1 Contenido

11

13

13

16
17

17

26

30

31

34
41
41

41

41

42

...................................................................................................................... 36
 ......... 20

.................................................................................................................................................... 22
 352 = 3 ∙ 100 + 5 ∙ 10 + 2 = 3 ∙ 102 + 5 ∙ 101 + 2 ∙ 100

{3,5,2} {0,1,2}

352.11 = 3 ∙ 102 + 5 ∙ 101 + 2 ∙ 100 + 1 ∙ 10−1 + 1 ∙ 10−2

3
102
100
3 ∙ 102 ≠ 3 ∙ 100

𝑁
𝑁 = 𝑎𝑛 10𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 10𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 100
 110 = 12 = 1 ∙ 20
310 = 112 = 1 ∙ 21 + 1 ∙ 20
1310 = 11012 = 1 ∙ 2 + 1 ∙ 22 + 0 ∙ 21 + 1 ∙ 20
3

𝑁 = (𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1 … 𝑎0 )2 = 𝑎𝑛 2𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 2𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 20 = 𝑎𝑛 2𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎0

 𝑎𝑛 , … , 𝑎0 𝛼
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎0 𝑥 0

𝛽 𝑏𝑖 𝑛≤𝑖≤0

𝑏𝑛 ← 𝑎𝑛
𝑏𝑛−1 ← 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑛 𝛽
𝑏𝑛−2 ← 𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝛽
⋮
𝑏0 ← 𝑎0 + 𝑏1 𝛽
𝜶 𝜷

𝑏0 = 𝑝(𝛽)
11012
𝑎3 = 1, 𝑎2 = 1, 𝑎1 = 0 𝑎0 = 1 𝛽=
2
𝑏3 = 1
𝑏2 = 1 + 1 ∙ 2 = 3
𝑏1 = 0 + 3 ∙ 2 = 6
𝑏0 = 1 + 6 ∙ 2 = 13

11012 ≡ 1310

10002
 𝑁10

𝑛
𝑁=∑ 𝑏𝑖 2𝑖
𝑖=0

𝑏𝑖 𝜖{0,1} 𝑁

𝑁2 ≡ 𝑏𝑛 𝑏𝑛−1 … 𝑏1 𝑏0

𝑁 𝑏0
= 𝑏𝑛 2𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑛−1 2𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 20 +
2 2

𝑁/2 𝑏0
𝑏1
𝑄0 /2 𝑄0 𝑁/2 = 𝑄0 + 𝑏0 /2
𝐾 𝑄𝐾 = 0

𝑖=0
𝑁 = 2𝑄𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖
𝐻𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑎 𝑄𝑖 = 0
𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑄𝑖+1 + 𝑏𝑖+1

𝒉
𝒉
 𝑏𝑖

242 = 2 ∙ 121 + 0, 𝑏0 = 0
121 = 2 ∙ 60 + 1, 𝑏1 = 1
60 = 2 ∙ 30 + 0, 𝑏2 = 0
30 = 2 ∙ 15 + 1, 𝑏3 = 1
15 = 2 ∙ 7 + 1, 𝑏4 = 1
7 = 2 ∙ 3 + 1, 𝑏5 = 1
3 = 2 ∙ 1 + 1, 𝑏6 = 1
1 = 2 ∙ 0 + 1, 𝑏7 = 1

242 ≡ 111110102

𝑁 𝑏
𝑁 = (𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−2 … 𝑎0 )𝑏 =
 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝≠𝑞

𝑝 = 𝑝𝑛 𝑝𝑛−1 … 𝑝0
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚 𝑞𝑚−1 … 𝑞0 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛

𝑝 = 𝑝𝑛 ∙ 10𝑛 + 𝑝𝑛−1 ∙ 10𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑝0 ∙ 100

𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚 ∙ 10𝑚 + 𝑞𝑚−1 ∙ 10𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑞0 ∙ 100

𝑛 ≥ 𝑚,

𝑝 + 𝑞 = (𝑝𝑛 ∙ 10𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑚 ∙ 10𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑝0 ∙ 100 ) + (𝑞𝑚 ∙ 10𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑞0 ∙ 100 )

