Stewart 1

Tiana Stewart

Professor Reyna

SHY 345 75

April 29, 2018

The Mexican-American War

The Mexican-American War of 1846-1848 was a war that has caused much dispute from

both sides of the border. It was a war that is frequently disregarded by people who are not

familiar with it, however, it was an occurrence that caused for a substantial amount of change for

both the United States of America and Mexico.

Preceding the Mexican-American War, the Mexican nation had struggled with a

significant amount of internal complications. They had gained their independence from Spain in

1821, yet the difficulties had caused extreme economic hardship. Mexicans had exchanged their

monarchy for a new constitutional republic, that caused internal political issues within the

different factions. While focused on their internal economic and political challenges, Mexico had

devoted only a small amount of attention to territories acquired in the north from the war they

had just fought with Spain. Tensions between frontier communities and the central government

soon developed, clearly leading to the discontent from settlers in Texas and causing them to

acquire their independence. In 1835, the revolt began with Texans trying to leave the grasp the

Mexicans had on them. In 1836, Texas was able to secure independence from Mexico, led by

Sam Houston at the Battle of San Jacinto causing relations between the United States and

Mexico to now be inflamed. At first, the incorporation of Texas into the Union was declined by
 Stewart 2

the United States, mainly due to the fact that the interests of northern political leaders disagreed

to the addition of another slave state. At the time, the Mexican government was additionally

rallying for border raids and threatening that any attempt at annexation would conduct war.

The 1844 election of President James K. Polk, however, resulted in the initiation of

annexation procedures without hesitation. He campaigned for the “re-annexation” of Texas as

well as the “re-occupation” of Oregon. New Mexico, California, and what is known today as the

U.S. Southwest were territories that were also on his radar. His offer to purchase these lands was

soon denied, initiating agitation, and causing Polk to move his troops into a constantly debated

zone between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande that both countries had prior recognized as a

section of the Mexican state of Coahuila. February 1845 rolled around, bringing with it the

voting from the United States Congress to annex Texas, with the agreement from Texans coming

in March of that same year. This action prompted Mexico to break diplomatic relations with the

United States and the threat from Mexican authorities to take back Texas by force arose as well.

The latter though, was done more out of temper and passion than rationale.

President James K. Polk, before the start of the war, sent John Slidell to Mexico on

December 6, 1845 in the attempt to negotiate more agreements. This time, he proposed an

agreement which would make the Rio Grande the southern border of Texas. Slidell was also told

to offer a topmost bid of $30 million for California by the President and his administration.

Mexican opposition was already getting rowdy, and under guidance from General Zachary

Taylor, United States troops were positioned at the U.S./Mexico border, prepared for a Mexican

attack. Of course, Slidell’s mission was eventually rejected, but that did not stop Polk from

approaching the situation from another route. He remained confident with the belief that if he

“bullied Mexico and gave them enough money, then Mexico would give in and give him what he
 Stewart 3

wanted… Polk thought that intimidation would force Mexico into an accommodating posture,

but it ended up doing the exact opposite” (History Channel Video 2 of 6, 1:13). On April 25,

1846, Captain Seth Thornton and a small exploration crew were travelling along the northern

bank of the Rio Grande, land which the United States had claimed to be their own as well as the

border between them and Mexico. On the contrary, Mexico held that the Nueces River, 150

miles to the north was the border. Thornton and his troops were soon attacked by more than

1,000 Mexican troops that were staked out in the bushes. The Mexicans took aim at 63 American

soldiers, killing 11, and taking 52 prisoners. When President Polk received word of this attack,

he desired to declare war against the “aggressor” who in his view was Mexico. Polk used this

border attack to assert a declaration of war on Mexico.

