour, whereas there have been 3 abstentions and thirteen
countries didn’t vote. U.S. Ambassador for economic and social affairs Kelley Currie told the
committee that while the US valued most of what was contained within the resolution and an
attached Global Compact on Refugees, some of the United States concerns remained
unaddressed.

Trump’s administration sparked outcry reception and abroad once it began to implement“zero
tolerance” immigration policy, including separating kids from their parents when they cross
the U.S.-Mexico border. U.N. states agreed a non-binding global migration pact in July; but
the Unite States quit the negotiations before they began over sovereignty issues. Separately,
U.N. refugee Chief Filippo Grandi has created a global compact on exiles. Currie said the
United States was committed to helping refugees as close to their homes as possible and had
given UNHCR nearly $1.6 billion over the past year.22

Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh made emotional pleas to the U.N. Security Council for help
to return safely to their homes in neighbouring Myanmar and for justice over the cause they
fled — accusations of killings, rapes and arson.

During a visit to an unclaimed strip of territory between the 2 states dubbed no-man’s land,
several tearful women and girls threw themselves at British U.N. Ambassador Karenic Pierce
as they told what had happened to them.

United Nations officers and aid teams have voiced concern that the approaching monsoon
season can worsen the humanitarian situation. Hundreds of thousands of refugees reside in
temporary shelters fabricated from bamboo and tarpaulins at Kutupalong, many on steep hills
and in low-lying areas likely to be flooded.

However, while the Security Council is united on travel to the region, diplomats said they
expect Myanmar allies China and Russia — both veto-wielding powers on the council — to
resist any push for stronger council action, such as sanctions or a referral of the situation to
the International Criminal Court.

22
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-un-refugees/u-s-alone-in-opposing-u-n-refugee-text-over-
sovereignty-concerns-idUSKCN1NI2VB

21
“We don’t have any magic solution in the Security Council,” Deputy Russian U.N.
Ambassador Dmitry Polyanskiy told reporters in response to a question concerning whether
the council would contemplate itself accountable for failing to deal with the crisis.

The council adopted a proper statement in November — a move that needs consensus by the
15-member body — that asked Myanmar to confirm no “further excessive use of military
force” and to permit “freedom of movement, equal access to basic services, and equal access
to full citizenship for all.”23

The draft resolution would warn that the 15-member SC might contemplate any steps,
sanctions, if there wasn't enough progress made by Myanmar, diplomats mentioned. It would
also ask U.N. officials to report back regularly to the council. It was unclear if or when the
draft resolution can be place to a vote. A resolution desires 9 votes in favour and no vetoes by
Russia, China, US, Britain or France to pass. Speaking to the press at the end of a four-day
visit to Myanmar and Bangladesh, Council members highlighted the necessity to ascertain
conditions inside Myanmar that enable the “safe, voluntary and dignified return” of refugees
as well as responsibility for the human rights violations that prompted the exodus. Security
Council members conjointly urged the international community to continue supporting the
work being undertaken by the UN and humanitarian agencies in southern Bangladesh, on
behalf of the hundreds of thousands of vulnerable refugees living there. Council members
conjointly reaffirmed their “strong commitment to the sovereignty, political independence,
territorial integrity, and unity of Myanmar”.

CHAPTER IV
23
https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/04/30/asia-pacific/social-issues-asia-pacific/rohingya-refugees-
plead-unsc-help-china-russia-expected-veto-tough-action/#.Xa6PnOgzbIU

22
 ROLE OF UNSC IN RELATION TO CYBERSECURITY

Since the digital revolution, the exponential growth of information and communication
technology has created a complex web of networked systems. This is the new and vibrant
environment that we know as cyberspace. More specifically, cyberspace is the ‘global
domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent network of
information technology infrastructure, including the Internet, telecommunications networks,
computer systems, and embedded processors and controllers’. Over the course of the last
three decades, cyberspace has been ‘woven into the fabric of daily life’ 2 and now permeates
all aspects of modern society. Millions of people, organizations, governmental and public
institutions, corporations and businesses use cyberspace every day to communicate, gather or
exchange information, bank, and shop, do business, distribute energy, govern and exert
influence. By December 2013, 39 per cent of the world population used the internet (with
usage in Europe being 68.6 per cent and in North America 84.9 per cent), an increase of
676.3 per cent since 2000.3 notwithstanding the enormous benefits and advantages it offers,
and cyberspace has also become a repository for various threats, vulnerabilities and
insecurities. They may originate from governments, organized groups, individuals, or
businesses, be intentional or accidental and have financial, military, political or other aims.
For instance, conventional crime is metastasizing to the cyber domain with criminals using
networks and cyber tools. Cyber theft, cyber fraud, the sale of illegal products, blackmail,
pornography and copyright and intellectual property theft are common occurrences that can
generate deleterious financial, personal, and even political Consequences. 4 State security can
be compromised by military-like and non-military-like cyber-attacks targeting critical
national infrastructure and other essential assets and activities.

