TITLE OF RESEARCH

To investigate the factors that affects the diameter of the crater form due to
the impact of metal balls onto the surface.

1
 PURPOSE OF PROJECT

It was observed that whenever a solid spherical object is dropped into a

sand and clay surface from different height, a circular crater is formed due to
the impact. It is wondered if the diameter of the solid spherical object can
affect the diameter of the crater formed and if the consistency of the surface is
a factor that also influence the diameter of the crater. It is further noted that if
the diameter of the crater formed due to impact is directly proportional to the
height from which the metal balls are dropped and the mass of the metal balls.

This experiment is therefore being carried out to investigate if the

diameter of the solid spherical object affect the diameter of the crater and if
the consistency of the surface is a factor that also influence the diameter
formed or whether the diameter of the crater formed is directly proportional
to the height from which the metal balls are dropped and the mass of the
metal balls.

2
 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

In order to obtain statistical data for this research a field experiment was
performed. The experiment was carried out in the following steps:

1) The researcher filled the container with approximately five (5)

centimeters of dry sand.
2) The surface of the sand was levelled by gently shaking it.
3) The meter stick was attached to a burette clamp on a retort stand such
that the end point of the meter stick was in level with the surface of the
sand. The meter stick was used to measure the height of the ball from
the surface.
4) Using a balance, the mass of the ball was weighed and recorded.

5) The diameter of the metal ball was measured using a Vernier Caliper.

6) The metal ball was dropped at a height of 1m above the surface of the
sand.

7) The metal ball was carefully removed after the impact on the sand had
been made so that the borders of the crater formed were not disturbed.

8) Using a plastic ruler, the diameter of the crater formed was

measured.
9) Experiment was conducted thrice and the average result was calculated
for maximum accuracy

10) Steps 8-11 were repeated for three (3) different heights of 1.5m, 2m,
and 2.5m.

11) Steps 4-11 were repeated using balls of different diameter while
keeping the height at which they were dropped at a constant of 1m.

12)The researcher used tables with appropriate headings to record all data
obtained during experiment.

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 DATA COLLECTION
1) DATA OBTAINED BY PERFORMING EXPERIMENT USING SAND SURFACE

Mass of Metal Diameter of Height At Which Average Diameter

Ball (kg) Metal Ball (cm) Metal Balls Were Of Crater Formed
Dropped (m) (cm)
7.3 10 1.0 8.90
7.3 10 1.5 9.10
7.3 10 2.0 9.30
7.3 10 2.5 9.50
Table 1: Average diameter of craters formed by dropping metal balls
at different heights.
Mass of Metal Diameter of Height At Which Average Diameter
Ball (kg) Metal Ball (cm) Metal Balls Were Of Crater Formed
Dropped (m) (cm)
7.3 10 1.0 8.90
7.3 11 1.0 10.0
7.3 12 1.0 10.80
7.3 13 1.0 11.50
Table 2: Average diameter of craters formed by dropping metal balls
of different diameter.

Mass of Height At Which Diameter of Average Diameter

Metal Ball Metal Balls Were Metal Ball Of Crater Formed
(kg) Dropped (m) (cm) (cm)
7.3 2.0 11 9.40
8.9 2.0 11 9.90
10.5 2.0 11 10.45
12.0 2.0 11 10.90

Table 3: Average diameter of craters formed by dropping metal balls

of different mass at a height of 2.0m.

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1) DATA OBTAINED BY PERFORMING EXPERIMENT USING CLAY SURFACE

Mass of Metal Diameter of Height At Which Average Diameter

Ball (kg) Metal Ball (cm) Metal Balls Were Of Crater Formed
Dropped (m) (cm)
7.3 10 1.0 8.80
7.3 10 1.5 8.90
7.3 10 2.0 9.10
7.3 10 2.5 9.40
Table 4: Average diameter of craters formed by dropping metal balls
at different heights.
Mass of Metal Diameter of Height At Which Average Diameter
Ball (kg) Metal Ball (cm) Metal Balls Were Of Crater Formed
Dropped (m) (cm)
7.3 10 1.0 8.70
7.3 11 1.0 9.70
7.3 12 1.0 10.60
7.3 13 1.0 11.40
Table 5: Average diameter of craters formed by dropping metal balls
of different diameter.

