this is ape volume 3

Bonobo
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"Bonobos" redirects here. For other uses, see Bonobo (disambiguation) and Bonobos
(disambiguation).
Bonobo[1]
Temporal range: Early Pleistocene – Holocene
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Apeldoorn Apenheul zoo Bonobo.jpg
Male at Apenheul Primate Park
Conservation status

Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[2]

Scientific classificationedit
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Genus: Pan
Species: P. paniscus
Binomial name
Pan paniscus
Schwarz, 1929
Bonobo distribution.svg
Bonobo distribution
The bonobo (/bəˈnoʊboʊ, ˈbɒnəboʊ/; Pan paniscus), also historically called the
pygmy chimpanzee and less often, the dwarf or gracile chimpanzee,[3] is an
endangered great ape and one of the two species making up the genus Pan; the other
being the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes).[4] Although bonobos are not a
subspecies of chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), but rather a distinct species in their
own right, both species are sometimes referred to collectively using the
generalized term chimpanzees, or chimps. Taxonomically, the members of the
chimpanzee/bonobo subtribe Panina (comprised entirely by the genus Pan) are
collectively termed panins.[5][6]

The bonobo is distinguished by relatively long legs, pink lips, dark face, tail-
tuft through adulthood, and parted long hair on its head. The bonobo is found in a
500,000 km2 (190,000 sq mi) area of the Congo Basin in the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Central Africa. The species is omnivorous and inhabits primary and
secondary forests, including seasonally inundated swamp forests. Because of
political instability in the region and the timidity of bonobos, there has been
relatively little field work done observing the species in its natural habitat.

Along with the common chimpanzee, the bonobo is the closest extant relative to
humans.[4] As the two species are not proficient swimmers, the formation of the
Congo River 1.5–2 million years ago possibly led to the speciation of the bonobo.
Bonobos live south of the river, and thereby were separated from the ancestors of
the common chimpanzee, which live north of the river. There are no concrete data on
population numbers, but the estimate is between 29,500 and 50,000 individuals. The
species is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is threatened by habitat
destruction and human population growth and movement, though commercial poaching is
the most prominent threat. Bonobos typically live 40 years in captivity; their
lifespan in the wild is unknown, but it is almost certainly much shorter.[7]

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Taxonomy
3 Description
4 Behavior
4.1 General
4.2 Social behavior
4.2.1 Sociosexual behaviour
4.2.2 Peacefulness
4.3 Diet
4.4 Similarity to humans
5 Distribution and habitat
6 Conservation status
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
10.1 Books
10.2 Articles
10.3 Journal articles
11 External links
Etymology
Despite the species' common name "pygmy chimpanzee", the bonobo is not especially
diminutive when compared to the common chimpanzee, with exception of its head. The
appellative "pygmy" is attributable to the species' namer, Ernst Schwarz, who
classified the species on the basis of a previously mislabeled bonobo cranium,
noting its diminutive size compared to chimpanzee skulls.[8]

The name "bonobo" first appeared in 1954, when Austrian zoologist Eduard Paul Tratz
and German biologist Heinz Heck proposed it as a new and separate generic term for
pygmy chimpanzees. The name is thought to derive from a misspelling on a shipping
crate from the town of Bolobo on the Congo River near the location from which the
first bonobo specimens were collected in the 1920s.[9][10]

Taxonomy
The bonobo was first recognised as a distinct taxon in 1928 by German anatomist
Ernst Schwarz, based on a skull in the Tervuren Museum in Belgium which had
previously been classified as a juvenile chimp (Pan troglodytes). Schwarz published
his findings in 1929, classifying the bonobo as a subspecies of chimp.[11][12] In
1933, American anatomist Harold Coolidge elevated it to species status.[12][13]
Major behavioural differences between bonobos and chimps were first discussed in
detail by Tratz and Heck in the early 1950s.[14] American psychologist and
primatologist Robert Yerkes was also one of the first to notice major behavioural
differences.[15]

The first official publication of the sequencing and assembly of the bonobo genome
was published in June 2012. The genome of a female bonobo from the Leipzig zoo was
deposited with the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration
(DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank) under the EMBL accession number AJFE01000000[16] after a
previous analysis by the National Human Genome Research Institute confirmed that
the bonobo genome is about 0.4% divergent from the chimpanzee genome.[17]

