j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l .

2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

www.jmrt.com.br

Original Article

The effects of lubricants on temperature

distribution of 6063 aluminium alloy during
backward cup extrusion process

Omolayo M. Ikumapayi a,∗ , Sunday T. Oyinbo a , Ojo P. Bodunde b,c , Sunday A. Afolalu d ,
Imhade P. Okokpujie d , Esther T. Akinlabi a
a Department of Mechanical Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
b Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Afe Babalola University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria
c Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, NT, Hong Kong, China
d Department of Mechanical Engineering, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Backward extrusion has received several applications in the production and manufacturing
Received 24 February 2018 sectors, most importantly in the bulk forming processes and various researchers have car-
Accepted 31 August 2018 ried out several studies about backward extrusion processes in the time past varying from
Available online 22 October 2018 experimental, theoretical, empirical, analytical to numerical methods in order to analyze
and optimize it. In this present investigation, backward cup extrusion of AA6063 was suc-
Keywords: cessfully carried out experimentally and theoretically using tropical coconut oil and castor
Backward cup extrusion oil as lubricants. The experiment was also carried out without lubrication. With the different
Lubricants lubricating conditions, the strain rate was varied at 1.5 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.5 × 10−3 s−1
Strain rate and 3.0 × 10−3 s−1 respectively. A numerical analysis using DEFORM 3D software for backward
DEFORM 3D cup extrusion at strain rates of 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 and 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 were then performed to deter-
Temperature distribution mine optimum lubricated condition and temperature distribution during the deformation.
It was found that the temperature increased with increasing strain rates. At a higher strain
rate, the temperature of both punch and lower die also increased. The highest temperature
was observed when lubricated with tropical coconut oil at a strain rate of 3.0 × 10−3 s−1 which
was observed to be above 33 ◦ C when compared to other lubricants. The punch tempera-
ture showed a higher temperature compared to the lower die temperature in all cases. The
extrusion load–stroke curve of the simulation result was consistent with the experimental
results.
© 2018 Brazilian Metallurgical, Materials and Mining Association. Published by Elsevier
Editora Ltda. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mails: ikumapayi.omolayo@gmail.com, ikumapayi@uj.ac.za (O.M. Ikumapayi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2018.08.006
2238-7854/© 2018 Brazilian Metallurgical, Materials and Mining Association. Published by Elsevier Editora Ltda. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1176 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187

