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The search for Don Francisco de Paula Marin: Servant, friend, and advisor to
King Kamehameha I, Kingdom of Hawai'i

Chapter · January 2017

DOI: 10.1017/9781139683531.004

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The Search for Don Francisco de Paula Marin: Servant, Friend, and Advisor to King
Kamehameha I, Kingdom of Hawai`i

Michael Pietrusewsky, Michele Toomay Douglas, Rona M. Ikehara-Quebral and Conrad

Mac Goodwin

Abstract
Don Francisco de Paula Marin was born in Jerez, Spain, November 28, 1774. After
deserting the Spanish Navy in Nootka in the American Northwest, Marin, known to
Hawaiians as Manini, found his way to Hawai`i in 1793 or 1794. Soon after his arrival in
Hawai`i, he became interpreter, friend, and advisor to King Kamehameha I, who was in
the process of consolidating all the Hawaiian Islands under his leadership. In addition to
his ties to Hawaiian royalty, Marin was known as a keen horticulturalist, distiller, and
entrepreneur making him probably one of the most influential European residents in the
Hawaiian Islands in the early 1800s. In ca. 1810, Marin built his house and other
structures on land granted to him by Kamehameha in downtown Honolulu. Nearly 200
years later in 1994, a 28 story high-rise building and a six-story parking structure were
constructed on the Marin property. Archaeological survey and excavation in 1992
identified 15 historic coffin burials from the Marin Tower property. In addition to the
poorly preserved and incomplete skeletons of five adults (three males, two females) and a
child identified from what was believed to be the Marin family plot (Block I), other
better-preserved skeletons of five adults and four subadults (including two fetuses) were
also located in a separate area (Block II) within the property.

Using historical, archaeological, and forensic/osteological documentation, several

tentative identifications were made. While none of the burials from the project areas can
be unequivocally assigned to any of the Marin family, possible choices can be narrowed
in a few cases. One male burial was found to most closely match Don Francisco Marin.
Other burials identified in the Marin property may represent two of Marin’s four wives
(all of Hawaiian ancestry) and any of his eight children who were likely to have been
buried on property. Several of the burials from the Marin property very likely represent
individuals of Hawaiian ancestry, exhibiting osteological and dental features consistent
with other postcontact skeletons from Hawai`i.

  1
 Don Francisco de Paula Marin, known to the Hawaiians as “Manini”, was born in
Jerez de la Frontera in the Andalusian region of Spain on November 28, 1774. Not much
is known of Marin’s life before he came to Hawai`i or of his activities in the first years
after his arrival. After joining the Spanish naval service, most likely at the age of 16, he
jumped ship in Nootka, in the American northwest, in ca. 1792. He eventually made his
way to Hawai`i, perhaps shanghaied, in 1793 or 1794, joining a small group of foreigners
on O`ahu whose numbers would swell to nearly 60 by 1809 (Gast and Conrad, 1973,
2002) (Figure 1). Not long after his arrival, Marin married and became interpreter, friend,
trusted advisor, and part time physician to King Kamehameha I (Figures 2 and 3), who
was in the process of consolidating his control of all the Hawaiian Islands. Marin was a
colorful, if not controversial, figure of early Honolulu who adopted many aspects of
Hawaiian culture, including learning the language. He is reported to have had several
Hawaiian wives, fathering many children. He collected, introduced, and propagated many
plants (e.g. olive, grape, tamarind, etc.) in the Hawaiian Islands and made many different
kinds of commodities such as wine, brandy, soap, pickles, and cigars to name a few. He
also provided some of the first accommodations for transients in Hawai`i and provisioned
visiting ships with fresh produce from his gardens.

In 1810, in recognition of his services, King Kamehameha I granted Marin, aged

36, a tract of waterfront land near the royal compound in downtown Honolulu (Figure 4).
Over the next few decades, with expansion of the Marin’s immediate and extended
family (`ohana), the lot filled with people and various enterprises (Goodwin et al.,
1996:360). There were houses for female members and their children, houses for cooking
and sleeping, men’s houses, houses for visiting ship captains and other guests, as well as
houses for Marin’s adult children and their partners. In addition to these structures, there
were fences, paths, gardens, pens for cattle and other animals, a breakwater and dock, and
family burial plots (Figure 5) (Goodwin et al., 1996:360). After ca. 1850, the members of
the Marin family began to divest themselves of the land provided to Don Francisco de
Paula Marin and move elsewhere. In addition to this downtown property, Kamehameha
awarded Marin larger tracts of land on Ford Island in Pearl Harbor and elsewhere on
O`ahu where he raised cattle and planted his gardens. Suffering from ill health and his
land holdings and wealth much depleted, Marin died in October 30, 1837 at age 64. His
corpse was buried in a vault on his property on November 7, 1837, the same day that a
large tsunami struck Hawai`i.

Marin had a number (at least four are recorded) of non-serial wives of Hawaiian
ancestry, including Haiamaui, his first wife who was a high chiefess from Waipi`o
Valley, Hawai`i, who may have died in 1811. Marin noted that his second wife was
Caquerua (Gast and Conrad, 1973:31). Although the dates are not in full agreement,
according to a visit made by Ross Cox in 1812, it is possible that Haiamaui and Caquerua
may have been sisters who equally shared Marin’s affections (Cox, 1957, p. 31). Marin’s
third and fourth wives, Kaihikuloa and Kaualua, apparently also lived with him at the
same time. The exact number of children fathered by Marin is difficult to determine but
at least 23 can be documented (Gast and Conrad, 1973, p. 137; Goodwin et al., 1995, pp.
14-15). At the time of his death in 1837, Marin may have been survived by only nine

  2
children (Gast and Conrad, 1973, p. 136) and perhaps two of his female partners
(Goodwin et al., 1995, pp. 14-15).

After Marin’s death, various members of the Marin family continued to have
interest in the downtown Honolulu property until ca.1850, when land holdings underwent
extensive transformation with the Mahele of 1848 (Kame`eleihiwa, 1992). In the late
nineteenth century, portions of Marin’s property were used for industrial purposes
associated with the sugar industry. At about the same time, Chinese, who began
immigrating to Hawai`i in large numbers, established homes and businesses in the
vicinity of the original property. Following the second great Chinatown fire in 1900,
there was further commercial development of the area. In 1950, the City and County of
Honolulu acquired most of the property and built a two-story parking garage, destroying
the final traces of Marin’s compound and other enterprises. Finally, in early 1992, the
parking garage was demolished to make way for a new 29-story affordable housing
structure and an associated six-story parking structure. In addition to the use of this land
during the early and later historical periods, it is possible that prehistoric Hawaiians were
living on or near the vicinity of the Marin property.