Mexicans then and even to this day, defend the attack on the claim that the Mexican

troops were just trying to defend their territory. War was looming and at this point seemed to be

inevitable. Supporters of the War on the American side included Southerners, James K. Polk,

Nationalists and Expansionists. Opposition included Northerners, and Abolitionists. Polk was a

true instigator for this war, sending troops to the questioned border of Texas, wanting Mexicans

to attack first. It was a clash of soldiers and politicians, which Polk tried to justify with the

concept of Manifest Destiny. He had introduced his ideas during his campaign, with the core

being the expansion of the American border to the Pacific. He claimed that the United States was

simply trying to fulfill the notion that God intended, which was for the Americans to own the

land that he was after.

With tensions now at an all- time high, the brink of war was right around the corner. In

January of 1846, President Polk had feared that the response of the Mexicans would be them

trying to take over the territory in southwestern Texas in regards to the annexation. This led him
 Stewart 4

to order General Zachary Taylor to advance a group of soldiers into Texas to defend the border

of the Rio Grande. With the diplomatic failure of efforts to settle the disagreement, Taylor was

commanded to lead his troops up the borderline of the Rio Grande. Mariano Arista, who was a

Mexican General at the time, saw this as a malicious invasion of Mexican territory, and on April

25, he lead his soldiers across the river to attack. Congress then declared war on Mexico on May

13, 1846, and a draft to build up the U.S. Army was authorized. General Taylor could not sit

around and wait for the formal declaration of a war he had by then been fighting. His battle

would become known as the Battle of Palo Alto which was fought on May 8, 1846, and had been

the first major skirmish of the U.S.- Mexican War. The first days of battle were extremely

disastrous for the Americans because the Mexicans had developed strong points already built up

with troops simply waiting for the Americans to pass by so they could kill them. This did not

stop General Taylor though, as he was able to lead his 200 soldiers to victories against the

intimidating Mexican forces. He was able to capitalize on the Mexican’s inferior armaments and

poor training which was able to diminish their advantage. For example, Mexican gunpowder was

of such poor quality to where artillery barrages frequently sent the cannonballs bouncing idley

across the battlefield, which in turn allowed for U.S. soldiers to simply step around and avoid

them.

The U.S. declaration of war on Mexico was accompanied by the reappearance of Antonio

López de Santa Anna, who wrote to the Mexican government pleading to be brought out of exile

from Cuba. He was a politician and general who had fought to defend royalist Spain, and was

now lobbying to fight for Mexico. He claimed that his aspirations for the presidency were no

longer his intentions, but he truly wanted to use his military experience to ward off this foreign

invasion of Mexico. Santa Anna had also been dealing with United States representatives in
 Stewart 5

secret, vowing that if they let him back into Mexico through their naval blockades, that he would

sell all disputed territory to the U.S. for a reasonable price. President Valentín Gómez Farías,

who was a civilian, was desperate enough to agree to his offer, pardoned his exile, and allowed

Santa Anna to return. Following his entrance back into Mexico, Santa Anna revoked both

promises, declaring himself President, while leading the Mexican army into battle.

There were many additional major battles of the Mexican-American War which include -

yet surely are not limited to - The Battle of Buena Vista, The Capture of Veracruz, and The

Storming of Chapultepec. Buena Vista, taking place on February 23, 1847, was conceivably one

of the most theatrical fights of the Mexican- American War. President Polk had ordered the

majority of General Taylor’s regulars and veterans to join an expedition under General Winfield

Scott, who eventually landed at Vera Cruz and marched on to Mexico City. During this Battle,

Santa Anna endured a hefty amount of casualties and was obligated to withdraw. In spite of the

loss, he acquired the Mexican presidency in the month that followed. Veracruz was a vital

Mexican port and stronghold town that was captured by American forces on March 28, 1847,

after a two-week blockade. American troops were led by General Winfield Scott and they

touched town in Veracruz, soon thereafter, taking over the city. Mexican resistance was there,

but never truly able to put a dent in their success. The Battle of Cerro Gordo happened in April

1847, and was also led by U.S. General WInfield Scott. He transitioned his army away from

Veracruz and down the national road toward the interior. Mexican forces under General Antonio

López de Santa Anna blocked the way by occupying the strategic mountain pass of Cerro Gordo.

