Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ocean and Coastal Management

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman

Review

Analysis of the interrelations between biogeographic systems and the

dynamics of the Port-Waterfront Cities: Cartagena de Indias, Colombia
Grace Andreas Montoya-Rojas a, *, Margui Almario García b, Shirly Bello-Escobar b,
Kushal Pal Singh c
a
Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales, Calle 222 No. 55 – 37, Bogot� a, Colombia
b
Marine Biology, Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano. Colombia. Mundo Marino, Cra. 2 #11-68, El Rodadero, Magdalena, Colombia
c
Biogeophysic, National Geophysics Research Institute. Biogeophysics Laboratory, Electrical Geophysics Group, Room No.139, Extension Building 139, Uppal Road,
Hyderabad, 500007, Telangana, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This research shows that the correlations of the Port-Waterfront Cities and their development throughout history
Urban geography have led to conceptual evolution to strengthen and implement: sustainable cities. The main objective of this
Connectivity research was to perform a detailed analysis of the relationships between the Biogeographical Systems and the
Landscape ecology
dynamics of the Port-Waterfront Cities, to make an integrated approach between human and natural relations in
Sustainable city
Marine-coastal environments
these urbanized coastal-marine regions. Analytical tools associated with the General Theory of Systems and
critical thinking are employed. The reliable conceptual documentation is analyzed for achieving the preset ob­
jectives of the present research. Subsequently, a historical analysis of the Port-Waterfront Cities was carried out,
and a conceptual map was prepared by integrating conceptual information and the proposed biogeographic
systems such as the atmospheric, the hydrospheric, the geospheric, the biospheric and the anthropospheric.
Furthermore, a Sankey Diagram was developed to understand interactions between the biogeographic systems
and their dynamic flows entering the marine-coastal urban environment. In the present research, the city of
“Cartagena de Indias” and its surroundings in Colombia have been considered. Finally, sustainability guidelines
developed through a multi-criterion analysis were established as a contribution to urban planning management
and territorial ordering tools in marine-coastal environments.

1. Introduction the study of an integrated urban-coastal marine regions. Therefore,

There is a disarticulation between environmental, social, economic,
institutional and governmental aspects in the city of “Cartagena de In­
dias”, this makes the city grow in an unsustainable way (see Fig. 1). The
focus of this research is articulated with the Sustainable Development
Goals, mainly with objective 11: sustainable cities and communities, in
which the United Nations Program for Development (UNDP, 2019)
ratifies that “it is not possible to achieve sustainable development
without radically transforming the way we build and manage the urban
spaces.” When approaching a seaport city with a transnational border, it
is articulated in some way with objective 14: underwater life, where it is
necessary "... to generate a framework to order and protect in a sus­
tainable way the marine and coastal ecosystems of terrestrial pollution".
Throughout the text, a primary analysis is made of how to approach
three axes of analysis were conceptualized: the Port-Waterfront City
(PWC), the smart city, and the sustainable city. A brief historical review of
the milestones associated with such concepts since 10,000 BC until
2008, then, from 2008 to 2018, the state of knowledge of the General
Systems Theory (GST) in environmental management is highlighted, in
order to establish the existing correlations between the Biogeographic
Systems (BS) and the aforementioned concepts. With this information, a
Sankey Diagram was constructed to organize the dynamic flows of the
SB of the study area and to propose sustainable management guidelines
in urbanized coastal-marine spaces.
To develop an approach to this analysis, the investigation took as a
practical case the existing correlations of the city of “Cartagena de In­
dias” and the surroundings of the swap “La Virgen” in Colombia. With
the GST applied to the case and the review of the context of a PWC,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: grmontoya@udca.edu.co (G.A. Montoya-Rojas), marguil.almariog@utadeo.edu.co (M.A. García), shirly.belloe@utadeo.edu.co (S. Bello-
Escobar), kpsingh@ngri.res.in (K.P. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.105055
Received 17 July 2019; Received in revised form 22 October 2019; Accepted 30 October 2019
Available online 15 November 2019
0964-5691/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G.A. Montoya-Rojas et al.
different elements and relationships were identified that allowed us to
understand the different interactions with BSs in these urbanized
coastal-marine spaces, as a basis for their management. In this sense, it is
clear that due to the globalized society increasingly consumer and
dependent, “the smart” loses its appeal as an innovative agenda. On the
other hand, it is closely aligned with the existing modes of urban
development, which depend on neoliberal and consumerist modes of
economic growth, putting at risk the expectations of “sustainability."
However, the holistic vision carried out helps to identify the in­
terrelations between the natural and the human, to generate prospective
proposals for localized management, in those places where there were
pieces of evidence of nodes or focal points of tension between such in­
terrelationships. This work shows the importance of creating own
models of management, according to the reality and particularity of
each territory.
Several studies or forms of analysis existing in the social and natural
sciences partially capture these interactions. The TGS emerges with new
concepts for natural and human systems (Liu et al., 2007a, b). As
mentioned by Chin et al. (2014), these interactions also present
ecological phenomena that vary their temporality, spatiality, and in­
tensity of manifestation in terrestrial landscapes (Lew et al., 1999;
Walker et al., 2004; Folke, 2006). In marine-coastal environments,
planners need to diligently incorporate these analysis tools as pro­
specting inputs, since in these environments, such phenomena tend to be
more dynamic, intense and frequent.
The GST has been used in complex studies of landscape ecology or
landscape system because this facilitates the delimitation of territorial
units (Mazzoni, 2014) as a starting point in the development of ideas and
procedures of territorial environmental planning (Rodríguez et al.,
2012). The socio-cultural approach corresponds to taking into account
the wealth of manifestations of different human groups in the
human-natural relationship. From the economic and administrative
point of view, environmental management must have a pluralist vision,
where creative and viable proposals are generated to respect the func­
tioning of ecosystems and maintain their productive capacities (Mon­
toya-Rojas, 2011). Finally, from a political, institutional and legal
perspective, it is essential to include a governance approach where au­
thorities and civil society define mechanisms to process decision-making
in favor of the common interest within a framework of legitimacy,
consensus, trust and transparency (Collazo, 2008; Gonza �lez, 2002).
One of the relevant conclusions was that the sustainability of the City
is not only to value the cultural richness and the historical burden of
Cartagena de Indias but also to rescue the landscape, biophysical and
geophysical richness found in this part of Magdalena watershed, the
Fig. 1. Location of the analysis area.
largest basin in Colombia. Cartagena, a very important city for Colombia
and the Caribbean region, in addition to being a seaport and border of
international scope, currently suffers from strong comprehensive
2
Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055
integral actions and modernization not compatible with the natural
environment. For what it is worth joining the goodwill of different ac­
tors, and implement specific sustainability strategies.
The interrelations of the BS with the dimensions of sustainability
allow us to identify key aspects in marine-coastal environments, as a
strategy to alleviate the problems caused by urban population growth
and accelerated urbanization (Veselitskaya et al., 2019), therefore, At
the end of this paper, guidelines are incorporated that encompass the
dimensions of sustainability and their relationships between human -
natural, socio-cultural, economic - technical, governmental - adminis­
trative, and institutional - organizational.
