ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER versatile material, excellent insulator, elastic material, easy and fast pieces that are side
are side by side parallel. It’s a very affordable option. Fillet Welded Joints Fillet WATER CEMENT RATIO - The water–cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the
to build, build very easy and fast in contrast to a common bricks, Sustainable- coz it’s a
renwble resource, reusable. It is easy to recycle, cheap price ,light weight: timber is very light ,
Strength, Esthetic appeal: DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER - Shrinking and swelling: Timber has a
natural ability to absorb water which is also known as Hygroscopy, fire resistance, combustable,
discolouration: With the time untreated timber which is exposed to the different weather
influences it discolours turns to a dark and dirty optic, mouldiness timber has the ability to
mould.APPLICATIONS – 1. WALL FRAMING 2.FLOOR STURUCTURES 3.ROOFS 4.COLUMNS ,
BEAMS. 5. WOOD JOINERY
ADVANTAGES OF WELDED OVER RIVETED- 1. light in weight compared to riveted structures
2.high efficiency 3. Alterations and additions can be made easily 4. Welded structures are
smooth in appearance 5. great strength 6. less time than the riveted joints 7. welding provides
very strong joints. which can’t be bended easily welding provides very strong joints. which
can’t be bended easily disadvantages- 1.requires a highly skilled labour and supervision. 2.
there is a possibility of cracks developing in it 3 Since there is an uneven heating and cooling in
welding process during fabrication, therefore the members may get distorted or additional
stresses may develop.TYPES OF WELDING JOINTS-
TEE JOINT- when two members intersect at
a 90° angle which makes the edges come together in the center of a plate or component. Tee
Joints are a type of fillet weld, and can also be made when a pipe or tube is welded onto a base
plate. Extra care is required to ensure effective penetration into the roof of the weld. Edge JoinT
- Edge welding Joints are often applied to sheet metal parts that have flanging edges or are
placed at a location where a weld must be made to attach to adjacent pieces. Being a groove
type weld, Edge Joints, the pieces are set side by side and welded on the same edge. For heavier
applications filler metal is added to melt or fuse the edge completely and to reinforce the plate.
Lap JoinTS - are used most often to joint two pieces with differing thicknesses together. Also
considered a fillet type, the weld can be made on one or both sides. A Lap Joint is formed when
2 pieces are placed in an over lapping pattern on top of each other. Butt Joint
Being the universally accepted method for attaching a pipe to itself it’s also used for valves,
flanges, fittings, and other equipment. A butt welding joint is also known as a square grove
weld. It’s the easiest and probably the most common weld there is. It consists of two flat
slump is carried out as per procedures mentioned in ASTM C143 in the United States, IS: 1199
– 1959 in India and EN 12350-2 in Europe .
Generally concrete slump value is used to find the workability, which indicates water-cement
ratio, but there are various factors including properties of materials, mixing methods, dosage,
admixtures etc. also affect the concrete slump value.
FOUNDATON AND ITS FUCTIONS - Foundation is the lower portion of the building usually
located below ground level, which transmits the loads of the super structure to the supporting
soil. A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the
ground to which loads are transmitted. FUNCTIONS -REDUCTION OF LOAD INTENSITY, EVEN
DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD, PROVISION OF LEVEL SURFACE, LATERAL STABILITY, SAFETY AGAINST
UNDERMINING, PROTECTION AGAINST SOIL MOVEMENTS
Singly Reinforced Beam: The beam that is longitudinally reinforced only in tension zone, it is
known as singly reinforced beam. In Such beams, the ultimate bending moment and the tension
due to bending are carried by the reinforcement, while the compression is carried by the
concrete.
Doubly reinforced beam is defined as the beam in which the reinforcement is provided by the
steel in both tension and compression zone of the beam. If it is known that the depth of
the beam is fixed, then the best option is to provide thedoubly reinforced beam for resisting the
particular moment.
M7.5
Welded Joints are just another terminology for corner, lap, and tee joints. Fillet Welded Joints
are the most common type of welding joint and accounts for nearly 75% of joints made with arc
welding. You do not need to prepare the edge and this type of joint make it easy to weld piping
systems. Butt welds are more expensive than fillet welds. Fillet welds are mostly used in piping
systems to join pipe to socket joints. a = throat thickness
z = leg length
s = deep penetration throat thickness
ADVANTAGES OF READY MIX CONCRETE – speedy construction, mechanized operation with
consequent economy, reduce labour and site supervising cost, minimize cement wastage,
relatively pollution free, reduced project time,proper control and ecomic in use of raw material
hence results in saving natural resources. Disadvantages- time isuues – because of travelling
from far places, traffic, limited time span – should be placed within 210min.
ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL- is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to
the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between
the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bearing
capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without failure; allowable
bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety. Sometimes, on
soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded foundations without actual shear
failure occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing capacity is based on the maximum
allowable settlement.
SAFE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL- Safe bearing capacity of soil field test is done to check the
capacity of the soil to withstand loads. The maximum load per unit area which the soil can bear
without any displacement or settlements is designated as the “Safe bearing capacity of the
soil.”
FACTOR OF SAFETY - is ability of a system's structural capacity to be viable beyond its expected
or actual loads. ... For example, a safety factor of 2 does not mean that a structure can carry
twice as much load as it was designed for. The safety factor depends on the materials and use of
an item.