Marin Tower Housing Project

Because the Marin property (Site 50-80-14-4999) is within the Chinatown Special
District, which is on the National Register of Historic Places, an assessment of historical
architectural and archaeological resources was mandated as part of the environmental
impact statement prior to the construction of the high-rise housing structure.

In 1992, International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc. (IARII) undertook

archaeological survey and data recovery operations, including subsurface testing, on the
Marin Tower Project area in order to locate, document, and evaluate archaeological
remains within the project area. The project, which proved to be enormous, yielded
dozens of archaeological features and thousands of artifacts documenting 200-plus years
of human occupation in historic Honolulu (Goodwin et al., 1995, 1996). In addition to
cultural artifacts and animal bones, the remains of at least 15 human burials and isolated
human skeletal elements (or iwi) were, with the approval of the Marin family descendants
and the City’s Department of Housing and Community Development, recovered from the
project area. The human skeletons recovered from the Marin Tower Housing Project,
which were associated with coffins and historic artifacts, are from two locations, Blocks I
and II, respectively. Seven coffin burials (containing nine individuals), arranged in a line,
were identified in Block I (Figure 6: Block I Burials). Disturbed concentrations of human
skeletons, some in situ and others displaced, representing six complete, or nearly
complete, coffin burials were identified in Block II (Figure 7: Block II Burials). A great
many other features from Block II contained isolated human skeletal elements.
Archaeological and historical documentation suggest that the Block II burials likely
represent the family burying ground where Don Francisco Marin and his immediate family
members were buried, while Block I may represent the place where other Marin `ohana
were buried. Based on historical documents, the probable dates for the burials in the project
area are ca. 1810 – ca. 1850.

  3
 Given the highly culturally sensitive issue of excavation and the potential study of
human skeletons from Hawai`i, special accommodations were made when the first human
skeletons were discovered during the inventory survey of the Marin site in March 1992.
Archaeologists ceased work temporarily and Kahu Tyrone Reinhardt, a Hawaiian
religious practitioner and Protestant clergyman, subsequently came and blessed the two
burial locations.

In April that year, IARII personnel carefully removed sediments layer by layer in
the blocks where the burials were located to expose the outlines of the burial trenches.
During this time, Dr. Goodwin (IARII Project Director) received an unexpected visit
from Adelaide Keanuenueokalaninuiamamao "Frenchy" DeSoto, a powerful and much
respected Native Hawaiian matriarch who was on the Oahu Island Burial Council and
also represented family members. She was very concerned about the procedures with
respect to the burials. After an initial inspection of the soil stains indicating the burials
and an hour-long discussion, the Project Director and Ms. DeSoto decided the appropriate
respect and procedures the team were to follow during excavation of the burials.

It was agreed that only select members of the team, which would include some
Native Hawaiians wishing to do so, would work on the burials in the field and in
subsequent operations in the laboratory. It was also strongly recommended that at the end
of each day, anyone who had worked on the burials walk half a block to the sea and wash
their hands as a purification ritual. The agreed-to procedures also stressed that no
photographs or radiographs should be taken; only in-situ drawings were permitted. There
were several other conditions, such as canopies over the burials so no sunlight or other
elements would contaminate the iwi. Ms. DeSoto also indicated that any woman on the
team who was in her “moon cycle” should not work on the burials. Overall, it was a
fruitful meeting and Ms. DeSoto was invited to come back anytime she wished to see
how the project was proceeding. Following her initial visit, all of the conditions were
discussed with the entire crew, along with a request for volunteers to comply with the
personal issues.

Once all the burial features were defined, IARII prepared a map of the site and
presented their findings to the Oahu Island Burial Council and to Marin family members.
After much discussion a formal Memorandum of Agreement (MOA, 1992) was
established between the City and County of Honolulu (for whom the project was being
done) and the family descendents that specified the handling and treatment of the human
skeletons on site, in the IARII laboratory, and the conditions for the re-interment of the
burials.

Following the signing of the MOA on May 5, 1992, IARII archaeologists were
given permission to disinter the burials. Large canopies were erected and Kahu Reinhardt
and Monsignor Francis Marsland conducted final blessings for the remains and for the
archaeology crew. On a few occasions during excavations one or more family or Burial
Council members visited the site to see how the team was proceeding. As each burial was
disinterred, it was transported to the IARII laboratory for appropriate cleaning,
measuring, and visual osteological analysis. As agreed, a preliminary report was prepared

  4
primarily for family members.

On May 8, 1993, eight family members, project officials, and Dr. Goodwin met to
discuss the preliminary report and details for reburial. After those present accepted both,
it was further agreed that the exact details of the reburial were to remain confidential, and
remain so today.

On March 3, 1994, the iwi were reinterred on the property in an appropriate

ceremony presided over by members of Hui Malama and by a Roman Catholic priest.
Family members and a few other invited guests attended the ceremony.

In addition to Don Francisco Marin, other members of the Marin family-- such as
Maria Lahilahi, one of Marin’s daughters who lived in a house adjacent to her father’s
and died in 1844, are likely to have been buried in the family burial plot (Figure 8).
Based on inferences from various documentary sources, primarily Gast and Conrad
(1973, 2002), it is possible that some of Marin’s wives and as many as eight of his
children and two grandchildren were buried within the project area between ca. 1810 and
ca. 1850 - either in the family burial ground (Block II) or possibly elsewhere (Block I)
(Goodwin et al., 1995). Private burial plots were prohibited in Honolulu after 1840
(Halford, 1954, p. 306).

Marin’s Health and Physical Features

There are few published sources that document the life of Francisco de Paula
Marin. A portion of his journal, recording events between November 14, 1809 to August
3, 1826, was translated into English by Robert Crichton Wyllie, a Scottish surgeon who
settled in Hawaii, before it went missing sometime after 1850. This translation, a
biography of Marin, and sixty-six of his letters were published by Gast and Conrad
(1973, 2002). Although without criticism (see e.g. Langdon, 1975), this and one other
published book by Blanche Kaualua Lolokukalani Lee (2004), a great, great
granddaughter of Francisco de Paula Marin, are among the few existing biographies of
Marin’s life available to historians and forensic scientists.