preheat temperature, extrusion ratio, percentage reduction

1. Introduction area and extrusion velocity were studied using a numerical
method to analyze the transient temperature distributions of
Histories have it that about 200 years ago, Extrusion got debut
the forward extrusion process. In the study, it was concluded
entrance into the Industrial sector. But it has been observed
that an increase in temperature increased the percentage
that the benefits of extrusion process have increased tremen-
reduction area, also increase in dead zone temperature will
dously in the past 60 years due to advancement in technology
increase deformation velocity.
gotten from the practical knowledge and various fundamental
Li et al. [8] used 3D FEA to study optimum extrusion velocity
search into the process of extrusion, tooling, metal forming,
and the prediction of temperature distribution from the tran-
and metal flow [1].
sient state to a steady state. They found out that ram velocity
The extrusion process can be hot or cold working process
plays a crucial role on the distribution of temperature. It was
in which the intended work metal is forced through a female
observed that increase in ram velocity will lead to a fast reduc-
die opening to produce the desired shape. Generally, extru-
tion in extrusion pressure during steady state extrusion as a
sion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross-section.
result of higher heat generated which will lead to decrease in
The advantages of extrusion process over other metalwork-
heat loss subsequently there will be a reduction in flow stress
ing processes are that varieties of sections can be achieved
as the process proceeds.
(i.e. through hot extrusion), the grain structure and desired
Uyyuru and Valberg [9] also studied backward cup extru-
strength are enhanced (i.e. via cold extrusion), and close tol-
sion process of aluminium alloy slug by the use of physical
erance can be obtained (i.e. via cold extrusion) and there is
modelling and finite element method (FEM). They worked on
usually little or no material wastage.
tube-like/circular shape intrinsic contrast material specifically
Materials that are commonly extruded include polymers,
made to study material flow. Their results show that surface
metals, concretes, ceramics, and foodstuffs. Metals that could
extension over the punch head varying along the length of the
be extruded are alloys of aluminium, tin, lead, copper, etc. This
cup. Extension of the top of the cup is higher to that close to
research aims at the extrusion of aluminium alloy AA6063.
the base of the cup.
The most commonly extruded metallic material is the alu-
Al-Smadi et al. [1] developed a diagnostic power consump-
minium and even the most commonly extruded material. It
tion model during extrusion in real time process, their study
could be hot or cold extruded. If hot extruded, it is heated from
was based on extracting data from a sensor at the plan with
300 to 600 ◦ C. Extruded aluminium shapes can be affected by
a study centred on the regional signature. Numerical method
various properties as a result of the way extrusion metal flows.
algorithm was developed to extract certain features from the
The factors influencing extrusion metal flow are: type of extru-
power consumption cycle in which the press needs to extrude
sion (direct or indirect); press capacity and size and shape of
one billet. Finally, they analyzed and developed a model that
container; frictional effects at the die or both container and
diagnoses the extrusion process online. Within the form-
die; type, layout, and design of die; the length of billet and type
ing temperature range of hot extrusion of magnesium alloy
of alloy; the temperature of the billet and container; the extru-
fin structural parts, lower billet heating temperature can be
sion ratio; die and tooling temperature and speed of extrusion
selected to acquire higher compressive strength for the fin
[2].
plates, also under the same process conditions, higher billet
A study to search for more accurate approaches in describ-
heating temperature or faster extrusion speed would reduce
ing thermal and frictional boundary condition by Celalettin [3]
the hardness of billet. Hsiang et al. [10] used DEFORM to carry
using finite element model found out that extrusion process
out simulation analysis of extrusion of magnesium alloy fin
exhibits complex, closely coupled thermo-mechanical pro-
structural part. The combined effects of thermal behaviour
cesses, the accurate computation of the material flow rates.
and elastic–plastic deformation on the dimensional errors of
For a deep knowledge of the extrusion process, Abrinia and
a cold backward extruded cup were analyzed quantitatively by
Orangi [4] analyzed extrusion process by means of finite ele-
Long [11].
ment analysis (FEA) to analyze stress, strain and velocity field
In extrusion, the temperature distribution, strain rate, and
of the shaped section in a backward extrusion process.
the velocity are important in selecting process variables such
A similar study was carried out by Abrinia and Gharibi [5]
as initial temperature, ram speed of the billet and tooling in
by the use of thin-walled cans and it was observed that using
order to obtain the required properties of the extruded product
appropriate punch head profile, more uniform and smaller
[12].
can wall thickness would be achieved. Numerical simulations
For hot extrusion of a material with high flow stress, an
were used by van de Langkruis and his colleagues to study
enormous amount of heat generated which tends to locally
several isothermal laboratory scales of AA6063 extrusion bil-
alter the mechanical and microstructure properties of the
lets with the aid of FEM (code DiekA). They used magnesium
material that are extruded and therefore makes it important
(Mg) and silicon (Si) to analyze the effect of solution hardening
to have knowledge the strain, strain rate, temperature and dis-
on the extrusion process by adopting a hyperbolic sine law. It
tribution of the material during extrusion [13]. Researches in
was also observed that complete extrusion pressure levels will
forward extrusion focused on temperature and how its affect
reduce with ram position. Similarly, the differences between
the component form-errors [14]. Extrusion force data obtained
experiments and simulations were studied on the effects of
using developed procedures should show reasonable agree-
dynamic precipitation and recrystallization, adiabatic heating
ment with data obtained from calculations and FEA.
and strain localization [6]. Another research carried out by Aji-
A research on the temperature distribution in hot alu-
boye and Adeyemi [7] in which extrusion variables such as die
minium extrusion billets was carried out by Johannes [15]
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187 1177

using finite element analysis, concluded that temperature dis-

tribution was dependent on the length, diameter, and the
external boundary conditions made intuitive estimates diffi-
cult. Saha [16] presented the relationship between tribology Punch Schematic
and thermodynamics in aluminium extrusion and proposed
a thermodynamic model that could predict the effect of main
extrusion variables on the maximum temperature rise at die
entry. Also in the research series of temperature measurement
Die Schematic
were conducted to investigate the value of exit temperature of
a thin-walled hollow extrusion shape under three experimen-
tal procedures.
Oyinbo et al. [2] studied the numerical simulation of Extrudate Position
axisymmetric and Asymmetric extrusion process using finite
Fig. 1 – 2D schematic of the extrudate flow.
element method (FEM), Similarly, Moshksar et al. [17],
Farhoumand et al. [18], and Shatermashhadi et al. [19] used
different analytical approaches for backward extrusion. But BILLET CAVITY HOLES FOR PUNCH GUIDE PINS