Mass of Height At Which Diameter of Average Diameter

Metal Ball Metal Balls Were Metal Ball Of Crater Formed
(kg) Dropped (m) (cm) (cm)
7.3 2.0 11 9.30
8.9 2.0 11 9.80
10.5 2.0 11 10.35
12.0 2.0 11 10.80

Table 6: Average diameter of craters formed by dropping metal balls

of different mass at a height of 2.0m.
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 SURFACE TYPE FACTOR TESTED STANDARD DEVIATION
HEIGHT OF DROP 0.258199
SAND
DIAMETER OF METAL BALL 1.116542

MASS OF METAL BALL 0.652399

HEIGHT OF DROP 0.264575

CLAY DIAMETER OF METAL BALL 1.163329

MASS OF METAL BALL 0.652399

Table 7: Standard Deviation Of Diameters Formed When Testing

Each Factor.

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 AVERAGE DIAMETER OF CRATERS FORMED FROM
Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm) VARIOUS HEIGHTS.
9.6
9.5
9.4
9.3
9.2 Average Diameter Of Crater
Formed (cm)
9.1
9
8.9
8.8
8.7
8.6
1 1.5 2 2.5
HEIGHT AT WHICH METAL BALLS WERE DROPPED (m)

PRESENTATION OF DATA

AVERAGE DIAMETER OF CRATERS FORMED USING BALLS

WITH DIFFERENT DIAMETER.
13 11.3 11.6 11.6 11.5
DIAMETER OF METAL BALL (cm)

Trail 1
12 10.7 10.7 11 10.8 Trail 2
Trail 3
Average
11 10 9.9 10.1 10

10 8.9 8.8 9 8.9

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
DIAMETER OF CRATER FORMED (cm)

FIG#1: Line Graph Showing Average Diameter Of Craters Formed By

Releasing The Metal Ball From Various Heights Onto Sand Surface.
FIG#2: Bar Graph Showing Average Diameter Of Craters Formed By
Releasing Balls Of Different Diameter Onto Sand Surface.

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AVERAGE DIAMETER OF CRATERS FORMED USING BALLS
OF DIFFERENT MASSES.
11.5
DIAMETER OF CRATER FORMED (cm)

11

10.5

10

9.5

8.5
7.3 8.9 10.5 12
MASS OF METAL BALL (kg)

FIG#3: Column Chart Showing Average Diameter Of Craters Formed

By Releasing Balls Of Different Masses Onto Sand Surface.

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AVERAGE
AVERAGE
DIAMETER
DIAMETER
OF CRATERS
OF CRATERS
FORMED
FORMED
USING
FROM
BALLS
OF VARIOUS
DIFFERENT
HEIGHTS.
DIAMETER. (cm) (cm)

13
FORMED

9.5
9.4
CRATERBALL

9.3 Average Diameter Of Crater

12
9.2 Formed(cm)
Diameter Formed
OF METAL

9.1 Linear
Linear
(Average
(Diameter
Diameter
Formed)
Of
9 Crater Formed(cm))
11
DIAMETER OF

8.9
AVERAGE DIAMETER

8.8
8.7
10
8.6
8.5
0.8
0 1 2 1.2 41.4 1.66 1.8 8 2 2.2
10 2.4 122.6
HEIGHTDIAMETER
AT WHICHOF
METAL
CRATER
BALLS
FORMED
WERE (cm)
DROPPED (m)

FIG#4: XY (Scatter) Chart Showing Average Diameter Of Craters

Formed By Releasing The Metal Ball From Various Heights Onto
Clay Surface.
FIG#5: Bar Graph Showing Average Diameter Of Craters Formed By
Releasing Balls Of Different Heights Onto Clay Surface.