Very little is known regarding Marin’s health or his physical appearance. The
only known image of Marin is one is taken from an early engraving by Louis-Jules
Masselot, which appeared in du Petit-Thouars (1841), depicting Hawaiian chiefs meeting
with European sea captains ca. 1837, the year Marin died. Marin, who is shown wearing
a military uniform (he was commissioned Captain in the Hawaiian Army in 1819), sports
sideburns and a moustache (see Figure 9). His nose appears to be sharply prominent.
Because he was born in Jerez in the Andalusian region of Spain, he most likely shared
characteristics of this group of people living in southern Spain: dark skin pigmentation,
dark brown hair, dark brown eyes, and straight nasal profiles (Coon, 1965, p. 71;
Montagu, 1960, p. 449). An entry in the diary of a visiting sailor, Ebenezer Townsend, Jr.
in 1789 referring to Kamehameha’s visit, may provide one of the few, if only,
descriptions of Marin’s physical appearance found.

  5
“He brought a Jew Cook with him, and if he [the Cook] remains here I think it will be
difficult to trace his ancestors as he is nearly as dark as they are.” [from Gast and Conrad,
2002, p. 6]

Unfortunately, anthroposcopic features such as skin pigmentation and eye color

are not observable in the bones of the skeleton.

According to Cutter (1980, p. 21) Marin may have been wounded in his service to
Kamehameha. Since he was in the Spanish Navy, most likely Marin met minimum
standards of height and general good health required of military recruits. The crude
standardized (to age 21) mean height of recruits from Granada Province in Andalusia in
southeastern Spain at the time of Marin’s birth was approximately 164-167 cm (Cámara,
2009).

In later life, Marin apparently drank a great deal. He may have had kidney
problems and following an outbreak of “the cough” in Honolulu in the early part of 1820
(Gast and Conrad, 1973, p. 76), Marin is believed to have contracted the disease (possibly
tuberculosis). Given his advanced age, and the fact that the first dentist did not arrive in
Honolulu until ten years after his death (Schmitt, 1983, p. 143), it’s likely that Marin’s
dental health, like so many Europeans living at this time, was not good.

Objectives of Study

The historical, archaeological, and osteological evidence that document the human
skeletons recovered from the Marin Tower Project Site are presented in Pietrusewsky et al.
(1993) and Goodwin et al. (1995). Using these reports as background and new information
not available when these studies were undertaken (i.e. newly available anthropometric and
historic data), we again attempt to identify if any of the 15 skeletons excavated from this
project is that of Don Francisco de Paula Marin. It is predicted that one of the burials will
contain the skeleton of a relatively tall (at least 164-167 cm) male of Southern European
ancestry whose age-at-death is approximately 63 years. Further, given Marin’s known
long-term interests in horticulture and animal husbandry, musculoskeletal stress markers
are expected to be present in his skeleton reflecting these physical and occupational
activities. Likewise, given his relatively advanced age-at-death, we expect degenerative
joint disease to be present. Further, if he was wounded in his service to Kamehameha, there
is the possibility that some evidence of an injury may be visible. His dental health should
also reflect his diet and poor or complete lack of dental care available in early nineteenth
century Honolulu. Our search for Marin will be guided by constructing a biological
profile, including estimates of age-at-death, biological sex, stature, ancestry, diseases,
injuries and traits of individuation, for each of the burials from the project area, especially
those in Block II. It is also predicted that a skeleton that matches his biological profile
will be located in Block II and associated with artifacts made before ca. 1840.

Methods (Sex, Age, Stature, Ancestry)

  6
 Age, sex, stature, and ancestry were estimated following procedures described in
Pietrusewsky et al. (1993) and Goodwin et al. (1995). The age-at-death of subadult
skeletons was estimated using dental development criteria, diaphyseal (long bone shaft)
length measurement and epiphyseal (articular end of long bone) fusion (e.g. Ubelaker,
1989). Estimating age-at-death in adults was based on morphological changes in the
symphysis pubis, auricular surface, sternal end of the rib, and ectocranial suture closure
(e.g. Ubelaker, 1989). When these regions of the skeleton were not available, adult age
was based on dental wear and degenerative joint disease (osteoarthritis). Morphometric
features of the pelvis and skull as well as general bone size and robusticity of the
postcranial skeleton were used to estimate the sex of adult skeletons. Estimating the sex
of individuals less than 16 years of age was not attempted given the absence of reliable
criteria. Stature was estimated with a variety of regression formulae using complete long
limb bones (Sjøvold, 1990; Houghton et al., 1975; Trotter, 1970) and, in cases when
complete bones were not available, long bone segment measurements (Steele, 1970).
Various stature estimates were generated based upon non-ethnic, Polynesian, White,
Mongoloid, and Mexican formulae in males and non-ethnic, Polynesian, and White
formulae in females.

Determining ancestry from the skeleton frequently involves assessing metric and
non-metric aspects of skeletal and dental morphology. More sophisticated procedures
apply multivariate statistical procedures (e.g. discriminant function analysis) to
osteometric, especially craniometric, data, but traditional approaches involve visual
assessments of the individual traits. Although statistical analysis of non-metric data for
estimating ancestry has been attempted it is generally limited to differentiating American
White and American Black groups (e.g. Hefner, 2009). Given the lack of osteometric
data in this study, we rely on an assessment of non-metric skeletal (e.g. rocker jaw) and
dental features (e.g. shovel-shaped incisors), and limb bone measurements for
determining ancestry.

Several distinctive features have proven useful in distinguishing Polynesian

(Hawaiian) skulls from non-Polynesian skulls. Among the features that have been noted
for Polynesian skulls are their large size, high vaults, pronounced nuchal muscle
markings, sloping forehead, relatively prominent brow ridges, pentagonal-shaped
posterior vaults, and mandibles described as “rocker jaws” (Houghton, 1977, 1996;
Howells, 1973, 1979; Howells and Schwidetzky, 1981; Pietrusewsky, 2012).