COMPOUNDS OF CEMENT AND THEIR ROLES- TRICALCIUM SILICATE (C 3S) C3S is the most
abundant mineral in portland cement, occupying 40–70 wt% of the cement, and it is also the
most important. The hydration of C3S gives cement paste most of its strength, particularly at
early times. DICALCIUM SILICATE (C 2S) As with C3S, C2S can form with a variety of different
structures. There is a high temperature α structure with three polymorphs, a β structure in
that is in equilibrium at intermediate temperatures, and a low
temperature γ structure. TRICALCIUM ALUMINATE (C 3A)Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) comprises
anywhere from 0 to 14% of a portland cement. Like C3S, it is highly reactive, releasing a
significant amount of exothermic heat during the early hydration period. Unfortunately, the
hydration products of formed from C3A contribute little to the strength or other engineering
properties of cement paste. In certain environmental conditions (i.e., the presence of sulfate
ions), C3A and its products can actually harm the concrete by participating in expansive
reactions that lead to stress and cracking. TETRACALCIUM ALUMINOFERRITE (C 4AF) A stable
compound with any composition between C2A and C2F can be formed, and the cement mineral
termed C4AF is an approximation that simply the represents the midpoint of this compositional
series. The crystal structure is complex, and is believed to be related to that of the mineral
perovskite. The actual composition of C4AF in cement clinker is generally higher in aluminum
than in iron, and there is considerable substitution of SiO2 and MgO. Taylor reports a typical
composition (in normal chemical notation) to be Ca2AlFe0.6Mg0.2Si0.15Ti0.5O5. However, the
composition will vary somewhat depending on the overall composition of the cement clinker.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE - Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete
to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired
engineering properties.
Concrete will remain durable if:
 The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability
 Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw cycle.
 It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
 The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis, Chlorides,
sulphates and silt.
Factors affecting durability of concrete
Cement content Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and
bleeding. If cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be reduced leading to
inadequate compaction. However, if water is added to improve workability, water / cement ratio
increases and resulting in highly permeable material. Compaction The concrete as a whole
contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction. Usually it is being governed by the
1:4:8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi
weight of cement used in a concrete mix. ABHRAHM LAW - Abrams' law (also called Abrams' M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi
water-cement ratio law )[1] is a concept in civil engineering. The law states the strength of M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi
a concrete mix is inversely related to the mass ratio of water to cement.[1][2] As the water content M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa 2900 psi
increases, the strength of concrete decreases. 4 compounds of cem. – lime, silica, akumina, Standard Grade of Concrete
gypsum, iron M25 1:1:2 25 MPa 3625 psi
Abrams’ law is a special case of a general rule formulated empirically by Feret: S is the strength M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi
M35 Design Mix 35 MPa 5075 psi
of concrete,, A and B are constants,, w/c is the water–cement ratio, which varies from 0.3 to
M40 Design Mix 40 MPa 5800 psi
1.20.
M45 Design Mix 45 MPa 6525 psi
IF WE ADD MORE WATER IN CEMENT - The most important factor that affects the strength of
MEANING OF M30 CONCRETE - M30 signifies that the a CUBE of size 15cm*15cm*15cm made of
concrete is water-cement (W/C) ratio. Lower the W/C ratio, higher would be the strength of
cement+ coarse aggregates+ Fine aggregates in such a ratio that its characteristic strength is
concrete. However, there is a cap on this ratio such as 0.5 (max) and near about 0.2 (min). For
30N/mm^2 after 28 days of curing
complete hydration of Portland cement W/C shall be 0.18 (minimum) whereas the extra water
(beyond 0.18 ratio) provides workability to the mix. As the W/C ratio increases, strength of MEANING OF M 35 CONCRETE - It is used in concrete pavements because they are designed for
concrete would reduce and so the durability properties. The W/C ratio can be lowered by flexural strength. So generally we prefer higher grades in concrete pavements. The reason for
utilizing water reducing admixtures such as plasticizers (upto 20% reduction in water demand) flexural design is bending of slab under axle load. ... M35 means compressive strength
and superplasticizers (20 to 30% reduction). ofconcrete after 28 days of curing is 35 MPA.
STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER – MERITS-1. Steel is tensile 2. It has a high strength to Workability of concrete mixture is measured by: Slump test - The concrete slump
weight ratio which means it has high strength per unit mass. 3.steel sections will be small and
test measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is performed to check the
lightweight 4. can be easily fabricated and produced massively.5. Steel sections can be
workability of freshly made concrete, and therefore the ease with which concrete flows. It can
produced off-site at shop floors and then assembled onsite, 6. This saves time and increases the
also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch. The test is popular due to the
efficiency of the overall construction process.7. Structural steel is very flexible. Structural steel is
simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure. The slump test is used to ensure uniformity
relatively cheap compared to other building materials. 8.It is very durable. .DEMERITS – 1.
for different loads of concrete under field conditions.[1]
Steel is an alloy of iron. This makes it susceptible to corrosion.. 2.It has high maintenance costs
as it has to be painted to make it corrosion RESIST - 3. There are extensive fireproofing costs
involved as steel is not fireproof. 4 In high temperatures, steel loses its properties . 5 Buckling is
an issue with steel structures. APPLICATIONS -1. CONSTRUCTION – BRIDGES, BUILDINGS ,
WAREHOUSES, FACTORIES. BEAMS , COLUMNS.
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE – Strength of hardened concrete measured by the compression test.
The compression strength of concrete is a measure of the concrete's ability to resist loads which
tend to compress it. The compressive strength of concrete is measured by crushing cylindrical
concrete specimens in compression testing machine.
STANDARD GRADES OF CONCRETE -
Compressive Strength
Concrete GradeMix Ratio (cement : sand : aggregates)
MPa (N/mm2) psi
Grades of Concrete The slump test is the most simple workability test for concrete, involves low cost and provides
M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa 725 psi immediate results. Due to this fact, it has been widely used for workability tests since 1922. The
compaction equipments used, type of formworks, and density of the steelwork Curing It is very Concrete is a versatile material for modern construction which is prepared by mixing well-
important to permit proper strength development aid moisture retention and to ensure proportioned quantities of cement (even lime in some cases), sand, crushed rock or gravel,
hydration process occur completely Cover Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set and water.
in codesPermeability It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed It has been used from foundations to the rooftops of buildings, in the construction of highways
that higher permeability is usually caused by higher porosity. Therefore, a proper curing, roads traffic, and hydro-power tunnels, irrigation canals, drains, and all other conceivable
sufficient cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover could provide a low structures.
permeability concrete
Purpose of Reinforcement in Concrete.
As you know that, Concrete has a very high compressive strength, but it is low in tensile
What is the difference between nominal mix and design mix?
strength.
