Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sponsored by the
Transformers
Transformers Committee
Sponsor
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Keywords: dielectric coolant, high fire point liquid, IEEE C57.147™, insulating liquid, less-
flammable liquid, natural ester liquid, transformer,
transformer, vegetable oil
IEEE is a registered trademark in the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office, owned by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Incorporated.
IEEE documents are made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers. These notices
and disclaimers, or a reference to this page, appear in all standards and may be found under the heading
“Important Notices and Disclaimers Concerning IEEE Standards Documents.” They can also be obtained on
request from IEEE or viewed at http://
http://standards
standards.ieee
.ieee.org/
.org/IPR/
IPR/disclaimers
disclaimers.html
.html..
IEEE Standards documents (standards, recommended practices, and guides), both full-use and trial-use,
are developed within IEEE Societies and the Standards Coordinating Committees of the IEEE Standards
Association (“IEEE-SA”)
(“IEEE-SA”) Standards Board. IEEE (“the Institute”) develops its standards through a consensus
development process, approved by the American National Standards Institute (“ANSI”), which brings
together volunteers representing varied viewpoints and interests to achieve the nal product. IEEE Standards
are documents developed through scientic, academic, and industry-based technical working groups.
Volunteers in IEEE working groups are not necessarily members of the Institute and participate without
compensation from IEEE. While IEEE administers the process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the
consensus development process, IEEE does not independently evaluate, test,
test, or verify the accuracy of any of
the information or the soundness of any judgments contained in its standards.
IEEE Standards do not guarantee or ensure safety, security, health, or environmental protection, or ensure
against interference with or from other devices or networks. Implementers and users of IEEE Standards
documents are responsible for determining and complying with all appropriate safety, security,
security, environmental,
health, and interference protection practices and all applicable laws and regulations.
IEEE does not warrant or represent the accuracy or content of the material contained in its standards, and
expressly disclaims all warranties (express, implied and statutory) not included in this or any other document
relating to the standard, including, but not limited to, the warranties of: merchantability; tness for a particular
purpose; non-infringement; and quality
quality,, accuracy
accuracy,, effectiveness
effectiveness,, currency
currency,, or completeness of material. In
addition, IEEE disclaims any and all conditions relating to: results; and workmanlike effort.
effort. IEEE standards
documents are supplied
suppli ed “AS IS” and “WITH
“W ITH ALL FAUL AULTS.”
TS.”
Use of an IEEE standard is wholly voluntary. The existence of an IEEE standard does not imply that there
are no other ways to produce, test, measure, purchase, market, or provide other goods and services related to
the scope of the IEEE standard. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the viewpoint expressed at the time a standard is approved and
issued is subject to change brought about through developments in the state of the art and comments received
from users of the standard.
In publishing and making its standards available, IEEE is not suggesting or rendering professional or other
services for, or on behalf of, any person or entity nor is IEEE undertaking to perform any duty owed by any
other person or entity to another. Any person utilizing any IEEE Standards document,
document, should rely upon his or
her own independent judgment in the exercise of reasonable care in any given circumstances or, as appropriate,
seek the advice of a competent professional in determining the appropriateness of a given IEEE standard.
IN NO EVENT SHALL IEEE BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO:
PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS;
OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY,
WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR
OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE PUBLICATION, USE OF, OR RELIANCE
UPON ANY STANDARD, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE AND
REGARDLESS OF WHETHER SUCH DAMAGE WAS FORESEEABLE.
3
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Translations
The IEEE consensus development process involves the review of documents in English only. In the event that
an IEEE standard is translated, only the English version published by IEEE should be considered the approved
IEEE standard.
Ocial statements
A statement,
statement, written or oral, that is not processed in accordance with the IEEE-SA Standards Board Operations
Manual shall not be considered or inferred to be the ofcial position of IEEE or any of its committees and shall
not be considered to be, or be relied upon as, a formal position of IEEE. At lectures, symposia, seminars,
seminars, or
educational courses, an individual presenting information on IEEE standards shall make it clear that his or her
views should be considered the personal views of that individual rather than the formal position of IEEE.
Comments on standards
Comments for revision of IEEE Standards documents are welcome from any interested party, regardless
of membership afliation with IEEE. However, IEEE does not provide consulting information or advice
pertaining to IEEE Standards documents.
documents. Suggestions for changes in documents should be in the form of a
proposed change of text, together with appropriate supporting
supporting comments. Since IEEE standards
standards represent a
consensus of concerned interests, it is important that any responses to comments and questions also receive
the concurrence
Coordinating of a balanceare
Committees of not
interests.
able toFor this reason,
provide IEEE response
an instant and the members of its societies
to comments and Standards
or questions except in
those cases where the matter has previously been addressed. For the same reason, IEEE does not respond to
interpretation requests. Any person who would like to participate in revisions to an IEEE standard is welcome
to join the relevant IEEE working group.
Users of IEEE of
the provisions Standards
any IEEEdocuments
Standardsshould consult
document allnot
does applicable laws and regulations.
imply compliance Compliance
to any applicable with
regulatory
requirements. Implementers of the standard are responsible for observing or referring to the applicable
regulatory requirements. IEEE does not, by the publication of its standards, intend to urge action that is not in
compliance with applicable laws,
laws, and these documents may not be construed as doing so
Copyrights
IEEE draft and approved standards are copyrighted by IEEE under U.S. and international copyright laws. They
are made available by IEEE and are adopted for a wide variety of both public and private uses. These include
both use, by reference, in laws and regulations, and use in private self-regulation, standardization, and the
promotion of engineering practices
practices and methods. By
By making these documents
documents available for use and adoption
by public
public authorities
authorities and private
private users, IEEE does not waive any rights
rights in
in copyright
copyright to
to the documents.
4
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Photocopies
Subject to payment of the appropriate fee, IEEE will grant users a limited, non-exclusive license to photocopy
portions of any individual standard for
for company or organizational
organizational internal use or individual, non-commercial
use only. To arrange for payment of licensing fees, please contact Copyright Clearance Center, Customer
Service, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA; +1 978 750 8400. Permission to photocopy portions
of any individual standard for educational classroom use can also be obtained through the Copyright Clearance
Center.
Users of IEEE Standards documents should be aware that these documents may be superseded at any time
by the issuance of new editions
editions or may be amended from
from time to time through
through the issuance of amendments,
amendments,
corrigenda, or errata. A current IEEE document at any point in time consists of the current edition of the
document together with any amendments, corrigenda, or errata then in effect.
Every IEEE standard is subjected to review at least every 10 years. When a document is more than 10 years old
and has not undergone a revision process, it is reasonable to conclude that its contents, although still of some
value, do not wholly reect the present state of the art. Users are cautioned to check to determine that they have
the latest edition of any IEEE standard.
In order to determine whether a given document is the current edition and whether it has been amended
through the issuance of amendments, corrigenda, or errata, visit the IEEE Xplore at http://
http://ieeexplore
ieeexplore.ieee
.ieee.org/
.org/
or contact IEEE at the address listed previously.
pre viously. For more information about
abo ut the IEEE-SA or IEEE’s standards
development process, visit the IEEE-SA Website at http://
http://standards
standards.ieee
.ieee.org
.org..
Errata
Errata, if any, for all IEEE standards can be accessed on the IEEE-SA Website at the following URL: http://
Errata, http://
standards.ieee
standards .ieee.org/
.org/ndstds/
ndstds/errata/
errata/index
index.html
.html.. Users are encouraged to check this URL for errata periodically.
Patents
Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of this standard may require use of subject matter
covered by patent rights. By publication of this standard, no position is taken by the IEEE with respect to the
existence or validity
led a statement of any patent
of assurance via anrights in connection
Accepted Letter of therewith.
Assurance,Ifthen
Assurance, a patent holder orispatent
the statement listedapplicant has
on the IEEE-
SA Website at http://
http://standards
standards.ieee
.ieee.org/
.org/about/
about/sasb/
sasb/ patcom/
patcom/ patents.html
patents.html.. Letters of Assurance may indicate
whether the Submitter is willing or unwilling to grant licenses under patent rights without compensation
or under reasonable rates, with reasonable terms and conditions that are demonstrably free of any unfair
discrimination to applicants desiring to obtain such licenses.
Essential Patent Claims may exist for which a Letter of Assurance has not been received. The IEEE is not
responsible for identifying Essential Patent Claims for which a license may be required, for conducting inquiries
into the legal validity or scope of Patents Claims, or determining whether any licensing terms or conditions
provided in connection with submission
submission of a Letter of Assurance,
Assurance, if any, or in any licensing agreements
agreements are
reasonable or non-discriminatory. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the
validity of any patent rights, and the risk of infringement of such rights, is entirely their own responsibility.
Further information may be obtained from the IEEE Standards Association.
Association.
5
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Participants
At the time this IEEE guide was completed, the Natural Ester Fluids Working Group had the following
membership:
C. Patrick McShane, Chair
C. Clair Claiborne, Vice Chair
James Graham, Secretary
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have voted
for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
6
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 15 February 2018, it had the following
membership:
Jean-Philippe Faure, Chair
Vacant Position, Vice Chair
John D. Kulick, Past
Past Chair
Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary
*Member Emeritus
7
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.147-2018, IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Natural Ester
Insulating Liquid in Transformers.
This guide was prepared by the Insulating Fluids Subcommittee of the Transformers
Transformers Committee of the IEEE
Power and Energy Society.
Society. The purpose of this guide is to identify standards for acceptance and maintenance
of natural ester insulating liquid in transformers. This guide is the rst revision of the initial guide published
in 2008. Overall, the guide was substantially updated to include the current state of the art for natural ester
insulating liquids.
This revision includes updates to follow the current IEEE SA policies, style, and terms appropriate for
a Guide. In this revision, where appropriate, the term “uid” has been replaced with “liquid” to be more
descriptive of the application and for consistency of terminology within C57 transformer standards. The
normative references have been updated and expanded. Based on available data from testing samples from
operating transformers, the normative and informative information on limits for continued service have been
expanded. The bibliography has been expanded to provide additional background for the user. TwoTwo additional
informative annexes were added:
added: Annex C provides
C provides discussion on re safety, environmental
environmental and sustainability
factors of natural ester insulating liquids;
liquids; Annex D discusses
D discusses considerations when applying natural esters to
load tap changers
chang ers (LTCs).
Acknowledgments
Table B.1 and
B.1 and Figure B.1 were
B.1 were modied with permission from Doble Engineering Company, Lewand, L. R.,
“Laboratory evaluation of several synthetic and agricultural-based dielectric
dielectric liquids,” Proceedin
liquids,” Proceedings
gs of the 86th
Annual International Conference of Doble Clients
Clients,, Doble Engineering Company, Watertown, MA, USA,
2001 [B13]
[B13]..
Figure B.1 was
B.1 was reprinted from IEEE Std C57.106™-2002 [B26]
[B26]..
Figure B.2,
B.2, Figure B.3,
B.3, and Figure B.4
B.4 were reprinted from McShane, C. P., J. Luksich, and K. J. Rapp,
“Retrolling aging transformer with natural ester based dielectric coolant for safety and life extension,”
Proceedings
Proceedings of the IEEE IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conferen
Conference,
ce, Dallas,
Dallas, TX, USA, May 2003 [B35]
[B35]..
Table C.1 was
C.1 was reprinted with permission from CIGRE Technical Brochure 436, Experiences
436, Experiences in service with
with
new insulating liquids,
liquids, © 2010 [B9]
[B9]..
8
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Overview.........
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.............
.. 11
1.1 Scope ..........
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
............ 11
1.2 Purpose ...........
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
..................