Kimura et al. [13] in their work on the analysis of temperature

of titanium alloys during hot extrusion at heating temper-
atures of 950 and 1100 ◦ C and extrusion ratios of 6 and 12.
The strain was smaller in the centre than the surface, while
the temperature was higher in the centre than in the surface
because of the heated billet cooled down to a considerable
extent before it was hot extruded. Hsiang et al. [10] worked on
magnesium alloy at different temperatures between 300 and
360 ◦ C and extrusion ratio of 8.03. In their work, they inves-
tigated experimentally and compared with finite element
analysis to prove the accuracy of the result from simulation
analysis. While these works reviewed in this paragraph uses
different temperatures while Carlos Fernado [20] did a model
and controlled extrusion at a constant temperature through- THERMOCOUPLE WIRE PASSAGE

out the cycle.

There is little information on the effects of die temper-
atures on extrusion process, although some investigations
have been carried out on cold extrusion on the effect of some
parameters such as loading rate, extruded shapes and die
angles as reported by Ikumapayi et al. [21]. The purpose of this
project is to carry out an experimental investigation of back-
ward cup extrusion of aluminium alloy AA6063 at different
extrusion speed compare with different lubricants and also
compare results with FEM simulation DEFORM 3D.
2. Material
Fig. 2 – Extrusion rig or container.
2.1. Rig design and construction
For the experimental investigation of the billet temperature
during the process of extrusion, an extrusion rig was modified
and reconstructed for the purpose of the backward cup extru-
sion of aluminium. Fig. 1 shows a 2D schematic illustrating
the flow of extrudate from the test rig.
The extrusion apparatus required for the experiment were:

Many extrusion parameters have been looked into by many (a) The extrusion rig (container)
researchers in the past as explained in the literature survey (b) The punch
of the present study. In the present work, the authors deter- (c) The lower die
mined experimentally the effect of temperature in backward (d) Thermocouple
cup extrusion process using aluminium alloy AA6063, by car- (e) Temperature metres
rying out the following:
2.1.1. The extrusion rig
(a) Determining the distribution of temperature during back- This is the rig required for all extrusion tests. This extrudes
ward cup extrusion of AA6063. the aluminium alloy AA6063 billets of diameter 34.8 mm and
(b) Determining the temperature distribution using different height of 25 mm to a reduction in the area of 0.6. Figs. 2 and 3
lubricants in the extrusion process. show the diagrams of the rig in 3D and Orthographic views (2D
(c) Comparing the experimental result with FEM simulation schematic) of the extrusion rig respectively.
DEFORM 3D.
2.1.2. Determination of extrusion force
The present research focused on the temperature of the To determine the extrusion pressure required to extrude alu-
billet and dies. minium AA6063 for this research, FEA software DEFORM 3D
1178 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187

Step -1

73,00
40,00
113,00

0
6,0
∅1
80 Load Prediction
8, Z Load (N)
24 4.39e+005
∅ Billet
Punch
,80
3.51e+005
Bottom Die
48 Rig
∅1
2.63e+005

1.74e+005
(0.000,0)
∅35,00 8.58e+004 (0.000,0)
(0.000,0)
-2.63e+003 (0.000,0)
-0.206 3.99 8.19 12.4 16.6 20.8
Stroke (mm)
∅20
,00

Fig. 4 – Simulation results (DEFORM 3D postprocessor).

Fig. 3 – Orthographic projection of the extrusion rig.
was used. The simulation parameters are stated in Table 1 and
the results are shown in Fig. 4.
2.1.3. Determination of shell diameter
The diameter of the shell of the extrusion rig (container) was
determined based on criteria of failures [22]. The three guide
pins holes are located on the container at a distance of the
shell diameter. This is done to reduce the possibility of failure
due to the drilled holes in the container wall.
The criteria for shell failure are based on the theory of elas-
ticity.
2.1.3.1. The maximum principal stress theory. This theory of
failure given in Eq. (1) informs that failure occurs when the
maximum principal stress is greater than the stress at the
tensile yield point.