2. Methodology
An exhaustive review was made on the themes of PWC, sustainable
cities, and smart cities, in order to establish a solid and forceful rela­
tionship between them. A review was made of outstanding authors on
the topics endorsed by the scientific community,1 the experience of the
authors was incorporated into consultancies and works associated with
sustainability, terrestrial and marine ecosystem services, in geoscientific
analyzes, territorial studies, in soils and in landscape ecology; and the
experiences with different institutions, sectors, private entities,
governmental and academic.
To organize the information and make the construction of logical and
analytical thinking temporarily, historical milestones were identified
from 10,000 BC to 2008, and to establish the state of knowledge, the
importance and the relationship of the General Systems Theory (GST)
with environmental management, the decade between 2008 and 2018
was investigated. With this information, a conceptual map was con­
structed that interweaves the BS with the concepts and the object of
analysis.
To apply the utility of the GST and identify the correlations of the BS
with the concepts of interest, the authors took as their object of study the
city of Cartagena de Indias and the surroundings of the swamp of “La
Virgen”, in Colombia. In these marine-coastal spaces, there is a cultural-
historical weight recognized worldwide (UNESCO, 2018), the land­
scape, despite human intervention and urban pressure is still attractive,
there is an international port to analyze local, national and cross-border
dynamics. In addition to this, it is the interest of the District Council of
Cartagena de Indias, to make the city sustainable and competitive in the
coming years (PND, 2016).
Taking into account the above, the GST is a useful tool for marine-
coastal management analysis. The systemic analysis approach can be a
complex alternative that initially may not propose immediate solutions,
1
With search in databases of journals and indexed books.
G.A. Montoya-Rojas et al.
since it implies the understanding that the system has diverse elements,
in addition, it is made up of subsystems and, therefore, levels of
complexity they increase and each level, in turn, establishes a different
organizational model (Vega, 2005). Even so, the systemic analysis pro­
poses an organizational process that has a common purpose, where it is
necessary to understand the relationship between society and the
environment as a determining factor, which actives processes of change
in the environment. Therefore, the role of the human being and its ca­
pacity to generate changes and reactions in the goods and services of
ecosystems is analyzed (Bertalanffy, 2006). This understanding of re­
ality allows us to understand the dynamics of urbanized coastal-marine
spaces and the reason for the various existing phenomena.
For a PWC where so many elements converge, the three criteria of
complex thinking (Bustamante et al., 2018) were incorporated into this
research are: the dialogical, because the natural and human environment
interact, the recursive, because such interactions react mutually, making
the best bilateral benefit, despite their mutual disturbances; and the
hologramatic, since all the parts of the analysis space are studied
comprehensively, for the case, as previously mentioned, the BS are
grouped as follows: atmospheric systems, hydrospheric system, geos­
pheric system, biospheric system and anthropospheric system (Mon­
toya- Rojas, 2018: p.52). The complexity of the socio-ecological aspects
(García-Onetti, et al., 2018), constantly interact in complex environ­
ments between continent and sea. With the GST, an environmental
management system can be established, with an integral perspective,
where a series of activities are defined within the complexity of the
biogeophysical, social, cultural, political, and economic relations of the
local and global environment (Vega, 2005; Morín, 1998). The effects of
these relationships manifest themselves in time and space. (Gonz� alez
and Rolda �n, 2003).
By breaking down the applicability of the GST in the environmental
management systems of cities, the ability of this theory to organize the
different elements of the object of analysis is identified. In Fig. 2, this
analysis is outlined for what concerns cities of the marine-coastal
environment and all the steps and aspects that were taken for the
research.
Taking into account that the PWC is a dynamic system that contin­
ually transforms its environment, a Sankey Diagram was prepared
(Sankey, 1898 cited by Schmidt, 2008). According to Smith (2008), this
diagram was an important aid to point out the inefficiencies and po­
tential savings and administration to the use of resources (Schmidt,
2008), which applies to the natural system and its human demands. In
the diagram, the perception and initial intuition about the dynamics of
complex systems in an organized way were represented (Moeller and
Rolf, 1995), in this case, the dynamics of the BS, in the object of study
was: Cartagena de Indias and the swamp of “La Virgen”. With the rep­
resentation of the diagram, the BS flow was schematized when inter­
acting with Cartagena and the swamp, and the state of the BS once these
spaces have metabolized them.
Finally, with the contribution, the discussion of experts, and through
the analysis of the interactions of the BS in the study area, sustainability
strategies and guidelines were proposed for each of the BS studied.
3. Results
3.1. Brief retrospective: historical milestones associated with Port-
Waterfront Cities
The concept of PWC is not recent. The first housing infrastructures
began to be developed more than 10,000 years BC, and humans began
irrigation and crop rotation techniques (Morris, 2008), practices that
strengthened their settlements. This gave way to the creation of means
of transport such as ships, rural paths, roads and ports, used for mar­
keting merchandise, which remained as a surplus of agricultural activ­
ities (Martner, 1999). During the tenth and fifth centuries BC the
construction of maritime ports of commercial importance by the Romans
3
Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055
and Vikings occurred (Morris, 2008) and by the beginning of the 1st
century and the end of the 5th century, the cities took on greater
importance, enriching themselves with buildings and markets. These
aspects increased pollution, awakening the interest of citizens to create
ways to combat the growing deterioration of nature, without affecting
the commercial functions that enhanced the ports. For the seventh
century to the ninth, trade became a consumer economy, however, by
the end of the tenth-century trade and smuggling through the ports
resurfaced, giving an uncontrolled urban expansion towards the end of
the twelfth century.
The new forms of construction of docks appear in the 18th century,
due to the first steam engines. Rudimentary defenses, telescopes, and
mooring systems appeared (Martner, 1999), which will facilitate import
and export in port pages. By the nineteenth century, the port lost
importance and only those ports that exported raw materials had greater
dynamism (Wallerstein, 1996), this was the product of what became
known as the century of protectionism, due to a growing concern for the
conservation of natural resources. From there arose the term ecodevel­
opment as a representation of commitment, which sought to reconcile
the increase in production, with respect for ecosystems (Sachs, 1994).
Continuing with this ideology, equilibrium strategies were proposed so
as not to collapse the ports, so for the twentieth century, the port
manages to integrate itself into the binding dynamics of exchange
mainly between the local and the global (Fossey, 1997). With these
advances and new visions, enter the space-time relationship to the ports.
With the influence of technology and telecommunications, together
with the development of transport, the socio-economic relations of the
ports were empowered. Developers and environmentalists undertake
alliances to analyze and innovate in solving problems that inhabitants of
port cities were facing (Dixon and Fallon, 1991; Solow, 1991) such as
alteration of the landscape, impact of soil regulation services due to
changes in the use of land cover, floods increased, pollution of inland
and maritime waters increased, altering the healthiness of groundwater,
contraband, social decomposition, insecurity, accelerated growth of
cities without adequate regulation of the impacts on marine-coastal
biodiversity, among others.