9
AVERAGE DIAMETER OF CRATERS FORMED USING BALLS
OF DIFFERENT MASSES.
DIAMETER OF CRATER FORMED (cm)

11
10.5 10.8 10.8
10.4 10.3 10.35
10
9.5 9.75 9.85 9.8 9.8 10.8 10.8
10.35
9 9.25 9.35 9.3 9.3
8.5
8
7.3 8.9 10.5 12
MASS OF METAL BALL (kg)

Trail 1 (cm) Trail 2 (cm)

Trail 3 (cm) Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)

FIG#6: Column Chart Showing Diameter Of Craters Formed By

Releasing Balls of Different Masses Onto Clay Surface.

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 DIAMETER OF CRATER FORMED WHEN METAL BALLS
WERE DROPPED ON DIFFERENT SURFACE TYPE FROM
DIAMETER OF CRATER FORMED WHEN METAL BALLS OF
VARIOUS HEIGHTS
VARIOUS DIAMETERS WERE DROPPED ON DIFFERENT
(cm) (cm)

9.6 9.5
SURFACE TYPE. 9.4
FORMEDFORMED

9.4 9.3
12 Sand
9.2 11.5
11.4
11.5 9.1 9.1 Linear (Sand)
OF CRATER

Clay
119 8.9 8.9 10.8 Sand
10.6 Linear (Clay)
8.8 Linear (Sand)
10.5
8.8
OF CRATER

10 Clay
10 9.7 Linear (Clay)
DIAMETER

8.6
9.5
8.4 8.9
1 1.5 2 2.5
DIAMETER

9 8.7
8.5 HEIGHT AT WHICH METAL BALLS WERE DROPPED (m)
10 11 12 13

DIAMETER OF METAL BALLS (Cm)

FIG#7: Line Chart Showing Diameter Of Craters Formed When The

Metal Ball Was Dropped On Different Surface Type From Various
Heights.
FIG#8: Line Chart Showing Diameter Of Craters Formed When Metal
Balls Of Various Diameters Were Dropped On Different Surface
Type.

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 DIAMETER OF CRATER FORMED WHEN METAL BALLS OF
VARIOUS MASSES WERE DROPPED ONTO DIFFERENT
SURFACE TYPE.
11
DIAMETER OF CRATER FORMED (cm)

10.8
10.6
10.4
10.2 Sand
10 Linear (Sand)
9.8 Clay
9.6 Linear (Clay)
9.4
9.2
7.3 8.9 10.5 12
MASS OF METAL BALLS WERE DROPPED (Kg)

FIG#9: Line Chart Showing Diameter Of Craters Formed By

Releasing Metal Balls Of Various Masses Onto Different Surface
Type.

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 ANALYSIS
An experiment was carried out to investigate the characteristics of a
crater formed when a metal ball is released onto sand and clay surfaces. The
results obtained during the implementation were presented on separate
graphs and interpreted.

Figure 1 displays the average diameter of the craters formed by

releasing the metal ball from various heights onto the sand surface. The graph
gives a positive gradient; this means that the height of drop was directly
proportional to the diameter of the craters formed. Increasing the height at
which the metal balls were dropped increased the diameter of the craters
formed due to impact. Furthermore, the standard deviation for this set of data
was 0.258199. This shows that there was a relationship between the craters
formed and the height at which the balls were dropped. The diameter of the
craters increased by 0.2cm as the height increased. This is shown in the table
below.

Height At Which Metal Balls Were Dropped (m) Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)
1.0 8.90
1.5 9.10
2.0 9.30
2.5 9.50

Figure 2 shows the average diameter of the craters formed by releasing

metal balls of different diameter onto sand surface. The graph also shows a
directly proportional relationship between the controlled (diameter of metal
ball) and responding (diameter of craters formed due to impact) variables as
shown in the table below. As shown, as the diameter of the metal spherical
objects increased the diameter of the craters formed due to impact increased
accordingly. Moreover, this set of data had a standard deviation of 1.116542
which reflected that the variation is not large and so the crater does not vary
in size.

