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41 Drying of Polymers

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DOI: 10.1201/9781420017618.ch41

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 Drying of Polymers
41 Arun S. Mujumdar and Mainul Hasan

CONTENTS

41.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 954

41.2 Common Polymerization Processes ..................................................................................................... 954
41.2.1 Bulk Polymerization ................................................................................................................ 954
41.2.2 Solution Polymerization .......................................................................................................... 955
41.2.3 Suspension Polymerization...................................................................................................... 955
41.2.4 Emulsion Polymerization ........................................................................................................ 955
41.2.5 Gas-Phase Polymerization....................................................................................................... 956
41.3 Dryer Classification.............................................................................................................................. 956
41.3.1 Classification by Mode of Heat Transfer ................................................................................ 956
41.3.1.1 Indirect Dryers ...................................................................................................... 956
41.3.1.2 Direct Dryers ........................................................................................................ 956
41.3.2 Classification by Residence Time ............................................................................................ 956
41.3.2.1 Short Residence Time ........................................................................................... 956
41.3.2.2 Medium Residence Time....................................................................................... 956
41.3.2.3 Long Residence Time............................................................................................ 957
41.3.3 Other Considerations .............................................................................................................. 957
41.3.4 Common Polymer Dryers ....................................................................................................... 957
41.3.4.1 Rotary Dryers ....................................................................................................... 957
41.3.4.2 Flash Dryers.......................................................................................................... 957
41.3.4.3 Spray Dryers ......................................................................................................... 958
41.3.4.4 Fluidized Bed Dryers ............................................................................................ 958
41.3.4.5 Vibrated Fluidized Beds........................................................................................ 958
41.3.4.6 Contact Fluid-Bed Dryers..................................................................................... 959
41.3.4.7 Paddle Dryers........................................................................................................ 959
41.3.4.8 Plate Dryer............................................................................................................ 959
41.3.4.9 DRT Spiral Dryers ............................................................................................... 960
41.3.4.10 Miscellaneous Dryers ............................................................................................ 961
41.4 Typical Drying Systems for Selected Polymers .................................................................................... 963
41.4.1 Drying of Polyolefins............................................................................................................... 963
41.4.1.1 Polypropylene ....................................................................................................... 963
41.4.1.2 High-Density Polyethylene.................................................................................... 965
41.4.2 Drying of Polyvinyl Chloride .................................................................................................. 965
41.4.2.1 Emulsion Polyvinyl Chloride ................................................................................ 965
41.4.2.2 Suspension Polyvinyl Chloride.............................................................................. 966
41.4.2.3 Vinyl Chloride–Vinyl Acetate Copolymer ............................................................ 968
41.4.3 Drying of Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene ............................................................................ 968
41.4.4 Drying of Synthetic Fibers ...................................................................................................... 970
41.4.4.1 Nylon .................................................................................................................... 970
41.4.4.2 Polyester................................................................................................................ 971
41.4.5 Miscellaneous .......................................................................................................................... 971
41.5 Drying of Polymer Resins .................................................................................................................... 971
41.5.1 General Observations .............................................................................................................. 972
41.5.1.1 Nonhygroscopic Resins......................................................................................... 972

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 41.5.1.2 Hygroscopic Resins................................................................................................. 972
41.5.2 Drying Methods ...................................................................................................................... 972
41.5.2.1 Drying with Heat as Transfer Medium................................................................... 972
41.5.2.2 Drying without a Heat Transfer Medium............................................................... 973
41.6 Drying of Selected Polymers ................................................................................................................ 974
41.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 976
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................................... 978
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 978