= 𝑝𝑛 ∙ 10𝑛 + ⋯ + (𝑝𝑚 + 𝑞𝑚 ) ∙ 10𝑚 + ⋯ + (𝑝0 +𝑞0 ) ∙ 100

𝑝𝑖 + 𝑞𝑖 𝑏

𝑞𝑖 (𝑞𝑖 +
𝑝𝑖 )𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑏 𝑖+1 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑜 (𝑞𝑖 +
𝑏𝑖 + 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑜)/𝑏
 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑜 = 0
𝑟0≤𝑖≤𝑛+1 = 0
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎 𝑖 ≔ 0 … 𝑛 + 1:
𝑟𝑖 = (𝑝𝑖 + 𝑞𝑖 ) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑏
𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑜 = 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑜((𝑝𝑖 + 𝑞𝑖 + 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑜)/𝑏)

(𝑝𝑖 + 𝑞𝑖 ) = (𝑞𝑖 + 𝑝𝑖 )

𝑝+𝑞 =𝑞+𝑝
𝑘 𝑘𝑝
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑘(𝑝𝑛 ∙ 10𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑚 ∙ 10𝑚 + 𝑝𝑚−1 ∙ 10𝑚−1 + … + 𝑝0 ∙ 100 )
= 𝑘𝑝𝑛 ∙ 10𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑝𝑚 ∙ 10𝑚 + 𝑘𝑝𝑚−1 ∙ 10𝑚−1 + … + 𝑘𝑝0 ∙ 100

∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑝𝑖
3478 → 38 ≡ 0112 , 48 ≡ 1002 , 78 ≡ 1112 → 111001112

101110112 → 0102 ≡ 28 , 1112 ≡ 78 , 0112 ≡ 38 → 2738

1010 = 128
242 = 28 (12)28 + 48 (12)18 + 28 (12)08

𝑏2 ← 28
𝑏1 ← 48 + 28 (12)8 = 308
𝑏0 ← 28 + 308 (12)8 = 28 + 3608 = 3628

242 = 3628 = 111100102

 {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹}

28 = 24+4 = 24 24 = 16 ∙ 16

217𝐹16

217𝐹16 = 2 ∙ 163 + 1 ∙ 162 + 7 ∙ 161 + 15 ∙ 160

= 2 ∙ 4096 + 1 ∙ 256 + 7 ∙ 16 + 15
= 8192 + 256 + 112 + 15 = 8575

𝛽1 𝛽2
𝛽2 𝛽1
𝛽1
𝛽2
 16 = 2 ∙ 8 = 24

1324098 𝑥
𝑥 = 1.324098 × 106
0.23355 𝑥
𝑥 = 2.3355 × 10−1
 124.435 𝑥
𝑥 = 1.24435 × 10−2

𝑓𝑙(𝑥)
𝑥∈ℝ
𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑𝑝−1
𝑓𝑙(𝑥) = ± (𝑑0 + 1
+ 2 + ⋯ + 𝑝−1 ) × 𝛽 𝑒
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽

𝑒∈ℕ
𝑑𝑖
0 ≤ 𝑑𝑖 ≤ 𝛽
𝛽
𝑝
[𝑒𝑀𝐼𝑁 , 𝑒𝑀𝐴𝑋 ]
 𝑑𝑖 𝛽
𝑑1 𝑑2 … 𝑑𝑝−1 𝑓𝑙(𝑥)