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 Diameter of Metal Ball (cm) Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)
10 8.90
11 10.0
12 10.80
13 11.50

Figure 3 shows the average diameter of the craters formed by releasing

balls of different mass onto sand surface. The diameter of the craters formed
increased by approximately 0.5cm for each metal ball of different mass as
shown below. The graph shows a directly proportional relationship; as the
mass of the metal ball increased the diameter of the craters formed due to the
impact of the metal ball increased. Additionally the standard deviation for this
set of data was 0.652399. This standard deviation is small which indicated
that there is not much variation in the size of the crater formed even though
the mass of the metal balls varied.

Mass of Metal Ball (kg) Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)

F 7.3i g u 9.40 r e
8.9 9.90
10.5 10.45
12.0 10.90

shows the average diameter of the craters formed by releasing the metal ball
from various heights onto clay surface. The graph gives a positive gradient;
this means that the height of drop was directly proportional to the diameter of
the craters formed. Increasing the height at which the metal balls were
dropped increased the diameter of the craters formed due to impact as shown
below. Furthermore, this set of data had a standard deviation is 0.264575
which is also very small and revealed that there was not much variation of the
craters formed.

Height At Which Metal Balls Were Dropped (m) Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)
1.0 8.80
14
 1.5 8.90
2.0 9.10
2.5 9.40

Figure 5 shows the average diameter of the craters formed by releasing

metal balls of different diameter onto clay surface. The graph also shows a
directly proportional relationship between the controlled (diameter of metal
ball) and responding (diameter of craters formed due to impact) variables. As
shown, as the diameter of the metal spherical objects increased the diameter
of the crater formed due to impact increased by approximately 1.0cm as
shown below. Moreover, this set of data had a standard deviation of 1.163329
which indicated that here is not a large variation.

Diameter of Metal Ball (cm) Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)

10 8.70
11 9.70
12 10.60
13 11.40

Figure 6 shows the average diameter of the craters formed by releasing

balls of different mass onto clay surface. The diameter of the craters formed
increased by approximately 0.5cm for each metal ball of different mass. The
graph shows a directly proportional relationship; as the mass of the metal ball
increased the diameter of the craters formed due to the impact of the metal
ball increased as shown in the table below. Additionally the standard
deviation for this set of data was 0.652399 which is of a small difference. The
value 9.30 cm was also recognized as being the lowest value in the group with
10.80 cm being the highest. With these two numbers a range of 1.50cm was
formed.

Mass of Metal Ball (kg) Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)

7.3 9.30
15
8.9 9.80
10.5 10.35
12.0 10.80
 Figure 7 shows a comparison of the diameter of the craters formed
when the metal ball was dropped on sand and clay surface from various
heights. The graph shows that the average diameter of the craters formed
from the various heights on the clay surface was less than the average crater
diameters formed from the sand surface. As shown in the table below the
largest diameter of the crater formed due to impact in the sand surface was
9.50 cm with the lowest crater diameter formed being 8.90cm. A range of
0.60cm was thus formed. The craters formed in the sand surface were
approximately within the border line of: 0.1-0.2cm larger than the diameter of
the craters formed in the clay. The table also shows that the largest diameter
of the crater formed due to impact in the clay surface was 9.40 cm with the
lowest crater diameter formed being 8.80cm. A range of 0.60cm was also
formed.

Height At Which Metal Balls Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)

Were Dropped (m) SAND CLAY
1.0 8.90 8.80
1.5 9.10 8.90
2.0 9.30 9.10
2.5 9.50 9.40

Figure 8 shows a comparison of the diameter of craters formed when

metal balls of various diameters were dropped on different surface type. The
graph shows that the average diameter of the craters formed from the various
diameters of metal balls on the clay surface was less than the average crater
diameters formed from the sand surface. As shown in the table below the
largest diameter of the crater formed due to impact in the clay surface was
11.40 cm with the lowest crater diameter formed being 8.70cm. A range of

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2.70cm was thus formed. The craters formed in the sand surface were
approximately (0.1-0.3) cm larger than the diameter of the craters formed in
the clay. As shown in the table below the largest diameter of the crater formed
due to impact in the sand surface was 11.50 cm with the lowest crater
diameter formed being 8.90cm. A range of 2.60cm was thus formed.