1 + (pi /yp )
k=
1 − (pi /yp )
2.1.3.3. The maximum principal strain theory. Failure occurs
when the maximum principal strain is greater than the strain
at the tensile yield point as expressed in Eq. (3).

1 + (1 − 2v)pi /yp
k= (3)
1 + (1 + 2v)pi /yp
2.1.3.4. Maximum distortion energy theory. Failure occurs
when the maximum distortion energy is higher than the dis-
tortion energy at the tensile yield point as given in Eq. (4).

1
k= √ (4)
1− 3(pi /yp )
where pi is the internal pressure;  yp is the yield stress; v is
the Poisson ratio; and k is the ratio of the outer diameter (do )
to internal diameter (di ).
Substituting the values of the parameters stated below
into the failure theories (Eqs. (1)–(4)), the maximum diame-
ter obtained was 109 mm, and the guide pin holes are located
at a displacement of 62 mm from the centre.
(1) pi = 390 MPa (from simulation);  yp = 48 MPa (for aluminium
alloy); v = 0.33 (aluminium alloy); and di = 35 mm.

2.1.3.2. The maximum shear stress theory. This theory has

expressed in Eq. (2) says failure occurs when maximum shear 2.2. The punch
stresses greater than the maximum shear stress at the tensile
yield point. The punch is shown in Fig. 5. The punch has a diameter of
27 mm and a hole is drilled from the back so that the thermo-
 couple can go through it for the temperature reading during
1
k= (2) the experiment. For the punch to be centrally placed on top of
1 − 2(pi /yp )
the workpiece three guide pins were incorporated as shown
in Fig. 6.

Table 1 – Parameters used in simulation.

Parameter Temperature Strain rate Ram speed Max. displacement
◦ −1
Input 30 0.003 s 0.075 mm/s 20 mm
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187 1179

,0 0 during the extrusion. A thermocouple (Type K) was inserted

∅43
into the hole for temperature monitoring purpose.
B B

∅35
,00 2.3. Temperature measurement
∅2
∅ 7,0
6, 0
00 The measurement during the experiment was done using a
B-B(3:1)
thermocouple (Type K) and temperature digital multi-metre
(MASTECH MY64).

5,19
2.4. Heat treatment of extrusion toolings
89,40

Heat treatment was carried out on extrusion tools in order to

increase the tool life and for the extrusion toolings to with-
stand high pressure during the extrusion process. More so, to
achieve optimum desirable properties and metallurgical char-
32,40

acteristics by a systemic change in the microstructure, the

5,00

punch, and lower die were heat treated. The punch and lower
die were case-hardened at 910 ◦ C using a carburising box, con-
Fig. 5 – The punch. taining a mixture of graphite and charcoal. It was then soaked
at this temperature for half an hour. They were both quenched
in engine oil (SAE 40) and at 200 ◦ C they were tempered for 1 h
PUNCH HOLDER
to reduce the induced residual stresses. Case hardening was
GUILD PINS done so as to increase the content of surface carbon of the
tools and consequently increase wear resistance, this was also
THERMOCOUPLE in accordance with the findings of Onuh and colleagues [23].
WIRE PASSAGE HOLE
The cylinder was then heated to a temperature of 910 ◦ C,
soaked for 1 h so as to have uniform temperature distribu-
tion thereby having uniform grain refinement. It was then
THREAD HOLE
FOR EXTRACTOR SCREW quenched in water.

PUNCH
3. Material composition
Fig. 6 – The punch assembly.
3.1. Properties and composition of workpiece/billets

Aluminium alloy AA6063 properties and composition are

15.00

shown in Tables 2 and 3 [24].

∅5.19
45.00

40.00

Table 2 – AA6063 composition and properties.

THERMOCOUPLE
HOLE Element Weight %

Al 98.9
Si 0.40
∅19.50
Mg 0.70
∅34.90
Thermal properties
Thermal expansion (10−6 /◦ C) 23.4
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 218

Table 3 – AA6063 composition and properties.