Design Mix1. It can be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and
Thus, when only the compressive loads are acting on the concrete surface, then there is no need
determining their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain
of using reinforcement in it.
minimum strength and durability as economically as possible. 2. Design mix is a mix considering
all ratio of mix is by weight where strength of concrete is constant cost of concrete can be But where tensile forces are also involved, as in, beams and slabs, there is a very high risk of its
reduced. 3. It is Performance based concrete. 4. It is adopted for higher grade concrete. 5. It has failure when plain concrete is used.
Quality control. 6. Water cement ratio based on concrete grade & 28 days compressive strength
Steel, however, as we know, has a very high tensile strength (and also have good compressive
of concrete & durability of concrete. 7. Water content could be modified taking in to account the
strength).
compaction factor value (laboratory-based test) 8. Entrapped air content considered according
nominal maximum size aggregates. 9. Not much consideration for trial mixes Hence, when these two (concrete and steel) are combined together,
Nominal Mix 1. When the concrete is produced by taking standard arbitrary proportions of a material of construction is obtained that is capable of withstanding all the three types of forces
concrete ingredients, it is known as nominal mix concrete. 2. Nominal mix is a mix considering likely to act upon a structure, i.e., compressive loads, tensile stresses, and shear forces.
all ratio in volume where Strength and cost of concrete and strength of concrete varies. 3. It is
Such a material is known as Reinforced Cement Concrete .
Prescriptive type concrete. 4. It is used in ordinary concrete involving concrete grade not higher
It has proved extremely useful and reliable in engineering construction
than M20. 5. There is no quality control. 6. Water cement ratio is based on durability criteria,
experience & practical trials. 7. Water content can be modified by slump value (field-based test) Advantages of Reinforced Concrete (RCC). (i) Structures made from Reinforced Concrete are
8. No entrapped air content is considered. 9. Trial mixes concept is mentioned. durable.
(ii) It has a high compressive strength (due to concrete).
FUNCTIONS OF RCC STRUCTURES - Reinforced concrete is designed for 3 types for stresses:
(iii) It has a high tensile strength (due to reinforcement).
tensile, compressive, and shear & torsion. CAUSES OF DETORATION OF RCC - Prolonged
(iv) It is resistant to fire and other climate changes.
exposure to polluted environment and acid rain can deteriorate concrete or dissolve bricks and
(v) Easily available almost anywhere in the world.
will also corrode embedded or exposed metal ties and fastenings. High levels of moisture and
(vi) Too much expertise is not required for working on it, normal skilled labor can also do it.
excessive fluctuations in heating and cooling can promote the movement of soluble salts.
(vii) It can be molded in any form, shape.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE - Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to
(viii) It can be used in any part of the structure i.e., from foundation to the top roofing.
resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired
(ix) Repairing cost is almost nil.
engineering properties.
(x) It is more economical compared to other materials.
Reinforced Cement Concrete;
Final Words.
Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) is the combination of ordinary concrete with the
reinforcement to increase its compressive and tensile strength to a great extent.
VARIOUS GRADES OF REINFORCMNT USED IN RCC - 1) Mild Steel Bars: Mild steel bars can be
supplied in two grades
a)Mild steel bars grade-I designated as Fe 410-S or Grade 60
b) Mild steel bars grade-II designated as Fe-410-o or Grade 402) Medium Tensile Steel Bars
designated as Fe- 540-w-ht or Grade 75
 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONNECTIONS PROVIDED IN STEEL STRUCTURES-
 Riveted connections
 Bolted connections
 Welded connections
 Pinned connections
 4.2 RIVETED JOINTS
 4.2.1 Types of Rivet
 Rivets are manufactured from either mild steel or high tensile steel, and consists of a
head and a shank, which have got definite dimensions as shown in Figure 4.1(a). They are
placed inside holes drilled through the members to be joined, the open end of the rivet is
then forged to form another rivet head, thus closing the joint rigidly (Figure 4.1(b)). The
rivet heads are formed by any one of the following methods :
 Power Driven Rivets
 In these rivets, pneumatic hammer or any other type of mechanical driving device is used.
 Hand Driven Rivets
 In these rivets, driving is done manually by hammers.
Ft = (b – d) t × σat . . . (4.3)
where σat is the allowable tensile strength of the plate.
Bearing of Rivets
Here, the rivets do not fail due to shear, but due to crushing of the rivet shank (area = d × t)
which is pressed against the plate contact area as shown in Figure 4.3(c).
 Power driven rivets are preferred to hand driven ones and are allowed higher stresses.
Also rivets may be either shop rivets or field rivets depending upon the conditions under
which they are driven. Shop rivets are driven in workshops under controlled conditions
and expert supervision and hence allowed 10% higher stresses than fields rivets which
are driven by semi-skilled field workers at work sites.
 The rivet holes are made slightly larger than the diameter of the shank of the undriven
rivets.
 The rivets heads are made of different shapes and they are sometimes named after the
shape of their heads, e.g. Round head, Flat-head, or Counter-sunk head rivets
Resistance of the joint failing under bearing will be given by
Fbr = dt σpf . . . (4.4)
where σ is the maximum permissible bearing stress in rivets.
pf
Tensile Failure of Rivets
This occurs only when there are bending moments at a joint and
where σ is the allowable tensile stress in rivets.
tf
Bearing Shearing or Splitting at Edges of the Plate
This failure occurs because of insufficient edge distance (Figure 4.3(d)). This can be
provided by giving a minimum edge distance ‘e’ from centre of any hole to the edge of
a plate as given in Table 4.1 (IS 800 : 1984) or 1.5 times the gross-diameter of the rivet,
whichever is greater. The resistance to failure is given by
4.2.2 Definitions
Nominal Diameter of Rivet ( d )
n
It is the diameter of the shank of the rivet before driving.
Gross Diameter of the Rivet ( d)
It is the diameter of the rivet hole, which is given by the following equation.
d = dn +1.5 mm, for dn ≤ 25 mm . . . (4.1(a))
d = dn + 2.0 mm, for dn > 25 mm . . . (4.1(b))
It is assumed that the shank of the original rivet during driving will expand and, thus,
completely fill up the slightly larger area of the rivet hole.