This collision between the two armies began a domino effect of American victories that lead,

ultimately, to the capture of Mexico City. The final blow to the Mexican defense came at The

Storming of Chapultepec Castle on September 13, 1847. Scott and his forces successfully
 Stewart 6

stormed the castle, sparking the collapse of General Santa Anna’s defensive line. During that

clash, a group of military school cadets–the so-called niños héroes–purposefully committed

suicide instead of surrendering. Those young boys now have sculptural representations of

themselves at the Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City. Following up the victory, U.S. forces

entered Mexico City, recognized, stabilized, and prepared for possible house-to-house fighting to

come. There were blatant doubts regarding the legitimacy on the United States’ war against

Mexico, yet the overall demeanor by the U.S. army toward the citizens and institutions of the

country was for the most part respectful during their occupation. An example of this come into

play in Matamoros, where General Zachary Taylor recognized the city council that was at the

time in office and defended its adjournment on the basis of jus gentium rights. In other Mexican

towns, this feat became a pattern, though in some municipalities, like Veracruz and Tampico,

councils dissolved, and the United States forces carried out civil functions with military

authorities.

Thereupon, the war came to a close when the United States army captured Mexico City.

It officially ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed on February 2, 1848. About half

of Mexico’s national domain was taken by the U.S., territory expanding from Texas to

California, in comparison to a humble payment of $15 million given to Mexico plus damage

claims. It was a gain of over 500,000 square miles of precious territory, causing the U.S. to also

surface as a major world power in the late nineteenth century. The signing of the Treaty also

established the U.S.-Mexican border to officially be the Rio Grande and not the Nueces River,

and had Mexico recognize the annexation of Texas. As many historians like Richard Griswold

del Castillo believe, putting the losses and gains of territory behind, the Treaty was an important

shaper of the domestic and international histories of Mexico and the United States both. U.S.
 Stewart 7

leaders accepted the attitude of “moral superiority” in their half of the negotiations of the treaty

(del Castillo). The United States had “viewed the forcible incorporation of almost one-half of

Mexico's national territory as an event foreordained by providence, fulfilling Manifest Destiny to

spread the benefits of U.S. democracy to the lesser peoples of the continent. Because of its

military victory the United States virtually dictated the terms of settlement. The treaty

established a pattern of political and military inequality between the two countries, and this

lopsided relationship has stalked Mexican-U.S. relations ever since” (del Castillo). A major

nationalistic sentiment developed in Mexico as a result of what they call the ‘U.S’ invasion’. The

war also solidified a political division among Conservatives and Liberals in the country, each

party blaming the other for the defeat. It is no surprise that the Treaty’s effects lingered longer in

Mexico’s history than it did in the United States. “Mexican historians and politicians view this

treaty as a bitter lesson in U.S. aggression. As a result of the humiliation of the war and the loss

of more than half of the national territory, young Mexicans embraced a reform movement,

headed by Benito Juarez, governor of Oaxaca, who had opposed the treaty. In the 1850s the

reformers came to power in Mexico vowing to strengthen the country's political system so that

never again would they be victims of U.S. aggression. Benito Juarez's La Reforma was the start

of a political and economic modernization process that continues to this day in Mexico,” as del

Castillo notes.

Favoring and fatalistic effects of the Mexican American War for either side were quite

evident following the war. It was the first time that the United States occupied another nation’s

capital and battled on foreign soil. Acquiring all that land through The Treaty of Guadalupe

Hidalgo helped lead the U.S. on the path of discovery toward silver and gold in California and

notably supplied to westward expansion and the national economy. On the contrary to the
 Stewart 8

positive, the war’s negative consequences for the U.S. included the facilitation of division

between abolitionists and slave owners. The balance of power between free and slave states had

been interrupted by the new territories. In adjunction, an additional 11,000 casualties had been

suffered by the Americans from disease alone. Lastly, the cost of the war was circa $75 million.