𝑒𝑀𝐼𝑁 ≤ 𝑒 ≤ 𝑒𝑀𝐴𝑋

0.1 𝛽 = 10, 𝑝 = 6
𝑓𝑙(0.1) = 1.00 × 10−1

𝛽 = 2, 𝑝 = 24
𝑓𝑙(0.1) = 1.10011001100110011001101 × 2−4

110011. ..
0.310

𝑑𝑖 )
𝛽−1

𝛽 = 2, 𝑝 =
23
𝑓𝑙(0.1) = 0.1100110011001100110011 × 2−3

𝑑0 ≠ 0
 𝑓𝑙(𝑥) = ±𝑑0 . 𝑑1 𝑑2 … 𝑑𝑝−1 × 𝛽 𝑒 ; 0 ≤ 𝑑𝑖 ≤ 𝛽, 1 ≤ 𝑑0 ≤ 𝛽

𝑑0 = 1 < 𝛽, 𝑝, 𝑒𝑀𝐼𝑁 , 𝑒𝑀𝐴𝑋 >

[𝑒𝑀𝐼𝑁 , 𝑒𝑀𝐴𝑋 ] 𝑒𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑒𝑀𝐼𝑁 + 1

𝑁
𝑝−1 𝑁−𝑝−1
|𝑠|1|𝑑1 | … |𝑑𝑝−1 |𝑒1 |𝑒2 | … |𝑒𝑁 |

2(𝛽 − 1)𝛽 𝑝−1 (𝑒𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑒𝑀𝐼𝑁 + 1) + 1

(𝛽 − 1)
𝑝−1
(𝛽 𝑝−1 ) 𝑒𝑀𝐴𝑋 −
𝑒𝑀𝐼𝑁 + 1

𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑒𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑒𝑀𝐼𝑁 + 1) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝛽 𝑝 ) + 1

𝜷 𝒑 𝒆𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝒆𝑴𝑰𝑵

2 24 −126 127
2 53 −1,022 1,023
2 48 −16,383 16,384
10 12 −499 499
16 6 −64 63

𝑑0 = 1)

𝑓𝑙(0) = 1.0 𝑥 𝛽 𝑒𝑀𝐼𝑁 −1

< 2,3, −1,1 >

𝒊 𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒂 𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝟏𝟎
𝑥

𝑈𝐹𝐿 = 𝛽 𝐿
𝑂𝐹𝐿 = 𝛽 𝑒𝑀𝐴𝑋+1 (1 − 𝛽 −𝑝 )

𝑈𝐹𝐿 = 2−1 = 0.5 𝑂𝐹𝐿 = 22 (1 − 2−3 ) = 4 ∗ 0.88 = 3.5

 𝐼𝑁𝐹

𝑥 𝑓𝑙(𝑥)
𝑓𝑙(𝑥) = 𝑑. 𝑑𝑑𝑑 … 𝑑 × 𝛽 𝑒

𝑑𝑝−1 0 𝛽

𝑓𝑙(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥+1
𝑑𝑝−1 𝑓𝑙(𝑥) 𝛽/2 . 5𝑢𝑙𝑝

(𝛽/2) 𝛽 −𝑝 × 𝛽 𝑒

𝛽𝑒 𝛽 × 𝛽𝑒

𝑥
𝑓𝑙(𝑥) 𝑥
𝛽 𝛽
( 2 ) 𝛽 −𝑝 × 𝛽 𝑒 ( 2 ) 𝛽 −𝑝 × 𝛽 𝑒
,
𝛽𝑒 𝛽 𝑒+1

1/2𝑢𝑙𝑝 𝛽
 1 −𝑝 1 𝛽
𝛽 ≤ 𝑢𝑙𝑝 ≤ 𝛽 −𝑝
2 2 2

𝛽
𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 𝜖𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ = 𝛽 −2
2

𝑥 𝑓𝑙(𝑥) 𝑒𝑝𝑠
𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 0.125

𝑒𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠

𝑓𝑙(1 + 𝑒𝑝𝑠) > 1

𝑓𝑙(𝑥)
𝑥

𝑥 → 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑒𝑝𝑠

octave:3> a=4.0/3;
octave:4> b=a-1;
octave:5> c=b+b+b;
octave:6> eps=1-c;
octave:7> eps
eps = 2.2204e-016
octave:8>

0 < 𝑈𝐹𝐿 < 𝑒𝑝𝑠 < 𝑂𝐹𝐿

0/0

octave:9> 0/0
warning: division by zero
ans = NaN
octave:10>

1.422 × 10−3
3.4235 × 108

𝑓𝑙(𝑥 𝑜𝑝 𝑦) ≡ (𝑥 𝑜𝑝 𝑦)(1 + 𝛿), 𝛿 ≤ 𝑒𝑝𝑠, 𝑜𝑝 = +, −,∗,/

𝑥 𝑦
𝑜𝑝
 𝑥 𝑜𝑝 𝑦
𝑓𝑙(𝑥 𝑜𝑝 𝑦) ≡ , 𝛿 ≤ 𝑒𝑝𝑠
1+𝛿

𝑝
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹𝐿<10,6,−1,2>

𝑥 = 1.92403 × 102
𝑦 = 6.35782 × 10−1
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 192.403 + 0.635782 = 193.038782 = 1.93039 × 102
 {0,1}