Pitch of the Rivets ( s)
It is the distance, centre to centre, between two consecutive rivets measured parallel to the
direction of the force in the structural member.
Gauge Distance of the Rivets ( g)
It is the transverse distance between two adjacent rivet lines and is measured at right angles
to the direction of member forces as shown in Figure 4.2.
Types of Rivetted Joint
Riveted joints are broadly classified into two types :
Lap Joint
Where one member is placed overlapping over the other, and the connections are made by
either a single or double row of rivets (Figure 4.4(a)). In double row the rivets may be
arranged in a chain-form or zig-zag form as shown in Figures 4.4(c) and (d).
Butt Joint
In this case, the members to be joined are placed end to end with each other and are
covered together by means of cover plates, which carry the riveted connection.
The cover plate may be on one side ( single cover butt joint ), or on both sides ( double cover
butt joint ) of the joining members as in Figure 4.4(b).
4.2.3 Forces Acting on a Riveted Joint
The forces acting on a rivet or riveted joint may be any one of the following or their combination
:
Direct Shear
This is caused by a direct tensile or compressive force in the connecting members acting in
line with the rivet or rivets, and lying in the plane of the holes.
Eccentric Shear
It acts when the line of action of the direct force does not pass through the centre of the
single rivet hole (or through the CG of the group of holes, when there are more than one
rivet). Here, a direct shear exists along with a twisting moment.
Direct Tension/Compression
This produces a tension or compression in the rivet shank.
Bending Moment
This produces a direct tension in some rivets and compression on others placed on
opposite sides of the neutral axis.
4.2.4 Failure of a Riveted Joint
A riveted joint may fail in any of the following manners or their combination :
Shearing of Rivets
The forces in the connecting members cause a direct uniform shear force across the cross-
sectional area of the rivet. When the shear stress in the rivet cross-section reaches its
maximum permissible value, τvf, failure is supposed to occur.
The resistance of a rivet in single shear is given by following equation :
vfsdFτπ.42= . . . (4.2)
where d is the gross diameter of the rivet.
Sometimes, there can be two shearing planes when more than two plates are used (Figure
4.3(a)). Resistance of a rivet failing in double shear is twice the above value.
Tearing of Plates
If the rivets are stronger than the plate, then the latter may tear off before the rivets fail in
shear (Figure 4.3(b)). The plate fails along the smallest or net sectional area, which is equal
to the gross area of the plate minus the area of the rivet hole, i.e. A = bt – dt = (b – d) t
net
(Figure 4.3(b)).
The tearing force, F , is given by
t
4.3 WELDED JOINTS (b) Lap joint weld; Hot driven rivets: The rivets which are driven in the hot conditions
(c) Tee-joint weld;
Welding is a process of joining two pieces of metals by establishing a metallurgical bond. This is Shop rivets: The rivets which are placed in workshop
established by rendering the joining pieces molten or liquid by application of heat or pressure (d) Corner weld; and
(or both). This is widely used in structural connections and has several advantages which has (e) Edge weld. Field rivets: The rivets which are placed in the site/field.
caused its widespread adoption.
Cold driven rivets: Since high pressure is required to form the head at room temperature this
4.3.1 Advantages of Welding type of rivet is limited.
(a) It is silent, safe and quick; the joints have better appearance.
ADVANTAGES - Cost Effectiveness , Increases Production Output, Flexibility in Design,
(b) More rigid than riveted joints, as there are no holes in the member or no extra gusset
Durability
plates needed for them.
DISADVANTAGES - More Work Force, Higher Structural Weight, Lack of Aesthetic Finish
(c) The efficiency of the joint is more; it permits design based on support continuity and BOLTED
joint rigidity.

(d) The process of joining as well as the resulting structure is more economical. Its weight is
According to their shape (Figure 4.13), welds are classified as
also less.
(a) Fillet weld;
(b) Groove weld; and
However, there are certain disadvantages :

(a) It requires better expertise from the welding team; (c) Slot weld.

(b) Inspection of joints are not easy;

(c) There are possibilities of fatigue stresses and brittle failure.

4.3.2 Classification

Welds are classified according to their position, shape and type of joint.

According to their position (Figure 4.12), welds are classified as

(a) Horizontal;

(b) Vertical; and

(c) Overhead.

Riveted connections: BOLTED CONNECTIONS Bolted joints are one of the most common elements
in construction and machine design. They consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts,
The riveted connections are nowadays obsolete. The understanding of this type of connections
and are secured with the mating of screw threads.
for the strength evaluation and rehabilitation for an older structure is essential. While the
Disadvantages: Bolted connection have lesser strength in axial tension as the net area at the
connection procedure for riveted connections is same as that of the bolted connections.
Welds are also classified according to their type of joint (Figure 4.14) as root of the thread is less. Under vibratory loads the strength is reduced if the connections get
Rivet:A rivet is made up of round ductile steel bar which is called as ‘shank’ and with a head loosened. Unfinishedbolts have lesser strength because of non uniform diameter.
(a) Butt jointed weld;
at the one end. It is made up of mild steel or high tensile steel.

ADVANTAGES- · Easy fabrication. There is no need to worry about needing more of
the bolts. Because they are easy to fabricate, technicians can easily copy the bolt that you
already have in hand and create more of it for your use.Use of simple tools. Perhaps this is
one of the most important benefits of using bolts as connectors for steel structures . It does
not require specialized tools that require expertise by a fe For its installation, bolts don’t
need a particular procedure. This means it can quickly be put to use as soon as it is
installed. It does the job without a particular process or equipment.Bolts can accommodate
· Minor differences in measurements. The dimensions don’t have to be exact in case of
minor variation in between. Once the bolts are attached and tightened in place, it
immediately supports the load no matter how heavy or light it may be ·
WELDEDD JOINTS Structural welding is a process by which the parts that are to be
connected are heated and fused, with supplementary molten metal at the joint. · A
relatively small depth of material will become molten, and upon cooling, the structural steel
and weld metal will act as one continuous part where they are joined. Deformation in the
bolts is very minimal over time.