Mechanical properties
Fig. 7 – The lower die.
Density (×1000 kg/m3 ) 2.7
Poisson’s ratio 0.33
Elastic modulus (GPa) 70–80
2.2.1. The lower die Tensile strength (MPa) 90
The diagram of the lower die is shown in Fig. 7. In order to Yield strength (MPa) 48
Hardness (HB500) 25
take the temperature reading at the base of the billet, a hole
Shear strength (MPa) 69
was drilled at the middle of the lower die with an allowance of Fatigue strength (MPa) 55
5 mm to the surface so as to prevent any flow through the hole
1180 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187

Table 4 – Lubricants with varying strain rates.

S/N Stain rate Lubricant
(10−3 ) (s−1 )

Load Meter 1 1.5 Nil (dry)

2 2.0
3 2.5
4 3.0
5 1.5 Tropical coconut (TC) oil
Control Valves
Ram 6 2.0
7 2.5
8 3.0
Hydraulic Press
Punch 9 1.5 Castor oil
10 2.0
Lower die
Extrusion Rig Thermocouple 11 2.5
(type k) 12 3.0
Punch
Thermocouple
(type k)
a

Temperature Digital
Multimeter (x2)

Fig. 8 – 3D model of experimental set-up.

3.2. Preparation of the specimens

b

After annealing was done, the workpiece was machined into

billets of dimension 34.8 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height.

3.2.1. The experimental setup

A 3D model of the experimental set up is shown in Fig. 8. The
experiment was carried out at room temperature. The thermo-
couple was inserted into the holes in the lower die and punch
to take the temperature reading as the extrusion tests were
c
carried out.
During the experiment, the container walls, a lower die,
punch and the billet were lubricated with different lubricants
for each test and at different strain rate. The tests were con-
ducted on a 600 kN Avery Denison Universal Testing Machine.
After each test, the assembly was cleaned removing thin lay-
ers of metal left. The die was carefully placed in the extrusion
rig.

4. Results and discussions

A. Specimen (BILLET)
Backward extrusion of AA6063 was conducted using Univer-
B. Extruded Product With Lubricant
sal Hydraulic Pressing Machine at different die velocities and
C. Extruded Product Without Lubricant
using variously selected lubricants. The experiments were
performed at room temperature by inserting a thermocouple Fig. 9 – Specimen (billet) and extruded product.
in the holes drilled on both dies. Table 4 shows the parameter
of the experiment carried out.
The extruded specimen has minimum surface cracking.
Fig. 9(a–c) shows the specimens and extruded specimen strain rates varying from 1.5 s−1 through 3.0 s−1 are shown in
for both cases of lubrication and without lubrication. The Table 4.
extruded product with lubrication has a dark colouration on
the body due to the lubricants has a finer surface finish com- A. Specimen (billet)
pared to the extruded products done without lubrication. The B. Extruded product with lubricant
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187 1181

32.5
a b
31.2
32
31 Punch
Temperature (oC)

Temperature (oC)
Lower Die
30.8 31.5

30.6
31

30.4
Punch 30.5
30.2
Lower Die
30
30

29.8 29.5
0 5 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Stroke (mm) Stroke (mm)

Strain Rate of 1.5 x 10-3/s Strain Rate of 2.0 x 10-3/s

c d
33.5
33.5
33
33

32.5
32.5
Temperature (oC)

Temperature (oC)
Punch
32
32
Punch
31.5 Lower Die
31.5
Lower Die
31 31

30.5 30.5

30 30

29.5 29.5
0 5 10 0 5 10

Stroke (mm) Stroke (mm)

Strain Rate of 2.5 x 10-3/s Strain Rate of 3.0 x 10-3/s

Fig. 10 – Temperature vs stroke at various strain rates (tropical coconut oil).