........ 11
1.3 System design.........
....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
......... 11
1.4 Background information
information on mixtures of natural ester liquids liquids with other dielectric liquids liquids.........
.................
........ 12
4. Liquid
Liquid tests
tests and the signican
signicance ce of each test test .........
....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
............ 15
4.1 General ...........
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
..................
........ 15
4.2 Practices for sampling (ASTM D923) .......................
.................................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
............ 16
4.3 Acid number (ASTM D664 and ASTM D974) ...................... ................................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
......... 16
4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816) D1816) ..........
....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
............ 17
4.5 Dielectric breakdown
breakdown voltage—impulse conditions conditions (ASTM D3300) D3300) .........
....................
.....................
....................
..................
........ 17
4.6 AC loss characteristics—dissipation
characteristics—dissipation factor and relative permittivity permittivity (ASTM D924) ..........
D924) .....................
...............
.... 18
4.7 Interfacial tension (ASTM D971) .............. ........................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
................
...... 18
4.8 Color (ASTM D1500) .......... .....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
................
...... 18
4.9 Kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445) ................ ...........................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
............ 19
4.10 Flash point and re point—Cleveland
point—Cleveland Open Cup Method (ASTM (ASTM D92) .......... .....................
.....................
....................
............ 19
4.11 Relative density (ASTM D1298) ......................
................................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
..................
........ 19
4.12 Pour point (ASTM D97, ASTM D5949 [B5] [B5],, and ASTM D5950 [B6] [B6])) .........
....................
.....................
....................
.............
... 19
4.13 Volume resistivi
resistivity
ty (ASTM D1169) ..............
............................
............................
............................
............................
.............................
.............................
.............. 20
4.14 Gas analysis (ASTM D3284, D3612) ............... .........................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
..................
........ 20
4.15 Oxidation stability ...........
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
......... 21
4.16 Water content—Karl Fischer
Fischer Method (ASTM (ASTM D1533) ......... ....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
..................
........ 22
4.17 Visual examination of used liquids (ASTM D1524) .......... ....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
............ 22
4.18 Gassing of insulating liquids under electrical stress stress and ionization (ASTM D2300) ......... ....................
...............
.... 22
4.19 Corrosive sulfur test (ASTM D1275) .......................
..................................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
......... 23
4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (ASTM D4059) ...........................
......................................
.....................
....................
.....................
...............
.... 23
4.21 Furanic compounds (ASTM D5837) ............................
......................................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
................
...... 23
6.1
6.2 General
Shipping...........
.....................
....................
containers .....................
.....................
.....................
........... .....................
.................... .....................
..................... ....................
..................... .....................
..................... .....................
..................... .....................
.................... .....................
..................... ....................
..................... ..................
..................... ........ 23
....................
......... 23
6.3 Check tests
tests on receipt .............................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
..................
........ 24
6.4 Handling of the liquid by the user and placing the liquid in storage.......... ....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
........... 24
6.5 Handling and testing of natural ester ester liquids for installation
installation into apparatus..........
apparatus.....................
.....................
...................
......... 26
7. Evaluation of natural
natural ester liquids
liquids received in new equipment and after lling apparatus on-site
on-site....
........
........
...... 27
9
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Annex C (informative) Additional information on re, safety, environmental, and sustainable properties of
natural esters......
esters................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
.....................
................
...... 42
Annex D (informative) Discussion regarding natural ester immersed load tap changers (LTCs)
(LTCs) .................
...................
.. 44
10
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This guide recommends tests and evaluation procedures, as well as criteria and methods of maintenance, for
natural ester-based (e.g., vegetable oil) insulating liquids. Methods of reconditioning, eld applications, and
diagnostics of natural ester-based insulating liquids are also described.
1.2 Purpose
This guide recommends standard tests and evaluation procedures of natural ester insulating liquids for
application in distribution and power transformers and other liquid-lled electrical equipment. Natural ester
insulating liquids are also being applied in retrolling existing liquid-lled equipment. This guide provides
recommendations for new and retroll eld applications including: eld testing of equipment lled with
natural ester insulating liquids, methods of reconditioning and reclaiming natural ester insulating liquids, and
the analysis results at which reprocessing or replacement of the insulating liquid is necessary.
The reliable performance of natural ester liquids in an insulation system depends upon certain basic liquid
characteristics that can affect overall apparatus characteristics. Such liquid characteristics are integral to
equipment design for which the manufacturer should have nal responsibility.
responsibility. The reliable operation of the
equipment in service, for which the transformer operator should have nal responsibility, also depends on
maintaining certain basic liquid characteristics. Adherence to the recommended liquid characteristics can
assist in obtaining the desired equipment characteristics. Other tests or verication of the integrity of the
insulation system may be necessary.
The essential properties of insulating liquids used in transformers should be maintained if the liquid is to
perform its multiple roles as electrical insulation and heat transfer agent. It should have adequate dielectric
strength to withstand the normal range of electric stresses imposed in service. It should have a certain
combination of thermal conductivity,
conductivity, specic heat, and viscosity so that its ability to transfer heat is sufcient
for the particular equipment. It should have a sufciently high ash point and re point to meet safety
requirements. The natural ester liquid should not be allowed to become so deteriorated or contaminated that it
adversely affects other materials in the apparatus.
11
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
NOTE— If
If the purpose of using a natural ester liquid is to comply with Article 450.23 of the National Electrical Code®
(NEC®) (NFPA
(NFPA 70®, 2017 Edition), (for example, to use a transformer indoors without a vault), that article requires that
less-ammable transformer liquids have an ASTM D92 re point of not less than 300 °C and that the installation complies
with all restrictions provided for in the product listing of the liquid (see Article 100 of the 2017 NEC).1 Also, too much
mineral oil contamination in a natural ester may impact meeting the requirements of the National Electrical Safety Code®
(NESC®) (Accredited Standards Committee C2). Contact the natural ester manufacturer to determine the maximum
mineral oil content range to prevent the open cup re point from dropping below the 300C minimum requirement.
Typically
Typi cally a maximum of o f 7% mineral oil contamination is acceptable.2
Less and Non-Flammable Insulating Liquids: Although in many cases different types of less-ammable
liquids [e.g., synthetic esters, synthetic hydrocarbons, and high molecular weight hydrocarbons (HMWHs)]
are miscible, such mixtures should generally be avoided in transformers and liquid processing equipment as
practical, unless such mixtures are done purposely for certain applications or to achieve certain properties.
Silicone insulating liquids are typically not miscible with natural ester dielectric liquids, so any cross
contamination should be avoided. Typically natural esters are miscible with non-ammable halogenated
hydrocarbon insulating liquids, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Although natural esters would
not normally be mixed with halogenated hydrocarbons, this could occur after retrolling older transformers
containing such insulating liquids. Consult with the manufacturer of each insulating liquid for advice if mixing
has occurred in situ inadvertently or purposefully.
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used,
used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship
relationship to this
this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
ASTM D92, Standard Test Method for Flash and Fire Points
Po ints by Cleveland Tester.5
Clevelan d Open Cup Tester.
ASTM D97, Standard Test Method for Pour Point of Petroleum Products.
ASTM D445, Standard Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent and Opaque Liquids (and
Calculation of Dynamic Viscosity).
1
Information on references can be found in Clause 2. 2.
2
Notes in text, tables, and gures
gures of a standard are given for information
information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement this
standard.
3
The NESC is available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://
(http://standards
standards.ieee
.ieee.org/
.org/).
).
4
National Electrical Safety Code and NESC are registered trademarks and service marks of the Institute of Electrical and
and Electronics
Engineers, Incorporated.
5
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials (http://
( http://www
www.astm
.astm.org/
.org/ ).
).
12
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
ASTM D664, Standard Test Method for Acid Number of Petroleum Products by Potentiometric Titration.
ASTM D924, Standard Test Method for Dissipation Factor (or Power Factor) and Relative Permittivity
(Dielectric Constant) of Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D974, Standard Test Method for Acid and Base Number by Color-Indicator Titration.
ASTM D1169, Standard Test Method for Specic Resistance (Resistivity) of Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D1275, Standard Test Method for Corrosive Sulfur in Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D1298, Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density, or API Gravity of Crude Petroleum and
Liquid Petroleum Products by Hydrometer Method.
ASTM D1524, Standard Test Method for Visual Examination of Used Electrical Insulating Liquids in the
Field.
ASTM D1533, Standard Test Method for Water in Insulating Liquids by Coulometric Karl Fischer Titration.
ASTM D1816, Standard Test Method for Dielectric Breakdown Voltage of Insulating Liquids Using VDE
Electrodes.
ASTM D3284, Standard Practice for Combustible Gases in the Gas Space of Electrical Apparatus Using
Portable Meters.
ASTM D3612, Standard Test Method for Analysis of Gases Dissolved in Electrical Insulating Oil by Gas
Chromatography.
ASTM D5837, Standard Test Method for Furanic Compounds in Electrical Insulating Liquids by High-
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).
ASTM D6871, Standard Specication for Natural (Vegetable Oil) Ester Fluids Used in Electrical Apparatus.
13
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Code of Federal Regulations Title 40 Part 112 (40 CFR 112), Protection of Environment—Oil Pollution
Prevention.6
IEC 61125, Insulating liquids – Test methods for oxidation stability – Test method for evaluating the oxidation
stability of insulating liquids in the delivered state.
IEC 62770, Fluids for electrotechnical applications – Unused natural esters for transformers and similar
electrical equipment.
IEEE Std 637™, IEEE Guide for the Reclamation of Mineral Insulating Oil and Criteria for Its Use.8,9
IEEE Std 980™, IEEE Guide for Containment and Control of Oil Spills in Substations.
IEEE Std C57.104™, IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers.
Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.106™, IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Mineral Oil in Electrical
Equipment.
IEEE Std C57.152™, IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Fluid-Filled Power Transformers,
Regulators, and Reactors.
IEEE Std C57.155™, IEEE Guide for Interpretation of Gases Generated in Natural Ester and Synthetic Ester-
Immersed Transformers.
6
CFR publications are available from the U.S. Government Publishing Offi ce (http://
( http://www
www.ecfr
.ecfr.gov/
.gov/).
).
7
IEC publications ar e available from the International
I nternational Electrotechnical Commission (http://
(http://www
www.iec
.iec.ch
.ch)) and the American National
Standards Institute (http://
(http://www
www.ansi
.ansi.org/
.org/ ).
).
8
The IEEE standards or products referred to in Clause 2 are
2 are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Elect ronics Engineers,
Incorporated.
9
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (
Engineers (http://
http://standards
standards.ieee
.ieee.org/
.org/ ).
).
10
The NEC is published by the National Fire Protection Association
Association (http://
(http://www
www.nfpa
.nfpa.org/
.org/ ).
). Copies are also available from the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://
( http://standards
standards.ieee
.ieee.org/
.org/ ).
).
11
National Electrical Code,
Code, NEC, and NFPA 70 are registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association.
14
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
The ASTM tests included within the scope of Committee D27 pertain to electrical insulating liquids and gases.
Initially focused on insulating liquids of petroleum origin, its scope has expanded to include alternative liquids
and gases for many years. While many of the more recent revisions now include natural esters and other
alternative insulating liquids, some remain specic to mineral oil.
The following information reviews the most commonly applied property tests of ASTM and provides guidance
on how each test method can be applied to natural ester insulating liquids. Due to the inherent differences of
chemical, electrical, and physical properties between natural ester and mineral oil insulating liquids, some
of the ASTM methods that have not been updated for natural esters require some clarication. For example,
some typical values and value limits for unused and used natural ester insulating liquid can be signicantly
different from those established for mineral oil. For unused liquid acceptance value limits, see ASTM D6871
for natural ester and see ASTM D3487 [B4]
[B4] for
for mineral oil. Some methods may require slight modications in
test protocol as discussed below.