41.1 INTRODUCTION is given about the various polymerization techniques

Spurred by continually escalating energy costs, along
with the advent of new competitive polymers accom-
panied by new and extended applications of polymers
and plastics, interest in the energy-intensive operation
of drying of polymers has been on the rise in recent
years.
Drying is one of the prime polymer recovery op-
erations performed before transfer to the compound-
ing plant or packaging for direct use. It is the part of
the process in which the polymer is handled essen-
tially as a solid and liquid and gas streams become
relatively minor. In polymer production, other recov-
ery operations include salvation of the unreacted
monomer and solvent, coagulation and precipitation,
concentration and devolatilization, and liquid–solid
separation [1].
Although drying is the oldest and most commonly
encountered of all unit operations of chemical engin-
eering, it is one of the most complex and least under-
stood operations. One of the prime reasons for this
state of affairs is the enormous diversity of drying
equipment; over 100 clearly identifiable different
types of dryers are in commercial use around the
world. Depending upon the nature of the processing
mode, physical state of the feed, mode of heat and
mass transport, operating temperature and pressure,
and other factors, one can classify existing dryers into
so many different types that it is impossible to de-
velop or hope to develop generalized procedures for
analysis of all types of dryers [2].
This chapter provides a few guidelines for the
selection of polymer dryers and discusses the alterna-
tives available. Picking the best dryer for a specific
polymer application is beyond the scope of this chap-
ter because of many variables involved in such selec-
tion. Since most of the work in this area is proprietory
in nature with very little information available in the
open literature, it is therefore believed that this chap-
ter will help to overcome the initial agonies of a
polymer engineer in selecting dryers for water- or
solvent-wet granular polymer particles.
For better understanding of the subject for a
nonspecialist in polymer technology, a brief survey
employed commercially before discussion of the dry-
ing equipment.
41.2 COMMON POLYMERIZATION
PROCESSES
The selection of dryers for polymer drying depends to
a large extent on the upstream operations, e.g., poly-
merization, since the behavior of a polymerization
reaction and the properties of the resulting polymer
can vary greatly according to the nature of the physical
system in which the polymerization reaction is carried
out. Several processes are used commercially to pre-
pare polymers. Each process has its advantages, usu-
ally depending on the type and final use of the polymer.
The following types of polymerization processes based
on physical systems are considered briefly in this sec-
tion: (1) bulk; (2) solution; (3) suspension; (4) emul-
sion; and (5) gas-phase polymerization [3].
41.2.1 BULK POLYMERIZATION
The polymerization of the pure monomer without
diluent is called bulk polymerization or mass polymer-
ization. The monomer (e.g., styrene, vinyl chloride
(VC), vinyl acetate (VA), acrylic esters, butadiene,
or acrylonitrile) is first purified to remove oxygen or
other inhibitors (by bubbling nitrogen through it, by
distillation, or by evacuation) and then the polymer-
ization is started through heating, ultraviolet (UV)
radiation, or the addition of an initiator (e.g., perox-
ides, azo compounds, and others). Usually, after a
short period of heating, the reaction mixture con-
tinues to heat by itself, and therefore it is necessary
to remove the heat by cooling. With increasing con-
version, because of the rapidly increasing viscosity of
the polymer–monomer mixture, this becomes more
and more difficult. With large amounts of monomer,
bulk polymerization often takes very turbulent and
even explosive form as a result of the rapidly increas-
ing temperature. The violence of the reaction is even
further increased by the increase in the radical con-
centration that occurs with increasing viscosity.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Because of the difficulty in heat removal, bulk poly-
merization is only carried out in a few cases. However,
in the cases in which it is used, it is done on a very large-
scale, e.g., the bulk polymerization of styrene or
ethylene (high-pressure process). Since in this type of
polymerization the possibility of chain transfer is rela-
tively small and because of self-acceleration, other poly-
mers with high molecular weights are found. One of the
characteristics of this process that is always a technical
advantage is the great purity of the polymer resulting
from the lack of additives during polymerization.
41.2.2 SOLUTION POLYMERIZATION
For solution polymerization, a solvent inert to the
monomer is used to control the polymerization. High
exothermicity is limited by dilution, causing the reac-
tion rate to be slowed owing to solvent addition. The
solvent is recycled after cooling and is sent back to the
polymerization reactor. The concentration of the solv-
ent is chosen in such a way that the polymerization
mixture can still be stirred after complete conversion.
Solution polymerization has been employed almost
exclusively in cases in which the polymer is then used in
the form of solutions (50 to 60%) for lacquers, adhe-
sives, impregnation materials, and other products.
Obtaining the pure polymer by distilling off the solvent
is complicated because the hard polymer cannot be
taken out of the vessel after evaporation of the solvent.
Through construction of extruders with vacuum distil-
lation zones and by using other special evaporators, it is
possible to separate the polymer from the solvent.
In this process the choice of the solvent’s chain
transfer constant is very important because this influ-
ences the molecular weight to a considerable extent.
Because of chain transfer with the solvent and be-
cause of the lower monomer concentration, the mo-
lecular weight of polymers prepared by solution
polymerization is usually lower than that of the cor-
responding bulk polymers.
Commercially, solution polymerizations are not
carried out to high conversions (near 100%) but
continuously at a constant monomer concentration.
The unreacted and evaporated monomer is recycled
together with the solvent. This type of production
process has two advantages. The reactor always
works in a range of high polymerization rates, and
the molecular weight distribution curve is not so
broad as it is with polymers produced in a discontinu-
ous process with high conversions.
41.2.3 SUSPENSION POLYMERIZATION
In the suspension polymerization process, water is
used to control heat generation. A catalyst is dis-
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
solved in the monomer, which is dispersed in water.
A dispersing agent is incorporated to stabilize the
suspension formed. For any nonpolar monomers,
this method offers a method of eliminating many of
the problems encountered in bulk and in solution
polymerization, especially the heat dissipation prob-
lem in the former and solvent reactivity and removal
of the latter.
Another attractive feature of large batch prepar-
ations is that the polymeric products obtained from a
suspension polymerization, if correctly carried out,
are in the form of finely granulated beads that are
easily filtered and dried.
On a technical scale, suspension polymerization is
used in the production of polyvinylchloride, polystyr-
ene, polymethyl methacrylate, and others. For the
production of rubbery, sticky, polymers (e.g., the
polyacrylates), this is less suitable.
41.2.4 EMULSION POLYMERIZATION
The emulsion polymerization process is similar to
suspension polymerization. This process is also car-
ried out in a water medium. An emulsifier, either
anionic soap or cationic soap, is added to break the
monomer into very small particles. The initiator is in
solution in the water. After polymerization, the poly-
mer can be precipitated, washed, and dried, or the
mixture can be used directly (e.g., latex paint).
Emulsion polymerization is superficially related
to suspension polymerization, but the kinetic rela-
tionships are entirely different. The major causes of
the differences are: first, the monomer droplets in the
latter system are approximately 0.1 to 1 mm in size
and the particles in the former are approximately
10 7 to 10 6 mm in size; and second, the catalyst
is dissolved in the aqueous phase in the latter but is
incorporated directly into the droplets in the former.
In all cases in which the presence of an emulsifier
is not disturbing, emulsion polymerization is advan-
tageous. In comparison with other polymerization
techniques, it has the following advantages: (1) the
polymerization heat can be removed very easily and
(2) the viscosity of the lattices, even with high con-
centration (up to 60%), is low in comparison with
corresponding solutions.
One large-scale use of this process is in the
production of synthetic rubber and, on a small-scale,
in the production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
polystyrene. The other large-scale use is in the pro-
duction of plastics dispersions used as such (without
first coagulating them) for the production of paints,
pigments, inks, coatings, and adhesive paste (e.g.,
polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl propionate, and poly-
acrylic ester dispersions).
41.2.5 GAS-PHASE POLYMERIZATION
The term gas-phase polymerization is a misnomer in
that it refers only to a polymerization reaction initi-
ated on monomer vapors, generally by photochemical
means. High-molecular weight polymer particles are
not volatile, so a fog of polymer particles containing
growing chains quickly form and the major portion of
the polymerization reaction occurs in the condensed
state.
High-uniformity polyethylene (PE) can be
manufactured by passing gaseous ethylene through
an active chromium-containing catalyst bed. Other
monomers that have been polymerized successfully
in the gas phase include methyl methacrylate, VA,
and methyl vinyl ketone [4].
41.3 DRYER CLASSIFICATION [5–7]
41.3.1 CLASSIFICATION BY MODE OF HEAT TRANSFER
41.3.1.1 Indirect Dryers
Indirect dryers, also called nonadiabatic units, separ-
ate the heat transfer medium from the product to be
dried by a metal wall. These dryers are subdivided on
the basis of heat applied by radiation or through heat
transfer surface and also by the method in which
volatile vapors are removed.
Heat transfer fluids may be of either the condens-
ing type (e.g., steam and diphenyl fluids, such as
Dowtherm A) or the liquid type (e.g., hot water and
glycol solutions). Because of low film coefficients of
the noncondensing gaseous system, it is seldom used
as the heating medium.
Indirect dryers have several distinctive operating
features: (1) the risk of cross-contamination is
avoided since the product does not contact the heat-
ing medium; (2) since a limited amount of gas is
encountered, solvent recovery is easier than with an
adiabatic dryer; (3) dusting is minimized because of
the small volume of vapors involved in indirect dry-
ing; (4) dryers allow operation under vacuum or in
closely controlled atmospheres that can avoid prod-
uct degradation; and (5) explosion hazards are easier
to control.
Typically, indirect dryers are used for small- or
medium-size production. The product from such a
unit has a higher bulk density than the same material
processed in direct dryers. Particle size degradation
usually can be minimized by proper selection of agi-
tator speed or design. The common indirect heated
dryers are tubular dryers (with or without vacuum),
drum dryers (atmospheric, vacuum, horizontal or ro-
tary vacuum, and others), hollow disk dryers, paddle
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
dryers, mechanically fluidized bed dryers, pneu-
matically conveyed dyers, cone or twin-shell dryers,
and others.
41.3.1.2 Direct Dryers
Direct dryers or adiabatic or convective dryers trans-
fer heat by direct contact of the product with the hot
gases. The gases transfer sensible heat to provide the
heat of vaporization of the liquid present in the solid.
Direct dryers may use air, inert gas, superheated
vapor, or products of combustion as the heating
medium. Combustion gases are seldom used in poly-
mer drying because of possible product contamin-
ation. Inert gas eliminates the explosion and fire
hazard and may be desirable to prevent oxidation of
polymers prior to the introduction of stabilizers. Use
of superheated vapor as a heat carrier is highly desir-
able when solvent is vaporized in the dryer and has to
be recovered.
Commonly used direct dryers in polymer plants
are rotary warm air, fluidized bed, flash, spray, tun-
nel, and various vibrating and spouted bed (SB)
types. All these have a common disadvantage. The
amount of air or hot gas required is fairly large, which
causes the auxiliary equipment needed (e.g., air heat-
ers, blowers, and dust collectors) to be sized accord-
ingly; the thermal efficiency is also lower than that of
indirect dryers.
Although this classification of dryers has some
importance, it is quite difficult to apply it in more
than a general way. Both types of dryers are commonly
used in polymer-drying processes. Often a combin-
ation of direct and indirect drying is economically
the most efficient solution to some polymer-drying
problems.
41.3.2 CLASSIFICATION BY RESIDENCE TIME
The pressing need of product quality in the plastics
industry also forces one to consider residence time
distribution of the product when comparing dryers.
41.3.2.1 Short Residence Time
The short residence time category comprises spray
dryers, pneumatic dryers, and thin-film dryers in
which the residence time may be of the order of
several seconds.
41.3.2.2 Medium Residence Time
Continuous fluid-bed dryers, steam tube rotary
dryers, and rotary dryers can be designed to provide
medium residence time (of the order of minutes).
41.3.2.3 Long Residence Time
Rotary dryers, batch fluid dryers, continuous or
batch tray dryers, hopper dryers, multispouted bed,
and vacuum tumble dryers are typical long-residence
units used in polymer drying.
41.3.3 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
On the basis of the polymerization alone, it is difficult
to specify definite dryer selection rules since typically
polymer properties differ over a wide range. The choice
of dryer is also limited by the physical properties of the
polymers, e.g., polymer-handling characteristics, indi-
vidual or closely related drying curves, properties of the
emitted volatiles, limitations on temperature, and par-
ticle size and distribution requirements. Other factors
include equipment space limitations, production rates,
pollution control requirements, solvent recovery,
thermal sensitivity, and product quality specifications.
The primary step in specifying a dryer is to define
the physical, thermal, and chemical properties of the
product and the volatiles present. Often the consist-
ency of the feed reduces the choice of dryer. A few
guidelines are always helpful in selecting polymer
dryers. For example, if a solvent must be evaporated
and then recovered, it is usually not desirable to choose
a convection dryer. Since solvent must be condensed
from a large carrier gas flow, the condenser and other
equipment become rather large. If the maximum prod-
uct temperature is lower than about 308C, it is possible
to specify a vacuum dryer. If the average particle size is
about 0.1 mm or larger, a fluidized bed dryer may be
considered, or if the feed is a slurry or paste a spray
dryer may be a judicious choice. Scaling is another
important factor that can dictate dryer selection. For
example, if the requirements are to produce high ton-