Bonobos and chimps are the two species which make up the genus Pan, and are the
closest living relatives to humans (Homo sapiens).[18][19]

The exact timing of the Pan–Homo last common ancestor is contentious, but DNA
comparison suggests continual interbreeding between ancestral Pan and Homo groups,
post-divergence, until about 4 million years ago.[20] DNA evidence suggests the
bonobo and common chimpanzee species diverged approximately 890,000–860,000 years
ago due to separation of these two populations possibly due to acidification and
the spread of savannas at this time. Currently, these two species are separated by
the Congo River, which had existed well before the divergence date, though
ancestral Pan may have dispersed across the river using corridors which no longer
exist.[21] The first Pan fossils were reported in 2005 from the Middle Pleistocene
(after the bonobo–chimp split) of Kenya, alongside early Homo fossils.[22]

According to A. Zihlman, bonobo body proportions closely resemble those of

Australopithecus,[23] leading evolutionary biologist Jeremy Griffith to suggest
that bonobos may be a living example of our distant human ancestors.[24] According
to Australian anthropologists Gary Clark and Maciej Henneberg, human ancestors went
through a bonobo-like phase featuring reduced aggression and associated anatomical
changes, exemplified in Ardipithecus ramidus.[25]

Description
Genomic information
NCBI genome ID 10729
Ploidy diploid
Genome size 2,869.21 Mb
Number of chromosomes 24 pairs
Year of completion 2012
The bonobo is commonly considered to be more gracile than the common chimpanzee.
Although large male chimpanzees can exceed any bonobo in bulk and weight, the two
species actually broadly overlap in body size. Adult female bonobos are somewhat
smaller than adult males. Body mass in males ranges from 34 to 60 kg (75 to 132
lb), against an average of 30 kg (66 lb) in females. The total length of bonobos
(from the nose to the rump while on all fours) is 70 to 83 cm (28 to 33 in).[26]
[27][28][29] When adult bonobos and chimpanzees stand up on their legs, they can
both attain a height of 115 cm (45 in).[30] The bonobo's head is relatively smaller
than that of the common chimpanzee with less prominent brow ridges above the eyes.
It has a black face with pink lips, small ears, wide nostrils, and long hair on its
head that forms a parting. Females have slightly more prominent breasts, in
contrast to the flat breasts of other female apes, although not so prominent as
those of humans. The bonobo also has a slim upper body, narrow shoulders, thin
neck, and long legs when compared to the common chimpanzee.

Bonobos Kanzi (C) and Panbanisha (R) with Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and the outdoor
symbols "keyboard"
Bonobos are both terrestrial and arboreal. Most ground locomotion is characterized
by quadrupedal knuckle walking. Bipedal walking has been recorded as less than 1%
of terrestrial locomotion in the wild, a figure that decreased with habituation,
[31] while in captivity there is a wide variation. Bipedal walking in captivity, as
a percentage of bipedal plus quadrupedal locomotion bouts, has been observed from
3.9% for spontaneous bouts to nearly 19% when abundant food is provided.[32] These
physical characteristics and its posture give the bonobo an appearance more closely
resembling that of humans than the common chimpanzee does. The bonobo also has
highly individuated facial features,[33] as humans do, so that one individual may
look significantly different from another, a characteristic adapted for visual
facial recognition in social interaction.

Multivariate analysis has shown bonobos are more neotenized than the common
chimpanzee, taking into account such features as the proportionately long torso
length of the bonobo.[34] Other researchers challenged this conclusion.[35]

Behavior
General
Primatologist Frans de Waal states bonobos are capable of altruism, compassion,
empathy, kindness, patience, and sensitivity,[3] and described "bonobo society" as
a "gynecocracy".[36][a] Primatologists who have studied bonobos in the wild have
documented a wide range of behaviors, including aggressive behavior and more cyclic
sexual behavior similar to chimpanzees, even though bonobos show more sexual
behavior in a greater variety of relationships. An analysis of female bonding among
wild bonobos by Takeshi Furuichi stresses female sexuality and shows how female
bonobos spend much more time in estrus than female chimpanzees.[37]