Table 1—Insulating liquid tests suitable for natural ester-based dielectric liquids
Signicance Test ASTM or IEC
(subclause) method number
4.2 Practices for sampling D923
4.3 Acid number (neutralization) D664, D974
4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage D1816
4.5 Dielectric breakdown voltage—impulse conditions D3300
4.6 AC loss characteristics—dissipation factor and relative permittivity D924
4.7 Interfacial tension D971
a
4.8 Color D1500
4.9 Kinematic viscosity D445
4.10 Flash point and re point—Cleveland Open Cup Method D92
4.11 Relative density (specic gravity) D1298
4.12 Pour point D97, D5949 [B5]
[B5],, D5950
D5950 [B6]
4.13 Volume resistivity D1169
Table continues
15
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Table 1—Insulating liquid tests suitable for natural ester-based dielectric liquids (continued)
Signicance ASTM or IEC
Test
(subclause) method number
4.14 Gas analysis D3284, D3612
4.15 Oxidation stability IEC 61125, Method C b
4.16 ter content—Karl Fischer Methodc
Water
Wa D1533
4.17 Visual examination of used liquids D1524
4.18 Gassing under electrical stress and ionization D2300
4.19 Corrosive sulfur test D1275
4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) D4059
4.21 Furanic compounds D5837
a
NE insulating
insulating liquids
liquids tinted
tinted with dye by manufacturer should not impact test beyond the 1.0 limit.
limit.
b
As modied in IEC 62770, Annex A (reducing
(reducing test duration from 164 h to 48 h).
c
Alternate reagents as listed in ASTM D1533 for natural
n atural esters as modied in IEC 62770, Annex A (reducing test duration
from 164 h to 48 h).
Accurate sampling, whether of the complete contents or only part thereof, is extremely important from the
standpoint of evaluation of the quality of the product sampled. Careless sampling procedures or contamination
in the sampling equipment may result in a sample that is not truly representative, leading to erroneous
conclusions concerning quality.
quality. The appropriate procedures and precautions outlined in ASTM D923 should
be followed.
followed.
The acid (neutralization) number for unused and service-aged insulating liquids is, in general, a measure of
the amount of acidic constituents in the liquid. The formation of acidic components is commonly associated
with oxidation of mineral oil. The acidic components formed from mineral oil are considered undesirable as
they can contribute to solid insulation aging and sludge formation. The acid number has been used as a general
guide for determining when mineral oil should be replaced or reclaimed.
In natural ester liquids, acidic components arise from diverse processes and may not be associated with adverse
effects. The source of these components, as well as their magnitude, should be considered when determining
what action
oxidation should ester.
of natural be taken. The acidic components are produced mainly from hydrolysis, pyrolysis, and
Hydrolysis of natural ester bonds releases fatty acids. The free fatty acids introduced by this process are long
chain organic acids. Most of these acids are 18 carbons in length, C18, while a few are 16 carbon sequences,
C16. The strength of organic acids is inversely related to the chain length. Short chain acids such as acetic acid,
C2, are strong and, in sufcient amount, can be detrimental to the condition of other materials in contact with
the insulating liquid. Long chain acids such as stearic acid, C 18, are weak and have not been associated with
any detrimental effects. The presence of dissolved water in the liquid facilitates the hydrolysis reaction. It is
common for the acid number to signicantly increase during the rst months of the transformer operation,
attributable to the hydrolysis reaction with the initial moisture from the insulating paper.
paper.
Pyrolysis of the ester bonds also yields fatty acids. The heat that causes the release of the fatty acids also
causes some of them to break down further. Consequently,
Consequently, increases in acid number from this process directly
correspond to increases in dissolved hydrocarbon and carbon oxide gases. As with hydrolysis, the fatty acids
introduced by this process are long chain organic acids and are not considered to be detrimental.
16
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Oxidation of the ester liquids results in the production of shorter chain acids. The most easily oxidized sites in
natural ester liquids produce acids with chain lengths in the range of C7 to C11. Acids with even shorter chain
lengths may also be produced. The acidic components produced by oxidation are the components of greatest
concern.
As with any insulating liquid, acidic constituents can also arise from contamination or reactions of materials
other than the liquid itself. Signicant changes in acid number that are not attributable to hydrolysis, pyrolysis,
or oxidation should be investigated for these causes.
ASTM D664 is the preferred method when testing dielectric liquids that have become discolored, because it
uses a potentiometric endpoint rather than a colorimetric endpoint as used in ASTM D974.
The dielectric breakdown voltage of an insulating liquid is of importance as a measure of its ability to withstand
electrical stress. It is the voltage at which breakdown occurs between two electrodes under prescribed test
conditions. ASTM D1816 prescribes the use of spherically capped electrodes of the Verband Deutscher
Elektrotechniker (VDE) type. It serves primarily to indicate the presence of contaminating agents (e.g.,
water,, dirt, and conducting particles in the liquid), one or more of which may be present when low dielectric
water
breakdown values are foundfound by test.
Care should be taken when lling the test cell with natural ester liquids to guard against trapping air bubbles
NOTE— ASTM
ASTM dielectric breakdown voltage test D877 is in the process of being eliminated in the ASTM insulating
liquid standards and has been eliminated in other IEEE standards and guides.
The purchaser of an impulse generator may want to specify the necessary features to make switching surge
tests possible. Consideration may be given to other electrode congurations such as VDE electrodes, which
are similar to those used in ASTM D1816, because it may be desirable to obtain the ratio between power
frequency and impulse breakdown under similar conditions.
Care should be taken when lling the test cell with natural ester liquid to guard against trapping air bubbles
17
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
This method describes the determination of dissipation factor and relative permittivity of unused electrical
insulating liquids, as well as liquids in service or subsequent to service in transformers. Dissipation factor
(power factor) is a measure of the dielectric losses in an electrical insulating liquid in an alternating electric
eld and of the energy dissipated as heat. A low dissipation factor indicates low dielectric losses. Losses due
to dissipation factor should not be confused with transformer load and excitation losses, which are indicative
of the transformer’s energy efciency. The losses associated with dissipation factor are several orders of
magnitude lower than the load and excitation losses.
Unused natural ester liquids have inherently higher dissipation factors than mineral oils. Field data indicates
a higher rate of increase in the dissipation factors under normal operating conditions relative to mineral oils.
However,, additional analysis is required prior to setting limits for continued service.
However
Relative permittivity,
permittivity, often referred to as dielectric constant and occasionally as specic inductive capacity
(SIC), is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using the material to be measured as the dielectric to the
capacitance of a capacitor with vacuum as the dielectric, both having identical electrodes.
The relative
Unused permittivity
natural of inherently
esters have materials in contact
higher with each
relative other canthan
permittivity affect the local
unused voltage
mineral oils,stress
whichdistribution.
is closer to
that of cellulose insulation, leading to an improvement in electrical stress distribution.
This method covers the measurement, under non-equilibrium conditions, of the interfacial tension of insulating
liquids against water.
The interfacial tension between electrical insulating liquids and water is an indirect measure of the surfactant
content of the insulating liquid that migrates under charge attraction into the water at the interface. The
surfactants are polar or ionic soluble-contamination or liquid-deterioration products that decrease the
interfacial tension value. Water molecules are strongly attracted to one another and require a certain force
to break their interfacial tension. Surfactant species are attracted by the polar charges on water molecules.
As surfactants in the oil are attracted across the oil-water interface, they obstruct some of the water-to-water
attractions that weaken the tensile forces of the water interface. The amount and type of surfactants determines
the amount of weakening of these forces. This weakening is measured as a decrease in the interfacial tension
value. Interfacial tension is measured in millinewtons per meter (mN/m).
ASTM has not published an acceptance value limit for interfacial tension of unused natural ester liquids.
Natural ester liquids have inherently lower interfacial tension than unused mineral oils. Until ASTM has
published a limit
limit for interfacial
interfacial tension
tension of unused natural ester liquids, this
this guide cannot include such a limit
value. Additional eld data is required before limits for eld-aged liquid can be established for this guide.
However, further investigation should be done when there is more than a 40% decrease in the interfacial
tension value from initial transformer samples taken prior to energization.
A low color number of mineral insulating oil is desirable to permit inspection of assembled apparatus in a tank.
Unused natural ester liquids may initially be slightly darker in color (typically a slight amber appearance)
than highly rened unused mineral oil. While an increase in color number during service is an indicator of oil
18
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
deterioration or contamination in mineral oil, this may not be the case for natural ester liquids. Other tests (such
as dissipation factor and neutralization number) are better measures of liquid deterioration or contamination.
Note that natural ester liquid manufacturers may add clear colorants for identication purposes. Such tints
should not impact the ASTM color and visual examinations beyond the 1.0 limit.
The viscosity of dielectric coolants within the range of normal operating temperatures is important because it
can impact both the cooling and performance of some other transformer components such as load tap changers
(LTCs), which are immersed with the same insulating liquid.
The viscosity at the operating temperatures of electrical insulating liquids inuences their heat transfer
properties in natural and forced (pumped) convective ow and, consequently
consequently,, the temperature rise of operating
transformers containing them. Natural esters typically have higher viscosity than mineral oils. An increase in
viscosity over time can indicate excessive polymerization of natural esters from oxidation, typically due to
abnormal exposure to air and heat.
4.10 Flash point and re point—Cleveland Open Cup Method (ASTM D92)
The ash point of a ammable liquid is the lowest temperature at which the vapor pressure is sufcient to form
a ammable mixture with air near the surface of the liquid. The re point is the lowest temperature at which a
liquid is heated in an open container, and attains sufcient
sufcient combustible vapors to ignite and sustain a re for
5 s. Low values of either ash or re points are an indication of contamination with lower ash and re point
materials, such as conventional mineral oil.
This method should only be used to measure and describe the properties of liquids in response to heat and ame
under controlled laboratory conditions and should not be used to describe or appraise the re hazard or re risk
of liquids under actual re conditions. Results of this test can be used as an element of a re risk assessment
that takes into account other factors that are pertinent to an assessment of the re hazard of a particular end use.
Natural esters have signicantly higher ash and re points than that of conventional mineral oil. ASTM D6871
requires a minimum 275 °C ash point and 300 °C re point per method D92 for unused natural ester insulating
liquid as received. See
See Annex C for
C for more information.
The relative density (specic gravity) of an insulating liquid is the ratio of the weights of equal volumes of
liquid and water at 15 °C (60 °F). Relative density is not signicant in determining the quality of a liquid; it
may be pertinent in determining suitability for use in specic applications. In certain cold climates, ice may
form in equipment exposed to subzero (<0 °C) temperatures and may oat on liquids that have densities higher
than 0.91. Although density measurements are too insensitive to be useful for detecting many contamination
issues, when results are signicantly different from the typical value listed by the manufacturer the cause
should be investigated.
The lowest temperature at which an insulating liquid ows under the prescribed conditions is known as the
pour point.
point.
19
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
The pour point of an insulating liquid is important because it indicates the temperature below which liquid
circulation might be difcult, if not impossible. Even above the pour point temperature, liquid circulation can
be limited by viscosity
viscosity.. Natural ester
ester liquids have higher
higher viscosities than conventional mineral oil and
and lower
viscosities than HMWH and silicone dielectric liquids at normal operating temperatures. For transformers
using natural esters with operational (particularly mechanical) internal accessories, a higher minimum
temperature may be required before operation than required for mineral oil. In addition, it is possible for
natural esters to cease to ow if left standing for long periods at low temperatures, even above their pour point
temperatures established by testing.