MASONRY STRUCTURE Masonry is a well-established, old method that is mostly used to
construct small buildings. Over the years, evolution in materials and engineering has made
load bearing masonry construction a reliable technique to build larger structures capable of
standing the test of time. The masonry units are places as layers once at a time and they are
held together by a binder (mortar) which highly affects the mechanical properties of the
wall. Cement mortars, lime mortars or synthetic adhesives can be utilized. Masonry is the
word used for construction with mortar as a binding material with individual units of bricks,
stones, marbles, granites, concrete blocks, tiles etc. Mortar is a mixture of binding material
with sand. Binding materials can be cement, lime, soil or any other. The durability and
strength of masonry wall construction depends on the type and quality of material used and
workmanship. TYPES OF MASONRY WALLS Based on the type of individual units used for
masonry walls and their functions, the types of masonry walls are
1.Load Bearing Masonry WallsLoad bearing masonry walls are constructed with bricks,
stones or concrete blocks. These walls directly transfer loads from the roof to the foundation.
These walls can be exterior as well as interior walls. The construction system with load
bearing walls are economical than the system with framed structures. The thickness of load
bearing walls is based on the quantity of load from roof it has to bear. For example a load
PINNED CONNECTIONS A pinned support can resist both vertical and horizontal forces but not a
bearing wall with just a ground floor can have its outer walls of 230mm, while with one or
moment. ... The representation of a pinned support includes both horizontal and vertical
more floors above it, based on occupancy type, its thickness may be increased.The load
forces. PINNED CONNECTIONS. In contrast to roller supports, a designer can often utilize pinned
bearing walls can be Reinforced masonry walls or Unreinforced masonry walls.
connections in a structural system.
2. Reinforced Masonry Walls -Reinforced masonry walls can be load bearing walls or non-
load bearing walls. The use of reinforcement in walls helps it to withstand tension forces and
heavy compressive loads. The un-reinforced masonry walls are prone to cracks and failure
under heavy compressive loads and during earthquakes. They have little ability to withstand
lateral forces during heavy rain and wind. Cracks also develop in un-reinforced masonry
walls due to earth pressure or differential settlement of foundations. To overcome such
problems, reinforced masonry walls are used. Reinforcement in walls are at required
intervals both horizontally and vertically is used. The size of reinforcement, their quantity
and spacing are determined based on the loads on the walls and structural conditions.
3. Hollow Masonry Walls Hollow or Cavity masonry walls are used to prevent
moisture reaching the interior of the building by providing hollow space between outside
and inside face of the wall. These walls also helps in temperature control inside the building
from outside wall as the hollow space restricts heat to pass through the wall. When the wall
is exposed to moisture for a sustained period and penetrates through the outer face, the
water reaches the cavity or the hollow space and flows down. Then they are drained through
the weep holes to the exterior of the building. These hollow spaces may be coated with
water repellent coating or damp-proofing to further reduce the ingress of moisture.
4.Composite Masonry Walls These walls are constructed with two or more units such as
stones or bricks and hollow bricks. This type of masonry wall construction is done for better
appearance with economy. In composite masonry walls, two wythes of masonry units are
constructed bonding with each other. While one wythe can be brick or stone masonry while
the other can be hollow bricks. A wythe is a continuous vertical section of masonry one unit
in thickness. These wythes are interconnected either by horizontal joint reinforcement or
by using steel ties.
5. Post tensioned Masonry Walls Post-tensioned masonry walls are constructed to
strengthen the masonry walls against the forces that may induce tension in the wall such as
earthquake forces or wind forces. These walls are constructed from the foundation level and
post-tensioning rods are anchored into the foundation. These rods are run vertically
between the wythes or in the core of concrete masonry units.
MERITS & DEMERITS OF L.B.M.S
MERITS All types of load-bearing masonry provide substantial fire resistance.
 Masonry buildings are more esthetically appealing. The materials used are available in
different colors and textures providing numerous choices.
 The construction procedure is simple and the materials needed are economical.
 The bearing-load structure provides high durability and strength to the building.
 Load-bearing masonry does not require a time-consuming preparation to be
implemented. DEMERITS
 Load bearing masonry demands more man-hours to be constructed and is a slower
procedure than other construction methods.
 The total weight of the masonry walls is high.
 Masonry units do not provide adequate thermal insulation.
 Load-bearing masonry does not perform well in earthquake loads. In particular, non-
reinforced units cannot withdraw the high tensile and shear stresses and experience a
brittle failure that can prove to be catastrophic.
LOAD BEARING STRUCTURE Almost all the walls are load bearing walls.
1. Almost all the should be provided with foundation
2. Load bearing walls are taken deep into the subsoil foundation.
3. Any load bearing wall should have minimum thickness of 200 mm.
4. Wall are usually constructed of bricks or stone
5. In a multi-storeyed building for every wall in the floor above there must be a
corresponding wall in continuation in the floor below to support it.
6. In a multi – storeyed building the thickness of the wall increase as we descend from a
floor above to one below it
7. A load bearing wall once constructed shall remain in position and should never be
dismantled in full or part.
8. This type of construction does not favor too many openings for windows, doors,
ventilation etc., in the ground floor as required for show room etc., as the load bearing
length of wall is considerably reduced.
9. In case of multi – storeyed buildings, the room area is reduced as we go down due to
thicker walls.
10. Plans of the different floors must be the same. Very little changes are only possible
between one floor and the one above.
11. May not withstand seismic forces and other forces and other type of vibration because
composed of different blocks as bricks and stones being bonded together.
12. FRAMED STRUCTURE None of the wall are load bearing. They serve the same purpose
as partition or screen.
 13. None of the walls are provided with any type of foundation. Walls do not go below the
plinth beam.
14. Only column are taken deep into subsoil and provided with foundation footing.
15. Exterior wall subjected to weathering elements are generally 200 mm thick. All other wall
can be 100 mm thick or even thinner.