Diameter of Metal Ball (cm) Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)

SAND CLAY
10 8.90 8.70
11 10.0 9.70
12 10.80 10.60
13 11.50 11.40

Figure 9 shows a comparison of the diameter of craters formed when

metal balls of various masses are dropped on different surface type. The graph
shows that the average diameter of the craters formed from the various
masses of metal balls on the clay surface were less than the average crater
diameters formed from the sand surface. As shown in the table below the
largest diameter of the crater formed due to impact in the clay surface was
10.80 cm with the lowest crater diameter formed being 9.30cm forming a
range of 1.50cm. The craters formed in the sand surface were precisely 0.1cm
larger than the diameter of the craters formed in the clay. The table also
shows that the largest diameter of the crater formed due to impact in the sand
surface was 11.50 cm with the lowest crater diameter formed being 8.90cm. A
range of 2.60cm was thus formed.

Mass of Metal Ball (kg) Average Diameter Of Crater Formed (cm)

SAND CLAY
7.3 9.40 9.30
8.9 9.90 9.80
10.5 10.45 10.35
12.0 10.90 10.80

17
 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS/CONCLUSION

After an experiment was carried out, the researcher noticed that

various factors affect the diameter of a crater formed due to the impact of
metal balls onto different surfaces.

18
 A fact to take note of is, that for each factors investigated the data
acquired showed a trend that was directly proportional, i.e., as one variable
increased the responding variable also increased. It was also noticed that the
data collected were closely related. It revealed that the diameter of the crater
formed on a clay surface due to impact is directly proportional to the mass of
the metal balls. The following data acquired by the researcher showed that the
craters formed in the sand surface were precisely 0.1cm larger than the
diameter of the craters formed in the clay.

The researcher also noticed that the standard deviations were small.
This relationship therefore suggests a connection between the factor tested
and the diameter of the crater formed due to impact.

It was perceived that the diameters of all the craters formed on the
sand surface were larger than the diameters of the craters formed on the clay
surface. This trend was due to the sand particles being the biggest and more
'loose' so when the metal balls hit the surface it causes the particles to move
apart more rapidly forming larger craters than the clay particles which are
very small/compact. Clay particles are smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter.

The diameter of the crater formed increased as the height at which the
metal balls were dropped. This was so because they possessed a greater amount
of energy as they came into contact with the surface resulting in larger craters
being formed. When an object is above the Earth's surface it has gravitational
potential energy (GPE). Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is the energy stored
in an object based on its height and mass.

The amount of GPE an object has depends on its mass and its height above the
Earth's surface. An increase in the gravitational potential energy of the metal balls
resulted in an increase in the diameter formed due to impact.

Thus, the equation for gravitational potential energy isG . P . E=mgh, where,
m, is the mass in kilograms, g, is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 on earth),
and, h, is the height of the object above the ground in meters. The gravitational
potential energy of the metal balls shows that the relationship between the
gravitational potential energy of a body and its height above the ground is
19
directly proportional. This indicated that increasing the height from which the
metal balls were dropped increased the amount of gravitational potential
energy they possessed resulting in greater impacts on the surface. As such
larger craters were formed.

The diameter of the crater formed increased as the mass of the metal
balls increased. The formula G . P . E=mgh shows a directly proportional
relationship between the mass of a body and the amount of gravitational
potential energy it possess. This revealed that increasing the mass of the metal
balls also increased the total amount of gravitational potential energy they
possessed. This resulted in larger craters being formed due to their impact on
the surface.

Impact craters are some of the most dramatic features that can be seen
on the Moon. These craters are formed when meteorites, asteroids, and
comets struck its surface at speeds of 10-20 kilometers per second, craters
record the Moon's 4.5 billion year history. Thus, the researcher suggested that
the findings can be used by scientists to get idea of the geology of an area on
different planets and to determine the size of the meteor or comet that may
have struck the surface of the moon or other terrestrial planets in our solar
system.

In conclusion, the diameter and mass of a metal ball and the height at
which it is dropped, is directly proportional to the diameter of the crater
formed due to impact. It can also be safely said that particle size affects the
diameter formed; the larger the particle size the larger the diameter of the
craters formed.

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