The pour point has little signicance as far as contamination or deterioration is concerned; but it can be useful
for liquid type identication and for determining the type of equipment in which it can be used. The pour point
and viscosity,
viscosity, along with the range of possible ambient temperatures, should be factored in selection of the
processing equipment (e.g., pumps) for reconditioning
reconditioning or reclamation.
reclamation.
The volume resistivity (specic resistance) of a liquid is a direct-current measurement at opposite faces of a
centimeter cube of its electrical insulating capability.
capability. The resistivity in ohms/centimeter (Ω/cm) of a liquid
is the ratio of the direct potential gradient in volts/centimeter (V/cm) paralleling
paralleling the current ow within the
2
sample to the current density in amperes/square centimeter (A/cm ), at a given instant of time and under
prescribed conditions. A lower resistivity normally indicates the presence
presence of conductive
conductive contaminants, but the
test has not been widely applied to service-aged liquids. Unused natural esters have inherently lower volume
The principal causes of excessive gas formation within a transformer are abnormal thermal and electrical
stresses. As
As gases are formed, dissolved gas analysis (DGA) can be used to identify the gases and determine
their amounts. These gas-in-oil data are used to characterize the type of fault, the progress of the fault, and
the condition of the transformer. The gases found in gas blankets or Buchholz relays can also be sampled and
analyzed.
While the gases produced in natural ester liquid and cellulose insulated systems are the same as those produced
in mineral oil/cellulose systems, the circumstances and quantities in which they are produced are sometimes
different. There
There are three principal differences caused by the chemical structure of these liquids, as follows:
— Ethane
liquids.isFor
produced from
example, the oxidation
soybean of linolenic
linol
and rapeseed enic acid,
based ester aliquids
signihave
signicant
cant component
componentlinolenic
sufcient in some acid
naturcontent
natural
al ester
to routinely produce measurable amounts of ethane. After the initial operation of a transformer under
normal conditions, the ethane levels can rise to a few hundred ppm. This generation is considered
“stray gassing” and not a fault condition. Ethane generation tends to level off after a few weeks to a few
months, depending on the operating temperatures. Also, exposure to sunlight or uorescent light can
increase the amount of ethane in the insulating liquid. UV exposure should be avoided, particularly for
containers of samples prior to testing. Watch for increases in the other hydrocarbon gases to follow the
onset or development of fault conditions.
— Carbon oxides can
can be produced from
from the pyrolysis of natural ester
ester liquid in amounts
amounts and proportions
proportions
that can mask or confuse the carbon oxide production from the pyrolysis of cellulose.
— A different hydrocarbon gas prole is produced from pyrolysis. The same hydrocarbon gases are
produced from heating
heating but the proportions
proportions are different
different than those produced from
from mineral oil.
oil. Watch
Watch
for concurrent increases in the carbon oxide gases.
20
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
The testing methods for natural ester liquids are the same methods used for mineral oil. The key ASTM tests
related to gases generated in liquid-immers
liquid-immersed
ed transformers are as follows:
— Test method for analysis of gases dissolved in electrical insulating oil by gas chromatography
chromatography
(ASTM D3612): All dissolved gas test methods of ASTM D3612 are suitable. The “head space” DGA
technique (ASTM D3612, Method C) results in less column maintenance compared to direct injection
(ASTM D3612, Method B) when testing DGA in natural ester liquids.
— Practice
D3284): T for comb
combustible
Testing
esting ustible
and eldgases
gases in the indicates
experience gas spacethat
of electrical
under theapparatus using portable
using
same magnitude portabl e meters (ASTM
meters
of electrical (ASTM
overstress,
natural esters typically produce somewhat less volume of the gases compared to mineral oil. However,
for the same thermal overstress, some natural esters produce signicantly more volume of the gases
than others depending on the type of base ester. There are differences in gas solubility coefcients
between the
the various natural esters
esters and mineral oils
oils and their respective
respective values
values should be used for data
interpretation.There
interpretation. There are differences between mineral oil and natural ester gassing tendency per ASTM
D2300 (see 4.18
4.18).
).
Refer to IEEE Std C57.155, IEEE Guide for Interpretation of Gases Generated in Natural Ester and Synthetic
Ester-Immersed
Ester-Im mersed Transformers for more details.
For naturalX2
Appendix esters, ASTM
Section D6871
X 2.3.4 does D6871
of ASTM not yet states
recommend oxidation
that “oxidation stability
stability testing methods
requirements or limits.
and appropriate
test methods for natural ester insulating liquids have not been established”. ASTM D6871 deems appropriate
all other test methods listed in Table 1 for
1 for testing in natural esters.
Natural esters are not as resistant to oxidation as mineral oils. For this reason, their application in free-breathing
transformers and other equipment (e.g., bladderless conservator design) is not recommended. All practical
measures should be taken to avoid continuous, long-term exposure to unlimited air exchange, particularly at
operating temperatures.
Oxidation essentially occurs only at the surface of the liquid exposed to air, so thin lm exposure is of greater
concern than liquid in the transformer tank. It is recommended to minimize the time and temperature that
surfaces with thin lms of natural esters are exposed to air, including untanked core and coils, radiators,
heat exchangers, hoses, ttings, etc. For example, the creep dielectric strength of the surface of cellulose
impregnated with natural ester may be reduced if its surface is exposed to oxygen for sufcient time to cause
polymerization. Different types
types of natural esters formulations
formulations can have different
different recommended air exposure
time limits depending on the type of base oils and the type and amount of oxidation inhibitors.12
Exposure to air should also be limited to prevent moisture contamination. If exposure to ambient air over long
periods is of concern, refer to the insulating liquid manufacturer’s
manufacturer’s recommendations
recommendations on air exposure limits,
detection and maintenance of antioxidants methods, moisture removal, and exposure prevention guidance for
each particular liquid brand.
12
Contact the manufacturer of the specic liquid for recommended inhibitor test method and trigger point values.
21
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
NOTE— ASTM
ASTM D2112 [B2]
[B2] and
and ASTM D2440 [B3] [B3] test
test methods were developed for the evaluation of the oxidation
stability of mineral oil insulating liquids. The methods note that there is no established relationship between test results and
eld performance. ASTM D2112 [B2] [B2] is
is a control test of oxidation stability of new,
n ew, inhibited
inhibited mineral insulating oils for
determining the induction period of oxidation inhibitors under prescribed accelerated aging conditions. Per ASTM D2440
[B3],, the test can be used as a control test for evaluating oxidation inhibitors and to check the consistency of oxidation
[B3]
stability of production mineral oils. Neither was deemed suitable for natural ester insulating liquid testing. IEC 61125
Method C has been modied and included in IEC 62770 as a method for measuring the oxidation stability of natural ester
liquids.
Water may be present in an insulating liquid in several forms. The presence of free water can be detected by
visual examination in the form of separated droplets or as a cloud (turbidity) dispersed throughout the liquid.
This type of water invariably results in decreased dielectric strength. Water in solution cannot be detected
visually and is normally determined by either physical or chemical means. The dielectric strength of the liquid
decreases as the dissolved water increases, more signicantly as the level approaches the saturation point. The
method of ASTM D1533, Standard Test Method for Water in Insulating Liquids by Coulometric Karl Fischer
Titration,
Titration, is suitable for the determination of water in insulating liquids and, depending upon the conditions
of sample handling and the method of analysis, can be used to estimate the total water content of liquids. The
unit measure of the water is in milligrams/kilogram (mg/kg).
(mg/kg). This test is signicant in that it can indicate the
presence of water
water even
even if the presence
presence of water may not be evident
evident from
from electrical
electrical tests.
Some reagents
D1533, Annex that are suitable for
A1 “Alternative mineral
Solvent oils may alternate
Systems,” not be suitable for natural
reagents may beester liquids.
needed As stated
for certain in ASTM
natural ester
formulations. Consult the manufacturer for recommendations.
recommendations. Reagents for aldehydes and ketones should be
used if the additives are unknown. When alternate reagents are needed, using the Test Method D1533 reagents
recommended for mineral oil may yield elevated and erratic water content results.
It is important to note that absolute dissolved water limit values set for mineral oil are not applicable for natural
esters. The absolute amount of dissolved water needed to get to a particular percent of saturation varies by
liquid type. Natural esters have signicantly higher water saturation values (approximately 15 to 20 times at
room temperature) than mineral oil at a given temperature. However,
However, the impact of water content on dielectric
strength as a function of percent of saturation is essentially the same for both natural ester and mineral oil. See
Annex B for
B for an example graph of water saturation versus temperature for both natural ester and mineral oil.
For certain applications, when an insulating liquid is stressed at high-voltage gradients, it may be desirable to
be able to determine
determine the rate of gas evolution
evolution or gas
gas absorption under specied
specied test conditions. At the present
time, correlation of ASTM D2300 test results with equipment performance is limited, regardless of the liquid
type. Natural esters have inherently lower gassing tendency than mineral oils, well below the lower range of
mineral oils and generally fairly negative (gas absorbing). The typical range for natural esters is −50 μL/min
to −90 μL/min.
22
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
This visual test indicates the presence of corrosive sulfur in the liquid. Corrosive sulfur is undesirable as it can
lead to premature coil failures. Natural esters naturally do not contain corrosive sulfur.
4.20 Polychlorinat
Polychlorinated
ed biphenyls (PCBs) (ASTM D4059)
Unused natural ester liquids should not contain PCBs. Typical government regulations may require that
electrical apparatus and electrical insulating liquids containing PCBs be handled and disposed of through
the use of specic procedures. The procedure to be used for a particular apparatus or quantity of insulating
liquid is determined by the PCB content of the liquid. The results of this analytical technique can be useful in
selecting the appropriate handling and disposal procedures (refer to 40 CFR 761.1 [B11]
[B11]).).
This method determines the furanic compounds generated as a result of the degradation of the cellulose
insulation materials, such as paper, pressboard, and cotton, used in the solid insulation systems of electrical
equipment. Furanic compounds that are soluble to an appreciable degree typically migrate into the insulating
liquid. The presence of high concentrations of furanic compounds in samples of the insulating liquid is
signicant in that this can be an indication of cellulose degradation from aging or incipient fault conditions.
Testing for furanic compounds by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) can be used to
complement DGA as performed in accordance with the test method in ASTM D3612.
5. Liquid compatibility
compatibility with transformer materials
Each transformer design and insulating liquid should be shown to be compatible under standard service
conditions to the satisfaction of the transformer manufacturer. Verication
Verication of compatibility shall occur to help
assure that no excessive interaction or reaction occurs between materials in contact with the dielectric coolant.
Standard test method ASTM D3455, “Standard Test Methods for Compatibility of Construction Material
with Electrical Insulating Oil of Petroleum Origin” can be used with the exception of Section 8.2.5, “Aged
properties for the reference oil specimen.” The reference values should be modied for natural esters. See
Table 4 and
4 and B.2
B.2 for
for suggested values for the natural ester liquid specimens.
6.1 General
Instructions for eld preparation, liquid lling, and start-up by manufacturers of natural ester liquid-immersed
equipment may vary because of differences in the design of units and individual preferences. Certain
installations may require more rigorous quality control than others. The user and the manufacturer should
agree on minimum requirements. All All handling equipment (e.g., hoses, pipes, tanks) should be kept clean and
should be dedicated to natural ester liquid service. Equipment with residual ester liquid should be sealed from
continuous air exchange and contaminants.