Terrorists may begin to use cyberspace to perpetuate terrorist acts; they already use it for
recruitment, training, propaganda and funding purposes5. the unique characteristics of
cyberspace magnify both its potential benefits and risks. At its core, cyberspace is a virtual
environment; it is not subject to a time-space continuum and is thus unconstrained by the
limitations that these characteristics impose. In this virtual environment, no physical action
takes place. Instead, information is transferred instantly through interconnected networks that
transcend physical, legal or political borders. In cyberspace actors can often maintain their

23
24
anonymity. For instance, efforts to trace cyber-attacks encounter serious legal and technical
obstacles because they may operate through different networks.

CYBER OPERATIONS AS A USE OF FORCE

Article 2(4) of the UN Charter famously provides that ‘[a]all Members [of the United
Nations] shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the
territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent
with the Purposes of the United Nations’. This provision is generally considered to reflect
customary international law and, at least with regard to its core, also jus cogens. it is
generally accepted that the fact that Article 2(4) was adopted well before the Information Age
does not necessarily prevent its application to cyber operations. States and international
organizations that have affirmed the applicability of the existing rules on the use of force in
the cyber context include Australia, Hungary, China, Cuba, the European Union, Iran, Italy,
Mali, the Netherlands, Qatar, the Russian Federation, the UK, and the United States. On the
basis of the views submitted by UN member States, the 2013 Report of the Group of
Governmental Experts set up by the UN General Assembly to examine threats in cyberspace
also found that ‘[i]international law, and in particular the Charter of the United Nations, is
applicable and is essential to maintaining peace and stability and promoting an open, secure,
peaceful and accessible ICT [Information and Communications Technologies] environment’.
For Article 2(4) and its customary counterpart to apply to cyber operations, however, three
conditions must be met: 1) the cyber operation needs to be attributed to a State: conduct by
private individuals or armed groups does not fall within the scope of the provision, not even
when it results in damage comparable to that caused by States; 2) the cyber operation must
amount to either a ‘threat’ or a ‘use of force’; 3) 25the threat or use of force must be exercised
in the conduct of ‘international relations’. As to t 26he first condition, the problems concerning
the identification of the origin and the attribution of cyber operations to States are well-
known and are probably the main obstacle to the application of Article 2(4) in the cyber
context. The reference to ‘international relations’ in

5 See generally UN Office on Drugs and Crime: The Use of the Internet for Terrorist Purposes
24

(2012), http://www.unodc.org/documents/frontpage/Use_of_Internet_for_Terrorist_ Purposes.pdf

accessed 13 October 2014.
25

6. D Johnson and D Post, ‘Law and borders – The rise of law in cyberspace’ (1996) 48 Stanford Law
26

Review 1367.

24
Article 2(4) entails that the cyber operations must not only be by a State, but also against
another State: a State, therefore, is not prohibited by this provision to threaten or resort to
cyber operations against non-State actors within its territory, not even when the operations
amount to a threat or a use of force. Finally, for Article 2(4) to apply, the cyber operation
must qualify either as a threat or as a use of force. This chapter will focus only on the latter:
as, in its 1996 Advisory Opinion on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, the
International Court of Justice (ICJ) linked the legality of threats, be they explicit or implied in
certain conduct, to the legality of the use of force in the same circumstances, the
considerations developed below in relation to cyber operations as a use of force also apply,
mutatis mutandis, to those amounting to threats of the use of force. The determination of the
threshold above which a cyber operation amounts to a use of force has proved to be a very
contentious issue. The present chapter will address this problem and will first establish what
is meant by ‘armed’ force and whether cyber operations can qualify as such. It will then
distinguish between cyber-attacks and cyber exploitation and, within the former, between
cyber-attacks that cause, or are reasonably likely to cause, physical damage to persons or
property, those that incapacitate infrastructures without physically damaging them, and other
cyber-attacks and cyber related conduct. The overall purpose is to identify which of the above
types of cyber activities may qualify as a use of force and are therefore prohibited by Article
2(4) of the UN charter