C. Extruded product without lubricant
4.1. Temperature–stroke curve
Fig. 10(a–d) shows the temperature of the punch and lower
die during the experiment with lubrication (tropical coconut
oil) at different strain rates of 1.5 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 ,
2.5 × 10−3 s−1 and 3.0 × 10−3 s−1 . The tropical coconut oil was
chosen as the experimental lubricant for comparison because
it has a lower density of about 924 kg/m3 so that the tem-
perature distribution will reasonably be unaltered during the
experiment. Castor oil has a greater density.
The curves indicate that the punch temperature is higher
than the lower die temperature for all strain rate used in the
experiment. The curves also show a rise in the temperature
and a decrease as the stroke increases. The rise in temperature
is as a result of punching action and friction as discussed by
Yang and others [25]. The seeming drop in the temperature as
the stroke length increases is as a result of the escape of the
extrudate from the die opening, just because the stroke length
is still increasing as the extrudate is tending to escape. This
result buttresses the points raised by Yeom et al. [26], Li and
Ghosh [27], Kloppenburg et al. [28] and Muller et al. [29]. This
reason justifies why the temperature distribution behaviour
of the extrusion processes with and without lubrication are
similar to each other.
There exists a variation in the temperature distribution
of the extrusion process using the two lubricants selected
for the study. This is obviously attributed to different prop-
erties such as density and viscosity. The densities of castor
oil and tropical coconut oil are about 956 and 924 kg/m3
respectively.
Similarly Fig. 11(a–d) also shows the temperature of the
punch and lower die during the experiment without lubri-
cation at different strain rates of 1.5 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 ,
2.5 × 10−3 s−1 and 3.0 × 10−3 s−1 . The curves indicate that the
punch temperature is higher than the lower die temperature
for all strain rate used in the experiment. The graphs show
1182 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187

a 31.2 b
32.5

31
32
30.8
Temperature (oC)

Temperature (oC)
31.5 Punch
30.6 Lower Die
31
30.4
Punch 30.5
30.2
Lower Die 30
30
29.5
29.8
0 5 10
0 5 10
Stroke (mm) Stroke (mm)
Strain Rate of 1.5 x 10-3/s Strain Rate of 2.0 x 10-3/s

c d
33.5
33.5
33
33
32.5
32.5
Temperature (oC)
Temperature (oC)

32
32 Punch
31.5
31.5 Lower Die Punch

31 31
Lower Die

30.5 30.5

30 30

29.5 29.5
0 10 20 0 5 10 15

Stroke (mm) Stroke (mm)

Strain Rate of 2.5 x 10-3/s Strain Rate of 3.0 x 10-3/s

Fig. 11 – Temperature vs stroke at various strain rates (without lubricant).

a rise in the temperature and a later decrease as the stroke 33.5

increases. load ctr oil 3.0
33
The punch temperature is higher at high strain rate. As
the rate of deformation of the material increases the max- 32.5
load ctr oil 2.5
Temperature (oC)

imum temperatures attained by the punch and lower die 32

increases. The strain rate has an effect on the temperature load ctr oil 2.0
31.5
of the dies, at low strain rate the temperature of the punch
and lower die is significantly lower compared with higher 31 load ctr oil 1.5
strain rate. Figs. 12 and 13 show the die temperature–stroke
30.5
curves as the punch moves down into the billet at a
strain rate of 1.5 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 and 30
3.0 × 10−3 s−1 using castor oil as the lubricant. The maxi- 29.5
mum temperature is attained at strain rates of 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 0 5 10
and 3.0 × 10−3 s−1 . A similar result is observed using tropi- Stroke (mm)
cal coconut oil as the lubricant, Figs. 14 and 15 show the
Fig. 12 – Punch temperature vs stroke with castor oil at
die temperature–stroke curves as the punch moves down
different strain rate.
into the billet at a strain rate of 1.5 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 ,
2.5 × 10−3 s−1 and 3.0 × 10−3 s−1 . The maximum temperature
is attained at strain rates of 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 and 3.0 × 10−3 s−1 .
Without lubrication, the punch temperature is also higher at of the final extrudate as seen in Fig. 9. Figs. 16 and 17 show
high strain rate. The rise in temperature affects the lubricating the die temperature–stroke curves as the punch moves down
properties of the lubricants used in the experiment and also into the billet at a strain rate of 1.5 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 ,
generated friction which deposited impurities on the surface 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 and 3.0 × 10−3 s−1 .
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187 1183

32.5 33.5

33
32

load ctr oil 1.5 32.5

Punch @1.5
Temperature (oC)

31.5

Temperature (oC)
32
load ctr oil 2.0 Punch @2.0
31
31.5
load ctr oil 2.5 Punch @2.5
30.5 31
load ctr oil 3.0 Punch @3.0
30.5
30
30
29.5
0 5 10 29.5
Stroke (mm) 0 5 10 15
Stroke (mm)
Fig. 13 – Lower die temperature vs stroke with castor oil at
Fig. 16 – Punch temperature vs stroke without lubricant at
different strain rate.
different strain rate.

