WATER QUALITY AND STANDARDS

A. Definitions:

1. Potable Water is one that does not contain objectionable pollution, contamination,
minerals, or infection and is therefore considered satisfactory for domestic consumption.
2. Contaminated Water is one that contains disease-producing bacteria.
3. Polluted Water is one containing sewage, industrial waste and other liquids, thus rendering
it offensive to sight& smell; hence unsatisfactory for culinary and industrial use.
4. Pure Water – never attainable in nature or even in laboratory – usually taken to mean
potable water.

B. Quality of Water Sources:

1. Meteoric waters – satisfactory for human consumption without purification.

2. Surface waters – usually unsafe without treatment but can be made satisfactory with
treatment.
3. Ground waters – usually satisfactory with some form of treatment (removal of minerals, etc.)

C. Basis of Judging Quality of a Proposed Water Source

1. Sanitary field survey of the source – which is a necessary adjunct to a complete Sanitary
Analysis.
2. This is a study of the history and environment of a water source that can provide a physical
picture of the entire water cycle in relation to potential sources of pollution.
3. A complete sanitary analysis made of samples taken periodically over a long period of time
– includes: (a) physical, (b) chemical and minerals, (c) biological.
4. A consideration of the economic and aesthetic factors involved in the use of the water.

D. Some Important Water Borne-Diseases:

1. Of bacterial origin:

Typhoid Fever – Eberthella or Salmonella Thyposa

Para-typhoid – Salmonella similar to typhoid less fatal less mild
Asiatic cholera – Vibrio Comma
Amaebic Dysentery – EndamoebaHystolitica
Bacillary dysentery – follows typhoid Flexner and Shiga Bacillus.
Gastro-enteritis.

2. Due to animal parasites:

Worm infections – Tape, hook, round

Fluke disease
Bilharziaris.
 3. Due to Inorganic salts.

Poisoning from lead and other metals, copper, zinc.

Intestinal disorders due to magnesium and sulfate salts.
Dental Fluorosis.

4. Others:

Gastro-intestinal disorders due to:

Irritant substances like sand, mica, etc.

Dental caries
Goiter
Polio
Tuberculosis

E. Classic Water Borne-Epidemics:

1. Broad street well-pollution. London,1954

Asiatic cholera – St. James Parish, 164
Acres – 36,400 people 700 cases – 600 deaths or 220/10,000 were previously, deaths were
15/10,000. Dr. John Snow and Rev. Whitehead investigated.
2. Hamburg, Germany – 1892 – Asiatic Cholera – 640,000 population – 17,000 cases. 8,605
deaths or 134.2/10,000 nearby Altona 143,000 people, 328 deaths or 23.4/10,000. Dr.
Robert Koch gave conclusive evidence that cholera is water-borne, Also efficiency of
filtration.
3. Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago 1933, 1409 cases -98 deaths – Amoebic
Dysentery traced to two jointly managed hotels through cross connections.

F. Methods of Approach in Investigating Epidemic Outbreaks:

1. Prepare a spot map showing all known cases.

2. Check water system from raw water source, watershed - distribution system, and
purification plant – look for usual failures first.
3. Inquire recent travels of patients during the previous months.
4. Make a distribution (geographical) of cases – sources of milk and age grouping of patients.
5. Look for water main pollution if cases are grouped in one section
6. Study data as a whole with a Dr. Epidemiologist. Eliminate source suspected one by one.
 EXAMINATION OF WATER

A. Bacteriological Examination – is used to indicate, indirectly, the presence of pathogenic

organisms or the impending threat of their presence. It is made for the following objectives:

1. Primarily to detect the presence of pollution particularly from human excreta which are
potential carriers of intestinal diseases.
2. To ascertain that finished waters meet requirements for potability.
3. To determine the degree of pollution and type of purification necessary.
4. For partially purified water – it can be a direct measure of plant efficiency in removing
bacteria.

B. Quantitative Determination of Bacterial Densities:

1. Direct Microscopic Count – generally useful in milk sanitation, to a limited extent in

sewage. Sometimes 100 times greater than Plate Count – include dead cells and also soil
bacteria which do not grow in agar. A drop of known volume of water is spread, dried, fixed
by heat and stained to make the bacteria visible and examined under a microscope.

2. Total Plate Count – In this technique, a measured volume of sample (usually 10 ml.) diluted
if necessary to reduce the actual number of bacteria is mixed in a Petri Dish with melted
nutrient agar. This is then allowed to set and is subsequently incubated either for 48 hours at
20 degrees C. or for 24 hours at 37 degrees C. The number of colonies is counted with the
aid of a hand lens magnified 2.5 times. The colonies should preferably be between 30 to 300.