The ‘rocker jaw’ condition refers to the mandible’s propensity to rock back and
forth like an old rocking chair when placed on a level surface, a condition that arises as a
result of a unique facial growth pattern observed in Polynesians that produces a relatively
wide angle between the body and ramus of the mandible (Houghton, 1977; Schendel et
al., 1980; Kean and Houghton, 1990). This condition, while common in Polynesians and
Pacific Islanders, is rarely observed in Europeans.

Examining the rest of the skeleton, others (e.g. Houghton, 1980, 1996;
Pietrusewsky and Douglas, 1992; Snow, 1974) have described Polynesians as possessing
tall stature, relatively short leg bones, bowed limb bones, femoral neck torsion, flattened

  7
upper femoral shafts (platymeria), medium pilastric development of the femoral midshaft,
oval-shaped fovea capitis (for attachment of the ligament to the femur head), absence of
platycnemia (tibia), and presence of well-developed costo-clavicular attachment on
inferior medial clavicle, among others.

The intermediate tooth size of Polynesians is similar to the tooth sizes of East
Asian and Southeast Asians and larger than modern European tooth sizes (Hanihara and
Ishida, 2005). The dental non-metric traits of Polynesians, including moderate
expressions of shovel-shaped incisors, are similar to Southeast Asians and somewhat
distinct from Europeans (Turner, 1987, 1990; Scott and Turner, 1997).

The presence of tooth ablation, the deliberate removal of anterior teeth during life,
provides an additional way of differentiating between Hawaiian and non-Hawaiian
skeletons. There is ethnographic (e.g. Ellis, 1917) as well as archaeological (e.g.
Pietrusewsky and Douglas, 1993) evidence that some Hawaiians intentionally removed
one or more of their front teeth as a sign of mourning a loved one or person of rank or
authority. Tooth ablation in Hawai`i is believed be associated with the time following
contact with foreigners and the rise in power of the ali`i (hereditary chiefs, the highest
social class who governed with divine power, or mana), especially Kamehameha I, and
the inter-island conquests in the late 1700s and early 1800s when warfare would have
resulted in many deaths (Pietrusewsky and Douglas, 1994, p. 269).

Results

Using historical documents, archaeological evidence, and osteological/forensic

evidence, we evaluate whether any of the 15 skeletons excavated from Blocks I or II are a
possible match for Marin.

While there is evidence for infectious disease, cause of death could not be
determined for any of the individuals recovered from the project area. Hawaiians, like other
Pacific Islanders, without immunity to Western diseases were highly susceptible to illness
and death from introduced pathogens. Included among these are venereal diseases,
tuberculosis, and influenza introduced to the islands by Captain Cook and his men in 1778
(Stannard, 1989, p. 71) and followed by typhoid or cholera (oku`u or squatting disease
epidemic in 1804), leprosy, measles and whooping cough (epidemics in 1832–1836 and
1848-1849), mumps (epidemic in 1839), etc. brought by the increasing numbers of whalers,
missionaries (in the 1820s) and other foreigners arriving after Western contact (Stannard,
1989; La Croix and Roumasset, 1990; Bushnell, 1993).

Block I Burials

Because they are not mentioned in historical records, the burials from Block I
(Table 1) were unanticipated. It is believed that they most likely represent Marin’s
`ohana, probably Hawaiian servants or other employees who were buried on the property
outside the immediate family vault (Goodwin et al., 1995, p. 56). The biological profiles

  8
and archaeology of the individuals from this block, for the most part, support this
determination (see Table 1).

Nine individuals were buried in Block I. There are three adult females, who were
35 or older when they died; one young and one middle-aged male; one adolescent; a 2-4
year old child; and two fetuses. All of the adults appear to be Hawaiian and were buried
between 1815 and ca. 1850. It is possible the two adult female individuals, I0002 and
I0016, are the sisters mentioned by Cox (1957), which suggests they could be Haiamaui
and Caquerua, Marin’s first wives. A rarely seen dental trait in the upper right lateral
incisor was observed in both individuals. Our original description of this unusual dental
trait approximates that of a “talon cusp”, an accessory cusp-like structure projecting from
the lingual (or tongue) surface of anterior teeth of deciduous or permanent dentitions
(Hegde et al., 2010). The condition is commonly unilateral and is found most frequently
in the maxillary permanent incisors, especially the lateral incisor (Dumančić et al., 2006).
A genetic etiology for this condition has been advanced based on its occurrence in family
members, twins, offspring from consanguineous marriages, and in some genetic
syndromes (Hegde et al., 2010, p. 48) further supporting these two female individuals
were sisters. They both died and were buried in the second decade of the 19th century.

Of the two Block I burials identified as adult males (I0003 and I0009), neither
matches Marin’s age-at-death. Further, both males from this block had relatively good
dental health, minimal osteoarthritis, and both exhibit tooth ablation, a form of dental
modification documented in contact-era Hawaiian skeletons (Pietrusewsky and Douglas,
1993). Both individuals were alive when Kamehameha I and II died and may have
intentionally removed their teeth as a sign of mourning. Evidence of knee hyperflexion
facets and squatting facets increases the likelihood that these individuals are of
Polynesian/Hawaiian ancestry. I0003 also exhibits some evidence of treponemal (possibly
syphilis) infection. The third female, I0010, also showed some indications of possible
treponemal infection as well as an injury to her foot and a fracture of her last lumbar
vertebra.

The Family Cemetery Block II

It was expected that the individuals found in Block II (Table 2) would include Don
Francisco Marin, some of his children, and perhaps one or more of his wives who died
before 1850. It was further expected that at least one of the individuals from this block
should be of southern European ancestry (namely that of Marin) and the rest Hawaiian or
mixed Hawaiian-European ancestry.