In the 19th century, the concept of the smart city began to develop, to
generate solutions to particular problems of each city and, for the 20th
century, humanity was immersed in an experiment where the rural
became rapidly urban (Girard, 2013), due to the more significant ad­
vances and better opportunities. Finally, for the 21st century, the
concept of ecological city or eco-city becomes important, it is the inno­
vation niche of the urban planners, since alternatives are created to
avoid energy waste and reactivate pollution control instruments,
accompanied by various initiatives of virtual socialization (Colado,
2014; Illescas et al., 2018 in un.org). According to the Population Fund
for the United Nations (2007, UNDP, 2019), by2050,2 the world popu­
lation will have increased by 70%, and the majority will be concentrated
in cities. Coastal cities will increase the risk to natural phenomena due to
the low rate of implementation of integrated urban planning, that is, the
harmonization between human and natural dynamics that interact in
these spaces. By 2030, it is expected to see results of adequate man­
agement in the case of cities with the Sustainable Development Goal 11:
sustainable cities and communities, one of the objectives with which this
research is articulated.
3.2. Conceptual correlations of the biogeographic systems (BS) between
the Port-Waterfront City (PWC) and the sustainable city
The city is the territorial center of the accumulation of capital, the
collective instrument of social production, the spatial center of the dis­
tribution and exchange of goods and services (S� anchez, 2016). For
others, it will be the space for the idealization and projection of life,
2
“In 2050, the figure will be 6,500 million people, two thirds of humanity…”
G.A. Montoya-Rojas et al.
Fig. 2. Applicability of the GST in environmental management.
which enriches the visions and specific ways of using these spaces. Such
aspects offer an opportunity to organize and plan coherently with the
natural supply of a basin and/or region with specific biogeographic
characteristics and existing, preexisting and projected human in­
teractions. Here the main the emphasis is given on the PWC of “Carta­
gena de Indias”, as a case to analyze the articulation of the BS, the ideals
of sustainability, and in which the concepts of a possible intelligent city
4
Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055
are projected.
The PWC are characterized by being decisive centers of exchange in
coastal regions, considered as the economic backbone (Akhavan, 2017)
that energizes these territories. This type of cities face challenges
derived from congestion and pollution mainly from air and seawater
(Monios et al., 2018), as in the first instance, the exhaust gases from
combustion that occur very near the continental and insular coasts, at
G.A. Montoya-Rojas et al.
sea level, they greatly affect environmentally sensitive areas (Tichavska
and Tovar, 2015). Secondly, marine pollution, by ballast and bilge
water, which have been associated with the introduction of invasive
species (ballast water) and the entry of organic and inorganic materials
(bilge water), threaten biodiversity, marine economic activities such as
fishing, food supply and nature tourism, therefore, human health (Bax
et al., 2003; Gerhard and Gunsch, 2018). This pollution brought about
by the aforementioned activities affects the initiative to turn these cities
into sustainable ones since the possibility of creating enough to thrive in
themselves and their environment is undermined (Pinzo �n-Botero,
2015). In the same way, developing cities suffer from overpopulation,
with high energy demands that suppressing the water resources, and
therefore, programs of efficient use of water and energy in infrastructure
are among the priorities on a global scale (Pereira-Ribeiroa et al., 2018).
It is evident that the need to solve the problems that affect the envi­
ronment, have appeared with greater boom in recent years in urban
innovation, with proposals to handle emerging challenges in the pro­
vision of urban services, as promoted by the concept of smart city (Al­
bino et al., 2015). Likewise, new models of agriculture (urban
agriculture) have been sought, which has helped to increase the quality
of life and to solve the problems of food security, in some cities of the
world (Ferreira et al., 2018).
The smart city is known as a territory with great learning and
innovation capacity, creative, with the presence of research and devel­
opment institutions, higher education centers, endowed with digital
infrastructure and communication technologies, together with a high
level of management performance (Liugailaite-Radzvickiene and Juce­
vicius, 2014; Sikora-Ferna �ndez, 2017). For a city to be smart, it must
have participatory human and social capital, communication infra­
structure, both traditional and modern, and that conform to the theory
of sustainable development (Sikora-Ferna �ndez, 2017). Therefore, some
clarifications should be made about how the city becomes intelligent,
such as understanding that intelligence is about creating/knowing and
not just about technologies; the social system of intelligent action must
create knowledge from both the internal and external environment,
applying it in decisions to successfully perceive emerging changes
(Sikora-Ferna �ndez, 2017).
However, in many cases as the urban infrastructure is digitalized, the
development of tensions that undermine the expectations and claims
that the smart city can and will provide urban sustainability is promoted
(Martín et al., 2018), among these tensions is it has: (i) economic growth
is unsustainable (Piketty, 2015), (ii) the benefits of digital innovation
will be distributed unequally (Hollands, 2014; Wiig, 2016), (iii) digital
innovations weaken and marginalize to citizens, (iv) digitization of
urban infrastructure recently to protect the environment (Gabrys, 2014;
Hollands, 2014), and that (v) consumer cultures are unsustainable
(Viitanen and Kingston, 2014; Montoya, 2014). Yigitcanlar and Kam­
ruzzaman (2018) suggest that for the success of smart cities, it is
necessary to provide certain elements to cities, such as the ability to
develop its unique technologies for its own problems and development
needs, in a way that contributes to the establishment of a local economy
of innovation and prosperity. It is good to promote, that the technologies
are not exclusive for the urban elites, but also inclusive for those un­
fortunate population, which will promote socioeconomic equity. Like­
wise, reforming cities through the adoption of principles of sustainable
urban development, for example, minimizing the urban footprint,
establishing urban farms and using renewable energy sources, would
generate ecological sustainability, and finally, equate cities with highly
dynamic mechanisms for better plan their growth and manage their
daily operational challenges.
Taking into account the above, one of the clearest examples of the
development of a port city, which has focused on using ideas of sus­
tainability and, therefore, elements of a smart city, is the city of
Hamburg. It has a port, which occupies the second position in the Eu­
ropean ranking of ports and implements logistics systems based on in­
formation technologies of the Smart Port Logistics (Rosales, 2018). In
5
Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055
addition to this, energy-saving and support for renewable energies are
basic elements of Hamburg’s sustainability strategy (Bosca, 2013). In
this sense, the systemic thinking of all the Biogeographic Systems (BS)
that interact in these spaces, applied in the cities, can be adopted as a
management tool to face the environmental crisis, since it is unavoidable
to apply an integral approach, where solutions for the transformation of
technical knowledge are addressed, accompanied by the vision of in­
dividuals (Costa and Ferreira, 2017), and in the same way, it is under­
stood that each action generates an impact that can be positive or
negative for the environment.
It is clear that for the PWC of “Cartagena de Indias”, the main chal­
lenge begins with actions that lead to sustainability, the concept of smart
city, for the moment, will be a further step. Fig. 3 illustrates the analyzed
interrelationships of the SB, such as the atmospheric, the hydrospheric,
the geospheric, the biospheric, and the anthropospheric, with the con­
cepts of PWC, sustainable city, and smart city in a marine-coastal space
of the Colombian Caribbean Sea.