CYBER OPERATIONS AS ARMED FORCE

As Article 2(4) of the UN Charter only prohibits the threat and the use of ‘armed ‘force and
no other forms of coercion,6 the question is whether cyber operations can qualify as such.
‘Armed force’ is not identified on the basis of the authors of the forceful action, i.e. the armed
forces, as otherwise States would easily avoid the application of the prohibition by
outsourcing such actions to intelligence agencies or private contractors. In fact, incidents
involving the armed forces but not the use of weaponry, like the violation of airspace or
territorial waters by military aircraft or ships, are treated as violations of sovereignty, but not
as a use of force under Article 2(4). The presence of a coercive intention is also per se not
sufficient to identify armed force. Indeed, ‘armed force’ is nothing other than an extreme
form of intervention that, like economic and political coercion, is characterized by the
intention of the coercing State to compel the victim State into doing or not doing something
through a ‘dictatorial interference’ in its internal or external affairs. Both the use of force and
the broader notion of intervention, then, imply a coercive intention, and what differentiates

25
the two must be found elsewhere. Whether or not cyber operations fall within the scope of
Article 2(4) depends ultimately on which of the three main analytic approaches to
understanding the nature of a use of armed force is accepted. The instrument-based approach
focuses on the means used to commit an act, i.e. weapons, and has been traditionally
employed to distinguish armed force from economic and political coercion. This approach
has been criticized for being centered on instruments defined by their physical characteristics:
as such – it has been claimed – it is ill-suited to be extended to digital codes and would lead
to the conclusion that cyber operations can never be a use of force under Article 2(4), even
when they result in physical damage. The target-based approach argues that cyber operations
reach the threshold of the use of armed force when they are conducted against a national
critical infrastructure (NCI), whatever their effects on such infrastructure or the nature of the
operation might be. This approach, however, is over-inclusive in that it would also qualify as
a use of force those cyber operations that only cause inconvenience or merely aim to collect
information as long as they target a NCI. Another problem with this view – it has been argued
– is that there is no generally accepted definition of ‘NCI’ usually.

26
 CHAPTER V

COMPETITION FOR SCARCE RESOURCES AS A RISK TO INTERNATIONAL

PEACE AND SECURITY

The climate changes are now today one of the threats to international peace and security as it
can cause adverse effects on agriculture as well as management of natural resources. When in
2007 Security Council first considered climate-related risks, more effects of climate change
on international peace and security have been recognized. In 2019, an open debate addressed
the impact of climate-related disasters on international peace and security, where all member
states accepted that they are getting affected by climate change. They also experienced
varying forms and intensity of climate-related security risks including mass displacement,
potential instability from extreme weather-related disasters and future competition for scarce
resources. One of the most important resource for survival is water. Naturally, water is the
most abundant resource on earth. However only around 2.53% of it can be used for human
consumption, industrial purposes and agriculture. A considerable amount of freshwater is
also locked in ice or in groundwater. If such resources have no source of recharge by surface
water, it can become non-renewable and thus carry the risk of being exhausted. Here climate
plays an important role as any change in it affects water availability and can lead to water
scarcity. The uneven distribution of water resources along with the growing world’s
population has given rise to debate on future water wars. Water as a scarce resource may
trigger conflicts or can serve as tool for the hostile parties to start negotiations for peace.

Climate change accelerates drought, desertification and water scarcity. Such phenomena
could lead to a loss of agricultural land which directly causes decrease of food production and
water supplies. A significant example of such phenomena is in Sudan. According to the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment
in Sudan, climate change had reduced agricultural production owing to a decline in rainfall
which contributed as a factor for the conflict in Darfur. 27 Water was considered as the main
issue of several wars in the past (Middle east and North America). Similar analyses have been
made in regard to oil and hence it is likely to assume that water can trigger wars in the future.
27
UNEP, Sudan: Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment, 2007, p. 84 - 88, available at:
https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_Sudan.pdf ( last viewed on 21 October 2019).

27
Since competition over multiple water use and water scarcity may cause conflict, ensuring
access to and protection of water can contribute to peace and security.

Many UN institutions have highlighted the role of natural resources as a means for
strengthening peace and security. The connection between natural resources, social
development, and peace was first recognized in the Declaration of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in 1972. In 2000, the Ministerial
Declaration28 gave the definition of water security. Also in 2004, the Report of the High-
Level Panel created by the former UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan emphasised the role
that natural resources play in the context of international peace and security. An attempt has
been made to securitize and closely associate the issue of the protection of natural resources
with the security of the states.

We can also refer the practise UN Security Council in analysing role of natural resources in
promoting international peace and security. The Security Council has increasingly been
paying attention to the protection of natural resources as a tool for preventing conflicts and
building peace in post conflict countries. The Security Council has been given the ‘primary
responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security’ according to the UN
Charter.29 In very few events the UNSC has dealt with water issues. One such example when
it adopted two resolutions concerning some development projects on the waters of the Jordan
river in the demilitarized zone established under the General Armistice Agreement between
Israel and Syria of 1949. The Security Council requested the suspension of works while
establishing criteria for determining what kind of projects could be realized in the
demilitarized zone.30 Also in many commissions of UNSC it has been noted that few
countries have been using water an economic and political weapon. However no measures
were taken.