010 → 02
110 → 12
210 → 102
310 → 112
⋮
910 → 10012
1010 → 10102
 𝑛−1

𝑠|𝑑0 |𝑑1 | … |𝑑𝑛−1

+810 = 00001000
−810 = 10001000

0 = 000000002 = 100000002

𝑥2 𝑟

𝐶1 (𝑥2 ) = 𝑟2 − 𝑥2

𝑟2 = 11 … 1
 810

𝐶1 (810 ) = 𝐶1 (000010002 ) = 111111112 − 000010002 = 111101112

1010 −1010

𝐶1 (1010 ) = 𝐶1 (000010102 ) = 111111112 − 000010102 = 111101012

𝐶1 (−1010 ) = 𝐶1 (111101012 ) = 000010102

111101012 + 000010102

𝑥2

𝐶2 (𝑥2 ) = 𝐶1 (𝑥2 ) + 12

𝐶1 (𝑥2 )
𝑥2 12

𝐶2 (1010 ) = 𝐶2 (000010102 ) = 000010102 + 12 = 111101012

𝐶2 (−1010 ) = 𝐶2 (111101012 ) = 000010102
 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 ⏟
⏟ 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

01001101010000112 ≡ 77.6710
10011011010101102 ≡ −100.162
𝑓: ℝ → ℝ

𝑓̂

𝑥̂ = 𝑥 + ℎ
 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥̂) = 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)

𝑓̂(𝑥̂)

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑓̂(𝑥̂) − 𝑓(𝑥)

(𝑓̂(𝑥̂) − 𝑓(𝑥̂)) − (𝑓(𝑥

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ⏟ ⏟ ̂) − 𝑓(𝑥))
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑠
𝑓𝑙(𝑥) 𝑥

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑠 = |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥̂)|

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑠
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙 =
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝜅
|𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑖ó𝑛 | |(𝑓(𝑥̂) − 𝑓(𝑥))/𝑓(𝑥)|
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑 = =
|𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑠| |(𝑥̂ − 𝑥)/𝑥|
 𝑓(𝑥̂) − 𝑓(𝑥)
| |
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥̂ − 𝑥
| |
𝑥

𝜅≈1
 𝑓

𝑥(𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥))
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑 = | |
ℎ𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) ≈ ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑 = |𝑥 |
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2
√𝑥
 𝑥
𝑥𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 2 𝑥 1
𝜅=| |=| √ |=
𝑓(𝑥) √𝑥 2

10
𝑓(𝑥) =
1 − 𝑥2

20𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2
𝜅
20𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑥 [ ]𝑥 2𝑥 2
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2
𝜅=| |=| |=
𝑓(𝑥) 10 |1 − 𝑥 2 |
1−𝑥 2

|𝑥| |𝑥|
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥)
 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥1 =
2𝑎
−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥2 =
2𝑎

2𝑎, √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 –𝑏
 𝑏2 4𝑎𝑐
𝑂𝐹𝐿 𝑈𝐹𝐿 𝑏≪1

– 𝑏 ± √𝑑

𝑎 = 0.05010, 𝑏 = −98.78, 𝑐 = 5.015

𝑥1 = 1971.605916
𝑥2 = 0.050770694

√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 98.77
𝑏 = 98.78
– 𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 98.78 ± 98.77 = 1972, 0.099

𝑏 2 ≫ 𝑎𝑐 𝑏>0 –𝑏 −
√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
2𝑐
𝑥1 =
−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
 2𝑐
𝑥2 =
−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐

(16). 𝑥1 , (15). 𝑥2
𝑏<0 (15). 𝑥1 , (16). 𝑥2

𝑥1,2 = 1972, 0.051

𝑈𝐹𝐿 𝑂𝐹𝐿

𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙 = 𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙 +
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