Some primatologists have argued that de Waal's data reflect only the behavior of
captive bonobos, suggesting that wild bonobos show levels of aggression closer to
what is found among chimpanzees. De Waal has responded that the contrast in
temperament between bonobos and chimpanzees observed in captivity is meaningful,
because it controls for the influence of environment. The two species behave quite
differently even if kept under identical conditions.[38] A 2014 study also found
bonobos to be less aggressive than chimpanzees, particularly eastern chimpanzees.
The authors argued that the relative peacefulness of western chimpanzees and
bonobos was primarily due to ecological factors.[39] Bonobos warn each other of
danger less efficiently than chimpanzees in the same situation.[40]

Social behavior

Bonobos are very social.

Bonobo searching for termites

Bonobos are unique among nonhuman apes for their distinct social organisation
which, like many lemur species, is largely matriarchal. At the top of the hierarchy
is a coalition of high-ranking females who dominate the majority of males, and make
the core of the group. While there is a clearly defined alpha male who leads the
group, protects it from threats, and decides where they travel to and where they
feed, he needs the loyalty of the resident females to retain this position, and
these alphas typically have a mutual, co-dominant relationship with the highest-
ranking females. Only the alpha male can eat with the high-ranking females while
the other males wait at the periphery of the group. Females often have the final
say on where the group travels.[41] Aggressive encounters between males and females
are rare, and males are tolerant of infants and juveniles. A male derives his
status from the status of his mother.[42] The mother–son bond often stays strong
and continues throughout life. While social hierarchies do exist, and although the
son of a high ranking female may outrank a lower female, rank plays a less
prominent role than in other primate societies.[43]

A mother bonobo will also support her sons in conflicts with other males and help
them secure better ties with other females, enhancing her chance of gaining
grandchildren from him.[44]

Due to the promiscuous mating behavior of female bonobos, a male cannot be sure
which offspring are his. As a result, the entirety of parental care in bonobos is
assumed by the mothers.[45] However, bonobos are not as promiscuous as chimpanzees
and slightly polygamous tendencies occur, with high-ranking males enjoying greater
reproductive success than low-ranking males. Unlike chimpanzees, where any male can
coerce a female into mating with him, female bonobos enjoy greater sexual
preferences, an advantage of female-female bonding, and actively seek out higher-
ranking males. [46]

Bonobo party size tends to vary because the groups exhibit a fission–fusion
pattern. A community of approximately 100 will split into small groups during the
day while looking for food, and then will come back together to sleep. They sleep
in nests that they construct in trees.

In captive settings, females exhibit extreme food-based aggression towards males,

and forge coalitions against them to monopolize specific food items, often going as
far as to mutilate any males who fail to heed their warning.[47]

In wild settings, however, female bonobos are not above begging males for food if
they had gotten it first, suggesting sex-based hierarchy roles are less rigid than
in captive colonies.[48]

Female bonobos are known to lead hunts on duikers and successfully defend their
bounty from marauding males in the wild. They are more tolerant of younger males
pestering them yet exhibit heightened aggression towards older males.[49]

Sociosexual behaviour
See also: Animal sexual behaviour § Genital-genital rubbing, and Homosexual
behavior in animals § Bonobo

Bonobos mating, Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens.

Sexual activity generally plays a major role in bonobo society, being used as what
some scientists perceive as a greeting, a means of forming social bonds, a means of
conflict resolution, and postconflict reconciliation.[50][4] Bonobos are the only
non-human animal to have been observed engaging in tongue kissing.[51] Bonobos and
humans are the only primates to typically engage in face-to-face genital sex,
although a pair of western gorillas has been photographed in this position.[52]

Bonobos do not form permanent monogamous sexual relationships with individual

partners. They also do not seem to discriminate in their sexual behavior by sex or
age, with the possible exception of abstaining from sexual activity between mothers
and their adult sons. When bonobos come upon a new food source or feeding ground,
the increased excitement will usually lead to communal sexual activity, presumably
decreasing tension and encouraging peaceful feeding.[53]

More often than the males, female bonobos engage in mutual genital-rubbing
behavior, possibly to bond socially with each other, thus forming a female nucleus
of bonobo society. The bonding among females enables them to dominate most of the
males.[53] Adolescent females often leave their native community to join another
community. This migration mixes the bonobo gene pools, providing genetic diversity.
Sexual bonding with other females establishes these new females as members of the
group.