Natural ester liquids are currently shipped in containers including, but not limited to: drums, totes, truck
trailers, and rail tank cars. All containers should be clean, dry
dry,, and airtight. A nitrogen gas blanket, or other dry
inert gas blanket, is recommended.
23
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
The inspection of natural ester liquids should follow similar procedures as those now being used for mineral
oil. Liquid received in truck trailers and rail tank cars should be tested prior to unloading.
Upon receipt, natural ester liquids meeting or exceeding the limits presented in Table 2 are
2 are considered to be
acceptable. Values shown in Table 2 are
2 are generic to natural ester liquids as a class. Specific typical values for
each different brand of liquid should be obtained from the liquid manufacturer.
manufacturer.
Table 2—Acceptable values for receipt of shipments of unused natural ester liquids
Table
Results
Test and ASTM method
Minimum Maximum
6.4 Handling of the liquid by the user and placing the liquid in storage
6.4
6.4.1 General
6.4.1
Because the location and style of a storage tank depends on the user’s physical plant arrangement, transfer
from the delivering bulk container directly to the transformer or other equipment is not always possible. It may
be necessary to transfer the natural ester liquid to the storage tanks. Purchase of the liquid in drums or totes can
be more
more practical
practical for certain projects.
Using indoor or underground tanks is ideal. Indoor or underground tanks can reduce the amount of heating
required to maintain proper pumping and filtering temperatures. For cold climate regions, outdoor tanks
24
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
should be heated and well insulated to minimize the effect of temperatures near or below the pour point of the
natural ester liquid.
Standard storage tanks, such as those used for insulating liquids, are satisfactory.
satisfactory. All tanks should conform
to local codes and standards. New tanks should be specied with openings that are properly threaded and
should have at least one manhole. The inside of the tanks should be sandblasted and painted with a coating that
is compatible with the natural ester liquid, such as an alkyd paint. Generally,
Generally, any coating that is compatible
with conventional mineral oil should be satisfactory for natural ester liquid use. Nitrogen blanketing is highly
recommended. To help keep the liquid quality from degrading, free-breathing tanks should be avoided and
should not be used in high ambient temperature (>30 °C) or high humidity locations (unless desiccants are
available and maintained).
Existing storage tanks that have been used for mineral oil can be used for natural ester liquids if the following
conditions are met:
— Transfer pumps and lines are of adequate capacity to pump the more viscous liquid. If the tank and
Transfer
transfer system are situated so that the liquid may have to be moved while it is cold, use of electric- or
steam-line tracing and tank-heating apparatus may be necessary.
— The tank is
is thoroughly
thoroughly cleaned
cleaned and inspected
inspected for
for rusting
rusting conditions
conditions or leakage.
leakage.
— The tank should be thoroughly drained and ushed with 60 °C to 80 °C natural ester liquid before
being lled to help avoid contamination.
contamination.
WARNING
It is important that pumps and lines are properly grounded during liquid transfer to prevent the build-up of a
static electric charge.
6.4.2 Venting
Equipping a tank with a proper pressure/vacuum vent valve and a desiccant-type vent dryer lowers the dew
point of the air in the tank to help prevent water condensation. Each
Each vent dryer should have a color indicator
to show when maintenance is required. Changes should be planned in advance of the anticipated indicator
change.
Dehumidication
Dehumidication of the air in the storage tank can also be used.
A tank vent lter between the desiccant canister and the tank is also recommended. Filtering incoming air to
the tank may prevent introduction of airborne particulate material into the liquid during storage.
25
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
6.4.3 Pumps
So that pump suppliers can specify the correct pump size, they should be made aware of the liquid viscosity
and the required pumping rate, suction lift, and discharge head. The following factors should be considered:
— Capacity. Because the viscosity of natural ester liquids is generally higher than conventional mineral
Capacity. Because
oil, care should be used in selecting a pump with the horsepower and capacity required. First, determine
the maximum ow rate required and then select a pump and motor that can handle this ow rate at the
lowest temperature (highest liquid viscosity) that could be encountered.
— Type. The most commonly recommended pump for natural ester liquids is the positive displacement
Type. The
gear pump. A standard
standard iron pump with either mechanical seal or stufng box is also satisfactory.
satisfactory.
For capacities up to 4.8 L/s (75.8 gpm), direct-driven pumps have proven to be satisfactory. For higher
pumping rates, a reduction-gear
reduction-gear or belt-driven
belt-driven pump may be required.
Other pumps that have been used successfully are the air-operated diaphragm pump, progressive cavity pump,
and exible impeller pump.
WARNING
Insulating liquids, including natural ester liquids, passing through lter papers or ungrounded or unbonded
hoses can acquire an electrostatic charge that could be transferred to the transformer windings as the
transformer is lled. Under some conditions, the electrostatic
electrostatic voltage on the winding may be hazardous to
personnel or equipment.
equipment. To avoid
avoid this possibility
possibility,, all externally accessible transformer bushing terminals, as
well as the tank and liquid ltering equipment including hoses, should be properly grounded during lling.
Where instructions given by the transformer manufacturer differ from recommendations made in this guide,
the manufacturer’s instructions should be given preference.
CAUTION
Do not exceed the transformer tank vacuum limits (see nameplate or contact the transformer manufacturer
manufacturer
for information) or tank damage may result.
Commercial dehydration and degassing units are available that can process insulating liquids to acceptable
levels of dissolved water and dissolved air.
The degassing of natural ester liquid should be carried out at temperatures somewhat different than those
required for mineral oil. The processing temperature should be obtained from the insulating liquid
manufacturer. Proper processing temperature helps ensure sufcient degasication and dehydration of the
natural ester liquid prior to introduction into the transformer
transformer..
After the natural ester liquid is processed through the degasier and particulate lter, it should be introduced
directly into the transformer under vacuum. If in doubt as to the lling procedure to be followed, seek guidance
26
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
from the transformer manufacturer. If guidance from the transformer manufacturer cannot be obtained, a
storage tank that can maintain a vacuum equal to or greater than the vacuum maintained during transformer
lling should be utilized. If the recommended vacuum cannot be achieved, the natural ester liquid may exhibit
excessive foaming in the transformer tank during the vacuum lling operation, depending on the amount of
dissolved gases in the natural ester liquid.
In instances where the transformer is required to be lled on-site without the use of vacuum impregnation,
consult the liquid’s manufacturer for instructions concerning ll rate and characteristics of the liquid after
lling.
Natural
NOTE 1— ester liquids are miscible and compatible with typical mineral oil insulating liquids. If the purpose
of using a natural ester liquid is to comply with Article 450.23 of the 2017 NEC the requirements should be followed,
including that less-ammable transformer liquids have an ASTM D92 re point of not less than 300 °C and that the
installation complies with all restrictions provided for in the product listing of the liquid. The 2017 NESC (Accredited
Standards Committee C2-2017) also recognizes less-ammable insulating liquids as a means to minimize re hazard,
for both outdoor installations (in Rule 152A), and for indoor installations (in Rule 152B). A high re point, >300 °C, is
the requirement of IEC 61039 to be classied as a K Class insulating liquid. For such installations, avoid contamination
of natural ester liquid with mineral oil to prevent lowering the ash and re points, and for possible environmental
regulations purposes. Dedicated equipment is the preferred means to help prevent
p revent excessive contamination. Otherwise, it
is recommended to ush the equipment with an appropriate volume of at least 5% natural ester liquid.
NOTE 2— Some
Some natural ester power transformer manufacturers, when using vapor phasing processing, might require
initially lling the transformer with mineral oil. In such cases, it is strongly recommended that the unit be retrolled with
the natural ester prior to running the factory tests.
NOTE 3— Medium
Medium and large power transformer tanks may be lled with a natural ester in the plant for testing, then
drained and lled with dry gas prior to shipping. Dry nitrogen is technically preferred to help avoid the potential for thin
lm oxidation to occur between the time of the drainage at the factory and the eld lling. However, that option may not
be available due to local safety regulations
regulations (to help prevent possible asphyxiation). If dry air ll is required, contact the
natural ester manufacturer for guidance.
After the lling is completed and the standing time is also completed, tests on the natural ester liquid should be
made before energization of the transformer (see Table 3).
3).
Table 3—Test
3—Test limits for unused natural
natura l ester liquid received
receiv ed in
new equipment, prior to energization
Value for voltage class
Test and ASTM method
met hod
≤ 69 kV > 69 kV < 230 kV ≥ 230 kV
Dielectric strength, ASTM D1816,
kV,, minimum
kV minimu m
1 mm gap 25 30 35
2 mm gap 45 55 60
Dissipation factor, ASTM D924,
%, maximum, 25 °C 0.5 0.5 0.5
27
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Table 3—Test
3—Test limits for unused natural
natura l ester liquid received
receiv ed in
new equipment, prior to energization (continued)
Value for voltage class
Test and ASTM method
met hod
≤ 69 kV > 69 kV < 230 kV ≥ 230 kV
Visual examination, ASTM D1524 Bright and clear Bright and clear Bright and clear
Neutralization number (acidity),
(acidity),
ASTM D974, mg KOH/g, maximum 0.06 0.06 0.06
Water content, ASTM D1533,
mg/kg, maximum 300 150 100
Fire point, ASTM D92, °C 300 300 300
Kinematic viscosity, ASTM D445,
mm2/s (cSt) at 40 °C, maximum 50 50 50
Total dissolved gas, ASTM D3612, %,
Total 0.5% or per
maximum manufacturer’s
— — requirements b
a
The test limits shown in this table apply to natural ester liquid as a class. Due to differences in their chemistry,
chemistry, certain values
are signicantly different than the limits for mineral oil. See Clause 4 for
4 for details. Specic typical values for each brand of
liquid should be obtained from each liquid manufacturer. If test results, while in compliance with this table, are signicantly
different from published typical values, it is recommended that the liquid manufacturer be contacted.
b
This value should be obtained from a sample collected 24 h to 48 h after the transformer is lled, and applies only to
transformers with diaphragm conservator systems. The maximum of 0.5% (5000 ppm) is used for total dissolved gases,
which is the sum of the individual gases including atmospheric gases.
Most transformer manufacturers have found it advisable to allow natural ester liquid-immersed transformers
to wait longer than normally allowed for mineral oil after lling and breaking vacuum before energizing or
high-voltage testing. A conservative option is to wait until the transformer has cooled to room temperature. The
additional wait time is recommended because natural esters generally take signicantly longer to impregnate
cellulose insulation than mineral oil under the same conditions. Transformers with heavy thicknesses
of pressboard insulation require standing times that are adequate to allow the required impregnation. The
impregnation rate of natural ester liquid is a function of liquid temperature and the thickness of the cellulose
material to be saturated. Contact transformer, insulating paper/pressboard manufacturers, and insulating
liquid manufacturers for guidance concerning impregnation rates. Recommended minimum standing times
vary depending on the type of pressboard, thickness, initial liquid temperature, ambient temperature, voltage
class, etc. If such guidance is unavailable, for distribution transformers consider a minimum of an 8 h wait
time, with 24 h being preferred. For power transformers, consider a minimum wait time of at least 24 h or
more, depending on the variables mentioned above.
Liquid circulating pumps, if any, should be operated for at least several hours of the standing time. Most
transformer manufacturers
manufacturers have specic written procedures for this standing time and pump operation, and
they should be consulted for their recommendations.
Field screening of natural ester liquids should follow the procedures now being used for mineral oil.