nage of a polymer in one line, it probably would be
advantageous to consider a fluid-bed dryer rather than
a mechanical rotating type.
The reader is referred to other chapters of this
handbook for details concerning specific dryers
discussed.
41.3.4 COMMON POLYMER DRYERS
41.3.4.1 Rotary Dryers
Historically, rotary dryers (RDs) have been the most
popular in polymer-drying operations. A rotary dryer
consists of a slowly revolving drum (often fitted with
internal flights or lifters) through which both the
material and the gas pass. Gas, cocurrent or counter-
current with the granular polymer, can be introduced
at either end of the cylindrical shell.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Solids move through the dryer by the effect of grav-
ity, the rotation of the cylinder, and gas flow (in the case
of cocurrent units). Internal scoops, blades, and lifters,
which give the solids a showering pattern, are provided
for better gas–solid contact. Baffles and dam rings are
also available to retard the forward motion of the solids
and to increase residence time (5 to 20 min is common;
much larger times are also found in drying of certain
polymer pellets).
An improvement over the standard rotary dryer is
the steam tube rotary dryer. Here, two or three rows
of steam tubes are located in concentric circles within
the shell, which extend the full length of the cylinder.
The tubes together with a series of small radial flights
serve to agitate the material for uniform drying.
These types of dryers were used in the polymer indus-
tries for heat-sensitive polymers requiring indirect
heating.
With the advent of the new and energy-efficient
dryers, rotary dryers nowadays are seldom used in
polymer drying in new polymer plants. Modified
fluid-bed dryers as well as novel spouted bed dryers
can replace rotary dryers in many applications.
41.3.4.2 Flash Dryers
The flash dryer (FD) is a direct-type, cocurrent unit
that is essentially a long vertical tube with no moving
parts. In polymer drying this is mostly used as a
predryer to remove surface moisture.
In FD units, hot inlet gases contact the wet prod-
uct, which may be powdery, granular, crystalline, or
pasty material, as discharged from a centrifuge or
filter press. Providing a short residence time of several
seconds, FD is well suited for high evaporative loads.
Drying is nearly adiabatic, an advantage with heat-
sensitive polymers. High mass and heat transfer rates
are obtained because of the high relative velocity
between feed and inlet gas and a large exposed prod-
uct surface area.
The method of feeding wet polymer to FD is very
important. Granular products are relatively free flow-
ing when wet polymers are fed with devices such
as screw and rotary star feeders; sticky polymers
may be best handled with a table feeder. Lumpy or
pasty polymer must be broken up or mixed with dry
product recycle to produce a more uniform and
free-flowing feedstock.
Among the developments in flash drying, the first
and the simplest is the ‘‘thermo venturi’’ drying con-
cept in which a vertical drying column expands so
that coarse particles remain suspended while drying
and finer particles travel straight through with the
drying air. This is quite effective as long as the par-
ticles are relatively spherical and the size spread is not
too great. Similar designs feature ‘‘bicones’’ in which
the drying column expands and contracts, possibly
with the addition of supplementary hot air, often
injected tangentially.
Recent improvements in flash drying include the
ring dryer. The heart of this dryer is a centrifugal
separator. It combines renewal of the drying air with
centrifugal classification. The lightest and finest frac-
tions of the product are passed with the spent drying
medium into the product collection system; oversize,
partially dried material is held in circulation. The split
is varied by adjusting the positions of suitable deflec-
tors, introduced in the flow loop. This type of FD is
available in both multistage and closed-circuit designs
with both direct and indirect heating options for re-
moving both surface and bound moistures, as well as
solvent removal and recovery.
41.3.4.3 Spray Dryers
In spray dryers, the feed material, in the form of a
solution, suspension, slurry, or paste, is sprayed in a
high-temperature gas zone by centrifugal disks or
pressure nozzles. Such dryers are used in polymer
industries in which the polymers cannot be separated
mechanically from the carrier liquid, e.g., emulsion-
polymerized PVC.
In polymer industries, wherever spray dryers are
used they are primarily used as predryers of a multi-
stage system. Final drying is normally done in a fluid
bed, which is either stationary or vibrated type. Sta-
tionary fluid beds are used when spray-dried powder
leaving the drying chamber is directly fluidizable. The
vibrated type of fluid bed is used for products that, on
leaving the spray dryer, are not readily in a fluidizable
state owing to their particle form, size distribution, or
wetness.
In such a multistage system, the higher moisture
content powder leaving the spray-drying chamber is
transferred to the second stage, which is a fluid bed
for completion of drying. The higher inlet temp-
erature and lower outlet temperature operation in
such a system give improved dryer thermal efficiency
and increased dryer capacity without product quality
degradation.
41.3.4.4 Fluidized Bed Dryers
Fluidized bed dryers (FBDs) involve the suspension
of solid particles in an upwardly moving stream of
gas, which is introduced through a distribution plate
that may be cooled for heat-sensitive polymers. Such
a dryer may operate batchwise.
The advantages offered by FBDs are: (1) the
even flow of fluidized particles permits continuous,
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
automatically controlled, large-scale operation with
easy handling of feed and product; (2) no mechanical
moving parts, i.e., low maintenance; (3) high heat
and mass transfer rates between gas and particles—
this is well mixed, which also avoids overheating of
the particles; (4) heat transfer rates between fluidized
bed and immersed objects, e.g., heating panels, are
high; and (5) mixing of solids is rapid and causes
nearly isothermal conditions throughout the bed,
thereby facilitating easy and reliable control of the
drying process.
Using the solvent being removed as the heat car-
rier and fluidizing medium (i.e., a superheated vapor)
has proved a feasible and beneficial design. Its advan-
tages include: (1) reduction in size of condensing and
recovery equipment; (2) increase in drying rate due to
the elimination of the gas-film resistance of the for-
eign vapor; (3) volumetric heat capacity of various
vapors is usually greater than that of air; and (4)
space velocity for fluidization is lower than with air,
which reduces the volumetric vapor flow and conse-
quently the size of the dust collector, air moving
equipment, and other parts.
Drying of polystyrene beads is a typical example
for industrial use of these dryers because of the close
range of bead particle size. Also, the size of the beads
permits high fluidizing velocities and therefore eco-
nomic dryer sizes.
In recent years, indirect-heated fluidized beds have
made inroads in almost all industries. Some of their
advantages over the direct-heated FBD are: (1) the
indirect heat transfer rate significantly reduces gas
flow requirements; (2) there is tremendous leverage
gained by the multiple of the heat transfer coefficient,
LMTD, and heat transfer surface density permits
very high heat inputs into low-temperature, heat-
sensitive applications; (3) when a plug-flow, rectan-
gular indirect fluid bed or low bed height is used, the
solids flow counter to the thermal fluid, behaving like
a countercurrent heat exchanger with all its attendant
benefits; and (4) since the heat source is decoupled
from the fluidizing gas source, vessel diameters and
pollution-control equipment are much smaller.
Indirect fluid beds have already proved efficient
in drying very heat-sensitive polymers with large
constant-rate drying periods, as in drying PVC,
polyethylene, acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS)
copolymers, and polycarbonates (PC).
41.3.4.5 Vibrated Fluidized Beds
A vibrated fluidized bed (VFB) is basically a long
rectangular trough vibrated at a frequency of 5 to
25 Hz with a half amplitude of a few millimeters
(2 to 5 mm). This kind of dryer can be used for drying
wet, sticky, and granular media and has been used
successfully for drying polymers. It is often used as a
second-stage dryer after a flash or spray dryer in
many polymer-drying applications.
Benefits achieved from such dryers are: (1)
uniform residence time distribution regardless of
particle size; (2) ability to handle polydisperse solids;
(3) ability to operate at low aeration rates and hence
lower pressure drops; (4) gentle handling of product;
(5) higher heat transfer and drying rates, and others.
Since the equipment is mounted on resonance springs,
the power consumption for vibration is minimal for
well-designed VFB [6].
The vibration vector is typically applied at a small
angle to the vertical to permit conveying of the solids
in the long direction at the desired rate. This permits
control of residence times and also better control of
the drying or heating rates as the material progresses
downstream.
41.3.4.6 Contact Fluid-Bed Dryers
Contact FB units are characterized by the residence
time distribution of the individual particles inside the
unit. A broad residence time distribution is obtained
in a back-mixed FB in which the length/width ratio of
the bed is relatively small. The narrow residence time
distribution is obtained in a plug-flow FB in which
the length/width ratio of FB is very large. This cor-
responds to a long, narrow FB. Alternatively, this can
be obtained by compartmentalizing FB and is the
usual practice followed in the industry.
Compared with the plug-flow FB, a back-mixed FB
has a significant advantage inasmuch as the back-mixed
FB can accept a feed material that is not readily fluidiz-
able. This is possible owing to the vigorous mixing
inside FB and that the material inside the bed acts as a
large reservoir in which incoming feed material will be
dispersed and the surface moisture will be flashed off,
making the product fluidizable. This characteristic
makes the back-mixed FB concept well suited as the
predrying stage in many polymer-drying systems.
The plug-flow FB drying concept is particularly
suitable for drying bound moisture from heat-sensitive
materials since the residence time is controlled within
narrow limits. In the typical polymer application, this
means that the bound moisture can be removed from
the polymer product at the lowest possible product
temperature.
These two concepts, along with heating of the bed
indirectly by immersed heat exchange surfaces, are
jointly utilized in contact FBD. In FB applications
for polymers with indirect heating, the temperature of
the heating panels is typically limited by the softening
point of the polymer.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
41.3.4.7 Paddle Dryers
The paddle type of dryer, marketed by Nara Machin-
ery Company of Japan, is an indirect dryer for granu-
lar or powdery material that dries such materials by
bringing them into contact with revolving, cuneiform
hollow heaters (paddles) without using gas as a heat-
ing medium. The paddles revolve at a low speed (10 to
40 rpm) inside the grooved trough fitted with a jacket
(Figure 41.1).
The heating medium passes inside the hollow pad-
dle so that the entire surface of the paddles and shafts
acts as the heat transfer surface. The cuneiform blade
enhances agitation of the material and at the same
time prevents the powder from adhering to the heat
transfer surface. For greatest heating efficiency the
dryer is tilted slightly in the direction of product
flow and is designed so that the material contacts all
heated surfaces, both front and back. The wet prod-
uct is fed continuously at the top of the dryer at one
end. As the powder is agitated slowly by the heated
rotating paddles, the moisture generated is conveyed
out by a flow of hot air or other gas.
The main features of the paddle dryer are: (1) it is
compact; (2) has high heat transfer coefficient and
good thermal efficiency; (3) the paddles have an inter-
play for self-cleaning; (4) it is easy to control; and
(5) a small amount of gas is required that minimizes
dusting and other problems.
Paddle dryers have been successfully used in dry-
ing such polymers as VC resin, nylon pellets, and
polypropylene (PP), as well as polyethylene. Operated
in a closed-cycle mode they can recover organics from
such solvent-laden products as polyethylene or PP
and can reduce the air volume requirement to only
5 to 10% of that used in direct dryers.
Energy requirements for such dryers are also
lower. It is seen that 1300 to 1500 Btu is required to
dry 1 lb of moisture with the paddle dryer compared
with 3000 Btu/lb for a suspended air unit. Because of
the smaller air volume needed, the sizes of down-
stream condensers and refrigeration system units are
reduced.
41.3.4.8 Plate Dryer
The plate dryer (PD) is an indirect dryer in which heat
transfer is accomplished by conduction between the
heated plate surface and the product. It comes under
three major variations, e.g., atmospheric, gas tight,
and vacuum.
In these dryers, the product to be dried is metered
and continuously fed onto the top plate. A vertical
rotating shaft provided with radial arms and self-
aligning plows conveys the product in a spiral pattern
FIGURE 41.1 Paddle dryer.
across stationary plates. The plates are heated by a
liquid medium or steam. Small plates with internal
rims and large plates with external rims are arranged
in an alternating sequence (Figure 41.2).
This arrangement makes the product drop from
the outside edge of the small plate down to the large
plate, on which it is conveyed to the inside edge, and
then drops to the following smaller plate, where it is
conveyed again toward the external edge. This design
of the conveying system ensures plug flow of the
product throughout the entire dryer. Each plate or
1 A thin product layer on a large heat exchange surface
3
+ 4
2 2
1. Product
2 2 2. Heating or
5 cooling
medium
2 2 3. Shell
housing
2 2 4. Conveying
system
2 2 5. Plate
2 2
+
FIGURE 41.2 Plate dryer.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
group of plates may be heated or cooled individually,
thus offering precise control of the product tempera-
ture and the possibility of adjusting a temperature
profile during the drying process. Thermal degrad-
ation of sensitive materials can thus be avoided, and
cooling subsequent to drying can be achieved.
In the plate dryer, the product layer is kept shal-
low (approximately 10 mm). The entire plate surface
is utilized for heat transfer. The product surface ex-
posed to the surrounding atmosphere is even larger
than the actual ‘‘wetted’’ heat exchange surface. The
design of the product-conveying system ensures prod-
uct turnover numbers in the range of 200 to 1500.
coupled with high product turnover improves both
heat and mass transfer rates. From vacuum plate
dryers, the evaporated volatiles are removed by
evacuation. Solvents can be recovered economically
by simple condensation [8].
Plate dryers are typically fabricated in a modular
design; this yields a wide range of dryer sizes with a
heat exchange surface between 3.8 and 175 m2.
41.3.4.9 DRT Spiral Dryers
DRT is a recent innovation among the nonadiabatic
contact dryers. It utilizes heat from a jacketed wall
and transmits it to a thin, fast-moving product film
rising in a spiral path along the inner wall surface
(Figure 41.3). A very small quantity of the conveying
medium is required to move the vapor from the dryer