Bonobo clitorises are larger and more externalized than in most mammals;[54] while
the weight of a young adolescent female bonobo "is maybe half" that of a human
teenager, she has a clitoris that is "three times bigger than the human equivalent,
and visible enough to waggle unmistakably as she walks".[55] In scientific
literature, the female–female behavior of bonobos pressing genitals together is
often referred to as genito-genital (GG) rubbing,[53][56] which is the non-human
analogue of tribadism, engaged in by some human females. This sexual activity
happens within the immediate female bonobo community and sometimes outside of it.
Ethologist Jonathan Balcombe stated that female bonobos rub their clitorises
together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds, and this behavior, "which may be
repeated in rapid succession, is usually accompanied by grinding, shrieking, and
clitoral engorgement"; he added that it is estimated that they engage in this
practice "about once every two hours" on average.[54] As bonobos occasionally
copulate face-to-face, "evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk has suggested that the
position of the clitoris in bonobos and some other primates has evolved to maximize
stimulation during sexual intercourse".[54] The position of the clitoris may
alternatively permit GG-rubbings, which has been hypothesized to function as a
means for female bonobos to evaluate their intrasocial relationships.[57]

Group of bonobos
Bonobo males engage in various forms of male–male genital behavior.[53][58] The
most common form of male–male mounting is similar to that of a heterosexual
mounting: one of the males sits "passively on his back [with] the other male
thrusting on him", with the penises rubbing together due to both males' erections.
[3] In another, rarer form of genital rubbing, which is the non-human analogue of
frotting, engaged in by some human males, two bonobo males hang from a tree limb
face-to-face while penis fencing.[53][59] This also may occur when two males rub
their penises together while in face-to-face position. Another form of genital
interaction (rump rubbing) often occurs to express reconciliation between two males
after a conflict, when they stand back-to-back and rub their scrotal sacs together,
but such behavior also occurs outside agonistic contexts: Kitamura (1989) observed
rump–rump contacts between adult males following sexual solicitation behaviors
similar to those between female bonobos prior to GG-rubbing.[60] Takayoshi Kano
observed similar practices among bonobos in the natural habitat. Tongue kissing,
oral sex, and genital massaging have also been recorded among male bonobos.[61][3]

Bonobo reproductive rates are no higher than those of the common chimpanzee.[53]
However, female bonobo oestrus periods are longer.[62] During oestrus, females
undergo a swelling of the perineal tissue lasting 10 to 20 days. The gestation
period is on average 240 days. Postpartum amenorrhea (absence of menstruation)
lasts less than one year and a female may resume external signs of oestrus within a
year of giving birth, though the female is probably not fertile at this point.
Female bonobos carry and nurse their young for four years and give birth on average
every 4.6 years.[63] Compared to common chimpanzees, bonobo females resume the
genital swelling cycle much sooner after giving birth, enabling them to rejoin the
sexual activities of their society. Also, bonobo females which are sterile or too
young to reproduce still engage in sexual activity. Mothers will help their sons
get more matings from females in oestrus.[43] Adult male bonobos have sex with
infants,[64] although without penetration.[65]

An interesting aspect of the longer periods of estrus and sexual receptivity in

bonobos is that it may have been selected for to prevent infanticide. Infanticide,
while well documented in chimpanzees, is apparently absent in bonobo society.[66]
The highly sexual nature of bonobo society and the fact that there is little
competition over mates means that many males and females are mating with each
other, in contrast to the one dominant male chimpanzee that fathers most of the
offspring in a group.[67] The strategy of bonobo females mating with many males may
be a counterstrategy to infanticide because it confuses paternity. If male bonobos
cannot distinguish their own offspring from others, the incentive for infanticide
essentially disappears.[68] This is a reproductive strategy that seems specific to
bonobos; infanticide is observed in all other great apes except orangutans.[69]