Given that Don Francisco Marin was 63 or 64 when he died in 1837, one of the
individuals from this block should represent a man whose age-at-death approximates his
and who was:
• moderately tall (at least 164-167 cm)
• of Southern European ancestry
• experienced moderate to advanced osteoarthritis at the time of his death

  9
 • possessed musculoskeletal indicators of physical activities acquired through a
lifetime of physical work
• may have been injured before his time of death
• suffered from kidney disease
• associated with artifacts made before ca. 1840

Of the six individuals identified in Block II, three were adult males, two were
adult females, and one was an infant less than 18 months of age (Table 2). Incomplete
and poorly preserved because of historic and modern disturbances, only one skeleton
from Block II, I0013 (Figure 10), was that of a male over the age of 50. Noteworthy
among the osteological features observed in this individual (Table 3) was an estimated
stature of 178.3 ± 4.1 cm (5' 8.6'' - 5' 11.8''), poor dental health, absence of a rocker jaw,
absence of tooth ablation, moderate to advanced osteoarthritis in the knees and vertebral
column, pronounced costo-clavicular ligament attachments in the clavicles, and evidence
of a possible injury to the metacarpal-phalangeal joint of the right thumb. The absence of
rocker jaw and tooth ablation, mandibular ramus shape, and several postcranial bone
indices do not support Hawaiian ancestry. While it was reported that Marin suffered from
kidney problems in his later years, an illness that possibly would leave a trace on the
skeleton, none was discernible in the elements available for study. The region of the
skeleton (lower back and pelvis) where evidence for this might have existed, was
disturbed and missing because of backhoe trenching. The coffin nails (Figure 11)
associated with this burial were made in ca. 1830, or after, and could easily have been
used for an 1837 burial. The only other artifacts associated with this burial were four
single-hole bone disks (Figure 12) that were most likely cloth-covered buttons attached to
clothing. These were found in the pelvis region suggesting they were probably on
trousers or an undergarment. The location of this burial in the family vault area (Block II)
further supports that this is Marin.

Two adult male burials from Block II, I0005 and I0014, both 35-45 years of age-at-
death, do not match any known member of Marin’s family. Although two of Marin’s sons
are known to have died in their mid-40s, their dates of death (1867 and 1869) fall outside
the time period the property was likely being used by the Marin family.

One of the two adult female individuals in Block II, I0006, whose age-at-death was
between 30 and 35 years, may be Maria Lahilahi, Marin’s first daughter, who died in 1844
at age 33. The dates of the artifacts associated with this burial are consistent with her date
of death. The very incomplete and poorly preserved nature of the skeleton does not permit
a definitive determination of ancestry. The second female, I0008, who was between 20 and
25 years when she died, does not match any other of Marin’s known daughters. The infant,
I0015, from Block II could be any of Marin’s five children who did not survive beyond
the first two years of life.
Conclusions

When historical, archaeological, and forensic anthropological evidence are

considered, it is reasonable to infer that all of the burials from the project area (Block I
and II) represent Marin’s immediate and extended family (`ohana); both the time period

  10
and the location are a good fit. The forensic and osteological characteristics of the Block I
burials, including the presence of tooth ablation in two individuals, are generally
indicative of Hawaiian ancestry.

While it is not possible to positively match any of the Block I burials with Don
Francisco de Paula Marin or his family, two female individuals from this block (I0002
and I0016) may be related, perhaps sisters mentioned by Cox during his 1812 visit. If
true, they may be Haiamaui and Caquerua, Marin’s first wives. Of the Block II burials,
only one (I0013) provides a possible match with Marin. This individual’s biological
profile, location, and associated artifacts are consistent with this determination.

Acknowledgements

Although most of the original Marin family descendants acknowledged in the

Memorandum of Agreement dated May 5, 1992, are now deceased or cannot be reached,
we express our sincere appreciation to all the Marin family descendants, deceased and
living, for their interest, assistance, and cooperation in permitting the work on the human
burials to go forward. Our thanks to Tom Arakaki (IARII) for his help with some of the
figures used in this chapter.

  11
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Schmitt R. C. (1983). Royal crowns and historic plaque: dentistry in Hawaii during the
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  15
Tables

Table 1. Summary of the osteological and archaeological features of Block I burials.

Table 2. Summary of the osteological and archaeological features of Block II burials.
Table 3. Osteological/forensic and archaeological information for Burial I0013.
Table 4. Glossary of selected technical terms.

Figure Captions

Figure 1. View of the “Town of Honoruru, Sandwich Islands” drawn by Richard Bydges
Beechey in 1826. The original is watercolor over pencil (Forbes, 1992, p.105). The
drawing provides a feeling of what the Honolulu settlement was like when Westerners
first sailed into the harbor. Marin’s house (not shown) would have been located among
the dwellings depicted.

Figure 2. A copy of a painting by Louis Choris of Kamehameha I in western clothing.

The original, in the Bishop Museum, was painted in 1817. Source: Hawai`i State
Archives.

Figure 3. Portrait  of  Kamehameha  (ca.1758-­‐1819),  King  of  the  Sandwich  Islands by
Louis Choris (1795-1828), pen and watercolor. Present location: Honolulu Academy of
Arts, Honolulu.

Figure 4. Reconstructed map, showing the homestead of Marin and other advisers to
Kamehameha I, drawn by Paul Rockwood from data compiled by Dorothy Barrere of the
Bishop Museum, showing a reasonably accurate depiction of Honolulu in 1810.

Figure 5. An interpretive drawing (made by Lydia Mihelič Pulsipher) of what the built
environment of the property occupied by Don Francisco de Paula Marin and his ‘ohana
(family) may have been like in ca. 1830.The drawing is based on information from
several sources cited in Goodwin et al. (1996, cover). [With permission of the artist and
International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]

Figure 6. Plan view of the Block I burial features (in solid outlines) and individuals. The
dashed lines outline non-burial features. [With permission of International
Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]

Figure 7. Plan view of Block II burial features in solid outlines. [With permission of
International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]

Figure 8. Postulated boundaries of the Marin family burial plot showing the central
location of Burial I0013 (Goodwin et al., 1996, p. 197). [With permission of International
Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]

Figure 9. An enlargement of the only known image of Marin (on right), taken from an
early engraving by Louis-Jules Masselot showing a meeting of Hawaiian chiefs and

  16
British and French sea captains ca. 1837 (on left), which appeared in Abel du Petit-
Thouars’ Voyage Autour du Monde Sur la Frégate La Vénus, Pendant les Années 1836-
1839. Marin, who sports sideburns and a moustache, is shown dressed in a Hawaiian
military uniform resting on a sword.