32.5 32.5

32 32
load TC Oil 1.5
load Dry 1.5
Temperature (oC)
31.5 31.5
Temperature (oC)

load TC Oil 2.0

load Dry 2.0

31 load TC Oil 2.5 31 load Dry 2.5

load TC Oil 3.0 load Dry 3.0

30.5 30.5

30
30

29.5
29.5
0 5 10 15
0 5 10
Stroke (mm)
Stroke (mm)
Fig. 17 – Lower die temperature vs stroke without lubricant
Fig. 14 – Punch temperature vs stroke with tropical coconut
at different strain rate.
oil at different strain rate.

33.5
4.2. Comparison of experimental result with FEM
33 analysis simulation result
load TC Oil 1.5
32.5 The experimental results without lubrication at a strain rate
load TC Oil 2.0 of 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 and 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 shown above was compared
Temperature (oC)

32
with FEM simulation result from DEFORM 3D. The experi-
load TC Oil 2.5 mental result and simulation result shown close relationship
31.5
for both strain rate. Fig. 18(a and b) shows the temperature
31
load TC Oil 3.0 of the punch and lower die at a strain rate of 2.0 × 10−3 s−1
while Fig. 19(a and b) shows for strain rate 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 for
30.5 both experimental and simulation result for backward cup
extrusion of AA6063. The drop in temperature from the exper-
30 imental result was due to the heat lost to the surrounding after
it has gotten to the maximum temperature. The simulation
29.5 results show an increasing temperature as the punch displace-
0 5 10
ment increase due to a minimum or no heat loss during the
Stroke (mm)
deformation process.
Fig. 15 – Lower die temperature vs stroke with tropical Comparison of the temperature distribution via experi-
coconut oil at different strain rate. ment and simulation vary as a result of real-life ejection of
the extrudate in which the temperature decreases with stroke
length after the extrudate has been ejected. However, there
1184 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187

a b
33
32.5
32.5

Temperature (oC)

Temperature (oC)
32
Punch 32
31.5
Lower Die 31.5
31
31
30.5 30.5
Lower Die
30 30
Punch
29.5 29.5
0 5 10 0 5 10 15
Stroke (mm) Stroke (mm)
By Experiment By FEM Simulation Analysis

Fig. 18 – Temperature vs stroke at strain rate of 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 (without lubricant).

a b 33.5
33.5

33 33

32.5 32.5
Punch
Temperature (oC)
Temperature (oC)

32 32
Lower Die
31.5 31.5 Lower Die

31
31 Punch
30.5
30.5
30
30
29.5
29.5
0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15

Stroke (mm) Stroke (mm)

By Experiment By FEM Simulation Analysis

Fig. 19 – Temperature vs stroke at strain rate of 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 (without lubricant).

Table 5 – Simulation parameter.

Parameters Temperature Strain rate Ram speed Max. displacement Friction
◦ −1
Inputs 1 30 0.0020 s 0.0625 mm/s 10 mm 0.47
Inputs 2 30◦ 0.0025 s−1 0.0500 mm/s 10 mm 0.47

were no temperature drops from the simulated temperature- a nonlinear type. The behaviour of which appeared to be
stroke relationship as shown in Figs. 18 and 19 (Table 5). that of a hyperelastic material. The stress–strain relationship
DEFORM 3D software was used to simulate for FEA in order depends solely on the state of the strain rate (point strain) at
to obtain die geometry and actual extrusion parameters. The a particular point during deformation.
extrudate profile obtained with the simulation was similar to A linear model of stress–strain behaviour will normally fol-
the shape obtained during actual extrusion (experiment) as low from Hooke’s law of elasticity as illustrated in Eq. (5) while
predicted by Li et al. [8]. Using point tracking the punch (2) a nonlinear model takes the form of Eqs. (6) and (7) in terms
temperature and lower die (1) temperature was extracted and of strain energy density.
compared with the actual extrusion or experimental result at
strain rates of 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 and 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 . =E ∈ (5)
 e  dl 
F
Wtotal = · Al0 (6)
4.3. Modelling the stress–strain behaviour during 0
A lo
deformation
  ∈ 
The stress–strain relationship of the extrudate gotten through Wtotal = d ∈ d(Al0 )
the backward cup extrusion of AA6063 aluminium alloy was 0
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187 1185

Step 54
Temperature (C)
34.7

33.1

Point Tracking
Temperature (C)
33.8

31.6
33.1 1
2

32.3

(86.4 , 31.7)
31.5
30.2
(86.4 , 31.1) 30.0
30.8

Z
30

0.000 67.2 134 202 269 336 X Y

Time (sec)

Fig. 20 – DEFORM 3D simulation.