16. Column supporting beam supporting slab are all of R.C. C.
17. There is no such necessity. As none of the walls are load bearing. Every floor may have
wall independent of the one below it.
18. These walls do not take the load and need not be thicker. They may not even continue in
the floor below.
19. The wall of framed structure can be displaced at will as they are lighter and non load
bearing.
20. The space between column can remains as open space as the case with multi – storeyed
residential flats where the ground floor is left with no walls for easy parking of vehicle.
21. Thickness of wall remains uniform, therefore the carpet area in any floor remains the
same.
22. Plans of different floor are independent of each floor. The ground floor may have a
commercial complex, first floor an office or a bank and second floor onward of residential
complexes of different types of plans and function within the same building.
23. More rigid and withstand seismic forces because of the entire frame of column, beam and
slabs act as one unit of R.C.C.
DESIGN OF SLAB
A slab is a flat two dimensional planar structural element having thickness small
compared to its other two dimensions. It provides a working flat surface or a covering
shelter in buildings. It primarily transfer the load by bending in one or two directions.
Reinforced concrete slabs are used in floors, roofs and walls of buildings and as the decks
of bridges. The floor system of a structure can take many forms such as in situ solid slab,
ribbed slab or pre-cast units. Slabs may be supported on monolithic concrete beam,
steel beams, walls or directly over the columns. Concrete slab behave primarily as flexural
members and the design is similar to that of beams. Slabs are classified based on many
aspects
1) Based of shape: Square, rectangular, circular and polygonal in shape. 2) Based on type
of support: Slab supported on walls, Slab supported on beams, Slab supported on
columns (Flat slabs). 3) Based on support or boundary condition: Simply supported,
• Disadvantages --Less durable when compared with other types of footings --This type
of footing is not suitable for specific types of soils
2-ISOLATED FOUNDATION
Footings which are provided under each column independently are called as Isolated footings.
They are usually square, rectangular or circular in section. Footing is laid on PCC. Before laying
PCC, termite control liquid is sprayed on top face of PCC to restrict the termites to damage the
footing.
Isolated footings are provided where the soil bearing capacity is generally high and it comprises
of a thick slab which may be flat or stepped or sloped. This type of footings are most economical
when compared with the other kind of footings.
These foundations are used to support single columns. This is one of the most economical
types of footings and is used when columns are spaced at relatively long distances.
Advantages Economical when columns are placed at longer distances. ----Workmen with
little or no knowledge can easily construct. -Ease of Constructability:- Excavation, Form-work,
Reinforcement placement and placing of Concrete is at ease. 3- COMBINED FOUNDATION-
Combined footings usually support two columns, or three columns not in a row.Combined
footings are used when tow columns are so close that single footings cannot be used or when
one column is located at or near a property line. A footing which has more than one column
is called as combined footing. This kind of footing is adopted when there is a limited space. Due
to lack of space we cannot cast individual footing, Therefore footings are combined in one
footing. 4- STRAP FOUNDATION-Cantilever or strap footings consist of two single footings
connected with a beam or a strap and support two single columns. When the independent
footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called a strap footing. It is used when
the distance between the columns is so great that a combined trapezoidal footing becomes
quite narrow, with high bending moments. In this case the column is provided with its
independent footings and a beam is used to connect the two footings. This type replaces a
combined footing and is more economical. The strap beam doesn’t remain in contact with
soil, and thus doesn’t transfer any pressure to the soil. The strap, assumed to be infinitely stiff,
serves to transfer the column loads on the soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under both
footings.5- RAFT/MAT FOUNDATION- Rafted or mat foundation consists of one footing usually
placed under the entire building area. When number of column in more than one row,
provided with a combined footing, the footing is called mat or raft foundation. ***They are
used, when soil bearing capacity is low, column loads are heavy single footings cannot be
used, piles are not used and differential settlement must be reduced.**When the column
Cantilever slab, Overhanging slab, Fixed or Continues slab. 4) Based on use: Roof slab,
Floor slab, Foundation slab, Water tank slab.
5) Basis of cross section or sectional configuration. Ribbed slab /Grid
slab, Solid slab, Flat slab, Folded plate 6) Basis of spanning directions One way slab –
Spanning in one direction Two way slab _ Spanning in two direction
BEHAVIOR OF ONE WAY SLAB When a slab is supported only on two parallel apposite
edges, it spans only in the direction perpendicular to two supporting edges. Such a slab is
called one way slab. Also, if the slab is supported on all four edges and the ratio of
longer span(ly) to shorter span (lx) i.e Ly/Lx > 2. Practically the slab spans across the
shorter span. Such a slabs are also designed as one way slabs. In this case, the main
reinforcement is provided along the spanning direction to resist one way bending.
BEHAVIOR OF TWO WAY SLABS The rectangular slabs supported on two adjacent,
three or four edges, and with the ratio of longer to shorter span less than two, which carry
the load by flexure in two perpendicular directions are called two-way slabs. A
rectangular slab supported on four edge supports, which bends in two orthogonal
directions and deflects in the form of dish or a saucer is called two way slabs. For a two
way slab the ratio of Ly/Lx ≤ 2.0 . HOW DO WE CALCULATE A ONE WAY OR TWO-WAY
SLAB? If L/b ratio is greater than or equal 2 or then it is considered a one-way slab.
(Longer span / Shorter span) L y / Lx ≥ 2 If L/b ratio is less than 2 then it is considered
a two-way slab (Longer span / Shorter span ) Ly / L x < 2
loads are heavy or when the safe bearing capacity of soil is very low, The required footing area
become very large. As mentioned this footing is in shallow foundation. So in order to spread the
load over large area with less depth then we have to increase the footing area. If we increase
footing area the footings are overlapped each other, instead of providing each footing on each
column all columns are placed in common footing. A raft foundation is a solid reinforced
concrete slab covering entire area beneath the structure and supporting all the columns. Such
foundation due to its own rigidity minimizes differential settlements. ****It is provided in a
places like seashore area, coastal area area where the water table is very high and soil bearing
capacity is very weak.