Experience in this matter indicates that visual condition and dielectric breakdown voltage are the most
applicable screening methods. A sample should be drawn in a clean clear glass or high-density polyethylene
jar and allowed to reach room temperature prior to testing.
testing. The sample jar should be sealed
sealed as soon
soon as practical
practical
to avoid moisture contamination from the air. Aluminum or tin-plated steel cans can also be used as containers
for the samples. The liquid should then be checked for clarity, color, odor, and viscosity (relative to an
unused sample). Dielectric breakdown voltage should then be measured. Portable dielectric test sets have
28
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
been available
available for some time
time and have proven quite satisfactory
satisfactory in determining
determining whether
whether additional
additional laboratory
laboratory
screening is necessary.
Natural ester liquids that have unsatisfactory appearance and dielectric values should be further evaluated.
The following tests are adequate for classifying in-service natural ester liquids:
— Visual
Visual condition
condition (ASTM D1524)
— Color (ASTM D1500)
— Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816)
— Water content
content (ASTM D1533)
— AC loss characteristic (dissipation factor) (ASTM D924)
— Fire point (ASTM D92)
— Viscosity
Viscosity (ASTM D445)
NOTE 1— For DGA see IEEE Std C57.155, IEEE Guide for Interpretation of Gases Generated in Natural Ester and
Synthetic Ester-Immersed Transformers.
NOTE 2— The
The American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS) Ofcial Method, Cd 18-90, p-Anisidine Value, developed for
edible oils, may also prove to be a useful indicator of the condition of aged natural ester liquids used in transformers.
The method determines the amount of aldehydes (principally 2-alkenals and 2,4-dienals) in natural esters. The aldehydes
are formed as byproducts during oxidation of the vegetable oil base. Additional eld data collection and evaluation are
suggested to determine recommended values for transformer application.
Acceptable limits for in-service natural ester liquids are shown in Table 4.
4. These should be used as a guide in
the absence of the manufacturer’s recommendations.
29
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Table 4—Suggested limits for continued use of in-service natural ester liquids
Table
(grouped by voltage class) (see also IEEE Std C57.152™)
IEEE value for voltage class
Test and ASTM method
≤ 69 kV > 69 kV < 230 kV ≥ 230 kVb
Dielectric strength c, ASTM D1816, kV, minimum
1 mm gap 23 28 30
2 mm gap 40 47 50
Dissipation factor (power factor), ASTM D924,
%, maximum (see footnote c) (see footnote c) (see footnote c)
25 °C
100 °C
Water content: ASTM D1533, mg/kg, maximum 450 350 200
Optionald F
Fiire point, ASTM D92, °C, minimum 300 300 300
Kinematic viscosity increase from initial value ≥10% ≥10% ≥0%
a
The test limits shown in this table apply to natural ester insulating liquids as a class. Due to differences in their chemistry,
chemistry,
certain values are significantly different than the limits for mineral oil. See Clause 4 for
4 for details. Specific typical values for
each brand of insulating liquid should be obtained from each insulating liquid manufacturer. If test results, while in
compliance with this table, are significantly different from published typical values, it is recommended that the insulating
liquid manufacturer be contacted.
b
Provisional for ≥ 230 kV.
c
At the time this guide was written, there was insufficient field data analysis available
availab le to provide reliable recommended
recomme nded limit
values for dissipation factor. Users are encouraged to forward data to the IEEE Transformer Committee Insulating Fluids
Subcommittee for possible future use. See B.2 B.2 for non-normative guidance for threshold values indicating possible
abnormalities or normal aging limit reached.
d
Most outdoor transformer installations do not require the NEC “Less-Flammable” designation. After retrofilling with
unused natural esters a reduction in the fire point of the ester liquid due to residual mineral oil. For transformers requiring
a less-flammable rating, or otherwise known to require its insulating liquid to meet a minimum 300 °C fire point, any sample
testing with a fire point below 300 °C indicates excessive residual mineral oil and should be investigated. For more
information, please refer to
to Figure B.4 and
B.4 and C.1
C.1..
8.4 Reconditioning
8.4
8.4.1 General
8.4.1
For the purposes of this guide, reconditioning is defined as “the removal of water and solid materials by
mechanical means,” while reclaiming is defined as “the removal of acidic and colloidal contaminants and
oxidized matter by chemical and adsorbent means.”
The mechanical means that are used for removing water and solids from liquids include several types of filters,
centrifuges, and vacuum dehydrators. In general, water removal filters and vacuum dehydrators should be
placed before the final
final particulate
particulate removal filters.
8.4.2.1 General
8.4.2.1
If, during the transport or storage of the liquid, water is introduced into the liquid above a limit that would not
permit the liquid
liquid to be introduced into a transformer
transformer,, additional
additional treatment is required.
required.
If the water is in the form of free water, filter elements utilizing blotter paper have been used effectively.
effectively. Filter
cartridges packed with moisture absorbing media are recommended to help achieve desired dryness. Proper
care and storage of the water absorbing filters is essential to help ensure they do not absorb moisture before
use. The manufacturer’s temperature
temperature rating of the elements should not be exceeded.
30
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Most types of lters now being used on mineral oil can be used for natural ester liquids.
The cartridge-type lter is well suited for this service. It is available in various nominal pore size ranges, and
sizes for either low- or high-ow rates.
Filters of the adsorption type, such as activated Fuller’s earth, can be used; however, certain pour point
depressant and antioxidant additives can be removed from the liquid by these lters if the vacuum is too high.
The manufacturer of the liquid should be consulted to determine whether the possibility of additive removal
is a concern.
Just as when selecting pumps, care should be taken in selecting a lter for natural ester liquids. Because natural
ester liquid viscosities are higher than those for mineral oil, larger lters or higher liquid temperature may be
required to achieve the same ow rate.
If lters for mineral oil are used, a decrease in ow rate may be necessary unless steps are taken to decrease the
liquid viscosity by heating.
If the dissolved water content should be lowered, a high vacuum dehydration system may be required. The
vacuum dehydrator is an efcient means of reducing the gas and water content of an insulating liquid to a
very low value. Two types of vacuum dehydrators are in general use today. The operating principle of both
is the same, i.e., the liquid is exposed to a high vacuum and heat for a short interval of time. In one method,
the exposure of the liquid is accomplished by spraying the liquid through a nozzle into a vacuum chamber.
In the other type of vacuum dehydrator, the liquid is allowed to ow over a series of bafes inside a vacuum
chamber,, thus forming thin lms so that a large surface is exposed to the vacuum. If the liquid contains solid
chamber
matter,, it is advisable to lter it before processing it in the vacuum dehydrator because solid contaminants can
matter
plug the nozzle
nozzle of one type of dehydrator
dehydrator or pass through either type without being removed
removed from the liquid.
liquid.
In addition to removing water, processing natural ester insulating liquid with a vacuum dehydrator also
extracts dissolved gases, normally removing any volatile acids. However, most remaining dissolved acids are
relatively unaffected
unaffected by the process. Thus, it is doubtful the overall acidity of the liquid can be signicantly
reduced by using the vacuum dehydration method. In either type of dehydrator, some means of automatically
recirculating a very wet liquid should be provided to prevent excessive water content in the outgoing liquid.
Molecular sieve lters have been found effective for removing dissolved water from natural ester insulating
liquid. Activated grade 3A or 4A molecular sieves are recommended for water removal from natural ester
liquids and are effective over a broad temperature range, provided adequate care is taken in lter selection to
help ensure sufcient residence time in the lter and provided a particulate lter is used downstream of the
molecular sieve lter (to catch ne particulates from the sieves).
An in-line moisture hygrometer with alarm calibrated for use in natural ester insulating liquid should be
installed downstream of any moisture absorbing lter or molecular sieve to help ensure that the moisture
removing media has not become saturated, potentially causing the release of moisture into the liquid.
8.5 Reclaiming
The removal of deterioration products from natural ester insulating liquid is usually accomplished by the
use of reclaiming processes involving Fuller’s earth. Other absorbents that should also be effective include
magnesium silicate, magnesium aluminum phyllosilicate, activated alumina, and bauxite. Mixtures of
absorbents may improve removal performance.
31
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
The manufacturer of the liquid should be consulted for recommendations regarding reclaiming, as the
recommended treatments may vary from those outlined in IEEE Std 637™. Some additives provided with
unused liquid can be removed by the reclamation process and may need to be added back to the reclaimed liquid.
Although in most cases different types of insulating liquids are miscible (with the exception of silicone
liquid), such mixtures should typically be avoided in transformers and liquid processing equipment when
possible and practical. This is due to potential negative
negative impact on key environmental,
environmental, performance, and re
safety characteristics. Obviously, some low percentage contamination cannot be avoided when retrolling,
particularly transformers and other equipment
equipment with impregnated cellulose
cellulose material.
material. Transformers
Transformers containing
mineral oil and HMWH have been retrolled with natural ester. Consult the manufacturers of the insulating
liquids or the transformer for advice if mixing different types of insulating liquids is permissible or has
occurred. Refer to B.3 for mixture information, including an example of the impact on a few key properties
using a natural ester with different ratios of mineral oil content.
Typically
ypically,, natural esters covered by this guide have been formulated to minimize health and environmental
hazards. Although no known hazard is involved in the normal handling and use of natural ester liquids,
additives to the base vegetable oils may differ. Users should obtain a safety data sheet (SDS) for each natural
ester liquid in use.
Where manufacturer’s instructions differ from recommendations made in this guide, the manufacturer’s
instructions should be followed. Personnel should avoid eye/liquid contact and inhalation of spray mists, and
take appropriate steps if such incidents occur. SDSs should provide appropriate guidelines with respect to
handling these liquids. Although not listed as a hazardous substance or waste by any U.S. federal agency,
disposal of natural ester liquids may require certain precautions, depending on regulatory jurisdiction, as
environmental regulations can vary by country, province, state, county, and local community. Currently,
the U.S. EPA Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure (SPCC) regulation (40 CFR 112) makes no
practical distinction between mineral oils and vegetable oils, except for possible reduction in spill remediation
requirements. For natural esters that contain mineral oil, such as natural ester liquid used as a ushing liquid
for retrolling transformers originally containing mineral oil, follow the same disposal requirements for
mineral oil provided by the authority having jurisdiction.
9.2 Leaks
During scheduled routine maintenance, or a regular equipment maintenance schedule, checks should be
made for leaks. For units with pressure gauges, a constant periodic reading of zero-gauge pressure is a strong
indication of a head space leak or some other problem that should be investigated. Areas to check and repair
should include valves, bushings, gauges, tap changers, welds, sample ports, manhole covers, pipe ttings, and
pressure relief valves. If a leak does not involve a replaceable
replaceable seal, welding or epoxy
epoxy sealing
sealing kits
kits can typically
be used
used to seal it.
Proper care should be taken to protect the integrity of the natural ester liquid and equipment insulation if leak
repair requires lowering the liquid level. Clean and dry temporary liquid storage containers should be used.
Testing of the liquid before returning it to the equipment is recommended. The recommendations on sampling,
testing, and lling of transformers presented in this guide should be followed.
32
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Minor spills, such as those occurring in the manufacture or repair of transformers and in testing natural ester
liquid, can be cleaned using absorbent rags. Using suitable cleaners facilitates the cleanup. Many common
solvents suitable for use with petroleum liquids may not be effective with natural esters. Common household
detergents are recommended. If thin lms of natural esters have partially or completely polymerized, household
detergents may not be effective. The surface area should be saturated with a suitable cleaner (water-based,
biodegradable, non-ammable,
non-ammable, non-conductive
non-conductive cleaner/degreaser)
cleaner/degreaser) and then steam or hot water
water spray should
be applied. Contact the
the natural ester liquid manufacturer for recommended
recommended cleaners. See IEEE
IEEE Std 980™ for
additional information.