Figure 10. Feature 214 showing Burial I0013, a 50+ year old male, and associated
artifacts from Block II of the Marin burials. Test Trench 8 inadvertently cut through part
of the skeleton (redrawn from: Goodwin et al., 1995, p. 51). [With permission of
International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]

Figure 11. Corroded iron coffin nails, similar to these, were found in association with
Burial I0013 (Goodwin et al., 1995, p. 22). [With permission of International
Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]

Figure 12. Single-hole bone disk buttons found associated with coffin Burial I0013, most
likely that of Don Francisco Marin. These and iron coffin nails (made after ca. 1830)
were the only artifacts associated with the burial (Goodwin et al., 1995, p. 52). [With
permission of International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]

  17
Table 1. Glossary of selected technical terms.
Antemortem tooth Loss of teeth before death evidenced by remodeling of the tooth socket; contributing factors
loss (AMTL) may be dental caries, periodontal disease, and/or dental wear.
Auricular surface Ear-shaped surface of ilium for articulation with the sacrum; morphological changes of this
surface are correlated with age-at-death.
Costo-clavicular Gouged-out concavity on the inferior medial border of the clavicle where the costo-
sulcus clavicular ligament attaches; linked to stress during rotary movement of the upper limb in
activities such as paddling.
Cribra orbitalia Sieve-like porosities in the roof of the eye sockets (orbital roof) commonly attributed to iron-
(CO) deficiency anemia.
Degenerative joint Also known as osteoarthritis; a collective term for many diseases affecting the joints caused
disease (DJD) by inflammation, breakdown and eventual loss of the cartilage of the joints.
Enamel extensions An inferior extension of the enamel onto the neck (cervical) region of a tooth, which
and enamel pearls sometimes produce a pearl-like droplet of enamel in root bifurcations.
Epiphysis The ends of a developing long bone that remain open until skeletal maturity.
Fovea capitis A depression in the head of the femur where the foveal ligament attaches.
Dental caries A disease process resulting in demineralization of the enamel, creating a cavity (or carious
lesion) observed in teeth due to bacterial infection.
Diaphysis The shaft of a developing long bone.
Linear enamel Defect of tooth enamel in the form of horizontal lines commonly attributed to acute or
hypoplasia (LEH) chronic disease and malnutrition.
Knee hyperflexion Musculoskeletal stress markers observed on the tibia and/or femur at the knee commonly
facets attributed to habitual squatting posture.
Iwi Hawaiian word for bone or component of the skeleton.
Mana In Hawaiian culture, refers to a spiritual energy and/or healing power which can exist in
places, objects, and persons.
Microdontia A condition in which teeth appear smaller than normal.
`Ohana Hawaiian word meaning family or extended family.
Oku`u Hawaiian word referring to a (most likely) diarrheal infectious disease that took many native
Hawaiian lives in approximately 1804.
Osteoarthritis Most common form of arthritis characterized by the destruction of the articular cartilage in a
synovial joint disease resulting in bony lipping and spur formation around the edges of the
joint. Also known as DJD.
Paleopathology The study of disease in past (human or non-human animal) populations.
Periodontal disease A disease that affects the soft  tissues  that  surrounding  the  necks  of  teeth  and  cover  the  
alveolar  parts  of  the  jaws.
Periostitis Pitting and new bone formation over mature cortical bone, considered to be a sign of
generalized non-specific stress, although trauma and specific infectious diseases cannot be
ruled out.
Pilastric The shape of mid-shaft of the femur described by the pilastric index (midshaft anterior
diameter/midshaft transverse diameter). The greater the pilastric index, the more triangular
the shape of femoral midshaft and, by inference, the greater the development of the linea
aspera, attachment for the hamstring muscles, suggesting strenuous use of the legs.
Platycnemia The platycnemic index refers to the shape of the proximal tibial at the level of the nutrient
foramen. Low values for this index reflect flattening, or platycnemia.
Pubic symphysis Area of the pelvis. The joint that connects the right and left os coxae at the front of the
pelvis.
Rocker jaw The name given to mandibles that rock like an old rocking chair when disturbed due to their
evenly curved lower borders.
Shovel-shaped Tooth crown with the shape of a shovel (i.e., two parallel ridges of enamel framing the lateral
margins of the crown).
Spondylolysis A fracture, observed most often in the lower lumbar vertebrae, of the lamina on one or both
sides at the pars interarticularis resulting in the separation of the neural arch (including the
inferior articular facets and spinous process) from the superior articular facets and vertebral
body.
Squatting facets Musculoskeletal stress markers observed on the neck region of the talus and/or anterior distal
tibia at the ankle that are commonly attributed to habitual squatting posture.
Suprascapular notch A deep notch in the superior (upper) border of the scapula at the base of the coracoid
process, which allows the passage of the suprascapular nerve
Talar squatting Facets on the superior lateral neck of the talus that articulate with facets on the anterior
facets surface of the distal end of the tibia that form as a result of dorsiflexion of the ligaments in
the ankle region attributed to habitual squatting posture.
Subadult An individual that has not reached adult age (includes infants, children, and juveniles).
Syphilis A sexually transmitted infection caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema pallidum
subspecies pallidum.
Tooth ablation A form of dental modification involving the intentional removal of teeth prior to an
individual’s death.
Treponemal disease Includes four syndromes caused by bacteria of the genus Treponema, a spirochete: endemic
or treponematosis and venereal syphilis, yaws, and pinta; all except pinta affect the skeleton.
Tuberculosis Infectious disease caused by a bacterium within the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex.
Table 2. Summary of the osteological and archaeological observations of Block I burials.

Burial Sex1 Age Stature Ancestry Osteological Observations Archaeological Observations