4. Discussion
4.1. Dynamics of biogeographic systems (BS) in the study area
The City is a key space in the strategic plans for the future, since it
plays a vital role in local, regional and global sustainability (Miguel-­
Velasco et al., 2017), the demand for the natural supply of the watershed
where it is located. In this sense, the City can be seen as a dynamic
system or a space to accommodate a large part of human activities. For
this reason, to see in a holistic way the correlations of the BS, will serve
as an input to organize the large volume of information systems (Big
Data), facilitate reliable communications (Gonz� alez, 2002), will guide
the development of the thriving infrastructures and other functional
elements of the cities. These issues constitute the challenges in research,
innovation, and development of the XXI century in the watershed-city
integration. However, there are ecological concerns both for the
global dynamics of the Earth and for the effects of the cumulative im­
pacts of previous and actual human activities. The study of the systems
and their processes, has been carried out from models that are usually
called black boxes (Herrera, 2007), where inputs, natural phenomena (or
irregular entries), storage, and outputs associated with identified BSs.
Therefore, to this primary analysis, the Sankey diagram was intro­
duced (see Fig. 4), as an instrument to outline the dynamics of the said
black box. In this research, the swamp “La Virgen” was chosen, where the
PWC of “Cartagena de Indias” is located within the central part of the
Caribbean front of the Department of Bolivar, Colombia, covering about
520 km2 of extension (Torregroza et al., 2014). The marsh, in addition,
of the entry of water by the sea and rainfall (IDEAM, 2013), has been for
many years the main receiving body of rainwater and wastewater of the
City (Beltr�an, 2003; Maldonado et al., 2011), which convert it into a
storage system (Tirado et al., 2011). On the other hand, it is charac­
terized mainly by the presence of mangrove ecosystems
(Ya�nez-Arancibia et al., 1998), which have the capacity to tolerate and
grow in saline and oxygen-poor environments (Agraz et al., 2006), of­
fering an endless supply of ecosystem services, which make the swamp
meet an important ecological role that affects the inhabitants of “Car­
tagena de Indias favorably”. For example, it is a carbon storage that
provides food and regulates the flow of coastal tides. It must be taken
into account that the water exchange capacity is very limited, which has
resulted in problems such as the reduction of the lagoon flow and loss of
its environmental dynamics (Moor, 2002; Beltra �n and Suarez, 2010
Tirado et al., 2011). Coastal-marine habitats with vegetation like man­
groves, salt marshes, grasslands and other seagrasses, are storing much
of the carbon emitted by humans into the atmosphere, known as “blue
carbon"(García-Onetti, 2017).
Fig. 4 reflects that dynamic flow that Sankey allows to point, so it is
suggested that from the dimensions of sustainability: natural, socio-
cultural, economic-technical, political-administrative and institutional-
G.A. Montoya-Rojas et al.
Fig. 3. – Conceptual correlations of the biogeographic systems between port waterfront city, sustainable city, and smart city.
organizational, a commitment is generated that identifies urban spaces
as catalysts for development through the spatial fixation of organized
industrial and economic activities, in favor of the coexistence of natural
wealth and the interest of many to settle in the City, even more so with a
port of historical transcendence as Cartagena has it.
4.2. Guidelines for the sustainability of the PWCs of “Cartagena de
Indias”
A PWC like Cartagena, has the current challenge of propending for
sustainability and in a later stage of the construction said desire, will be
coupled some benefits of the concepts of smart city in order to allow a
progressive economy (Akhavan, 2017), without sacrifice the historical
richness and the natural environment that characterize it. On the con­
trary, it will be necessary to strengthen spaces where natural resources
are managed efficiently, that allows improving the quality of life of
citizens equitably, through the use of technologies and trained human
resources (Pereira-Ribeiroa et al., 2018), that can contribute to finding
solutions in a practical and local way (Gonza �lez, 2002). Propending to
increase the use of technologies in “Cartagena de Indias” can bring
benefits, such as: “reduction of the consumption of resources, especially
energy and water; the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions and the
improvement of the use of existing infrastructure” (Harrison and Don­
nelly, 2011 cited by Veselitskaya et al., 2019). However, the suggestions
and proposals for guidelines for sustainability are proposed in a specific
manner within the framework of the BS and the sustainability di­
mensions mentioned and proposed for this research.
In an analogous way, environmental management becomes a diffi­
cult task when the complex dynamics of this PWC are not disentangled,
therefore, with the historical milestones of the PWC, the understanding
of the conceptual correlations among the BS, valuing the utility of the
GST for the management of marine-coastal environments, and observing
the flows of inputs and outputs from the city of Cartagena, some
6
Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055
guidelines are proposed in each of the dimensions of sustainability
proposed for each BS, as shown in Table 1.
5. Conclusions
The proposal of this manuscript focused on analyzing information
and consolidating it analytically, to guide the incorporation of own
models of sustainability based on the particular biogeographic condi­
tions of the urbanized coastal-marine spaces, in a holistic, integral and
organized way. The PWCs are crucial in the regional, transnational, and
global connection; therefore, their management strategies must be
specific to each biogeographical location. The GST was incorporated as a
useful tool for analyzing complex environments. Therefore, the review
and conceptual analysis of BS and dynamic flows analyzed in the Sankey
Diagram helped to specify interrelations and key connections, which
allowed to propose some guidelines of sustainability for the PWC of
“Cartagena de Indias."
Analyzing cities as a system that has a complex behavior, implies the
recognition that there are hidden relationships between its elements and
with other systems, which may remain that way or become more evident
at any moment of time, and that also involve processes that can trigger a
transformation of the environment, that is why it is important to detect
those relationships.
When referring to the environment, generally it tends toward
reductionism, prioritizing the biological and physicochemical elements,
however, it is necessary to include the human being and all its material
and subjective manifestations, since their relationship produces a
notable impact, which It leads to analyze the environment from a sys­
temic perspective, fundamental to provide tools that serve as support in
the solution of environmental problems, which put sustainability at risk.
The environmental management of urbanized coastal-marine envi­
ronments should be aimed at creating elements of development for all
dimensions of sustainability, for each of the BS, in this way,
G.A. Montoya-Rojas et al.
Fig. 4. Diagram of Sankey of the PWC of Cartagena de Indias.
comprehensive, articulated, and coordinated actions are guaranteed.
Even for future lines of research, the proposed guidelines may have their
own monitoring and control indicators, which would serve for the
processes of accountability and decision makers.
From the atmospheric system, the conceptual map and the Sankey
diagram, reflect that the most relevant is to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions in public transport and the port complex. It is necessary to
manage knowledge and research about the baseline of air quality, fixed
and mobile sources of electromagnetic flow, visual pollution, and noise.
It will be necessary to strengthen the institutional framework and the
articulation of environmental policies associated with the atmosphere.
This system is further intertwined with the biospheric by identifying in
land cover and marine ecosystems, core areas that serve as carbon sinks
and protect them (such as mangroves).
