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    Mapas Lineares

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    Chinoque

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    CHAPTER 9 LINEARITY 9.1, Background Topics: linear maps between vector spaces, kernel, nullspace, nullity, range, rank, isomorphism. 9.1.1, Definition. A function f: A B is ONE-TO-ONE (or INJECTIVE) if w= v in A whenever F(u) = f(v) in B. 9.1.2, Definition, A function f: A+ B is ONTO (or SURIBCTIVE) if for every b € B there exists a€ A such that b= f(a) 9.1.3. Definition. A funetion f: A+ B is a ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE (or BLIECTIVE) if it is both injective and surjective (one-to-one and onto). 9.1.4, Definition, A map T: V + W between vector spaces is LINEAR if T(x+y)=Tx+Ty — forallx,yeV (9.1.1) and Tox) =aTx — forallx€V and ae F. (9.1.2) Here F = R if V and W are real vector spaces and F = C if they are complex vector spaces. A scalar valued linear map on a vector space Vis a LINEAR FUNCTIONAL A linear map is frequently called a LINEAR TRANSFORMATION, and, in case the domain and codomain are the same, it is often called a (LINEAR) OPERATOR. The family of all linear transfor- mations from V into W is denoted by £(V,1V). We shorten £(V,V) to £(V). ‘Two oddities of notation concerning linear transformations deserve comment. First, the value of T at x is usually written Tx rather than T(x). Naturally the parentheses are used whenever their omission would create ambiguity. For example, in (9.1.1) above Tx + y is not an acceptable substitute for T(x + y). Second, the symbol for composition of two linear transformations is ordinarily omitted. If $ € £(U,V) and T € £(V,W), then the composite of T and $ is denoted by TS (rather than by T’o$). As a consequence of this convention when T € £(V) the linear operator ToT is written as T?, ToT oT as T3, and so on. For future reference here are two obvious properties of a linear map. 9.1.5. Proposition. If T: V + W is a linear map between vector spaces, then T(0) = 0. 9.1.6. Proposition. If T: V > W is a linear map between vector spaces, then T(—x) = ~Tx for every x € V. ‘You should prove these propositions if (and only if) it is not immediately obvious to you how to do so. 9.1.7. Definition. Let T: V > W be a linear transformation between vector spaces. Then ker, the KERNEL of T, is defined to be the set of all x in V such that Tx = 0. The kernel of T is also called the nullspace of T. If V is finite dimensional, the dimension of the kernel of T is the NULLITY of T. Also, ran T, the RANGE of T, is the set of all y in W such that y = Tx for some x in V. If the range of T is finite dimensional, its dimension is the RANK of T. a o 9. LINEARITY 9.1.8. Notation. Let V be a vector space. We denote the IDENTITY MAP on V (that is, the map x ++ x from V into itself) by Jy, or just J ‘The following findamental result is proved in most linear algebra texts. 9.1.9. Theorem. IfT: VW is a lincar map between finite dimensional vector spaces, then rank(T) + nnllity(7) = dim V 9.1.10. Definition. Let T: V + W and S: W -+ V be linear maps. If ST = Iy, then Tis a RIGHT INVERSE for $ and $ is a LEFT INVERSE for T. The mapping Tis INVERTIBLE (or is an ISOMORPHISM) if there exists a linear transformation, which we denote by T-!: W — V, such that TT =Iw and T'T=hy. The vector spaces V and W are ISOMORPHIC if there exists an isomorphism T from V to W. 9.1.11. Notation. Let V and W be veetor spaces. We denote by £(V,W) the set of all linear maps from V into W and by £(V) the set of all linear operators T': V > V 412, EXERCISES oo 9.2. Exercises (1) Define 7: RS + RY by Tx = (er 3,0) + a2, stg — stays — Bava) for all. x = (01,2, 3) in B®. (a) Then T(1,—2,3) = ( (b) Find a veetor x € R° such that Tx Answer: x = ( 5 1+). (2) Define T: Rt + RS by Tx = (2m, +25 + 24,21 — 2x9 — 25,22 — 45+ 24) for all x = (#1, t2,:t5,24) in Rt (a) Then T(2,1,-1,3) = ( 7 (b) Find a veetor x € R! such that Tx = (3 Answer: x = ( (3) Let T be the linear map from R* to R* defined by T (2, ys2) = (w+ 2y — 2,20 + By + 2,4 + Ty — 2). The kernel of T is (geometrically) a whose equation(s) is(are) and the range of T is geometrically a whose equation(s) is(are) (4) Let 7: R® + RS be the linear transformation whose action on the standard basis vectors of Ris Then 7(5,1,-1) = ( . _) « The kernel of T is the whose equation is -+ay + bz = 0 where @ and b The range of T is the ee gaz whose equations are © = ¥ = 7 where c and where d = a 2c a (5) Let P be the vector space of all polynomial functions on R with real coefficients. Define linear transformations T, D: P > P by (Dp)(a) = p(x) and (Tp)(x) = ap(a) for all 2 ER. (a) Let p(x) = 2972245246 for all x € R. Then ((D+T)(p))(2 where a +b sand ¢ (b) Let p be as in (a). Then (DT p)(x) = ax ba? +-er +6 where a= and ¢= (c) Let p be as in (a). Then (T'Dp)(z) = ax* — br? + er where a = and c= (4) Evaluate (and simplify) the commutator [D,7] := DT - TD, Answer: [D,T] (e) Find a number p such that (TD)? = T?D? + TD. Answer: p = 5 ot 9. LINEARITY (6) Let C = C{a,b] be the vector space of all continuous real valued functions on the interval (a,b) and C! = C¥{a,b] be the vector space of all continuously differentiable real valued functions on [a,6). (Recall that a function is CONTINUOUSLY DIFFERENTIABLE if it has a derivative and the derivative is continuous.) Let D: C1 + € be the linear transformation defined by Dj=f' and let T: CC! be the linear transformation defined by erpte= [nea for all f €C and x € [a,}} (a) Compute (and simplify) (DTf)(x). Answer: (b) Compute (and simplify) (TDf)(2). Answer: (c) The kernel of T is (A) The range of T is {9 € C! } (7) In this exercise we prove that a linear transformation T: V + W between two vector spaces is one-to-one if and only if its kernel contains only the zero vector. After each step of the proof give the appropriate reason. Choose reasons from the following list. (DK) Definition of “kernel” (DL) Definition of linear” (DO) Definition of “one-to-one”. (H) Hypothesis. (Pa) Proposition 9.1.5. ) ) (Pb) Proposition 9.1.6. (VA) Vector space arithmetic (consequences of vector space axioms, definition of subtraction of vectors, ete.) PROOF. Suppose that T is one-to-one, We show that kerT = {Oy}. Since Oy € ker. (reason: and ), we need only show that kerT’ C {Oy}; that is, we show that if x € ker, then x = Oy. So let x € ker. Then Tx = Ow (reason: and ) and TOy = Ow (reason: ). From this we conclude that x = Oy (reason: and —). Now we prove the converse, Suppose that kerT = {Oy}. We wish to show that T is one-to-one. Let x, y € V and suppose that Tx = Ty. Then T(x-y)=T(x+(-y)) —reasons_ =Tx+T(-y) — reason:___ =Tx+(-Ty) — reason:___ =Tx-Ty — reason:__ =Ow —reason:____and Then x ~y € kerT (reason: ). So x—y = Oy (reason: )s that is, x = y (reason: ). Thus T is one-to-one (reason: and o (8) Let C'(R) be the vector space of all funetions defined on the real line R. which have continuous derivatives at each point of R and C(R) be the veetor space of continuous functions on R. Define the funetion T: C'(IR) + C(R) by (TAN) = F() + 3F() 92, EXERCISES 6 for every t € R. (Notice that T is a linear map.) The kernel of T is the set of all scalar multiples of the fumetion g where g(t) = for each ¢, Thus the kernel of the linear map T is the solution space of the differential equation (9) Let C2(R) be the vector space of all functions defined on the real line R. which have continuous second derivatives at each point of Rand C(R) be the vector space of continous, functions on R. Define the funetion T: C(I) —+ C(R) by (THEO =F"O+ FO) for every t € R. (Notice that 7 is a linear map.) Assume that the kernel of T is two dimensional. Then ker = span{g,h} where g(t) and A(t for all t. Thus the kernel of the linear map T' is the solution space of the differential equa- tion (10) Define a function & on the unit square (0,1) x (0, 1} by bry ={% for OSeSyst OF ly, forO

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