The reason that UNSC have dealt on water issues on very few occasions is because there is
has been little focus on water and natural resources in the resolutions of the Security Council.
It is often argued that the protection of water and natural resources belongs to the mandate of

28
Ministerial Declaration of The Hague on Water Security in the 21st Century, available at
https://www.worldwatercouncil.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents/world_water_forum_2/The_
Hague_Declaration.pdf (last viewed on 21 October 2019).
29
Article 24(1) of the United Nations Charter -
‘In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United Nations, its Members confer on the Security
Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in
carrying out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf.’
30
Water, international peace, and security; Mara Tignino; Faculty of Law, University of Geneva

28
the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council as these organs present a more
democratic character and they have been given the functions related to environmental and
socio-economic issues. In the modern context such social issues hold the power of threating
international peace and security and this is where UNSC comes into play. The Security
Council as the main body for the maintenance of international peace and security should
address more of such issues in order to deal with conflict situations in a more comprehensive
manner. The future political impact of water scarcity can be devastating in such a way that it
will be difficult to sustain humanity. It can also become the root cause national and trans-
boundary conflicts. Hence United Nations Security Council has a role in recognising natural
resources such as water as a future concern with regards to international peace and security.

29
 CONCLUSION

While the United Nations has tackled the problem of international terrorism through a
plurality of organs and in terms of approaches to the subject in general and of specific topics,
it becomes clear that the more general the topic undertaken the less effective the resultant
action adopted. With the increase in use of weapons, UNSC saw a threat to International
Peace and Security, which resulted in the adoption of many Sanctions and Resolutions. Use
of nuclear weapons and missile activities of North Korea made it an obligation of UNSC to
take some steps to maintain International Peace and Security, thus UNSC adopted nine
resolutions to stop North Korea from carrying on its illegal and immoral activities. Further,
UNSC adopted Sanctions and Resolution to reduce use of weapons by Non-State Actors,
which have a binding nature on all UN member states. It aims at reducing the illegal trade
between UN member states and terror groups. It aims at Non-Proliferation and delivery
system of WMD, which will remove the safe heavens of Terror groups who are seeking to
acquire WMD. These Resolutions contain all three types of weapons (Nuclear, biological,
chemical) which could be a reason of mass destruction. So all these steps taken by UNSC
were necessary to maintain International peace and security around the world. Also, UNSC
has to recognise the modern era threats such as cyber-attacks, competition of limited
resources and Off-Shore Maritime Terrorism to secure the international peace and security in
the 21st century. For the purpose of this study on the development of the international legal
protection of refugees through UNSC, it can be concluded that resolutions of the Security
Council may enforce existing rules of international law, develop customary international law
and probably even lay down new rules of general application. The Council’s discretionary
determinations under Article 39 of the Charter and its resulting actions can thus be brought
within a legal construction that illustrates how the law operates in integrating political
decisions into legal processes with far-reaching legal consequences, which transcend the
illusive dichotomy between law and politics. Accordingly, the Security Council does not have
the same general competence over international refugee protection as the General Assembly,
based on the UNHCR Statute and also the 1951 Convention. It is the UN Charter itself that
provides normative authority to the Security Council, and that transforms the Security

30
Council’s decisions into normatively significant elements for the development of this field of
law and the international legal system in general.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMARY SOURCES -

UN DOCUMENT
 United Nations Charter
 UN Doc. Statement by the President of the Security Council, S/PRST/2006/15, 29
March 2006.
 UN Doc. A/RES/36/148 (16 Dec. 1981)
 UN Doc. S/RES/361 (30 Aug. 1974)
 UN Doc. A/RES/41/70 (3 Dec. 1986)
 UN Doc. S/RES/688 (5 Apr. 1991)
 UN Doc. S/23500 (31 Jan. 1992)

ARTICLES AND REPORTS

 Need for the Reforms in the Unsc in the Changing Political and Economic Times;
Archita Anand
 Rasool Soltani, Maryam Moradi, The Evolution of the Concept of International Peace
and Security in light of UN Security Council Practice (End of the Cold War-Until
Now), OPJS Vol.7 NO.1, (jan, 2017)
 "Security Council, acting on Secretary-General's Africa report, adopts texts of status
and treatment of refugees, illicit arms flow". United Nations. 19 November 1998

BOOKS
‘Law and borders – The rise of law in cyberspace’ by D Johnson and D Post.
SECONDARY SOURCES -
ONLINE SOURCES
peacekeeping.un.org
www.unhcr.org

31
www.unodc.org
uk.reuters.com/article/uk-myanmar-rohingya
www.japantimes.co.
http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/cyb/cybersecurity/docs/itunational-cybersecurity-guide.pdf
accessed 13 October 2014.

32