DEEP FOUNDATION-
Pile Foundation ----A pile is a long vertical load transferring member made of timber, steel or
concrete. In pile foundations, a number of piles are driven in the base of the structure.
Caisson Foundation ---Also called as pier foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a
bridge pier, in the construction
of a concrete dam, or for the
repair of ships
MASONARY FOUNDATION
Masonry foundation may be constructed from concrete block or brick masonry units. The
concrete block masonry foundation is commonly used as it is cost effective and its unattractive
appearance would not be visible.***The masonry foundation should be able to adequately
support weight of the structure and lateral loads imposed by soil adjacent to foundations. It
should be sufficiently durable to withstand aggressions from soil and ground
water.*****Masonry foundation is either constructed from masonry units only (plain masonry
foundation) or reinforced with steel bars to increase ultimate load carrying capacity. TYPES OF
MASONRY FOUNDATIONS Following are the different types of masonry foundations used in
building construction: Masonry strip footing 1.Masonry spread (isolated) footing- 2.Stepped
masonry footing 3. Masonry inverted arch footing 1. inverted arch masonry footing
consist of an inverted arch constructed from brick or stone masonry on which masonry wall or
pier is placed. This type of foundation is not common nowadays because the use of reinforced
concrete has replaced this type of footing. They are used in the construction of multistory
Compression members
 Structural Members subjected to axial compression/compressive forces
 Design governed by strength and buckling
 Columns are subjected to axial loads through the centroid.
 The stress in the column cross-section can be
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
There are two basic types of foundations
1. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
2. DEEP FOUNDATION
1. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
• The foundation provided immediately below the lowest part of the structure near the
ground level, transferring load directly to the supporting soil, is known as shallow
foundation.
• Shallow foundation is provided when stable soil with adequate bearing capacity occur
near to the ground level.
TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
1-SPREAD/STRIP FOUNDATION
• Spread foundation is also called as Wall footing. As name itself showcasing that, it is a
strip type footing which follows the path of Superstructure Wall. This type of footing is
constructed for Load bearing walls. It is a continuous strip of concrete that serves to
spread the weight of a load-bearing wall across an area of soil. The strip footing
foundation width is decided by considering bearing capacity of soil. Greater the bearing
capacity of soil lesser is the width of the Strip footing.
• A spread footing foundation, which is typical in residential building, has a wider bottom
portion than the load-bearing foundation walls it supports. This wider part "spreads" the
weight of the structure over more area for greater stability.
• Advantages ---It doesn’t require expensive tools to construct. --Easy to build ---Not
required skilled labour to construct.
building, and was appropriate to be built in soft soil material and the objective was to reduce Outer bark: It is the outermost skin of the tree. It consists of wood fibres. Fissures and cracks
the section of footing.****The most outstanding challenge of considering inverted arch may be present in this layer.
masonry was the construction of the inverted arch with satisfactory strength that needed Medullary rays: These are thin radial fibres, extending from the pith to the cambium layer. They
substantial effort and highly skilled and experienced mason. hold the annual rings together.
Table 2.1 shows the difference between soft wood (coniferous) and hard wood (deciduous)
Brick Masonry Wall Footing In the case of brick walls, the footing consists of several courses trees.
of bricks, the lowest course being usually twice the breadth of the wall above. **The increased
base width of the wall footing is obtained through the provision of 5cm offsets on either side of
the wall.***The depth of each course can be one brick or multiples of brick thicknesses.***The
base of the footing wall rests on a plain concrete footing which projects 10 to 15 cm beyond the
last brick offset as shown in .The width at the base shall not be less than the width of the
supported wall plus 30
2. Stone Masonry Wall Footing In the case of stone masonry walls, the offsets could be 15 cm
with the heights of the course as 30 cm. Therefore, the size of offsets is slightly more than that of
the brick wall footings. 1.The depth of the concrete should not be less than 15 cm. 2.By and
large, the lean concrete mix proportions is 1:4:8 (1 Cement : 4 Fine aggregate : 8 Coarse
aggregate) or 1 : 5 : 10 ( 1 Cement : 5 Fine aggregate : 10 Coarse aggregate) mix
Endogenous tress These trees grow inwards. In these trees fresh fibrous mass is in the
Timber 2 innermost portion. These trees do not yield good timber for structural works.
The word timber refers to the wood used for construction. This word derives from old English Example: Bomboo, cane
word ‘timbrian’ which means ‘to build’. Living tree yielding good timber is called standing Classification based on durability
timber. After felling and separating branches, it is known as rough timber. when bark its The Forest Research Institute of India conducts durability tests on specimens of size 600 × 50 ×
removed and stem is roughly converted into pieces of suitable length for transportation is 50 mm by burying them in the ground upto half their length and observing them over several
known as log. After the log is seasoned and converted into commercial sizes like planks, battens, years. On the basis of durability it classifies trees into the following three classes:
posts and beams, it is known as converted timber. 1. High durability: If the average life is more than 10 years.
Learning Objectives 2. Moderate durability: If the average life is 5-10 years.
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to: 3. Low durability: If the average life is less than 5 years.
· know the properties of timber, and
· select suitable timber for building works. Classification Based on Grading
2.1 ENGINEERING ASPECT OF TIMBER Based on permissible stresses, defects and so on, IS:12326-1976 classifies timber into three
Timber was used as a building material even by primitive man. Many ancient temples, palaces grades: Special Grade, Grade-I and Grade-II.
and bridges of can be seen even today. Wide use of timber for engineering aspects is due to its Classification Based on Availability
special properties as given below: Based on availability, IS: 339-1963 classifies timber as:
· It is a naturally available, ready to use material. The rough timber is used for temporary works X – Most common, 1415 m3or more per year.
like scaffolding, centring shoring and strutting Y – Common, 335 m3 to 1415 m3 per years.