11
1 Conveying gas 9 are in a powdery form. For removing low-boiling
10
2 Bottom bearing/support unit
3 Rotating tube
4 Air guide plates
5 Moist product
6 Product film
7 Flow channel
8 Heating or cooling jacket
9 Dry product and conveying gas
10 Head
11 Drive for rotating tube
8 6 7 4
4
3
1 A number of proprietory dryers suitable for various
5
2 usdisc, and Thermascrew (Figure 41.4) [10].
FIGURE 41.3 DRT spiral dryer.
since the heat transfer rate is very high and the cross-
sectional gas flow area is small.
The jacketed outer cylinder rests on a base, which
also embodies the product inlet. Product film moves
spirally up the inner wall, and dry powder is dis-
charged at the top.
A steam-heated concentric displacement body is
placed within this cylinder, which rotates slowly by an
external-geared motor. Many segmented air guides
are provided on the outer surface of the cylinder
and are arranged at a suitable angle. The distance
between these plates and the inner wall must be
greater than the product film thickness.
Conveying gas is blown tangentially by means of a
blower into the tube base entering opposite a wet-feed
metering screw. As a result, the gas disperses the wet
feed by intense mixing. Product film is created by the
inertial force, which threads its way upward in a spiral
path until it reaches the exhaust port.
During this flight through the dryer, the convey-
ing gas and the product are heated by the jacketed
tube wall and the inner displacement body surface.
Therefore, both gas and product temperature increase
in the cylinder with a concomitant increase in the gas
absolute humidity. This ensures that product mois-
ture is lowered up to the discharge point, despite
increasing moisture partial pressure. This increasing
driving force guarantees lower final moisture contents
when compared with a convectional flash dryer.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
DRT is suitable for water-wet and solvent-wet
chemicals, polymers, flour, and other products that
solvents from polymeric products, it acts best as a
predryer to a fluid-bed postdryer [9].
Among the advantages claimed are: (1) increased
thermal efficiency; (2) lower power consumption; (3)
compactness; (4) gentle drying; (5) reduced product
holdup; (6) quick turnaround; (7) capability of using
low-pressure waste steam for drying; (8) low product
moisture content; (9) simple operation; and (10) min-
imum dust explosion potential. The unit also features
low gas flow rates, short residence times (3 to 10 s),
and high throughput (up to 20 t/h).
41.3.4.10 Miscellaneous Dryers
polymer-drying operations are available in the mar-
ket. Among them are the Solidaire, Continuator, Tor-
Solidaire is a continuous dryer consisting of a
mechanical agitator rotating with a cylindrical hous-
ing, usually jacketed for indirect heating. The agitator
is equipped with a large number of narrow, flat,
adjustable-pitch paddles that sweep close to the
inner surface of the housing. Residence time can be
varied from seconds to 10 min by changing either the
pitch of the paddles or the speed of the rotor. High
paddle speed breaks up agglomerates and continually
exposes new surface to the heat. It has been success-
fully used for drying ABS, PC, polyvinyl alcohol,
polyolefins, and other polymers.
The Continuator is used primarily for removing
tightly entrapped volatiles and for process applica-
tions requiring a long residence time. The mild agita-
tion employed in this device provides gentle product
mixing that minimizes ‘‘short-circuiting’’ while redu-
cing particle breakup. This type of dryer can process
polyethylene, PP, PVC, and other polymers.
The Torusdisc is another proprietory design par-
ticularly useful in processes that require high-capacity
heating or cooling. Its chief advantage is its versatil-
ity. A single unit can be varied over a wide range of
heat transfer coefficients, residence times, and tem-
perature profiles. It consists of a stationary horizontal
vessel with a tubular rotor on which are mounted the
doubled-walled disks. These hollow disks provide ap-
proximately 85% of the total heating surface. It has
been used commercially for drying ABS, PCs, poly-
olefins, and other polymers.
Thermascrew is a hollow screw, jacketed trough
dryer that provides three to four times more heat
transfer surface than simple jacketed screw conveyors
and six times more than water-cooled drums. In either
 (a) Solidaire
(c) Torusdisc
FIGURE 41.4 Some recent proprietary polymer dryers. (From Bepex Corporation, CEP, 79(4):5 (1983). With permission.)
continuous or batch operation, it provides efficient
and uniform heating, cooling, evaporating, or other
processing. It can operate in either a pressure or a
vacuum environment. Polyester and polyolefins are
among the materials dried with good thermal effi-
ciency in such devices.
Among recent developments in dryers is the
Yamato band FBD [11]. This is a modified FBD
having all the components of a standard FBD with
an additional carriage means with multiple blades
mounted thereon and projecting there from for
effective fluidization and transportation of materials
(Figure 41.5).
The carriage includes a crank mechanism for
effecting a circular or linear movement of the blades.
It is driven in such a manner that the blades scratch
XI
IIc
FIGURE 41.5 Yamato band fluidized bed dryer.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
(b) Continuator
(d) Thermascrew
and fluidize the material being treated in cooperation
with a heated gas. The fluidized bed is thus carried or
conveyed toward the outlet port. The blades on the
carriage extend in close proximity to the surface of the
gas distributor plate. The blades may be straight,
curved, or T-shaped. Such dryers can be used to
process a variety of difficult-to-treat materials, e.g.,
slurries and materials containing solidified portions,
as well as those having a high degree of cohesion or
adhesion and/or containing lumps.
The spouted beds (SBs) can also be used to dry
polymer beads. It is an efficient solid–gas contactor.
In the conventional SB there is dilute-phase pneu-
matic transport of particles entrained by the spouting
jet in the central core region and dense-phase down-
ward motion of the particles along the annular region
XI
17
2c
bounded by the cylindrical wall. Thus, the particle–
gas contact is cocurrent in the core (or spout) and
countercurrent in the downcomer or annulus. This
characteristic recirculatory motion of the particles
enables one to control the residence time of particles
within wide limits by letting the particles go through a
desired number of cycles prior to their withdrawal.
With both batch and continuous operations possible
along with the various modifications available, these
beds have a strong potential as postdryers in polymer
drying [12].
41.4 TYPICAL DRYING SYSTEMS
FOR SELECTED POLYMERS
This section discusses briefly the drying of selected
large-scale polymers. It is important to note the data
in Table 41.1, which gives permissible moisture levels
in various commodity resins [13].
41.4.1 DRYING OF POLYOLEFINS
41.4.1.1 Polypropylene
PP is produced by a variety of processes, most of them
by a diluent phase propylene polymerization utilizing
a Ziegler–Natta-activated titanium trichloride catalyst
in the presence of low- to high-boiling hydrocarbons.
Residual catalyst removal followed by hydrocarbon
slurry centrifugation is the immediate upstream oper-
ation prior to thermal drying. Hexane is the solvent
used in the major PP processes in operation today. As
a result these polymers are solvent wet.
Many plants operate with two resin varieties,
e.g., homopolymers and copolymers. Each requires
a different drying approach owing to different centri-
fuge cake-handling characteristics. Homopolymer
cakes, although somewhat tacky, are much less than
high-ethylene-content copolymer cakes, which tend to
agglomerate, form lumps, adhere to surfaces, and so
on. Considering capital cost, it is desirable to have a
single dryer line for both resins. Consequently, initial
dryer selection becomes a critical issue because of the
feed flexibility required [14].
Both polymer centrifuge cakes are discharged hot
(50 to 608C), with diluent contents as high as 35 (wb)
or 53.2% (db). Between 35 (wb) and 5% (wb), most
homopolymers and copolymers exhibit constant-rate
drying characteristics; i.e., all moisture evaporation is
from the particle surface. Drying is rapid, and resi-
dence time is heat transfer-dependent. Since the prod-
uct temperature limit for these polymers is 100 to
1108C, the solvent boiling point has a definite effect
on dryer selection. Historically, again, rotary dryers
are used. During the 1960s and early 1970s, a two-
stage system of paddle-type dryers was used success-
fully. This consisted of a first stage or surface solvent
dryer, with the characteristics of very high agitation,
high heat transfer, and short residence time. The sec-
ond stage, or bound moisture dryer, consisted of a
device with low agitation, low heat transfer, and long
resistance. Each dryer is provided with a recycle purge
gas system to aid in controlling dew points and in-
crease dryer efficiency. The gas flow is minimized; the
amount used is that required to give a partial pressure
necessary to achieve required product moistures.
With the emergence of very high capacity PP
polymer lines and high-boiling point solvents, various
types of dryers and drying systems have evolved. One
reason for the advent of the new technologies in PP