It is unknown how the bonobo avoids simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and its
effects.[70]

Peacefulness

Bonobo (Pan paniscus) mother and infant at Lola ya Bonobo

Observations in the wild indicate that the males among the related common
chimpanzee communities are hostile to males from outside the community. Parties of
males 'patrol' for the neighboring males that might be traveling alone, and attack
those single males, often killing them.[71] This does not appear to be the behavior
of bonobo males or females, which seem to prefer sexual contact over violent
confrontation with outsiders.[4]
While bonobos are more peaceful than chimpanzees, it is not true that they are
unaggressive.[72] In the wild, among males, bonobos are half as aggressive as
chimpanzees, while female bonobos are more aggressive than female chimpanzees.[72]
Both bonobos and chimpanzees exhibit physical aggression more than 100 times as
often as humans do.[72]

The ranges of bonobos and chimpanzees are separated by the Congo River, with
bonobos living to the south of it, and chimpanzees to the north.[73][74] It has
been hypothesized that bonobos are able to live a more peaceful lifestyle in part
because of an abundance of nutritious vegetation in their natural habitat, allowing
them to travel and forage in large parties.[75]

Recent studies show that there are significant brain differences between bonobos
and chimps. Bonobos have more grey matter volume in the right anterior insult,
right dorsal amygdala, hypothalamus, and right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, all
of which are regions assumed to be vital for feeling empathy, sensing distress in
others and feeling anxiety.[76] They also have a thick connection between the
amygdala, an important area that can spark aggression, and the ventral anterior
cingulate cortex, which has been shown to help control impulses in humans.[77][78]
This thicker connection may make them better at regulating their emotional impulses
and behavior.[79]

Bonobo society is dominated by females, and severing the lifelong alliance between
mothers and their male offspring may make them vulnerable to female aggression.[4]
De Waal has warned of the danger of romanticizing bonobos: "All animals are
competitive by nature and cooperative only under specific circumstances" and that
"when first writing about their behaviour, I spoke of 'sex for peace' precisely
because bonobos had plenty of conflicts. There would obviously be no need for
peacemaking if they lived in perfect harmony."[80]

Surbeck and Hohmann showed in 2008 that bonobos sometimes do hunt monkey species.
Five incidents were observed in a group of bonobos in Salonga National Park, which
seemed to reflect deliberate cooperative hunting. On three occasions, the hunt was
successful, and infant monkeys were captured and eaten.[81]

Diet
The bonobo is an omnivorous frugivore; 57% of its diet is fruit, but this is
supplemented with leaves, honey, eggs,[82] meat from small vertebrates such as
anomalures, flying squirrels and duikers,[83] and invertebrates.[84] In some
instances, bonobos have been shown to consume lower-order primates.[81] Some claim
bonobos have also been known to practise cannibalism in captivity, a claim disputed
by others.[85][86] However, at least one confirmed report of cannibalism in the
wild of a dead infant was described in 2008.[87][88]

Similarity to humans
Bonobos are capable of passing the mirror-recognition test for self-awareness,[89]
as are all great apes. They communicate primarily through vocal means, although the
meanings of their vocalizations are not currently known. However, most humans do
understand their facial expressions[90] and some of their natural hand gestures,
such as their invitation to play. The communication system of wild bonobos includes
a characteristic that was earlier only known in humans: bonobos use the same call
to mean different things in different situations, and the other bonobos have to
take the context into account when determining the meaning.[91] Two bonobos at the
Great Ape Trust, Kanzi and Panbanisha, have been taught how to communicate using a
keyboard labeled with lexigrams (geometric symbols) and they can respond to spoken
sentences. Kanzi's vocabulary consists of more than 500 English words,[92] and he
has comprehension of around 3,000 spoken English words.[93] Kanzi is also known for
learning by observing people trying to teach his mother; Kanzi started doing the
tasks that his mother was taught just by watching, some of which his mother had
failed to learn. Some, such as philosopher and bioethicist Peter Singer, argue that
these results qualify them for "rights to survival and life"—rights which humans
theoretically accord to all persons (See great ape personhood). In the 1990s, Kanzi
was taught to make and use simple stone tools. This resulted from a study
undertaken by researchers Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, and later Gary Garufi.
The researchers wanted to know if Kanzi possessed the cognitive and biomechanical
abilities required to make and use stone tools. Though Kanzi was able to form
flakes, he did not create them in same way as humans, who hold the core in one hand
and knap it with the other, Kanzi threw the cobble against a hard surface or
against another cobble. This allowed him to produce a larger force to initiate a
fracture as opposed to knapping it in his hands.[94]