No. (years) (cm)
I0002 F 40-50 164.2±2.0 probable Substantially complete skeleton; fair to poor A coffin burial of an adult female
Hawaiian preservation; cribra orbitalia; porosis of the cranial extended on her back, head mauka2.
vault; benign cyst of the occipital bone; upper right Associated artifacts place the burial ca.
lateral incisor has a developmental fold; enamel 1820.
hypoplasia; edge-to-edge bite; poor dental health;
partial rocker jaw; oval fovea; slight osteoarthritis
I0011 ? 2-4 --- ? Partial skeleton; good to fair preservation; enamel A secondary bundle burial of a young
hypoplasia child placed within the same coffin as
I0002 at her head, ca. 1820.
I0012 ? Fetus- --- ? Partial skeleton, fair preservation A separate coffin burial of an infant on
newborn its back with head mauka interred at
foot of I0002. Small coffin nails and
coffin wood found in the grave fill date
this burial ca. 1830.
I0003 M 19-35 173.4±0.7 probable Substantially complete skeleton; good to poor A coffin burial of an adult male placed
Hawaiian preservation; enamel hypoplasia; possible treponemal on his back, head makai3. Ceramics and
infection; knee flexion; tooth ablation; good dental other artifacts suggest burial did not
health; minimal osteoarthritis occur before 1825.
I0004 F? ~15 --- probable Substantially complete skeleton; fair to poor A coffin burial of an adolescent female,
Hawaiian preservation; enamel hypoplasia; large suprascapular supine, with head placed mauka.
notch; good dental health Artifacts associated with this burial date
post-1820.
I0009 M 40-50 174.2±0.7 probable Incomplete skeleton; good to poor preservation; tooth A coffin burial of an adult male, placed
Hawaiian ablation; microdontia; enamel hypoplasia; cut marks on on his back, whose head was oriented
femur; lateral curvature of tibiae; slight osteoarthritis; makai. Iron and copper coffin nails date
squatting facets; relatively good dental health this burial ca. 1850.

1
M = male; F= female; F?= probable female; ? = indeterminate sex
2
Hawaiian term for toward the mountains
3
Hawaiian term for toward the sea
I0010 F 40-45 156.2±2.1 Hawaiian/ Partial skull and substantially complete postcranial A coffin burial of an adult female placed
Polynesian skeleton; fair to poor preservation; tooth staining; on her back, head mauka. Glass beads
possible treponemal infection; metatarsal pathology; from a necklace date this burial ca.
spondylolysis of L5; good dental health; moderate 1855. This was one of the last
osteoarthritis individuals to be interred in this
location.
I0016 F 35-40 159.7±2.1 probable Partial skeleton; good to fair preservation; tooth A coffin burial of an adult female, rested
Hawaiian staining; upper right lateral incisor has a developmental on her back with her head mauka Coffin
fold identical to Burial I0002; dental wear facets nail fragments and other artifacts date
(overbite?); relatively good dental health; minimal this burial ca. post 1820-1850.
osteoarthritis
I0017 ? Fetus- --- ? Very incomplete skeleton; fair preservation A newborn fetus found in the
newborn abdominal region of Burial I0016, its
presumed mother. Both mother and
newborn likely died during childbirth.
Table 3. Summary of the osteological and archaeological observations of Block II burials.

Burial Sex1 Age Stature Ancestry Osteological Observations Archaeological Observations

No. (cm)
I0005 M? 35-45 ---- ? Very incomplete skeleton; poor preservation; A disturbed burial of an adult male. Artifacts recovered
healed porosis in cranial vault; localized from the same soil matrix indicate only a general ca.
infection in left femur; fused toe phalanges; 1810 to ca. 1850 date for burial.
slight osteoarthritis
I0006 F? 25-35 154.8±4.2 ? Fragmentary skeleton; poor preservation; Disarticulated and disturbed skeleton. The individual’s
porosis of cranial vault; periodontal disease; head was mauka2. The absence of coffin nails and the
moderate tooth wear variable nature of the artifacts prevent a verifiable
date being assigned to this burial.
I0008 F 20-25 165.3±0.7 ? Substantially complete skeleton; poor A coffin burial of an adult female, extended, supine,
preservation; healed porosis in cranial vault; head mauka, with no discernible grave shaft. The
enamel extensions and an enamel pearl absence of coffin nails and other artifacts, except
crucifix, suggest the date of interment was between
ca. 1810 and ca. 1850.
I0013 M 50+ 178.3±4.1 Probable Incomplete skull and substantially complete A coffin burial of an adult male, supine, extended, head
European postcranial skeleton; poor to fair preservation; mauka. Several iron coffin nails fragments of coffin
right first metacarpal pathology (injury?); wood, possible iron hinge fragment, glass fragments,
severe osteoarthritis in the knees and vertebral buttons, and a few sherds indicate burial was sometime
column; antemortem tooth loss; dental caries after 1830. This is the only individual from Block I
(see Table 4 and Figure 4) that is a possible match for Marin.
I0014 M 35-45 --- ? Very incomplete skeleton; poor preservation; A greatly disturbed and displaced burial. The head was
porosis of cranial vault probably placed mauka. None of the artifacts was in
direct association with the `iwi, making it not possible
to know when this individual was buried.
I0015 ? .5-1.5 --- ? Skeleton lifted intact in matrix; poor A coffin burial of an infant (placed face up, head
preservation; age is based on tooth mauka). Several iron coffin nails surrounding the iwi3
development and diaphyseal lengths indicate burial was sometime after 1815.

1
M = Male; F= Female; F?= Probable female; ? = Indeterminate sex
2
Hawaiian term for toward the mountains
3
Hawaiian terms for bone or human skeletal remains
Table 4. Osteological/forensic and archaeological information for Burial I0013 (Block II)

Archaeological Provenience: Feature 214 (Block II) is a coffin burial, that measures 210 cm
northeast-southwest, or mauka-makai, and varies between 40-60 cm in width (Fig. 3). Individual
I0013, determined to be a male who was over 50 years of age at the time of death, was placed on
his back with head mauka (northeast). The skeletal remains began to appear between 2-10 cm
below the asphalt substrate. Test Trench 8 inadvertently cut through part of the skeleton in the
pelvic/upper leg region displacing and damaging the already incomplete and poorly preserved
bones in this region. The sediment matrix was described as compact, hard brown silt with a few
small brick and coral fragments on the surface. Several coffin nails (made after ca. 1830), a
fragment of coffin wood, a possible iron hinge fragment, glass fragments, four single-hole bone
disks, and a few sherds were also recovered with this burial. The four single-hole bone disks were
most likely cloth-covered buttons attached to clothing with a hook-and-eye (no fragment of this
latter element was found). These were found in the pelvis region and were probably on trousers or
an undergarment. [Goodwin et al., 1995, p. 50]

Completeness: Although a substantially complete skeleton is represented, the skull is mostly

incomplete and damaged postmortem. Some of the facial bones and the mandible are the most
complete bones from the skull. The postcranial skeleton is missing most of the lower arm bones,
most of the lower vertebral column and ossa coxae, patellae, the proximal ends of the femora, and
some of the hand and foot bones.