TABLE 41.1
Percentage by Weight of Permissible Moisture (db) in Some Selected Polymer Resins

Material Permissible Moisture Drying Temperature (8C)

Injection (%) Extrusion (%)

ABS resin 0.10–0.20 0.03–0.05 77–88

Acrylic 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.04 71–82
Cellulosics Max. 40 Max. 30 66–88
Ethyl cellulose 0.10 0.04 77–88
Nylon 0.04–0.08 0.02–0.06 71
Polycarbonate Max. 0.02 0.02 121
Polyethylene — — —
Low density 0.05–0.10 0.03–0.05 71–79
High density 0.05–0.10 0.03–0.05 71–104
Polypropylene 0.05 0.03–0.10 71–93
Polystyrene 0.10 0.04 71–82
Vinyl 0.08 0.08 60–88

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

drying is the economic recovery of the flammable
hydrocarbon solvents. Another reason is that PP
has to be dried to a very low volatiles level and
the final drying requires the drying gas to have an
extremely low dew point. Usually nitrogen gas is
used as a drying gas in a closed-cycle drying system.
Figure 41.6 shows this by low and high gas dew point
product moisture points indicating relative drying
times. Reduction in recycle gas dew point is required
to remove evaporated solvent first and, especially in
mass transfer limited drying, reduce solvent partial
pressure to increase the overall drying rate.
Accordingly, the low dew point case normally uses
208C hexane dew point recycle nitrogen gas yielding
the lowest residence time but at a higher energy ex-
pense than the higher dew point case. Since this is an
expensive part of the flow sheet, refrigeration costs
become a factor and recycled gas should be minim-
ized. It is in this region that residence times vary from
30 min to over 1 h, depending on recycle gas dew
point and polymer-drying characteristics; conse-
quently, a controlled residence time dryer is desired.
It is also desirable that this postdryer has an inde-
pendent recycling loop to minimize energy consump-
tion and maximize process control.
(0.532)
0.35
Dry basis
0.30
0.25
Fraction hexane. wet basis
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.02
0.0005
FIGURE 41.6 Typical polymer-drying curve of polypropylene.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Based on these fundamentals, a two-stage flash or
fluid-bed drying system has been developed for PP
drying. The flash dryer disperses the feed cake in a
venturi throat, with hot recycled gas breaking the
cake and drying it to about 5% (wb) level. Final
drying is carried out in the fluid bed in a nitrogen
atmosphere. The solvent is recovered by a scrubber–
condenser system. The PP, after being dried in the
fluid bed, contains an extremely low level of solvent
(e.g., hexane or heptane), typically 500 ppm.
A very recent development in terms of heat econ-
omy and corrosion control is the use of a spiral DRT
dryer (Drallrohr Trocking) as a predryer in place of
the flash predryer [9] in flash–plug-flow FBD systems.
The gas/solid ratio is approximately 0.2 in these types
of dryers, compared with 1.0 in the flash dryers.
Another important advantage of DRT dryer as a
predryer in PP drying is its suitability in a corrosive
environment. A persistent problem often seen in PP
and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) manufactur-
ing plants is the deterioration of the equipment due to
free chlorides. The chlorides result from the deactiva-
tion of the activated catalysts with alcohol. Stress
corrosion cracking is the most common corrosion
phenomenon that results from the catalyst’s chloride
Flash
Post fluid-bed dryer, plug flow with gas
Dew point control
DRT/backmix
FB
Minimum fluidization
homopolymer
Minimum fluidization
copolymer
Break point:
constant rate/falling rate
Product diluent
Low dew point High dew point
drying gas drying gas
Drying rate is mass transfer controlled
Drying rate is heat transfer controlled
Time
remnants. The corrosion rate becomes remarkable
when the product contains a very small amount of
water. To prevent such corrosion, a neutralization
liquid is condensed. Also, part of the equipment is
sometimes coated with an acid-proof resin. Despite
the best neutralization techniques, chlorides are al-
ways present and cause significant equipment deteri-
oration unless precautionary measures are taken prior
to the drying system design. Therefore, it is essential
that the constant-rate drying period be run in an
atmosphere that precludes potential hexane vapor
condensation. DRT has advantages in such a corro-
sive environment since it operates with low gross heat
input and product inventory [15].
41.4.1.2 High-Density Polyethylene
HDPE is usually presented to the drying system from
a decanter centrifuge, either water wet or wet with
solvent (e.g., hexane or heptane). The product tem-
perature limit for this polymer is in the range of 1008
to 1108C. This influences dryer selection. Similar to
PP drying, HDPE drying technology progressed
along the same route because of similarity in the
upstream physical operations prior to drying, as well
as similar physical characteristics. Similar to PP, dry-
ing of HDPE is best done in a multistage system,
especially on FD/CFBD centrifugal FBD system
(Figure 41.7).
Wet condenser
Feed inlet
Solidaire
Continuator
FIGURE 41.7 Drying system for polypropylene and polyethylene.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
41.4.2 DRYING OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
41.4.2.1 Emulsion Polyvinyl Chloride
Historically, spray dryers were used because of their
ability to produce a constant quality product
under full operational control. Normally, emulsion
PVC (E-PVC) is water wet in a slurry and dried to a
powder in one single-pass operation with high cap-
acities. The slurry is atomized using a rotary wheel or
nozzle. Evaporation takes place under constant and
falling rate conditions. Rapid evaporation maintains
a low temperature of the spray droplets so that high
dry gas temperature can be applied without affecting
polymer quality. Conical spray-dryer chambers are
commonly employed.
An improvement over the conventional open-
cycle adiabatic spray dyers for E-PVC is the recycle
exhaust spray dryer. In this type, up to 50% of the
exhaust stream is recycled to preheat the supply air
makeup from the atmosphere.
An improvement with respect to thermal effi-
ciency is the two-stage dryer. This involves operating
a spray dryer with a fluid-bed afterdryer. By adopting
a two-stage layout with a fluid bed, powder is taken
out of the spray dryer at a lower outlet temperature
with higher moisture content. The cooler but higher
moisture content powder is transferred to the fluid-
ized bed, where the drying is completed to the desired
Fan
Solvent
cooling system
Fan
Heater
Solvent
cooling system
Wet condenser
Heater
Product discharge
extent by controlling the residence time. The overall
heat consumption of the two-stage process is reported
to be about 20% lower than the corresponding single-
stage dryer.
A recent improvement over the above-mentioned
two-stage drying system for drying E-PVC is a spray
dryer with an integrated fluid bed. The basic concept
in this type of dryer is to avoid contact of the wet
powder with any metal surface in the primary drying
stage by transferring wet powder directly into a fluid-
ized powder layer (second drying stage). To achieve
this requirement, the fluid bed is integrated at the base
of the spray-drying chamber.
Another improvement in the design of dryers
for drying E-PVC and polyethylene is a dispersion
dryer that operates on what is known as the jet-drying
principle and is offered by Fluid Engineer-
ing International (London) under the name Jet-O-
Dryers. It is a pneumatic dryer of toroidal design
developed from jet-milling principles. It has no moving
parts. It is claimed to offer the following advantages
over conventional flash drying: (1) much shorter dry-
ing times and (2) combination of drying and fine grind-
ing in a single operation to deagglomerate the
materials.
Flash dryer
Fluid bed
Feed
Heater
FIGURE 41.8 Flash fluid-bed dryer for suspension-grade polyvinyl chloride.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
41.4.2.2 Suspension Polyvinyl Chloride
Suspension-grade PVC (S-PVC) and its copolymers
have many possible drying options. Since polymeriza-
tion of this polymer is done by using water as the
dispersion liquid, water and some monomers are pre-
sent in the wet cake. Usually, wet cake with 20 to 25%
water (wb) is obtained after centrifuging slurries. Most
of the water contained in the centrifuge cakes is typic-
ally free moisture, with only a minor part bound mois-
ture. Moreover, the bound moisture in typical S-PVC
is held relatively loosely and is fairly easy to dry off.
Traditionally, a rotary dryer system was applied to
achieve a final moisture content of 0.2%. Rotary dryers
for the purpose are typically 1 to 2 m diameter and
15 to 30 m long, rotating at 4 to 8 rpm. Centrifuged
S-PVC is introduced at the upper and cocurrent with
the hot gas flow. Gas flow contact is enhanced by the
use of longitudinal lifting flights attached inside
the drum wall, the purpose of which is to shower the
material through the hot gas stream.
Recently, a two-stage flash fluid-bed system has
appeared in the market that is preferable to a rotary
drying system (Figure 41.8). Most of the surface
water is removed in the flash dryer stage within
Cyclone
Heater Blower
Blower Air filter
seconds; some surface and all of the bound moisture
are removed in the fluid-bed stage by holding the
product at suitable drying temperatures for about 30
min.
Usually, wet cake with 22 to 25% water (wb) is fed
to the dryer by a screw conveyor and enters by a
special mill that deagglomerates the feed material,
disperses it into the drying airstream, and accelerates
it to duct velocity. The mill should handle the feed
gently, as PVC is sensitive to high shear.
The flash dryer stage discharges the product to the
fluid bed between 2 and 8% water, with the intermedi-
ate moisture chosen according to the basis of opti-
mization used. Flash dryer air temperature may be
typically 1808C at the inlet and 608C at the outlet,
depending on moisture content and the drying char-
acteristics of the particular resin. As already men-
tioned, S-PVC is sensitive to shear; for this reason,
dry duct velocities are kept low (around 15 m/s) and
care is exercised in handling the dried product.
It is possible to arrive at the required product final
moisture content by flash drying alone but, because of
the residence time available in the flash dryer, the high
temperatures required give an unsatisfactory product.
Moreover, there is a very wide range of S-PVC homo-
polymers, varying in molecular weight, particle size,
and other properties, and all have different dewater-
ing and drying characteristics.
The benefits achieved in a two-stage system are its
ability to handle upsets in inlet moisture in the flash
dryer, a lower energy cost, and a relatively simple
scale-up.
Contact fluid bed
(back-mixed part)
Air filter Heater
FIGURE 41.9 Contact fluidizer for suspension-grade polyvinyl chloride.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Modest improvements with respect to the most
economical drying of S-PVC are a continuous, sin-
gle-stage, contact fluidized bed dryer, as shown in
Figure 41.9. In this type of dryer, the concepts of
back-mixed fluidization and plug-flow fluidization
are advantageously combined in a single unit. A
broad residence time distribution is obtained in a
back-mixed fluid bed in which the bed itself has a
relatively small length/width ratio. In performance it
can be compared with an agitated tank provided
with overflow, inasmuch as the vigorous mixing in-
side the fluid bed will result in a uniform temperature
and constant average moisture content of the par-
ticles throughout the entire bed. The product dis-
charged from this back-mixed fluid bed has the
same temperature and moisture content as the bulk
material inside the fluid bed. Further, because of the
excellent heat and mass transfer between the fluid-