From America’s expansionist past, the war had materialized, and it then threw the nation toward

the path of its eventual Civil War. As for Mexico, the Mexicans who were still occupying the

former Mexican territories were obligated to adapt into American culture, learn their customs,

and were unfortunately deemed as subordinate individuals by the United States. All of the

suffering that the war caused the nation, had lead Mexicans to refer to the conflict also as the

“American Intervention.” As author Robert Ryal Miller reveals in his article The War Between

the United States and Mexico, “the war left tens of thousands of orphans, widows and cripples.

Artillery shelling and small-arms gunfire caused extensive destruction to buildings in a number

of cities, in addition to damage to port facilities and roads. The naval blockade and movement of

thousands of troops across the land severely affected the economy, disrupting internal and

external trade, and the massive conscription of peasants caused a steep decline in agricultural and

mineral production,” and that was only part of it. Many historians are able to agree upon the

view that “ostensibly, the war was about territory, continental expansion, access to the ports of

the Pacific, and access to and ownership of all of the wonderful minerals and riches that were in

the subsoil. The war was about land, labor, and wealth. But it was also about language, culture,

race, and religion. It was about way of being. It was about worldview,” as Antonia I. Castañeda

describes in her article A War of Violence and Violations: The Consequences of Conquest.

To this day, the Mexican-American War surely remains a controversy. In Renata Keller’s

piece, U.S.-Mexican Relations from Independence to the Present, she highlights a saying that is
 Stewart 9

“popularly attributed to Porfirio Díaz: ‘Poor Mexico! So far from God and so close to the United

States!’ There is a great deal of truth in the phrase; proximity to the United States cost Mexico

half of its national territory in the 19th century, exposed it to various military and economic

incursions in the 20th century, and has mired the country in a bloody drug war in the 21st.” But

of course U.S.-Mexican relations have had and will continue to have their benefits. Numerous

instances throughout the past two centuries have proven that the people of Mexico and the

United States can work together for the advancement of both nations. The pair depend on each

other more times than not for affluence and solidity. Working ahead, the inquiry will be whether

or not they can both face their joint challenges- immigration, drug brutality, and fiscal

development- by uncovering mutual solutions that satisfy both countries’ needs. Mexico will

forever be “so close to the United States,” but that will essentially not always be a

disadvantageous thing for both nations.

Works Cited

Castaneda, Antonia I. “A War of Violence and Violations: The Consequences of Conquest .”

PBS, Public Broadcasting Service,

www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/aftermath/violence.html.

Channel, History. “The Mexican American War.” YouTube, YouTube, 3 Sept. 2016,

www.youtube.com/watch?v=t7hmYSDiVMo&t=1923s.

del Castillo, Richard Griswold. “Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.” PBS, Public Broadcasting

Service, www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/war/wars_end_guadalupe.html.
 Stewart 10

Keller, Renata. “U.S.-Mexican Relations from Independence to the Present.” Oxford

Research Encyclopedia of American History, 8 June 2017,

americanhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-

9780199329175-e-269.

“Mexican-American War Timeline.” Math,

www.softschools.com/timelines/mexican_american_war_timeline/112/.

Miller, Robert Ryal. “The War Between the United States and Mexico.” PBS, Public

Broadcasting Service, www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/aftermath/war.html.

Minster, Christopher. “What Were the Major Events of the Mexican-American War?”

ThoughtCo, www.thoughtco.com/timeline-of-the-mexican-american-war-2136188.

Singley, Julie. “Impact of the Mexican-American War.” Conclusion, World Politics 116, May

2005, www.mtholyoke.edu/~jasingle/conclus.html.

Skidmore, Thomas E., and Peter H. Smith. Modern Latin America. Oxford University Press,

2005.

“Timeline: U.S.-Mexico Relations.” Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign

Relations, www.cfr.org/timeline/us-mexico-relations.

Historychannel. “What Was the Mexican-American War?” YouTube, YouTube, 21 June

2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=8U9vbZwFZL4.
Stewart 11