As in other great apes and humans, third party affiliation toward the victim—the
affinitive contact made toward the recipient of an aggression by a group member
other than the aggressor—is present in bonobos.[95] A 2013 study[96] found that
both the affiliation spontaneously offered by a bystander to the victim and the
affiliation requested by the victim (solicited affiliation) can reduce the
probability of further aggression by group members on the victim (this fact
supporting the Victim-Protection Hypothesis). Yet, only spontaneous affiliation
reduced victim anxiety—measured via self-scratching rates—thus suggesting not only
that non-solicited affiliation has a consolatory function but also that the
spontaneous gesture—more than the protection itself—works in calming the distressed
subject. The authors hypothesize that the victim may perceive the motivational
autonomy of the bystander, who does not require an invitation to provide post-
conflict affinitive contact. Moreover, spontaneous—but not solicited—third party
affiliation was affected by the bond between consoler and victim (this supporting
the Consolation Hypothesis). Importantly, spontaneous affiliation followed the
empathic gradient described for humans, being mostly offered to kin, then friends,
then acquaintances (these categories having been determined using affiliation rates
between individuals). Hence, consolation in the bonobo may be an empathy-based
phenomenon.

Instances in which non-human primates have expressed joy have been reported. One
study analyzed and recorded sounds made by human infants and bonobos when they were
tickled.[97] Although the bonobos' laugh was at a higher frequency, the laugh was
found to follow a spectrographic pattern similar to that of human babies.[97]

Distribution and habitat

Bonobos are found only south of the Congo River and north of the Kasai River (a
tributary of the Congo),[98] in the humid forests of the Democratic Republic of
Congo. Ernst Schwarz's 1927 paper “Le Chimpanzé de la Rive Gauche du Congo”,
announcing his discovery, has been read as an association between the Parisian Left
Bank and the left bank of the Congo River; the bohemian culture in Paris, and an
unconventional ape in the Congo.[99]

Conservation status
The IUCN Red List classifies bonobos as an endangered species, with conservative
population estimates ranging from 29,500 to 50,000 individuals.[2] Major threats to
bonobo populations include habitat loss and hunting for bushmeat, the latter
activity having increased dramatically during the first and second Congo wars in
the Democratic Republic of Congo due to the presence of heavily armed militias even
in remote "protected" areas such as Salonga National Park. This is part of a more
general trend of ape extinction.

As the bonobos' habitat is shared with people, the ultimate success of conservation
efforts still rely on local and community involvement. The issue of parks versus
people[100] is salient in the Cuvette Centrale the bonobos' range. There is strong
local and broad-based Congolese resistance to establishing national parks, as
indigenous communities have often been driven from their forest homes by the
establishment of parks. In Salonga National Park, the only national park in the
bonobo habitat, there is no local involvement, and surveys undertaken since 2000
indicate the bonobo, the African forest elephant, and other species have been
devastated by poachers and the thriving bushmeat trade.[101] In contrast, areas
exist where the bonobo and biodiversity still thrive without any established parks,
due to the indigenous beliefs and taboos against killing bonobos.