When analyzing the geospheric system, we conclude that the most
important thing in Cartagena is to reduce the conflicts of use associated
with agro-industry and the transformation of land cover. The expansion
of the infrastructure is causing alterations in the landscapes in an abrupt
way. It is also highlighted, the need to increase the knowledge associ­
ated with the marine-coastal geoforms, to lose sight of this information
is to ignore an important part of the territory, for this reason, the
institutional framework must strive to improve the availability of the
bathymetric data in these areas, as well as the dynamics of marine
sediments, as well as natural phenomena related to geological and
geomorphological dynamics of the Caribbean Sea. It will be necessary to
reduce the use of agrochemicals, pesticides, and organic waste in the
agro-industry to have healthier and more resilient soils and
groundwater.
Regarding the hydrospheric system, it is evident that it is one of the
7
Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055
biogeographic systems with the highest requirements. In the Sankey
diagram, the flow of entry of this system to the study PWC is not fully
evident, but the superficial, subsurface, freshwater and salty water part
are very varied in the area. So when plating sustainability guidelines in
this system, it is concluded that the first thing to do is diagnose the state
of these bodies of water, investigate the water surface supported by the
bathymetric depths, and the potential to generate tidal energy. Also,
study the flow of groundwater that connect with the marine part will key
aspect for manage the water resources in the right way. Also, it is
concluded that the water resource must be seen from the guaranteed
minimum for the human being, and that must be demanded rationally
and regulated by the industry, aspect that needs to be handled coher­
ently by the administrative and governmental dimension of the Carta­
gena. It was also specified that the institutional framework must be
strengthened and articulated with the regional, local, and international
scope, the latter marked by maritime borders.
Trends of saving and utilization of the water resource are suggested
efficiently, reusing it in washing activities and carrying out a treatment
that allows its continuous recirculation, contributing in the state of the
ecosystems and, therefore, of human well-being. Also, it will be neces­
sary the increase in ballast and bilge water treatments. When thinking
about the prioritization of the human need for water as a vital resource,
it is oriented to sectors such as agriculture and mining must have limits
of use of water resources, reducing waste. The organization of the public
and private sectors is recommended so that follow-up and monitoring
processes are carried out on surface water bodies and aquifers.
The biospheric system is one of the most transformed biogeographic
systems in the area, from the analysis of the historical landmarks of the
PWC, we can detect the great landscape transformations that these
G.A. Montoya-Rojas et al.
Table 1
Sustainability guidelines for the Port-Waterfront of Cartagena de Indias.
* Natural
Atmospheric Identify the sources of fixed and
mobile contamination of
Greenhouse Gases,
electromagnetic flows, noise,
and visual quality.
Identify the natural phenomena
associated with the climatic
conditions of the Caribbean Sea
and the meteorological
variations of Cartagena
throughout the year.
Geospheric Decrease the use of
agrochemicals, pesticides, and
organic waste.
Diagnose the type of soils that
the basin-city has.
Identify the natural phenomena
associated with geology, the
geomorphological dynamics of
the coast, the deltas, and the
marine sediments.
Hidrospheric Characterize the state of
groundwater and surface water.
Increase in ballast and bilge
water treatments.
Identify the natural phenomena
associated with the dynamics of
the bodies of continental,
underground, and marine
waters.
Improve the available
bathymetric information.
Biospheric Promote marine, coastal, and
oceanic research.
Reduce the generation of solid,
organic waste, among others.
Protect marine and coastal
ecosystems.
Zoning the potential areas of
ecosystem services of regulation,
provisioning, and culture.
Antropospheric Know the state of the
relationship of the population
with the port.
Identify the sense of
appropriation of the population
regarding the natural offer of the
city and its surroundings.
Analyze the state of the art of
sustainability of the City and
specify actions in the short,
medium, and long term.
*Sustainability dimensions proposed to generate action guidelines in plans, programs or projects in the PWC.
marine-coastal spaces have, under pressure from the different activities
that take place there. They also develop due to the low capacity to
implement integrated urban planning strategies. Additionally, there is a
deficit in knowledge management of marine-coastal ecosystems, which
play a fundamental role in connectivity between terrestrial and oceanic
Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055
Socio -Cultural Economic - Technical Governmental - Administrative Institutional - Organizational
Change in lifestyles, Promote the use of Articulation of environmental Institutional strengthening for
from the training of efficient energy in the policies associated with air the management and
human resources to port. quality. prevention of the risk of air
reduce emissions of Reconversion of the pollution.
greenhouse gases. public transport system Control and monitoring of
Generate awareness in to electric motors. existing regulations on
the consumption and greenhouse gas reduction
management of solid
waste.
Promote sustainable Investigate Promote the valuation of the Link the academy for land use
local productive systems bioengineering soil resource, not only as a planning.
that mitigate techniques for the resource for agricultural Promote spaces for inter-
desertification. expansion of sustainable production but also for institutional dialogue to
Promote the infrastructure on land biodiversity. generate solutions in land use
consumption of organic and at sea. Reduce land-use conflicts, conflicts.
products or with lower Incorporate respecting the offer of the Manage knowledge for the
concentrations of biotechnology for same. scientific classification of soil
agrochemicals. agricultural use and in the basin-city in waterfront
minimize impacts on areas.
groundwater.
Create culture on the Prioritize the human Articulate environmental Control, monitoring, and
adequate use and use of need for water as a vital policies associated with water surveillance of surface water
water resources resource. resources. bodies and aquifers.
efficiently. Limits of use and Tax incentives for the efficient Institutional strengthening for
Reuse of domestic exploitation of the use of water. the promotion of research,
waters. agricultural and mining Incentives to improve the innovation, and development
Water rationing in the and energy sector. quality of water discharge. associated with water
industry and the hotel Promote techniques that Include nautical scales in resources in coastal, marine,
sector in high season. avoid waste. territorial planning. and oceanic areas.
Educate about marine Research tidal energy. Regulate and articulate with Institutional strengthening for
and oceanic borders to international policies, the the implementation of
generate an integral degrees of shared regulations associated with
territorial responsibility of water in ports. water in international transit
appropriation. ports.
Decrease the culture of Harmonize between the To demonstrate the benefits of Structure knowledge networks
species trafficking. economy and the base of conservation, protection, and for the promotion of the
Educate about the the economy (the natural management of ecosystems adequate use of biodiversity
effects of invasive or resources that sustain it). and biodiversity for the and ecosystem services.
pathogenic species in Strengthen sustainable development of the Visualize the connection of the
marine-coastal interdisciplinary work for City, the Region, and the PWC in the global scope,
environments decision making. Country. within the country, and in the
Increase environmental Harmonize the instruments of region, to do integrated and
education to reduce the territorial planning of marine- holistic management.
negative impacts on coastal environments
different life forms and coherently.
their environment. Implement national and
international policies on
biodiversity and ecosystem
services.
Promote collaboration Invest in port Empower an own model of Raise awareness about the
and solidarity among infrastructure with mixed integral management of the cross-border biogeographical
citizens, allowing for and efficient energies. marine-coastal environment of position.
equity. Explore circular Cartagena. Encourage international
Take advantage of economies to increase Develop participatory and cooperation for the
resources somewhat and natural and human dynamic governance with key management of PWC and its
reduce conflicts over welfare. actors identified strategically. particular human-natural
land use. Incorporate risk Promote public policies that environments.