States typically have jurisdiction for spills onto soils. Many states currently do not list natural esters as soil
spill-regulated material.
material. However, state and local regulations should be consulted to enable compliance with
any applicable regulations. Soil acts as an absorbent and typically offers excellent conditions for natural
biodegradation. If the presence of natural ester liquid is objectionable to the authorities having jurisdiction, the
soil can be treated with a bioremediation catalyst to maximize the biodegradation rate. The two most frequently
used technologies for oil spill cleanups in the United States are fertilization and seeding. Fertilization helps
speed up the biodegradation process by adding nutrients to stimulate the growth of microorganisms. Seeding
adds additional microorganisms to assist the native organisms in the degradation process.
In terms
same of potential
as motor physical hazard
oil or hydrocarbons (e.g., slippage),
of comparable natural
viscosity. ester
The sameliquids in spill
cleanup situationsmay
requirements behave much the
be applicable.
See IEEE Std 980 for more information.
Because natural ester liquids oat on water, a spill can be contained by oating booms or dikes. If containment
equipment is unavailable or impractical, the natural ester liquid can be treated by applying surface-active
dispersant chemicals, also known as detergents, designed to remove the oil from the surface of the water and
into the water column. Only chemical dispersants that are listed on the U.S. National Contingency Plan (NCP)
Product Schedule should be used to treat oil spills. For spills into water surfaces, check with the authorities
having jurisdiction for reporting and remediation requirements.
Once the natural ester liquid has been concentrated, it can be removed from the water surface by systems
normally used for vegetable oil spills. These systems include pumps, skimmers, and physical absorbents.
When collected, the liquid can be reclaimed or incinerated in a suitable burner. See IEEE Std 980.
33
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Annex A
(informative)
Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use only.
[B2] ASTM D2112, Standard Test Method for Oxidation Stability of Inhibited Mineral Insulating Oil by
Pressure Vessel.
[B4] ASTM D3487, Standard Specication for Mineral Insulating Oil Used in Electrical Apparatus.
[B6] ASTM D5950, Standard Test Method for Pour Point of Petroleum Products (Automatic Tilt Method).
[B7] ASTM D6866, Standard Test Methods for Determining the Biobased Content of Solid, Liquid, and
Gaseous Samples Using Radiocarbon Analysis.
[B10] Claiborne,
Claibo rne, C. C., T. V. Oommen, H. D. Le, E. J. J . Walsh,
Walsh, and J.
J . P.
P. Baker, “Enhanced cellulosic insulation
life evaluation in a high oleic vegetable oil dielectric uid,” Paper 3C, Doble Conference , , Apr.
Apr. 2002.
[B12] Davydov, V. G., “New Natural Ester Dielectric Liquids for Transformers and Other HV Apparatus,”
Proceedings
Proceedings of TechCon 2014 Asia-Pacic
Asia-Pacic,, pp. 181–200, Sydney, Australia
Australia 2014.
[B13] Doble Engineering Company, Lewand, L. R., “Laboratory evaluation of several synthetic and
agricultural-based dielectric liquids,” Proceedin
Proceedings
gs of the 86th Annual International Conference of Doble
Clients,, Watertown,
Clients Watertown, MA,
MA , USA, 2001.
13
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials (http://
( http://www
www.astm
.astm.org/
.org/).
).
14
CIGRE publications are available from the Council on Large Electric Systems (http://
( http://www
www.e .e-cigre
-cigre.org/
.org/ ).
).
15
CFR publications are available from the U.S. Government Publishing Ofce (http://
( http://www
www.ecfr
.ecfr.gov/
.gov/ ).
).
34
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
[B15] EPA OPPTS 835.3100, Fate, Transport and Transformation Test Guidelines: Aerobic Aquatic
Degradation.16
[B17] Eriksson, A., R. Liu, and C. Törnkvist, “Differences in Streamer Initiation and Propagation in Ester
Fluids and Mineral Oil,” IEEE ICDL Confere
Conference
nce 201
2011
1, File no. 40, http://dx
http:// dx.doi
.doi.org/
.org/10
10.1109/
.1109/ICDL
ICDL.2011
.2011
.6015421.
[B19] Fritsche, R., U. Rimmele, F. Trautmann, and M. Schafer, “Prototype 420 Kv Power Transformer using
Natural Ester Dielectric Fluid,
Fluid, Proceed
Proceedings
ings of TechCon 2014
2014,, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
[B20] FM Approvals 3990, FM Approval Standard for Less or Nonammable Liquid-Insulated Transformers,
Transformers,
January 2018.18
[B21] Frotscher,
Frotsche r, R., D. Vuković, M. Jovalekic, S. Tenbohlen, J. Harthun, M. Schäfer,
Schä fer, and C. Perrier, Behaviour
of Ester Liquids under Dielectric and Thermal Stress – From Laboratory Testing to Practical Use , , CIGRE
CIGRE
Conference 2012, Paris, Paper D1-105.
[B22] IEC 61099, Insulating liquids – Specications for unused synthetic organic esters for electrical
purposes.19
[B23] IEC 61203:1992, Synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes—Guide for maintenance of
transformer esters in equipment.
[B24] IEC 60156, Insulating liquids – Determination of the breakdown voltage at power frequency – Test
method.
[B25] IEEE Power Distribution & Regulating Transformers Collection: VuSpec™ (2014).20
20,,21
[B26] IEEE Std C57.106™-2002, IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Mineral Oil in
Electrical Equipment.
[B27] Insulect Energy Blog, Guide for Considering Natural Ester Fluids for Retrolling, November 24, 2016. 22
[B28] Lewand, L. R., C. C. Claiborne, and D. B. Cherry, “Oxidation and Oxidation Stability of Natural Ester
Dielectric Liquids,” Paper IM-2, Doble
IM-2, Doble Conferenc
Conference,
e, Mar.
Mar. 2010.
[B29] Lippiatt, B.C., BEES 4.0: Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability. Technical Manual
and User Guide. NIST Interagency/Internal
Interagency/Internal Report (NISTIR) – 7423, August 1, 2007.
[B30] Liu, Q. and Z. D. Wang, “Streamer Characteristic and Breakdown in Synthetic and Natural Ester
Transformer Liquids under Standard Lightning Impulse Voltage,” IEEE Trans
Transactions
actions on Dielectrics and
Electrical Insulation
Insulation,, vol. 16, pp. 1582–1594, 2009.
16
EPA publications are available from the Environmental Protecti on Agency (https://
EPA (https://www
www.regulations
.regulations.gov/
.gov/ ).
).
17
FM publications are available from Factory Mutual Global (https://
( https://www
www.fmapprovals
.fmapprovals.com/
.com/ ).
).
18
Documents are available from FM Approvals (http://
( http://www
www.fmapprovals
.fmapprovals.com/
.com/ ).
).
19
IEC publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission (http://
( http://www
www.iec
.iec.ch
.ch)) and the American National
Standards Institute (http://
(http://www
www.ansi
.ansi.org/
.org/).
).
20
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrica l and Electronics Engineers (http://
(http://standards
standards.ieee
.ieee.org/
.org/).
).
21
The IEEE standards or products referred to in in Annex A are
A are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Incorporated.
22
The blog is available at http://insulect
http://insulect.com/
.com/energy
energy-blog.
-blog.
35
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
[B31] Lu, W., Q. Liu, and Z. D. Wang, “Combined Effect of Cellulose Particles and Moisture on Lightning
Impulse Breakdown Voltages of Ester Transformer Liquids,” 2013 International Symposium on High
Engineering (ISH)
(ISH):: 1326–1331. eSchojlarID: 258292.
[B32] Luksich, J. and K. Rapp, “Review of Kraft paper/natural ester uid insulation system aging,” IEEE
ICDL Conferenc
Conferencee 2011
2011, File no.110.
[B33] McShane, C. P., “New safety dielectric coolants for distribution and power transformers,” IEEE
transformers,” IEEE Industry
Applications Magazine
Magazine,, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 24–32, May/June 2000, http://dx
http:// dx.doi
.doi.org/
.org/10
10.1109/
.1109/2943
2943.838037.
.838037.
[B34] McShane, C. P., K. J. Rapp, J. L. Corkran, G. A. Gauger, and J. Luksich, “Aging of paper insulation in
natural ester dielectric uid,” IEEE/PE
uid,” IEEE/PES S Transmission
Transmission and Distribution
Distribution Conference
Conference and Exposition,
Exposition, Oct.
Oct. 28–
Nov.. 2, 2001, http://
Nov http://dx
dx.doi
.doi.org/
.org/10
10.1109/
.1109/TDC
TDC.2001
.2001.971319.
.971319.
[B35] McShane, C. P., J. Luksich, and K. J. Rapp, “Retrolling aging transformer with natural ester based
dielectric coolant for safety and life extension,” Proceed
extension,” Proceedings
ings of the IEEE-IAS/
IEEE-IAS/PCA
PCA Cement Industry Technical
Conference, Dallas,
Conference, Dallas, TX, USA, May 2003, http://dx
http://dx.doi
.doi.org/
.org/10
10.1109/
.1109/CITCON
CITCON.2003
.2003.1204715.
.1204715.
[B36] OECD 203, OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals, Section 2, Test Number 203: Fish, Acute
Toxicity Test.23
[B37] OECD 420, OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals, Section 4, Test Number 420: Acute Oral
Toxicity – Fixed Dose Procedure.
[B38] Ofcial Methods and Recommended Practices of the AOCS, American Oil Chemists Society.
[B39] Oommen, T. V., C. C. Claiborne, E. J. Walsh, and J. P. Baker, “A new vegetable oil based transformer
uid: development and verication,”
verication,” IEEE
IEEE Conference
Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
Dielectric Phenomena,
Phenomena,
Vancouver, BC, Canada, Oct. 2000, pp. 308–312, http://dx
http:// dx.doi
.doi.org/
.org/10
10.1109/
.1109/CEIDP
CEIDP.2000
.2000.885288.
.885288.
[B40] Paella, T., C. Perrier, Y. Zelu, G. Morin, and M. Saravolac, “Study on ow electrication hazards with
ester oils,” IEEE
oils,” IEEE ICDL Confere
Conference
nce 2011
2011, File no. 13.
[B41] Rapp, K., J. Luksich, and A. Sbravati, “Application of Natural Ester Insulating Liquids in Power
Transformers,” My
Transformers,” My Transf
Transf 2014
2014,, Turin, Italy, November 18–19, 2014.
[B42] Singha, S., R. Asano Jr., G. Frimpong, C. C. Claiborne, and D. Cherry, “Comparative Aging
Characteristics
Characteristics between a High Oleic Natural Ester Dielectric Liquid and Mineral Oil,” IEEE
Oil,” IEEE Trans
Transactions
actions on
Dielectrics and Electrical
Electrical Insulation,
Insulation, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 149–158, February 2014, http://dx
http:// dx.doi
.doi.org/
.org/10
10.1109/
.1109/
TDEI.2013
TDEI .2013.003713.
.003713.
Directory, 2006. 24
[B43] Underwriters Laboratories Gas and Oil Equipment Directory,
[B44] Unge, M., S. Singha, N. V. Dung, D. Linhjell, S. Ingebrigtsen, and L. E. Lundgaard, “Enhancements in
the lightning impulse breakdown characteristic
characteristicss of natural ester dielectric liquids,” Applied
liquids,” Applied Physics Letters
Letters,,
vol. 102, no. 17, p. 172905, 2013, http://
http:/ /dx
dx.doi
.doi.org/
.org/10
10.1063/
.1063/1
1.4803710.
[B45] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Technology Verication, Joint Verication
Statement for Vegetable Oil-Based Insulation Dielectric Fluid, Statement VS-R-02-02, June 2002, and VS-R-
02-03, June 2002.