During the wars in the 1990s, researchers and international non-governmental

organizations (NGOs) were driven out of the bonobo habitat. In 2002, the Bonobo
Conservation Initiative initiated the Bonobo Peace Forest Project supported by the
Global Conservation Fund of Conservation International and in cooperation with
national institutions, local NGOs, and local communities. The Peace Forest Project
works with local communities to establish a linked constellation of community-based
reserves, managed by local and indigenous people. This model, implemented mainly
through DRC organizations and local communities, has helped bring about agreements
to protect over 50,000 square miles (130,000 km2) of the bonobo habitat. According
to Dr. Amy Parish, the Bonobo Peace Forest "is going to be a model for conservation
in the 21st century".[102]

The port town of Basankusu is situated on the Lulonga River, at the confluence of
the Lopori and Maringa Rivers, in the north of the country, making it well placed
to receive and transport local goods to the cities of Mbandaka and Kinshasa. With
Basankusu being the last port of substance before the wilderness of the Lopori
Basin and the Lomako River—the bonobo heartland—conservation efforts for the
bonobo[103] use the town as a base.[104][105]

In 1995, concern over declining numbers of bonobos in the wild led the Zoological
Society of Milwaukee, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with contributions from bonobo
scientists around the world, to publish the Action Plan for Pan paniscus: A Report
on Free Ranging Populations and Proposals for their Preservation. The Action Plan
compiles population data on bonobos from 20 years of research conducted at various
sites throughout the bonobo's range. The plan identifies priority actions for
bonobo conservation and serves as a reference for developing conservation programs
for researchers, government officials, and donor agencies.

Acting on Action Plan recommendations, the ZSM developed the Bonobo and Congo
Biodiversity Initiative. This program includes habitat and rain-forest
preservation, training for Congolese nationals and conservation institutions,
wildlife population assessment and monitoring, and education. The Zoological
Society has conducted regional surveys within the range of the bonobo in
conjunction with training Congolese researchers in survey methodology and
biodiversity monitoring. The Zoological Society’s initial goal was to survey
Salonga National Park to determine the conservation status of the bonobo within the
park and to provide financial and technical assistance to strengthen park
protection. As the project has developed, the Zoological Society has become more
involved in helping the Congolese living in bonobo habitat. The Zoological Society
has built schools, hired teachers, provided some medicines, and started an
agriculture project to help the Congolese learn to grow crops and depend less on
hunting wild animals.[106]

With grants from the United Nations, USAID, the U.S. Embassy, the World Wildlife
Fund, and many other groups and individuals, the Zoological Society also has been
working to:

Survey the bonobo population and its habitat to find ways to help protect these
apes
Develop antipoaching measures to help save apes, forest elephants, and other
endangered animals in Congo's Salonga National Park, a UN World Heritage site
Provide training, literacy education, agricultural techniques, schools, equipment,
and jobs for Congolese living near bonobo habitats so that they will have a vested
interest in protecting the great apes – the ZSM started an agriculture project to
help the Congolese learn to grow crops and depend less on hunting wild animals.
Model small-scale conservation methods that can be used throughout Congo
Starting in 2003, the U.S. government allocated $54 million to the Congo Basin
Forest Partnership. This significant investment has triggered the involvement of
international NGOs to establish bases in the region and work to develop bonobo
conservation programs. This initiative should improve the likelihood of bonobo
survival, but its success still may depend upon building greater involvement and
capability in local and indigenous communities.[107]

The bonobo population is believed to have declined sharply in the last 30 years,
though surveys have been hard to carry out in war-ravaged central Congo. Estimates
range from 60,000 to fewer than 50,000 living, according to the World Wildlife
Fund.

In addition, concerned parties have addressed the crisis on several science and
ecological websites. Organizations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature, the
African Wildlife Foundation, and others, are trying to focus attention on the
extreme risk to the species. Some have suggested that a reserve be established in a
more stable part of Africa, or on an island in a place such as Indonesia. Awareness
is ever increasing, and even nonscientific or ecological sites have created various
groups to collect donations to help with the conservation of this species.