Value spaces for good management into natural are binding and coherent with Strengthen capacities for risk
living. disasters, to invest in the needs of the PWC. management in the face of
Orient healthy habits in structures that safeguard natural phenomena associated
the style of feeding (with lives. with marine-coastal
less agrochemicals and landscapes.
less animal protein
content)
ecosystems, so investing in research is the need of the hour.
Subsequently, with the analysis of the conceptual correlations be­
tween sustainable cities, smart cities, and the PWC, it is concluded that it
is necessary to incorporate biodiversity and ecosystem services into
urbanization decision making. The proposed sustainability guidelines
8
G.A. Montoya-Rojas et al.
are due to the promotion of research, the introduction of geographic
information systems to detect “hotspots or core areas” of protection and
conservation, in addition to the reduction of species traffic and envi­
ronmental education that increases the assessment of the natural envi­
ronment by its inhabitants and sectors, incorporating some principles of
the circular economy.
In addition, the conservation of biodiversity improves soil conditions
and their regulatory ecosystem services, making marine-coastal envi­
ronments more resilient to the intensification of natural phenomena.
From the governmental-administrative and institutional dimensions, it
will be necessary to unite efforts with all the key actors in the PWC,
taking into account the cross-border connection, local and regional
commitments of Cartagena. On the other hand, the international
agreements and policies associated with the protection of biodiversity
and ecosystem services are contributions that Colombia assumes as one
of the countries with the highest biodiversity in the world.
Based on the analysis of the explored retrospective of the PWC, the
conceptual correlations, and the Sankey diagram and the guidelines of
the sustainability matrix, it is concluded that the anthropospheric system
is one of the most dynamic and transforming of the five BS studied in
“Cartagena de Indias”. Of the aspects that greater intent is to manage
integrally in this marine-coastal space, is associated with the strength­
ening of the sense of ownership of the inhabitants, this aspect affects the
increase in conflicts of land use and the loss of ecosystem services of the
same. The accelerated growth of the infrastructure and the conurbation
phenomenon of the region requires incorporating knowledge associated
with the relationship that the population has, with the natural envi­
ronment and the historical dynamics of the port of the City, innovate in
the transport systems integrated with the port and the use of mixed and
efficient energies. Additionally, it is necessary to increase risk manage­
ment and the prevention of natural disasters, since the development of
hotel and housing infrastructure in the city, as well as the increase of its
population, have not consciously incorporated the strengthening of ca­
pacities to natural phenomena of these coastal-marine landscapes. The
economic-technical dimension assumes an important role, since the
tourism sector is one of the greatest contributions to the region, so the
key players in this sector must be involved in the implementation of the
plans, programs, and projects associated with the sustainable manage­
ment of the City. It is necessary to develop participative and dynamic
governance with all the entities involved, which implement binding
public policies coherent with the local needs of the PWC. Institutionally,
it is essential to promote research and articulate the scientific in­
stitutions that allow the State to empower the territory, with the
geographical knowledge of terrestrial, marine, and oceanic
environments.
If Cartagena is expected to be sustainable, then it is necessary to
investigate in interpreting the concepts adequately, with an integral
vision. The BS are interconnected, they are dynamic, they self-regulate,
they react to the transformations pressured by urban growth, therefore,
integral thinking is required at the moment of planning the city, based
on their natural wealth such as that found in the swamp of “La Virgen”
and other natural spaces, depending on its cultural history, its strategic
location for the region, Colombia and the world.
The benefits of the PWC of “Cartagena de Indias” merit rethinking
the territory for its sustainability, the territorial intelligence will begin
with the synergy of the key actors that converge in these marine-coastal
environments. Although this city cannot be classified within the global
smart cities, it is possible to start by working on the sustainable city
concept in a methodical way to 2030, actively incorporating into Sus­
tainable Development Goal 11: sustainable cities and communities, adding
importance to the interaction with objective 14: underwater life, since the
strategic location of coastal cities, offer an opportunity, to harmonize
and create management instruments in territories that connect terres­
trial, coastal, marine and ocean landscapes.
9
Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055
Funding
Ingeniería, Geociencia y Sostenibilidad (INGEOS SAS), Colombia;
The World Academic of sciences (TWAS), Italy; Council Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR-NGRI), India; Universidad de Ciencias Apli­
cadas y Ambientales (U.D.C.A), Colombia.
Acknowledgment
This manuscript is part of the research project: “Analyze the ecosys­
temic benefits of regulation coming from soils in the environmental history of
the city-basin relationship,” and it is presented as an input within the
framework of the postdoctoral fellowship. We are grateful to the Uni­
versidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales fo the city of “Cartagena
de Indias” and its surroundings providing time for research. We
sincerely acknowledge Jorge Tadeo Lozano University for academic
discussion spaces and The World Academic of Science (TWAS) and the
Council Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) for their support to Dr.
Grace Andrea Montoya-Rojas via CSIR-TWAS.
References
Agraz, C., Noriega, R., L� opez, J., Fl�
orez, F., Jim�enez, J., 2006. Identificaci�on de los
Manglares en M� exico. Universidad Aut� onoma de Campeche, M�exico.
Akhavan, M., 2017. Development dynamics of port-cities interface in the Arab Middle
Eastern world - the case of Dubai global hub port-city. Cities 60, 343–352. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2016.10.009.
Albino, V., Berardi, U., Dangelico, R.M., 2015. Smart Cities: definitions, dimensions,
performance, and initiatives. J. Urban Technol. 22 (1), 3–21. https://doi.org/
10.1080/10630732.2014.942092.
Bax, N., Williamson, A., Aguero, M., Gonz� alez, E., Geeves, W., 2003. Marine invasive
alien species: a threat to global biodiversity. Mar. Policy 27, 313–323. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0308-597X(03)00041-1.
Beltr�
an, A., Suarez, L., 2010. Diagn� ostico ambiental de los cuerpos internos de agua de la
ciudad de Cartagena de Indias. In: Eumed (Ed.), Fundaci� on Universitaria
Tecnol� ogico Comfenalco. Colombia.
Beltr�
an, P., 2003. Bocana Estabilizada de Marea como Proceso Aer� obico de
Autodepuraci� on de la Ci�enaga de la Virgen. Seminario Internacional sobre M�etodos
Naturales para el Tratamiento de Aguas Residuales. Universidad del Valle/Instituto
Cinara, pp. 59–64.
Bertalanffy, L., 2006. Teoría General de los sistemas: fundamentos, desarrollo,
aplicaciones, segunda edici� on. Fondo de Cultura Econ� omica, M�exico.
Bosca, R., 2013. Ciudades verdes europeas. Proyecto Final. M� aster en Edificaci�
on
Especialidad tecnología de la edificaci� on. Universidad Polit�ecnica de Valencia,
Espa~ na.
Bustamante, L., Ayll� on, S., Escan�es, G., 2018. Abordando la trayectoria universitaria
desde el pensamiento complejo. Praxis Educativa 22 (3), 64–70. https://doi.org/
10.19137/praxiseducativa-2018-220307.
Chin, A., Florsheim, J., Wohl, E., Collins, B., 2014. Feedbacks in human-landscape
systems. J. Environ. Manag. 53 (1), 28–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-013-
0031-y.