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
The quantity in the square bracket represents the strain 1,1 E1,1,1,1 E1,1,2,2 E1,1,3,1
energy density, ( ∈ ) ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2,2 ⎥ ⎢ E2,2,1,1 E2,2,2,2 E2,2,3,1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
  ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∈ t ⎢ 3,3 ⎥ ⎢ E3,3,1,1 E3,3,2,2 E3,3,3,1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
(∈) = ( ∈ ) · d ∈ =  · ∈ I · dt (7) ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥ = ⎢ .. .. ··· .. ⎥ (11)
0 0
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1,2 ⎥ ⎢ E1,2,1,1 ⎥
where ∈ l is the differential of strain, ∈ with respect time, t. ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ E1,2,2,2 E1,2,3,1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Using the power–work relationship, the strain power is the ⎢ 2,3 ⎥ ⎢ E2,3,1,1 E2,3,2,2 E2,3,3,1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
differential of strain energy (rate of internal workdone) as
3,1 E3,1,1,1 E3,1,2,2 E3,1,3,1
illustrated in Eq. (8).

where  and F is the applied stress and force over a cross-

l d
= =  · ∈l (8) sectional area, A respectively; E is the young’s modulus; ∈ is
dt
the strain experienced by the AA6063 aluminium alloy; Wtotal
is the total energy absorbed during extrusion; and l0 and dl are
Stress,  can then be re-written as Eq. (9).
cross-sectional length and extension respectively.
The numerical analysis carried out in this study using
d
= (9) DEFORM 3D FEA revealed that the plastic strains do not con-
d ∈
tribute to the volumetric change in the AA6063 aluminium
alloy during backward cup extrusion. This finding is consis-
tent with the inferences from the review made by Srinivasa
d and Raja [30] and this is also in agreement with the report of
ij =
d ∈ ij Ikumapayi et al. [21].

If the stress–strain relationship is nonlinear and can be

illustrated in a fourth order tensor equation as seen in Eq. (10)
and which can be represented in matrix form as illustrated in
Eq. (11). Eqs. (10) and (11) depict the stress–strain behaviour of
aluminium extrudate during backward cup extrusion process.
ij = Ei,j,k, ∈ · ∈ k, ∈
5. Conclusions
Backward cup extrusion of AA6063 was successfully carried
out using tropical coconut oil and castor oil as the lubricants.
The experiment was also carried out without lubrication. With
the different lubricating conditions the strain rate was varied
(10) at 1.5 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.0 × 10−3 s−1 , 2.5 × 10−3 s−1 and 3.0 × 10−3 s−1
1186 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(1):1175–1187
respectively. All experiments were conducted at room temper-
ature and the temperature was successfully measured at both
the punch and lower die location.
The punch temperature during backward cup extrusion
of aluminium Alloy AA6063 showed a higher temperature
compared to the lower die temperature. The temperature
distribution on the workpiece material was measured to be
about 317 ◦ C. At higher strain rate the temperature of both
punch and lower die also increases. It was established that
the highest temperature was obtained using tropical coconut
at a strain rate of 3.0 × 10−3 s−1 which was observed to be
above 33 ◦ C.
FEA using DEFORM 3D software to simulate the die geom-
etry and actual extrusion parameters as shown in Fig. 20.
The simulated extrudate is similar to the shape of the actual
extrusion and was used successfully to predict the load and
temperature distribution of the dies. The punch temperature
was observed to be higher than the lower die temperature.
The extrusion load–stroke curve of the simulation result
was consistent with the experimental results. However,
there were discrepancies with the temperature–stroke curve
between the simulation and the actual extrusion due to heat
lost to the environment.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there are no known conflicts of inter-
est associated with this publication and there has been no
significant financial support for this work.
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