Preservation: The preservation of these remains ranges from poor to fair. Except for some long
limb bone shafts, much of the skeleton is fragmented. The mandible, right tibia and left upper femur
were partially mended to enable recording of metrical data. The bone fragments are solid and their
texture is slightly coarse.

Sex: Male (based on overall size and muscle markings of bones; pelvis and skull were mostly
missing)

Age: ≥ 50 years (sternal end of rib, moderate dental wear, moderate to severe osteoarthritis)

Stature: 178.3 ± 4.1 cm [Regression formulae for White Ancestry (Trotter, 1970)] --based on the
maximum length of the right humerus recorded with a tape measure in-situ during excavations.

Cranial Measurements and Non-metric Traits: Given the incomplete nature and poor
preservation of the skull, very few measurements or observations were possible. The zygomatic
bones and the mandible were the most complete bones available.

Ramus index (Ramus breadth/ Ramus height x 100): 52.5 (falls within the range for modern
Europeans (Olivier, 1969, p. 187)

Mandibular robusticity index (Maximum thickness of mandibular body/height of body at the level
of the mental foramen): 43.3, suggests sex is male (Olivier, 1969, p. 189).

The mandible is non-rocker.

Dental Health: Only 12 teeth were available for observation. There is evidence of antemortem
tooth lost (three teeth), periodontal disease (alveolar resorption and dental calculus), dental caries,
and moderate dental attrition. The lower incisor crowns are mostly missing due to carious lesions.
Overall, this individual’s dental health is more similar to historic Hawaiian than prehistoric
Hawaiian skeletal series.

Linear enamel hypoplasia, an indicator of childhood malnutrition and/or disease, was observed in
two of the four canine teeth available for study.

Tooth ablation: not observed

Postcranial Measurements and Non-metric Traits: Most of the postcranial measurements were
recorded in the field using a measuring tape. These measurements should be viewed with caution.
Others, such as diameters, were recorded in the laboratory using standard osteometric equipment.

The maximum lengths of the right clavicle (157 cm) and right humerus (350 cm) suggest a
relatively tall individual.

Platymeric index (anterior-posterior diameter/transverse diameter x 100) reflects the cross-

sectional shape of the upper femoral shaft. The value of this index for the femur is (29/37) 78.4,
indicating a flattened femoral shaft.

Pilastric index (anterior-posterior diameter/transverse diameter x 100) provides a quantitative

measure of the femoral midshaft cross-sectional shape or the degree of linea aspera development.
The value for this index (33/30, 110) is below the range for historic Hawaiian males (116)
(Pietrusewsky et al., 1990).

The attachment for the costo-clavicular ligament on the inferior medial border of both clavicles
forms a ridge suggesting long-term use of the shoulders.

Pathology: There is evidence of infection (periostitis and osteophytosis) of the right thumb (at
the first metacarpal interphalangeal joint) suggestive of an injury of the soft tissue and bone of
this hand. Moderate to severe osteoarthritis was observed in the knees, hand, and in the cervical
and lumbar vertebrae. No evidence of bone fractures or stress fractures in the lower back were
observed.

Interpretation: This is the only burial from the project area that matches Don Francisco Marin.
I0013 is a relatively tall male of robust proportions, who had severe arthritis (especially in his
right hand, knees, and back), poor dental health, suffered an injury to his right hand, and was
buried sometime after 1830.
Figure 1. View of the “Town of Honoruru, Sandwich Islands” drawn by Richard Bydges
Beechey in 1826. The original is watercolor over pencil (Forbes, 1992:105). The drawing
provides a feeling of what Honolulu settlement was like when Westerners first sailed into
the harbor. Marin’s house (not shown) would have been located among the dwellings
depicted.
 
  

Figure 2. A copy of a painting by Louis Choris of Kamehameha I in western clothing.

The original, in the Bishop Museum, was painted in 1817. Source: Hawaii State
Archives.

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3. Portrait  of  Kamehameha  (ca.1758-­‐1819),  King  of  the  Sandwich  Islands by
Louis Choris (1795-1828), pen and watercolor. Present location: Honolulu Academy of
Arts, Honolulu.  
Figure 4. Reconstructed map, showing the homestead of Marin and other advisers to
Kamehameha I, drawn by Paul Rockwood from data complied by Dorothy Barrere of the
Bishop Museum, showing a reasonably accurate depiction of Honolulu in 1810.
 
Figure 5. An interpretive drawing (made by Lydia Mihelič Pulsipher) of what the built
environment of the property occupied by Don Francisco de Paula Marin and his ‘ohana
(family) may have been like in ca. 1830.The drawing is based on information from
several sources cited in Goodwin et al. (1996, cover). [With permission of the artist and
International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]
 

 
  

Figure 6. Plan view of the Block I burial features (in solid outlines) and
individuals. The dashed lines outline non-burial features. [With permission of
International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]
  

Figure 7. Plan view of Block II burial features in solid outlines. [With permission of
International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]
 
Figure 8. Postulated boundaries of the Marin family burial plot showing the central
location of Burial I0013 (Goodwin et al, 1996:197). [With permission of International
Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]
 
Figure 9. An enlargement of the only known image of Marin (on right), taken from an early engraving by
Louis-Jules Masselot showing a meeting of Hawaiian chiefs and British and French sea captains ca. 1837
(on left), which appeared in Abel du Petit-Thouars’ Voyage Autour du Monde Sur la Frégate La Vénus,
Pendant les Années 1836-1839. Marin, who sports sideburns and a moustache, is shown dressed in a
Hawaiian military uniform resting on a sword. Image is taken from “Hale Kauila in Honolulu”, Memoirs of
the Bishop Museum, Vol. II, Fig. 92

 
  
Figure 10. Feature 214 showing I0013, a 50+ year old male, and associated artifacts from
Block II of the Marin burials. Test Trench 8 inadvertently cut through part of the skeleton
(redrawn from: Goodwin et al., 1995, p. 51). [With permission of International
Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]
 
Figure 11. Corroded iron coffin nails, similar to these, were found in association with
Burial I0013 (Goodwin et al., 1995:22). [With permission of International
Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]

 
  
 
 
 
 

Figure 12. Single-hole bone disk buttons found associated with coffin Burial I0013, most
likely that of Don Francisco Marin. These and iron coffin nails (made after ca. 1830)
were the only artifacts associated with the burial (Goodwin et al., 1995:52). [With
permission of International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai`i]
 

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