ized particles and the drying air, equilibrium is
reached between the exhaust air and the product
inside the bed. This type of fluid-bed drying concept
is found to be very suitable for drying surface mois-
ture when residence time has no impact on the dry-
ing performance.
After the mixed-bed section, a plug-flow section is
provided in which the final drying of PVC takes place.
This section is fairly small compared with the back-
mixed section and is usually obtained by dividing the
fluid bed into compartments. This concept is particu-
larly advantageous for drying bound moisture from
heat-sensitive materials since the residence time is
controlled within the narrow limits and a distinct
Cyclone
Plug
flow
Product
moisture profile can be obtained along the length of
the unit because of a very low degree of back-mixing.
In this type of drying system for S-PVC, wet PVC
cake is usually transported from the decanter centri-
fuge by a screw feeder to the product distributor of the
back-mixed fluid-bed section. It then flows through an
overflow weir into the plug-flow section where the final
drying takes place. Finally, the product is discharged
through the discharge weir arrangement.
The back-mixed section of the unit is provided
with heating panels; no heating panels are provided
in the plug-flow section, partly because the cost can-
not be justified and partly because of the tendency for
electrostatic deposits on the heating panel encoun-
tered with PVC at low moisture content to decrease
the heat transfer coefficient.
The contact fluidized bed provided with heating
panels appears to have proven to be superior to the
flash fluid-bed drying system from the point of view
of heat economy and overall savings. The contact
fluidizer does have a few limitations. First, it is man-
datory that the polymer material be readily fluidizable
at a moisture level well above the moisture level in the
back-mixed section to avoid defluidization of the bed
during upset conditions. Second, the centrifuge cake
should not be too sticky and have too much tendency
to form agglomerates of the individual polymer par-
ticles. In such a case, a flash dryer is better suited as
the predrying stage as better disintegration takes
place in the venturi section of a flash dryer than in a
back-mixed fluid bed.
Although a fluid bed as a second-stage dryer gives
accurate product temperature control while providing
adequate residence time, depending on the predryer
load, evaporative load in this stage may be small.
This results in a low airflow requirement and makes
fluidization more difficult. In such cases, a vibrat-
ing fluid-bed design is a better alternative. Here,
PVC is conveyed by vibration, permitting varying
gas speeds without affecting the conveying rate or
residence time. Also, with the low airflow rates of
the vibrating fluid bed, the fines pickup problem (nor-
mally associated with high gas flow rates) is minim-
ized and, as the vibration is at a low frequency, the
overall effect of the gas and vibration is to transport
the product gently, minimizing damage. The vibrat-
ing FBD must be among the most important but
underutilized dryer of all granular products.
During fluidization of PVC, electrostatic charges
arise of such magnitude that they affect the hydro-
dynamics of the system. This is disadvantageous for
transfer processes in the bed, e.g., for heat transfer
between the heating surface and the bed. This is a
difficult problem in a fluidized bed because of inten-
sive movement of particles and frequent interparticle
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
and particle–wall contact. Although charge gener-
ation cannot be prevented, one can limit its magni-
tude (and try to increase its dissipation) by changing
process conditions. One method is the addition of a
small portion of fines to the bulk; this results in the
splitting of agglomerates and disappearance of the
particulate layer at the walls. As a result, the bed
regains its original parameters, which assure intensive
running of processes in the bed.
41.4.2.3 Vinyl Chloride–Vinyl Acetate Copolymer
There is a wide difference in the difficulty of drying
vinyl chloride–vinyl acetate (VC–VA) copolymers
according to the degree of VA content in polymer
and extent of polymerization. If the heat-resisting
property of polymer is too low to use the hot air at
a high temperature (even if the hydroextracting de-
gree in the former stage is generally good, e.g., 13 to
17% wb), then it is difficult to remove VA monomer.
As a result, the necessary retention time becomes
longer compared with that of PVC-homo.
The equipment recommended for this application
is single-stage batch fluidized bed dryer (B-FBD) or a
flash B-FBD system. For proper selection it is neces-
sary to make a detailed study on the basis of specified
conditions.
An important factor that should be taken into
account while drying PVC is the corrosion of the
equipment due to the monomer chloride. Monomer
chloride, which is always present in the wet cake,
induces pitting corrosion and stress corrosion crack-
ing in parts where the powdery materials are pro-
cessed. Those parts, therefore, are made of AISI-
316L and are partially coated with an acid-resistant
coating. It is indispensable to make periodic inspec-
tion of the corrosion condition and to make timely
replacement of the necessary spare parts. Preventive
maintenance is imperative to successful operation.
Another important consideration in drying PVC
is the emission of VC. U.S. EPA emission limitations
of <5 ppm on VC must be strictly maintained. This
criterion on VC sometimes dictates the selection of
the drying equipment for PVC. In other countries the
discharge limit on VC emission may be less stringent.
41.4.3 DRYING OF ACRYLONITRILE–
BUTADIENE–STYRENE
In general, emulsion processes are used to make ABS
of higher impact strength and bulk or suspension
processes are preferred for materials with less impact
strength. This three-monomer system can be tailored
to end-product needs by varying the ratios in which
they are combined. Acrylonitrile contributes heat
stability and chemical aging resistance; butadiene im-
parts low-temperature property retention, toughness,
and impact strength; and styrene adds luster (gloss)
rigidity, and processing ease.
The drying characteristics of ABS polymers
change with changes in composition. Generally, a
centrifuge cake containing 50% moisture (wb) must
be dried to a final product containing less than 0.1%
moisture. The critical moisture composition is around
5%. The allowable product temperature is approxi-
mately 1008C. ABS plastics are mildly hygroscopic; if
dried, ABS is left in storage for some time and it must
be dried again to reduce the moisture to a level
(<0.1%) adequate for most applications. On the
basis of these physical properties, single-stage, cocur-
rent, and direct heat transfer rotary dryers and flash
dryers are commonly used. Rotary dryers have the
advantage of a longer residence time, making them
suitable for drying ABS polymers with a larger par-
ticle size. The flash drying system is suitable only for
small particle sizes but is more economical with re-
gard to thermal efficiency.
In case ABS forms lumps in the course of the
coagulation and/or dehydration process, it is neces-
sary to add another process to crush the lumps, i.e., to
install an FD with a cage mill or use a ring dryer in
the first stage of the dryer. Since drying in the falling
rate has the main objective of removing the mono-
mers, it is necessary for the material to have a long
retention time. To satisfy such a requirement, a batch
FBD is widely adopted.
Stack
Combustion air
Feed
Fluide bed
Fired
Fuel heat
N2 blower
Recycled N2
FIGURE 41.10 Contact closed-cycle fluidized bed dryer for acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Drying of ABS has been commercially successful
in a two-stage drying system with the combination of
direct and indirect heat transfer. Since ABS requires
both surface and bound moisture removal, a two-
stage drying system is recommended.
The two-stage flash FBD system is advantageous
in terms of thermal efficiency and product quality.
The first-stage flash dryer does most of the evapor-
ation. FBD, characterized by longer residence times,
is used in the second stage. In the second stage, FBD
can be replaced by a direct or indirect rotary dryer. If
a fluid bed is used as the second stage, it is advanta-
geous to use the plug-flow model since in such a bed
residence time can be controlled within narrow limits.
Among the developments for drying ABS are
the indirect-heated closed-loop, inert gas-heated, or
liquid-heated dryers. These dryers minimize the emis-
sion of styrene monomer and oxidation of the poly-
mer is prevented by the inert purge gas. The overall
efficiency is also high. A particular type of this class
of dryers is the indirect-heated FBD depicted in Fig-
ure 41.10. This type of dryer uses a rectangular bed to
optimize the solids flow and heat transfer fluid
LMTD effect. Also, the plenum-side inlet gas is at a
low temperature, precluding any mechanical con-
straints. In this process, an external direct-fired hater
operating at low excess combustion air heats a heat
transfer fluid (e.g., molten salt, thermal fluids, steam,
and others) to a temperature above that of the bed,
but below the ABS degradation temperature. Since
the heat source is decoupled from the fluidizing gas
Cyclone
Circulating fluid
Product
Scrubber
source, large vessel diameters are not needed. Fur-
ther, the smaller amount of fluidizing gas requires
much smaller pollution control equipment.
When it is possible to obtain such wet raw mater-
ial that is properly coagulated and dehydrated but
with no formation of lumps and yet has a low level
of moisture, the single C-FBD as shown in Figure
41.9 has been widely used in recent years.
ABS group resins are highly inflammable and self-
combustible and liable to cause dust explosion. It is
absolutely necessary to be very alert not only in set-
ting and controlling the hot air temperature but also
in eliminating any possible kindling causes, e.g.,
introduction of metallic foreign substances in the
raw material and overcharged static electricity. Care-
ful maintenance is further required. Periodical clean-
ing to remove the resin adhering to the equipment is
essential for safety.
ABS, while drying, emits styrene, a highly toxic
substance. Very recently the U.S. National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has
set a limit for workplace exposure of styrene.
NIOSH suggests that workers should not be exposed
to >50 ppm of styrene over a time-weighted average
of 19 h/day, 40 h/week. Further, a ceiling concentra-
tion of 100 ppm during any 15-min sampling period is
enforced in the United States.
Owing to this recent regulation, there are indeed
very few optional routes left for drying ABS other
than indirect-heated drying with an inert closed-loop
gas system.
41.4.4 DRYING OF SYNTHETIC FIBERS
Polymers that demand special precautions during
drying are common in the synthetic fiber industry.
Of these, nylon and polyester chips are the two most
common examples. These resins are hygroscopic and
have to be dried before a spinning or molding process.
Generally, these polymers are introduced to the dryer
in the form of 3- to 4-mm cubic pellets.
41.4.4.1 Nylon
Nylon is the generic term for any long-chain, syn-
thetic, polymeric amide in which recurring amide
groups are integral to the main polymer chain [3].
There is a wide choice of starting materials from
which polyamides can be synthesized. The two pri-
mary mechanisms for polymer manufacture are con-
densation of a diamine and a dibasic acid or their
equivalents or polymerization of monomeric sub-
stances. Nylons are identified by a simple numerical
system. The words polyamide and nylon are followed
by one or more numbers. One number indicates that
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
the product was prepared from a single monomeric