Colado, S., 2014. Smart city: hacia la gesti� on inteligente. Alfaomega, M�exico.
https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/pi2158.doc.htm. Consulted in june 2019.
Collazos, W., 2008. Din� amicas emergentes de la realidad: del Pensamiento Complejo al
Pensamiento Sist� emico Autopoi� etico. Revista Latinoamericana de Bio� etica 8 (2),
72–87. https://doi.org/10.18359/rlbi.1108.
Costa, D., Ferreira, J., 2017. Diagn� ostico de desafios ambientais por meio de pensamento
sist^emico na escola estadual beira rio, município de porto nacional – to. Revista de
Gest~ ao Ambiental e Sustentabilidade – GeAS, 6, pp. 106–117. https://doi.org/
10.5585/geas.v6i3.594, 3.
Dixon, J.A., Fallon, L.A., 1991. El concepto de sustentabilidad: sus orígenes, alcance y
utilidad en la formulaci� on de políticas Desarrollo y medio ambiente. CIEPLAN, Chile.
Ferreira, A., Guilherme, R., Ferreira, C., Oliveira, M., 2018. Urban agriculture, a tool
towards more resilient urban communities? Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health. 5,
93–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.06.004.
Folke, C., 2006. Resilience: the emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems
analyses. Glob. Environ. Chang. 16, 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gloenvcha.2006.04.002.
Fossey, J., 1997. Relay gold. Revista Containerisation International 30 (6), 1–17.
García-Onetti, J., 2017. Servicios ecosist�emicos y gobernanza de sistemas portuarios.
Tesis doctoral in� edita. Directors: Barrag� an Mu~ noz, J. M.; Scherer, M. E. Universidad
de C� adiz, Espa~na y Universidad Federal de Santa Catarina, Brasil. https://www.dr
opbox.com/sh/rvixi15eifhzrp8/AAAXZjrnJM0VoBA6BX-sP70ga?dl¼0&preview¼%
24Versi%C3%B3nþreducidaþTESISþPUERTOSþ-þJGOnetti.pdf.
García-Onetti, J., Scherer, Marinez E.G., Barrag� an, J., 2018. Integrated and ecosystemic
approaches for bridging the gap between environmental management and port
management. J. Environ. Manag. 206, 615–624, 2018. https://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S0301479717310800?via%3Dihub.
G.A. Montoya-Rojas et al.
Gabrys, J., 2014. Programming environments: environmentally and citizen sensing in the
smart city. Environ. Plan. Soc. Space 32, 30–48. https://doi.org/10.1068/d16812.
Gerhard, W.A., Gunsch, C.K., 2018. Analyzing trends in ballasting behavior of vessels
arriving to the United States from 2004 to 2017. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 135, 525–533.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.07.001.
Girard, L., 2013. Toward a smart sustainable development of port cities/areas: the role of
the “historic urban landscape” approach. Sustainability 5, 4329–4348. https://doi.
org/10.3390/su5104329.
Gonz� alez, E., Rold�an, J., 2003. La aproximaci� on causal y usual frente al problema
interpretativo de la teoría cu� antica. Rev. Colomb. Filos. Cienc. 4 (8–9), 155–174.
http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id¼41400905.
Gonz� alez, M., 2002. La ciudad sostenible. Planificaci�on y teoría de sistemas. Boletín de la
A.G.E. 33, 93–102.
Herrera, R., 2007. Sistema y lo sist�emico en el pensamiento contempor� aneo. Ingenieria
17 (2), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.15517/ring.v17i2.7745.
Hollands, R.G., 2008. Will the real Smart city please stand up? City 12, 303–320. https://
doi.org/10.1080/13604810802479126.
IDEAM, 2013. Zonificaci� on y Codificaci�on de Unidades Hidrogr� aficas e Hidrogeol�ogicas
de Colombia. Publicaci� on aprobada por el Comit�e de Comunicaciones y
Publicaciones del Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales,
Bogot� a, D. C., Colombia.
Illescas, W., Landin, S., Fierro, W., 2018. Las Ciudades Inteligentes. Universidad T�ecnica
de Machala, Ecuador.
Lew, B., Costanza, R., Ostrom, E., Wilson, J., Simon, C.P., 1999. Human ecosystem
interactions: a dynamic integrated model. Ecol. Econ. 31, 227–242. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00081-6.
Liu, J., Carpenter, S.R., Dietz, T., Folke, C., Alberti, M., Redman, C.L., Schneider, S.H.,
Ostrom, E., Pell, A.N., Lubchenco, J., Taylor, W.W., Ouyang, Z., Deadman, P.,
Kratz, T., Provencher, W., 2007b. Coupled human and natural systems. Ambio 36,
639–649. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25547831.
Liu, J., Dietz, T., Carpenter, S.R., Alberti, M., Folke, C., Moran, E., Pell, A.N.,
Deadman, P., Kratz, T., Lubchenco, J., Ostrom, E., Ouyang, Z., Provencher, W.,
Redman, C.L., Schneider, S.H., Taylor, W.W., 2007a. Complexity of coupled human
and natural systems. Science 317, 1513–1516. https://doi.org/10.1126/
science.1144004.
Liugailaite-Radzvickiene, L., Jucevicius, R., 2014. Going to be an intelligent city.
Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci. 156, 116–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sbspro.2014.11.131.
Maldonado, W., Baldiris, I., Díaz, J., 2011. Evaluaci� on de la calidad del agua en la
Ci�enaga de la Virgen (Cartagena-Colombia) durante 2006-2010. Guillermo de
Okham 9 (2), 79–87. https://doi.org/10.21500/22563202.582.
Martín, C.J., Evans, J., Karvonenc, A., 2018. Smart and sustainable? Five tensions in the
visions and practices of the smart-sustainable city in Europe and North America.
Technol. Forecast. Soc. 133, 269–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
techfore.2018.01.005.
Martner, C., 1999. El puerto y la vinculaci� on entre lo local y lo global. Eure 25 (75),
1–27. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0250-71611999007500005.
Mazzoni, E., 2014. Unidades de paisaje como base para la organizaci� on y gesti�on
territorial. Rev. Geogr. 16 (2), 51–81. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
317535629.
Miguel-Velasco, A., Martínez, K., P�erez, M., Moncada, M., 2017. Las redes de la vivienda
y el desarrollo sustentable en la centralidad de las ciudades de Oaxaca, M� exico,
2000-2015. Estud. Demogr� aficos Urbanos 32 (3), 515–546. https://doi.org/
10.24201/edu.v32i3.1729.
Moeller, A., Rolf, A., 1995. Methodische Ansaetze zur Erstellung von Stoffstromanalysen
[Methodological approaches to preparing material flow analyses]. In: Schmidt, M.,
Schorb, A. (Eds.), Stoffstromanalysen in Oekobilanzen und Oeko-Audits [Material
flow analysis in life cycle assessments and eco-audits]. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Monios, J., Bergqvist, R., Woxeniusb, J., 2018. Port-centric cities: the role of freight
distribution in defining the port-city relationship. J. Transp. Geogr. 66, 53–64.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.11.012.