23
OECD publications are available from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (https://
( https://www
www.oecd
.oecd-ilibrary
-ilibrary.org/
.org/).
).
24
UL publications are available from Underwriters Laboratories (http://
http://www
www.ul
.ul.com/
.com/ ).
).
36
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
[B46] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Technologies Verication (ETV) Reports,
EPA 600/R-02/042 and EPA 600/R-02/043, Ofce of Research and Development, National Center for
Environmental Research, Washington, DC.
[B48] Viertel, J., K. Ohlsson, and S. Singha, “Thermal aging and degradation of thin lms of natural ester
dielectric liquids,” IEEE
liquids,” IEEE ICDL Conferenc
Conferencee 201
2011
1, File no. 128, http://
http:/ /dx
dx.doi
.doi.org/
.org/10
10.1109/
.1109/ICDL
ICDL.2011
.2011.6015478.
.6015478.
[B49] Vukovic, D., S. Tenbohlen, J. Harthun, C. Perrier, and H. Fink, “Breakdown Strength of Vegetable-
based Oils Under AC and Lightning
Lightning Impulse Voltages,”
oltages,” IEEE
IEEE ICDL
ICDL Conference
Conference 2011
2011, File no. 116, http://
http:/ /dx
.doi.org/
.doi.org/10
10.1109/
.1109/ICDL
ICDL.2011
.2011.6015468.
.6015468.
37
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded
Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Annex B
(informative)
Log y = −A / K + B
where
A is a constant of a given
given liquid (contact insulating liquid
liquid supplier for the values)
values)
B is a constant of a given liquid (contact insulating liquid
liquid supplier for the values)
values)
K
K is 273.1 + °C
y is milliliters/
milliliters/kilogram
kilogram (mL/kg) (ppm)
Table B.1—Calculated water saturation values (mg/kg) for natural ester liquids
Temperature Natural ester
Typical mineral oil
(°C) (average of 3 types)
0 22 658
10 36 814
20 55 994
30 83 1198
40 121 1427
50 173 1681
60 242 1962
70 332 2269
80 447 2604
90 593 2965
100 773 3354
Modied with permission from Doble Engineering Company, Lewand, L. R., “Laboratory
evaluation of several synthetic and agricultural-based dielectric liquids,” Proceedings
liquids,” Proceedings of the
86th Annual International Conference of Doble Clients,
Clients, Doble Engineering Company,
Watertown, MA, USA, 2001 [B13].
38
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
a
Modied with permission from Doble Engineering Company, Lewand, L. R., “Laboratory evaluation of
several synthetic and agricultural-based dielectric liquids,” Proceedings
liquids,” Proceedings of the 86th Annual International
Conference of Doble Clients, Doble
Clients, Doble Engineering Company, Watertown,
Watertown, MA, USA, 2001 [B13].
b
Source: IEEE Std C57.106™-2002, pages 8–10 [B26].
Figure B.1—Natural
B.1—Natural ester liquid versus mineral oil saturation curves
Visc
Viscosity
energosity
izatiincrease
on, ASTM from value
D445, at at
40time of initial
°C, % ≥ 10 ≥ 10 ≥ 10
c
Acid number, ASTM D974, mg KOH/gm ≥ 0.5 ≥ 0.3 ≥ 0.3
Flash point, ASTM D92, °C ≤ 275 ≤ 275 ≤ 275
Color, ASTM D1500 ≥ 1.5 ≥ 1.5 ≥ 1.5
Interfacial tension ≤ 10 ≤ 12 ≤ 14
Inhibitor content (see footnote d) (see footnote d) (see footnote d)
a
Applies only for transformers originally designed for and lled with unused natural ester liquid.
b
These values are based on limited accelerated aging and eld samples taken over a period
period of up to
up to 20 years. As statistically
statistically
signicant data is developed for each property, the property listing should be moved to Table 4.4.
c
For samples with signicant discoloration, ASTM D664 may be the preferred test method.
d
Contact the manufacturer of the specic liquid for recommended inhibitor test method and trigger point values.
39
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Figure B.2—Eect on the viscosity of a natural ester liquid mixed with mineral oil
Source: “Retrolling aging transformer with natural ester based dielectric coolant for safety and life extension,”
Proceedings of the IEEE IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical
Technical Conference
Conference,, Dallas, TX, USA, May 2003 [B35].
40
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Source: “Retrolling aging transformer with natural ester based dielectric coolant for safety and life extension,”
Proceedings of the IEEE IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical
Technical Conference
Conference,, Dallas, TX, USA, May 2003 [B35].
41
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Annex C
(informative)
Since 1984, listing as a “less-ammable” insulating liquid per the National Fire Protection Association (2017
NEC, Article 50.23), the transformer
transformer insulating liquids have had the following
following two key requirements:
requirements:
Most commercially available less-ammable insulating liquids are listed as UL Classied, FM Global
Approved, or both. Less-ammable insulating
insulating liquids are also recognized as a re safeguard in Section 15 of
the 2017 NESC for distribution and generation substations.
Listings and classications are also available for less-ammable liquid immersed transformers. For UL,
transformer listings are per XPLH as ANSI-compliant. Within
Within the UL XPLH listing is the option for additional
certication markings to Article
Article 450.23 of the 2017 NEC as UL Classied for use as less-ammabl
less-ammablee liquid
insulated transformer.
transformer. The FM Global requirements for an FM Approved Transformer insulated with less-
ammable insulating liquids are found in FM Standard 3990 [B20]
[B20]..
Natural ester insulating liquids were initially developed in the 1990s as an additional askarel (PCB) alternative.
Because less-ammable insulating liquids have inherently higher ash and re points than that of conventional
mineral oil, ASTM D6871 requires a minimum 275 °C ash point and a minimum re point of 300 °C as
received from the natural ester manufacturer.
manufacturer. If unused natural ester tests below 300 °C re point, it should be
assumed that it has been contaminated.
IEC 61039 designates a class K for insulating liquids with a re point above 300 °C. This International
Standard denes a system for classifying insulating liquids according to re-point and net caloric value. The
characteristics on which the system is based are given together with limiting values in
in Table C.1 below.
C.1 below.
Reprinted with permission from CIGRE Technical Brochure 436, Experiences in service with new
insulating liquids,
liquids, CIGRE WG A2-35, 2010 [B9].
42
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Due to increased focus on environmental and sustainable practices by the electrical power industry, and the
resulting improved cellulose insulation life when impregnated with natural esters, the industry began applying
natural esters for new and retrolled transformers, including installations not requiring less-ammable liquids.
For mineral oil transformers retrolled with natural esters, due to residual mineral oil in the impregnated
cellulose insulation, the ash point can fall below the ASTM minimum value for unused liquid as received.
With proper retroll procedures, the re point should remain above the 300 °C for natural esters with >350 °C
re point. However, a re point falling below 300 °C should not impact the functionality of the transformer
transformer..
43
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Annex D
(informative)
Regulated power transformers are equipped with LTCs to change their ratio and, subsequently, adapt the
transformer output voltage to the respective conditions. This enables the power supply network to be kept
stable under changing load conditions.
Tap changers are complex electro-mechanical devices that also should adapt to high-voltage conditions. This
combination makes them unique components in energy supply technology. While the insulating liquid in a
transformer has dual tasks of cooling and (in combination with the solid insulation) electrically insulating
windings and bushings against high voltage, a suitable insulating liquid for tap changers should also fulll the
following recommendations:
Thus the dielectric, mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties of the insulating liquids should be evaluated.
Historically, tap changers have been optimized to work reliably in mineral oil. If the same tap changer design
Historically,
is used for natural esters, some limitations may apply, due to the differences in certain properties (Frotscher
et al. [B21]
[B21]).
). For example, the higher viscosity can limit tap changer operation in cold insulating liquids. A
tap changer has a limited amount of spring force to operate the diverter mechanism. If the insulating liquid
is too viscous, the switching sequence slows down. If, in the worst case, the switching operation begins but
cannot be completed, a failure could occur. Viscosity
Viscosity also affects the arc-quenching behavior and can lead to a
reduced switching capacity.
Natural esters also show different breakdown behavior in long gaps in highly non-uniform electrode
congurations such as needle to plane and needle to sphere. This is due to a different streamer propagation
mechanism that exists at voltages higher than the partial discharge inception level (Duy et al. [B14]
[B14] and
and Liu
and Wang [B30]
[B30]).
). Fast streamers can develop at signicantly lower voltages than in mineral oil. They have
a long stopping length so there is a signicant possibility they can bridge long insulating liquid gaps and
cause a breakdown. This can occur under impulse voltage at inhomogeneous electrode congurations with
uncoated electrodes, as commonly applied on tap changers. The geometric shape of tap changer electrodes
and contacts is the result of a compromise between mechanical function, mechanical endurance, number of
taps, required load current, and electrical insulation. The established compromises for mineral oil cannot be
assumed to be optimal for other types of insulating liquids. When electrical insulation is the only function of
the insulating liquid, the electrode shape can be optimized for minimum eld stress. Thus, the same dielectric
performance is achievable.
achievable. In contrast, non-homogeneous
non-homogeneous electrode congurations
congurations used in tap selectors can
result in signicantly reduced withstand voltages, depending on the degree of non-homogeneity and insulating
44
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.
liquid gap length. Such insulating distances have to be designed carefully and adjustments may be necessary
to limit the test voltage levels to acceptable values and, consequently, derating. Because the voltage level
deratings are specic for different tap changer models, the tap changer manufacturer should be consulted to
determine permissible test voltage levels for ac and LI. Distribution class transformers equipped with step
voltage regulators probably do not need any deratings relative to immersion in mineral oil because of lower
electrical stress conditions.
Natural esters require prevention from continuous contact with ambient air (sealed tank design) to avoid
oxidation and subsequent increase in the viscosity of the insulating liquid due to polymerization of the ester
molecules. Accordingly
Accordingly,, for LTCs immersed in natural esters, it may be preferable to use vacuum interrupters
where the switching arcs are encapsulated inside vacuum cells. Arc-breaking-in-insulati
Arc-breaking-in-insulating
ng liquid tap changers
can also be used if the conservator is tted with a rubber bag and the LTC
LTC is equipped with a venting one-way
breather.. A nitrogen lled cycle purged LTC is yet
breather yet another
another option.
option.
The following are some suggested design guidelines for the application of natural ester insulating liquids in
on-load tap changers:
— Vacuum LTC models preferably may be used. However, arc-breaking LTC models could be used,
depending on the breaking capacity and construction of the preservation system. Discuss the
application with the manufacturer.
— Avoid highly non-homogeneous elds wherever possible. Consider adding shielding or coatings on
uncoated electrodes to avoid partial discharge inception, and to prevent streamers from formation and
propagation. Alternatively
Alternatively,, consider selecting a higher voltage class (longer insulating liquid gaps)
than required by the application for mineral oil.
— For electrode setups where constructive measures are needed but not possible (conventional tap
selector design), lower withstand voltages for test voltage levels for applied voltage and lightning
impulse tests (IEC: AC and LI) than in mineral oil may be required.
— Contact the manufacturer regarding
regarding low temperature limits
limits for the operation of the tap changer.
changer. The
tap changer should not be operated if the temperature of the insulating liquid surrounding the moving
parts is lower
lower than the
the specied
specied low temperature
temperature limit.
— Mitigate prolonged arcing times on the reversing or coarse tap switch by reducing the admissible
switching capacity,
capacity, if necessary
necessary.. The tap changer manufacturer should take appropriate measures to
compensate for this reduction.
45
Copyright © 2018 IEEE. All rights reserved.