· It can be converted to any size and shape easily and hence used for doors, windows, flooring Z – Less common, less than 335 m3 per year.
and roofing. · Timber has good strength and hence used for making load bearing members like 2.3 SEASONING OF TIMBER
beams, columns, trusses and piles. Seasoning is the process of reducing moisture content in a freshly cut tree to the desired level.
Objects of seasoning timber comes out at discharging end sufficient moisture is removed. This method is suitable if · It should be durable.
The objects of seasoning are to: seasoning is required on large scale, since in this case investment is high. · It should give good appearance.
1. increase the durability by protecting it from fungi, insects and other causes related to (iii) Chemical seasoning: It is also known as salt seasoning. In this method, the timber is dipped · It should should not affect the strength of timber.
moisture content; in a solution of sodium chloride or sodium nitrate. The surface salt draws out inner moisture. · It should be free from unpleasant smell.
2. impart hardness, stiffness, strength and resistance to electric shocks; This preliminary treatment by chemicals ensures uniform seasoning across the section. It is then · It should be non-inflammable.
3. maintain shape and size; taken out and seasoned in the ordinary way. · It should be cheap and easily available.
4. make it workable; (iv) Electrical seasoning: In this method, high frequency alternating current is passed through · It should cover large area with small quanitiy.
5. make it fit to receive painting; the timber. Heat is introduced internally and the timber starts drying. As the moisture content Widely used preservatives
6. make it suitable for gluing; reduces resistance to electricity increases. The measure of resistance may be used to stop The following are widely used preservatives
7. reduce the tendency of cracking and warping; seasoning at appropriate level. This method is fast and uniform. Many plywood companies · Coal tar
8. decrease weight and save transportation cost and adopt this method. It is a costly technique. · Solignum paints
9. allow to burn easily, if used as fuel. Advantages of natural seasoning · Chemical salt
Methods of seasoning · It requires low investment. · Creosote
Methods of seasoning may be broadly grouped into: · It does not require skilled labour. · ASCU
(a) Natural seasoning · It is ideally suited, to low and non-uniform market demand. 1. Coal tar: By applying hot coal tar with a brush, timber can be protected from attack by fungi
(b) Artificial seasoning Disadvantages of Natural Seasoning and insects. Since it spoils the appearance, this treatment is mainly restricted to unimportant
(a) Natural Seasoning · It needs larger space for seasoning. structures likes fence posts, electric pole, etc.
This type of seasoning may be in the form of: · The process is very slow, usually takes 2-4 years. 2. Soligmum paint: It is a special paint which protects timber from termite attack. After
(i) Air seasoning · As the process depends on natural air, there is no control on it. thorough cleaning two to three coats of paint are applied on the wood. Painting is necessary
(ii) Water seasoning · Ends may dry fast and split. Interiors may remain moist while exteriors dry fast. time to time.
(ii) Water seasoning: In this method logs are placed in a river with thicker ends pointing
(i) Air Seasoning: In a shed with a platform of height 300 mm timber is stacked as shown in Fig. · The moisture content may not be brought down to the desired level. 3. Chemical salt: Copper sulphate, zinc chloride and sodium fluoride are dissolved and are used
upstream. A number of logs are tied together and the group is anchored to a standing tree or to
2.2. Care is taken to see that air can circulate around each timber balk. Moisture content · Chances of fungi and insect attack cannot be ruled out during the seasoning period. as preservative. After treatment with these chemicals, paints are applied on timber to improve
rock to see that it is not carried away by the river. The sap contained in the timber is washed out
decreases over a period of time. Well seasoned timber contains only 15 percent moisture. This Advantages of artificial seasoning appearance.
over a period of 2-4 weeks. The timber is then stacked in a dry place. Compared to air seasoning
process is slow but it is the best method of seasoning. · Drying is uniform, hence defect such as shrinkage, cracks and wrapping are minimum. 4. Creosote: Creosote is oil obtained by the distillation of coal tar. Timber is kept in a chamber
this method takes less times.
· Drying process is fast, hence economical. and creosote is pumped in at higher temperature. A temperature of 50°C is maintained for 2-3
(b) Artificial Seasoning
· Moisture content can be reduced to the desired level. hours. It gives good protection to timber.
The various methods of artificial seasoning are:
· Chances of fungi and insects attack are low. 5. ASCU: This is a special preservative developed by the Forest Research. Institute, Dehradun. It
(i) Boiling
· Wood becomes more suitable for painting. consists of 1 part of hydrated arsenic pentoxide, 3 parts of copper sulphate and 4 parts of
(ii) Kiln seasoning
Disadvantages of artificial seasoning potassium dichromate or sodium dichromate. This is also available in powder form. By mixing 6
(iii) Chemical seasoning
· It needs high investment. parts of its with 100 parts of water, the solution is prepared and sprayed on the surface of
(iv) Electrical seasoning
· Skilled supervision is required. timber. Then the surface is painted.
(i) Boiling: In this method timber is immersed in water and then water is boiled for 3-4 hours.
· If demand is low and intermittent, it is uneconomical. 2.8 PROPERTIES OF GOOD TIMBER A good timber has the following properties:
Instead of boiling hot steam may be passed over the timber. Them it is dried slowly. This process
· It is free from serious defects like knots, shakes and cracks.
of seasoning is fast but costly. It reduces the strength of timber to some extent. PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
· It has uniform colour.· Its texture is fine and even.
(ii) Kiln seasoning: A kiln is an airtight chamber. In this timber to be seasoned is placed and hot Except teak all other timber need treatment with preservation to protect it from attacks of fungi,
· It has close grains.· It has pleasant odour when freshly cut.
air is pumped in. After moisture content is brought down, the temperature is reduced and insects and the weather.
· It has higher density.· It is hard.· It has higher strength.· It has higher modulus of
the chamber is allowed to cool. The kiln used may be progressive type also. In such a kiln, Requirements of wood preservative
elasticity.· Its fire resistance is high.
carriages carrying timber moves from one to the other end slowly. Hot air is pumped from · It should effectively resist fungi, insects and the action of It should possess good penetration
discharging end so that temperature is higher at that end compared to at the charging end. As and spreadability.