This is a restrictive ormore selective test for certain types and classes of organisms according to
the nature of the medium, the nutrient, inhibiting agents employed, the time and temperature of
incubation, Generally, they give a measure or organic pollution present in water but fail to
distinguish the bacteria associated with sewage or those found in the soil.

The 20 degrees count usually gives higher number because it includes saprophytic, air and soil
bacteriak, while the 37 degrees count show mostly the bacteria associated with warmblooded
animals.

The single plate count is of no significance except when it shows a few colonies at 37 degrees C.,
wherein you can conclude that pollution are very slight. If more than 10,000/cc you can assume
pollution is present. Between these two limits the plate count may not be safe criteria.

The chief value of the bacterial count is in determining the efficiency of treatment in filters, asa
guide in tracing the travel of pollution in large bodies of water, indicates also sources of pollution
in stream. A sanitary survey should always accompany such an analysis for a satisfactory and
intelligent interpretation.

3. Coliform Index – consists of ascertaining the incidence of bacteria considered to be

characteristically of intestinal origin. In the coliform group of bacteria are included those
gram-negative short rods which ferment lactose with acid and gas production, grow
aerobically on nutrient agar, but do not produce spores.

4. Dilution Method – E. Coli Index or Indicated Number (I.N.)

If a fluid containing several numbers of organisms per unit volume be diluted with sterile water in
succession and a sample of each dilution tested for the presence or absence of organism by
inoculating into a sterile nutrient fluid medium, a point will eventually be reached in the dilution
series beyond which no growth occurs. In calculating the I.N., it is assumed that a positive result
for the smallest portion of multiple, geometrically serial quantities is produced by the presence
of a single organism. The I.N. is obtained by taking the reciprocal of the smallest positive position
or dilution in a decimal series.
 5. M.P.M. or Most probable number of coliform organism:

It is defined as the number (per unit volume or density) which is most likely to produce a
particular analytical result.

C. Sampling Methods.

Samples of water should be contained in properly washed and sterilized bottles of 4 to 8-ounce
capacity with ground glass stoppers. Stoppers and neck of bottle covered with Manila paper to
protect against dust and handling hazards. Great care must be taken to have the samples
representative of the water to be tested and to see that no contamination occurs at the time of
filling the bottle, or prior to the examination. Fill up to ¾ capacity and flush tap before collecting
sample. Don’t sample in rubber hose or temporary catchments. Time allowed for storage or
transportation must not be more than 6 hours for impure waters and not more than 12 hours for
relatively pure waters. All samples should be kept at temperatures between 6-10 degrees C.

D. Microscopic Examination: is made to determine the presence and amount of certain minute
forms of plant and animal life. Purposes of the test is to:

1. Explain the presence of turbidity, taste, odor and color.

2. Ascertain if surface contamination of a well has taken place.
3. Identify extraneous matters which may have entered the water.
4. Determine the presence or absence of iron-depositing bacteria.
5. Identify waters and their movements.
6. Explain clogging thru pipes and filters.
7. Anticipated problems of maintenance in storage of surface waters.
8. Study stream and lake pollution by sewage.
9. Explain results of chemical and bacteriological analysis.

E. Distribution in Nature:

Microscopic organisms are found in nearly all surface waters but seldom in ground waters that
have not been exposed to sunlight. They do not affect the safety of water from a health standpoint
but the presence of certain types in large numbers do affect the aesthetic quality.
F. Plankton Organisms:

These are large and varied groups of floating organisms found in ocean and surface water both
plants and animals with sizes from microscopic to macroscopic.

Net plankton – retained in silk mesh 1/25-1/20 mm. square while

Nannoplankton – passes through

Divided into two groups, namely:

1. Plant life, which includes :

a. Fungi -- yeast, molds and bacteria.

b. Algae -- chlorophysceae (green color), cyanophysceae (blue green),
paeophyceae (brown). Rhodophyceae (red or purish green),
bacillariaceae (diatoms or yellow).
c. Higher plants -- such as duck weed.

2. Animal Life :

a. Protozoa -- amaeboid, flagellate, ciliates, sporosoza

b. Metazoa -- sponges, rotifiers, crustacean, bryozoa, miscellaneous forms.

G. Methods of examination:

Microscopical examination is usually both qualitative and quantitative. The collected representative
sample to be tested is usually concentrated by centrifuging or filtration. One cc. of concentrated is
placed in a specially prepared plate and examined under the microscope. Results are expressed in
units per cc.