substance and also indicates the number of carbon
atoms in the linear chain of the recurring polymer
unit. For example, nylon-6 is manufactured by the
polymerization of caprolactam and nylon-11, from
11-aminoundecanoic acid. When two numbers are
used, they are separated by a comma and refer to
the reactants used in the polymer’s manufacture.
The first number refers to the number of carbon
atoms in the diabasic acid. Thus, nylon-6,6 is
prepared from the reaction of hexamethylenediamine
and adipic acid. The difference in numbers of carbon
atoms between the amide groups results in a signifi-
cant difference in mechanical and physical properties.
Although the theoretical number of nylon types is
very large, a few are commercially available. Of
these, nylon-6 and nylon-6,6 comprise about 75 to
80% of the nylon fiber and nylon-molding compound
market.
Nylon chips are normally dried form 4 to 10%
inlet moisture (wb) to <0.1% outlet moisture. If they
are allowed to absorb moisture, they must be dried
prior to processing. Some nylon may hold as much
as 2% moisture under normal storage conditions but
must still be processed satisfactorily with less than
0.1% moisture remaining in the material for reuse.
Because of the low temperature limits (70 to 808C)
allowable for drying nylon, very low dew points and
longer times are required to achieve even this much
dryness. The common dryer for nylon is the batch
vacuum tumble dryer. The drying temperature is
kept controlled within 70 to 808C, and drying time
ranges from 10 to 24 h. If vacuum drying is not
possible, use of recirculating dyers at 808C and
dehumidified air is the next best solution. During
hot, humid weather, attention must be paid to
guarantee that the recirculating air is indeed dry
or moisture will be added to nylon rather than
removed. Prolonged exposure to this drying condi-
tion can result in discoloration and possible prop-
erty deterioration.
Nylon has a poor polymerization effect, and the
chips have a high moisture content at the beginning
with a propensity for holding rather low levels of
moisture very tenaciously. As a result, a long time is
required for drying. For these reasons, it is advanta-
geous to use FBD and/or PDD for this process. In
fact these dryers can perform drying down to 0.002%
moisture content in 4 to 6 h.
Another characteristic of the nylon is that, if it is
at low moisture content, it is subjected to oxidative
deterioration and discoloration at high temperatures.
Because of this problem, it is usual to dry it with air
when the moisture content is high and then to dry in
an inert atmosphere.
41.4.4.2 Polyester
A polyester fiber is any long-chain synthetic polymer
composed of at least 85 wt% of an ester of a dihydric
alcohol (HOROH) and terephthalic acid (TA) ( p-
HOOCC6H4COOH). The most widely used polyester
fiber is made from linear polyethylene terephthalate
(PET).
PET is a linear homopolymer, i.e., a condensa-
tion polymer of TA or its dimethyl ester, dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT), and ethylene glycol. The poly-
mer is melted and extruded or spun through a
spinneret, forming filaments that are solidified by
cooling in a current of air. The spun fiber is drawn
by heating and stretching the filaments to several
times their original length to form a somewhat
oriented crystalline structure with desired physical
properties.
During early stages of processing of PET, drying
was carried out in batch vacuum tumblers. The pro-
cessing time was 10 to 12 h. As the demand for larger
capacity gradually increased, the multistage, batch-
type fluidized bed drying system replaced the older
vacuum tumbler dryers.
A characteristic of a PET chip is that, if the raw
material is heated at 90 to 1008C, its composition is
rearranged from a vitreous to a crystalline form. The
chips stick to each other owing to surface melting
when they are heated at a high temperature. In
order to avoid this problem, the drying system is
divided into two stages. In the first stage crystalliza-
tion and preheating are accomplished; in the second
stage drying is completed. In the first stage, the
heating is gradual. Agitation is required to prevent
sintering or sticking of the product at this stage.
Usually, a fluidized bed or agitated vessel is used for
this purpose.
After surface crystallization is performed, the
chips do not show adhesiveness before the tempera-
ture rises to the melting point. Advantage is taken of
this property of the chips, which are then discharged
into a continuously moving bed dryer. Usually nitro-
gen, with a dew point temperature of 408C, or de-
humidified air is passed countercurrent to the product
flow. In continuous operation, a 2-h gain in residence
time could be achieved.
In recent years, with the diversification of the
applications of PET, there is a demand to miniaturize
the equipment and to save energy. This has motivated
various special dryer designs exclusively for PET. One
is PDD. A combination of B-FBD and PDD has a
chip retention time close to that of an ideal piston
flow, thus enabling considerable savings in the energy
cost for drying.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
41.4.5 MISCELLANEOUS
Polystyrene (PS) and acrylonitrile–styrene (AS) are
two other polymers produced in bulk quantities. Pre-
viously, these polymers were dried with FD. Later,
C-FBD replaced all previous FD dryers because of
their energy savings advantage. In recent years, pad-
dle dryers have made rapid gains. The heat-resisting
power of these materials is comparatively low. Melted
material will adhere to the walls of the equipment if
the processing temperature is not properly regulated.
PC is another commodity resin that demands
careful drying. When the polymer was first commer-
cialized, it was common to use FD plus B-FBD with
the steam-stripping process. In recent years this has
been gradually switched to PD with the idea of energy
saving and of the direct process of chloride solvent
without steam stripping. The Solidaire dryer is an-
other possible choice. Since PC has comparatively
high heat resistance, the drying process is not difficult.
Polypropylene oxide (PPO) is a recently developed
resin with an application that is rapidly expanding. It
requires a comparatively long drying time since it
contains superfine particles and has high affinity for
water. Of various kinds of polymers, this is the one
that requires the most difficult processing techniques.
The paddle dryer is found to process this material
economically.
41.5 DRYING OF POLYMER RESINS
In order to avoid surface defects in molded parts and
sheets made from resins, it is usually necessary to dry
the pellets before processing. Residual moisture above
some critical level can cause a finished product with
unsatisfactory surface finish and properties. Drying is
required to reduce the moisture content of the pellet
below some critical value. The degree of dryness de-
pends on the specific nature of each converting oper-
ation; some require more critical moisture control than
others. For example, PET and nylons are very hygro-
scopic but for different reasons. PET in normal storage
conditions contains about 0.15% moisture (db). It must
be dried to a level of 0.005% (db) or better for process-
ing. Although PET is not difficult to dry because of the
high temperature that can be used, it can have abso-
lutely no exposure to atmosphere between drying and
processing operations. On the other hand, some nylons
may hold 2% moisture under normal storage conditions
but can be processed satisfactorily with 0.1 to 0.15%
moisture in the material. Because of the low tempera-
ture limits (70 to 808C) allowable when drying nylon,
very low dew points and longer drying times are re-
quired to achieve even this much dryness.
41.5.1 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
Depending on the degree of affinity for moisture, plas-
tic resins can be divided into two classes: (1) hygro-
scopic and (2) nonhygroscopic. Moisture adsorption
and/or absorption capability depends on the type of
resins as well as the ambient temperature in which it is
placed. In some instances, exposure of only few min-
utes can be detrimental. If the material is exposed to a
certain temperature and relative humidity for a period
of time, it will reach the equilibrium point, referred to
as the equilibrium moisture content (EMC). Prior to
drying it is important to know the permeability (prod-
uct of the diffusion constant of water vapor–polymer
system and the solubility coefficient) of polymer to
water vapor since this dictates the condition for rela-
tive humidity for the safe storage of the polymer [16].
41.5.1.1 Nonhygroscopic Resins
Polyethylene, polystyrene, and PP fall under the clas-
sification of nonhydroscopic resins. These types of
polymer resins collect moisture on the surface of the
pellet only. The moisture can originate from several
potential sources. Such moisture in some cases can be
removed very easily by moderate preheating immedi-
ately prior to feeding the material into the mold. In
some cases it is sufficient to provide vents at the
transition from the hopper to the mold cavity. In
some situations the moisture can be removed by pass-
ing warm air over the material. The equipment util-
ized to heat air and dry resins is usually very simple,
e.g., an inlet air filter, a blower, and a controlled
electric heater, as shown in Figure 41.11.
Waste air filter
Hopper
Heater blower
Fresh air
filter
FIGURE 41.11 Resin dryer (open cycle).
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
41.5.1.2 Hygroscopic Resins
PET, nylon, ABS, and PC come under the classifica-
tion of hygroscopic resins. These types of polymer
resin collect moisture inside the pellet itself. Removal
of this moisture requires dry air as well as heat. These
resins therefore demand proper design and careful
machine selection for each application. Desiccant
dryers are the dominant technology for these resins.
41.5.2 DRYING METHODS
41.5.2.1 Drying with Heat as Transfer Medium
In these types of dryer, air is used exclusively as a heat
transfer medium. A distinction is made between
1. Dryers with fresh air only (open system)
2. Air circulation dryers with partial supply of
fresh air (semiopen system)
3. Desiccant dryers
Figure 41.11 shows the simplest type of dryer with
fresh air operation. Heated air flows through the bed
of granules, normally from bottom to top, uniformly
heat the bed of granules and at the same time carry off
the moisture. The air temperature at the inlet is kept
approximately 208C above the desired temperature of
the granule bed. Its advantages are: (1) these units are
inexpensive; (2) easy to handle and clean; (3) readily
attachable to molding machines; and (4) have a high
degree of efficiency (30 to 80%). Among its disadvan-
tages are: (1) drying depends on dew point temperature
(i.e., weather and climate); (2) it has only a moderate
efficiency for hygroscopic resins (20 to 30%); (3) there
is possible contamination of environment and gran-
ules (pollution); and (4) the exhaust air is at a high
temperature (40 to 608C). Usually these types of hop-
pers or dryers are suitable for nonhygroscopic plastics,
e.g., polyolefins and polystyrene.
In dryers with partial recirculation (Figure 41.12),
all the exhaust is not vented into the atmosphere since
it still contains energy. Instead, 70 to 90% of the
exhaust air is recirculated. The fresh air makeup usu-
ally ranges from 10 to 30% of the total flow, which
increases the drying capacity of the recirculated air.
These dryers are more energy efficient than the open
type but have the same relative advantages and dis-
advantages and are particularly suitable for nonhy-
groscopic and mildly hygroscopic resins, e.g., ABS,
PC, PMMA, PPO, and SAN.
In desiccant dryers, the heat transfer medium
(generally air) is given an additional treatment to
lower the dew point in a desiccant chamber, where
the moisture is removed. This dried air passes through
a heating chamber and the fixed bed of granules from