Montoya-Rojas, G.A., 2018. Lineamientos epistemol� ogicos para la aplicaci� on de la
geografía del suelo. Sociedad Geogr� afica de Colombia. Serie: Exposiciones
Geogr� aficas. Publicaci�on aperi�odica N 14. Primera Edici�
�
on, Bogot�a. Colombia,
p. 107p.
Montoya-Rojas, G., 2011. Zonificaci� on Ambiental en Cuencas Hidrogr� aficas. Editorial
Acad� emica Espa~ nola, LAP Lambert Academic Publishing GmbH, Alemania, p. 305p.
Montoya-Rojas, G., Barragan, C., Aranguren, M., Martínez, N., Rodríguez, R.,
Villamil, R., 2014. Discussion on the implications upon the environment of some
technologies from the second green revolution. J. Tecciencia. 9 (17) https://doi.org/
10.18180/tecciencia.2014.16.2, 49-44.
Moor, R., 2002. A controlled stable tidal inlet at Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. Terra
Aqua (Engl. Ed.) 88, 3–14.
Morín, E., 1998. Introducci� on Al Pensamiento Complejo. Editorial Gedisa, Espa~ na.
10
Ocean and Coastal Management 185 (2020) 105055
Morris, A., 2008. Historia de la forma urbana. Desde sus orígenes hasta la revoluci� on
Industrial. Gustavo Gill, S.A., Espa~na.
Pereira-Ribeiroa, J.M., Bocasanta, S.L., Oliveira-Avila,
� B., Magtoto, M., Valquiria-
Jonck, M., Matthew, G., Gabriel, G., Baltazar, J., 2018. The adoption of strategies for
sustainable cities: a comparative study between Seattle and Florianopolis legislation
for energy and water efficiency in buildings. J. Clean. Prod. 197 (1), 366–378.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.176.
Piketty, T., 2015. About capital in the twenty-first century. Am. Econ. Rev. 105 (5),
48–53. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20151060.
Pinz�on-Botero, M., 2015. La “pr� actica aplicaci�on” de la sostenibilidad ambiental en el
ordenamiento territorial urbano. Propuesta conceptual y metodol� ogica para
ciudades medias-intermedias de Colombia. Tesis doctoral en sostenibilidad.
Universidad Polit�ecnica de Catalunya.
PND-Plan Nacional de Desarrollo, 2016. Plan de Desarrollo Distrital 2016 – 2019:
Primero La Gente Para Una Cartagena Sostenible Y Competitiva. Alcaldía Mayor de
Cartagena de Indias, D.C. y T, pp. 3–307.
Rodríguez, J., Da Silva, V., Cezar, A., 2012. Paisaje y geosistema: apuntes para una
discusi�on te�
orica. GEONORTE 4 (4), 239–251.
Rosales, F., 2018. Evoluci� on del Puerto de Algeciras hacia el concepto de Smart Port.
Instituto Marítimo Espa~ nol. Espa~
na.
Sachs, I., 1994. Entrevista en Science. Nature, Societ�e 2, 3.
Sankey, H.R., 1898. Introductory note on the thermal efficiency of steam-engines. Report
of the committee appointed on the 31st March, 1896, to consider and report to the
council upon the subject of the definition of a standard or standards of thermal
efficiency for steam-engines: with an introductory note. Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng.
134, 278–283 incl. Plate 5. Also published in: The Engineer 86, Sept. 2, 1898:
236–237.
S�
anchez, A., 2016. Sistema de ciudades y redes urbanas en los modelos econ� omicos de
M�exico, Problemas del Desarrollo. Rev. Latinoam. Economia. (47), 7–34. https://doi.
org/10.22201/iiec.20078951e.2016.184.53766.
Schmidt, M., 2008. The Sankey diagram in energy and material flow management. J. Ind.
Econ. 12 (2), 173–185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2008.00004.x.
Sikora-Fern� andez, D., 2017. Factores de desarrollo de las ciudades inteligentes. Revista
Universitaria de Geografía 26 (1), 135–152. http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?
id¼383252125007.
Solow, R., 1991. Sustainability: an economist’s perspective. In: Dorfman, R., Dorfman, N.
(Eds.), Economics of the Enviroment, pp. 179–187. Nueva York.
Tichavska, M., Tovar, B., 2015. Port-city exhaust emission model: an application to
cruise and ferry operations in Palmas port. Transp. Res. A Policy Pract. 78, 347–360.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.05.021.
Tirado, O., Manjarrez, G., Díaz, C., 2011. Caracterizaci� on ambiental de la Ci�enaga de la
Quinta localizada en Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. 2009-2010. Actualizado y
divulgaci�on científica. UDCA, Colombia.
Torregroza, E., Llamas, J., Borja, F., 2014. Diferencias entre actores sociales en el
conocimiento y la percepci� on de la vegetaci� on de la cuenca de la Ci�enaga de la
Virgen (Cartagena de Indias, Colombia). Ecol. Apl. 13 (2), 97–108. https://doi.org/
10.21704/rea.v13i1-2.460.
UNDP- Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo, 2019. Objetivos de
desarrollo sostenible. Recuperado el 10 de abril, 2019, de: https://www.undp.org/
content/undp/es/home/sustainable-development-goals.html.
UNESCO-United National, Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2018. World
Heritage List: Port, Fortresses and Group of Monuments, Cartagena. Retrieved April
4, 2019, from. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/285/documents/.
Vega, l., 2005. Hacia la sostenibilidad ambiental del desarrollo: Construcci� on de
pensamiento ambiental pr� actico a trav�es de una política y gesti�
on ambiental
sist�emica. In: Ecoe. Colombia. Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
Veselitskaya, N., Karasev, O., Beloshitskiy, A., 2019. Drivers and barriers for smart cities
development. Theor. Empir. Res. Urban Manag. 14 (1), 85-10. https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/330713461.
Viitanen, J., Kingston, R., 2014. Smart cities and green growth: outsourcing democratic
and environmental resilience to the global technology sector. Environ. Plan. 46,
803–819. https://doi.org/10.1068/a46242.
Walker, B., Holling, C.S., Carpenter, S.R., Kinzig, A., 2004. Resilience, adaptability and
transformability in social–ecological systems. Ecol. Soc. 9 (2), 5. https://doi.org/
10.5751/ES-00650-090205.
Wallerstein, I., 1996. Despu�es del Liberalismo. Editorial Siglo XXI, M�exico.
Wiig, A., 2016. The empty rhetoric of the smart city: from digital inclusion to economic
promotion in Philadelphia. Urban Georg 37, 535–553. https://doi.org/10.1080/
02723638.2015.1065686.
Y�
an~ ez-Arancibia, A., Twilley, R., Lara-Domínguez, L., 1998. Los ecosistemas de manglar
frente al cambio clim� atico global Madera y Bosques, vol. 4. Instituto de Ecología,
pp. 3–19. https://doi.org/10.21829/myb.1998.421356, 2.
Yigitcanlar, T., Kamruzzaman, M., 2018. Does smart city policy lead to sustainability of
cities? Land Use Policy 73, 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
landusepol.2018.01.034.