H. Physical Examination:

1. Turbidity – is defined as the optical measure of suspended matter in water. It may be due to
silt, clay, suspended iron, organic matter, micro-organisms, etc. It is measured by comparing
the sample with standards which contain varying weights of silica in certain definite amounts
of distilled water – with the aid of Jackson or the Hellige Turbidimeters.

The turbidity of water has a very little detrimental effect upon its safety for use as a drinking
water, but there is a distinct aversion on the part of the consumer to using turbid water.

2. Color – is due to the presence of colored substances in solution, such as vegetable matter
dissolved from roots, leaves, and swamps, and to humus and iron salts. It is measured by
comparing the sample with a standard platinum cobalt solution in reflected light.

3. Color and Tastes – (discussed in another chapter).

 4. Temperature – The temperature should be taken at the time of the collection of the sample.
It has little importance except in special investigation and is not usually included in routine
physical examination.

I. Chemical Examination:

The chemical examination is of value as a means of adding confirmatory evidence to conclusions

already fairly established by the results of a sanitary survey and the bacteriological examination.
With the development of bacteriological methods, the chemical analyses, except for comparative
purposes, have been given less and less attention.

The chemical analysis is the only available laboratory procedure for determining purity of drinking
water prior to 1890. It was replaced by the bacteriological examination which can detect minute
traces of pollution that can be missed by any known chemical test.

Chemical Determinations:

1. Total solids --is a measure of all dissolved and suspended matters as determined by
evaporation to dryness, the results being expressed in ppm. by weight. It has no significance
in determining the potability of water.

2. Nitrogen – most important chemical test. Organic nitrogen (protein-like substances) is

constituents of all waste protein products from sewage, kitchen wastes and all dead organic
matter. Freshly produced wastes are normally charged with bacteria of decomposition and
frequently carrying pathogenic bacteria. All waters high in organic nitrogen should be
excluded from use without purification as a source of drinking water.

3. Free ammonia nitrogen (NH3 compounds) - its presence indicates adjacent or recent
pollution otherwise oxidized by nitrobacter. Presence in ground waters of ammonia nitrogen
over 0.1 ppm should be regarded with suspicion and caused determined. Since urea may be
converted directly to free ammonia, it may indicate leachings from privy or manure pile
containing much urea.
4. Nitrite nitrogen – is formed by oxidation of ammonia through the help of Nitrosomonis.
Well waters without bacterial pollution – nitrate content .001-.005 ppm. Shallows wells
subject to contamination .01-1 ppm. it indicates recent contact with organic materials and
hence must be regarded with suspicion.

5. Nitrate nitrogen measure of the completely oxidized nitrogen and if present in considerable
amounts indicate that the organic matter which contaminated the water was introduced a
considerable time before the sample was taken. In soils -- 5-100 ppm. Occurs in oxidized
sewage effluent as high 20 ppm. It is reasonable to assume that its presence in excess of 5
ppm is indicated of dangerous pollution. Formation of nitrate nitrogen is the last step in the
mineralization of nitrogenous organic matter.

6. Dissolved Oxygen (D.O.) – at 0 degree C. -- 14.62 ppm; at 30 degree C. – 7.63 ppm. It is

indispensable in making surveys of streams and lake waters, and in locating causes of unusual
chlorine demand, important in aeration process, as efficiency yardstick.

7. B.O.D. – originally used as basic requirement of strength of sewage, also serves as a chemical
test for organic matter content of water. Deep well waters – 1-10 ppm. Surface waters – 1-
10 ppm. It offers one of the best means of measuring the amount of unoxidized organic matter
in water.

8. Oxygen consumed (O.C.) – rapid method of ascertaining oxygen requirement of water this
test is a measure of the oxidizable matter contained in water and indicates the presence of
certain forms of organic matter.

9. Chlorine demand – It gives valuable information concerning degree of pollution. Waters

high in chlorine demand are difficult to treat and present health hazards.

10. Free chlorine or residual chlorine (not to be confused with chlorides) –chlorine remaining
after 10 minutes contact. Used as a test for potability of water in the distribution system.
11. Chlorides – It is present in all natural waters and is particularly prevalent near the ocean and
in the vicinity of salt deposits. Since it is always present in the discharges from the human
body, its presence more than the normal amount in water is an indication of sewage
contamination.

12. Alkalinity – This is a measure of the salts which neutralize acids. No sanitary significance
but important test in control of certain process of water purification.

13. Hardness – measure of the soap-consuming power of water. (described in another chapter.)

14. Hydrogen –ion concentration (pH) -- is a method of expressing degree of alkalinity or

acidity of water. Pure water has pH of 7.0. This is valuable test in regulating the application
of coagulants used in certain processes of water treatment.