See also
Basankusu, DR Congo – base for bonobo research and conservation
Bonobo Conservation Initiative
Chimpanzee genome project
Claudine André
Great ape personhood
Great Ape Project
Kanzi – a captive bonobo who uses language
List of apes – notable individual nonhuman apes
Lola ya Bonobo
Notes
Gynecocracy, among people, 'women's government over women and men' or 'women's
social supremacy'
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Further reading
Books
de Waal, Frans, and Frans Lanting, Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape, University of
California Press, 1997. ISBN 0-520-20535-9; ISBN 0-520-21651-2 (trade paperback)
Kano, Takayoshi, The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology, Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press, 1992.
Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, and Roger Lewin, Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human
Mind, John Wiley, 1994. ISBN 0-471-58591-2; ISBN 0-471-15959-X (trade paperback)
Woods, Vanessa, Bonobo Handshake, Gotham Books, 2010. ISBN 978-1-59240-546-6
Sandin, Jo, Bonobos: Encounters in Empathy, Zoological Society of Milwaukee & The
Foundation for Wildlife Conservation, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0-9794151-0-4
de Waal, Frans, The Bonobo and the Atheist, Norton, 2013. ISBN 978-0393073775
Articles
de Waal, Frans, "Bonobo: Sex & Society", Scientific American, 1995
DeBartolo, Anthony. "The Bonobo: 'Newest' apes are teaching us about ourselves",
Chicago Tribune June 11, 1998.
Schweller, Ken, "Apes With Apps," IEEE Spectrum Magazine, July 2012.
Madrigal, Alexis "Brian the Mentally Ill Bonobo, and How He Healed", The Atlantic,
June 11, 2014.
Parker, Ian "Swingers", The New Yorker, July 30, 2007.
Bechard, Deni "Viral Conservation" The Solutions Journal, February 2014
Journal articles
Fischer, Anne; Prüfer, Kay; Good, Jeffrey M.; Halbwax, Michel; Wiebe, Victor;
André, Claudine; Atencia, Rebeca; Mugisha, Lawrence; Ptak, Susan E.; Pääbo, Svante
(29 June 2011). Joly, Etienne (ed.). "Bonobos fall within the genomic variation of
chimpanzees". PLoS ONE. 6 (6): e21605. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...621605F.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021605. PMC 3126833. PMID 21747915.
Zsurka, Gábor; Kudina, Tatiana; Peeva, Viktoriya; Hallmann, Kerstin; Elger,
Christian E.; Elger, Konstantin; Khrapko, Konstantin; Kunz, Wolfram S. (2010).
"Distinct patterns of mitochondrial genome diversity in bonobos (Pan paniscus) and
humans". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 10: 270. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-270. PMC
2942848. PMID 20813043.
Wildman, Derek E.; Uddin, Monica; Liu, Guozhen; Grossman, Lawrence I.; Goodman,
Morris (10 June 2003). "Implications of natural selection in shaping 99.4%
nonsynonymous DNA identity between humans and chimpanzees: Enlarging genus Homo".
PNAS. 100 (12): 7181–7188. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.7181W.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1232172100. PMC 165850. PMID 12766228.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pan paniscus.
Wikispecies has information related to Bonobo
ARKive – BBC images and movies of the bonobo (Pan paniscus)
Evolution: Why Sex?
Bonobos: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation
Primate Info Net Pan paniscus Factsheet
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile
"The Last Great Ape", an episode of Nova.
Susan Savage-Rumbaugh: Apes that write, start fires and play Pac-Man – Ted.com
WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature / World Wildlife Fund) – Bonobo species profile
Encyclopedia of Life
San Diego Zoo Library: Bonobo, Pan paniscus
Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History
(August 2016).
View the panPan1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.
vte
Extant species of family Hominidae (great apes)
vte
Apes
Issoria lathonia.jpgBiology portalMan of the woods.JPGPrimates portal
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q19537Wikispecies: Pan paniscusADW: Pan_paniscusARKive: pan-paniscusECOS:
1509EPPO: PANZPAFossilworks: 236870GBIF: 5219533iNaturalist: 43578IRMNG:
10419555ITIS: 573081IUCN: 15932MSW: 12100797NCBI: 9597Species+: 8333TSA: 12793
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata
BNF: cb12337752f (data)GND: 4146276-2LCCN: sh85109278NKC: ph137706
Categories: IUCN Red List endangered speciesBonobosApesMammals described in
1929Primates of AfricaFauna of Central AfricaMammals of the Democratic Republic of
the CongoEndemic fauna of the Democratic Republic of the CongoTool-using
mammalsExtant Pleistocene first appearances
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This page was last edited on 14 November 2020, at 20:28 (UTC).
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