Waste air filter
Hopper
Fresh air
Heater
Blower
FIGURE 41.12 Resin dryer (semiopen cycle).
bottom to top. Two most commonly used desiccants
are silica gel and molecular sieve. New polymeric
desiccants have recently been developed. When the
inlet concentration of moisture in the airstream is
high, silica gel removes more moisture by weight.
For lower inlet moisture conditions, the molecular
sieve works best. The incoming airstream to the des-
iccant bed in a plastic dryer is warm, generally above
408C. This makes use of a molecular sieve necessary
to remove moisture. Another advantage of the mo-
lecular sieve is that it produces 1000 kcal/kg of mois-
ture absorbed. As a result, a bed with a molecular
Fresh air
Feed
Air heater
FIGURE 41.13 Resin dryer with desiccant batteries.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
sieve is not only capable of achieving lower moisture
dew points, but also requires less energy input (as
heat) to achieve drying rates.
Figure 41.13 shows a desiccant bed system in the
semiopen design. In this unit the smaller stream,
heated to approximately 2008C, passes through a
desiccant chamber where moisture is removed from
the adsorbent and is then vented. After this regener-
ation of the adsorbent, the chambers are rotated.
Commercial units are also available in which the
circulating air is not exchanged. This design features
redrying in one chamber at a time by preheating fresh
air. Since in such units the entire desiccant battery is
removable, the adsorbent is redried outside the gran-
ule-drying circuit. This ensures almost constant dry-
ing capacity. By cooling the returning airflow with an
additional cooler, it is possible to lower the dew point
far below the ambient temperature.
Generally, hygroscopic resins, e.g., nylon-6,
nylon-6,6, PET, PBT, and ABS, are dried in desiccant
dryers. The dew point of the drying medium has a
significant impact on drying hygroscopic resins. For
example, PET absolutely requires dew points in the
40 to 508C range to be adequately dried. For other
hygroscopic resins, dew points in the range of 15 to
258C are adequate.
41.5.2.2 Drying without a Heat Transfer Medium
An alternative to drying polymer resins is the use
of vented barrels for drying without a transfer med-
ium. This technology for drying resins is gaining
ground. In one of the proprietory designs, an annular
Air heaters
(reversible)
Desiccant batteries
Control valve (reversible)
chamber formed by a tubing made of mesh in the
center of the dryer and a perforated external shell or
barrel surrounding the flowing materials are used.
The material enters the feed port on the top of the
dryer and then flows by gravity. The perforated shell
is covered with bands to heat the material, and the air
is drawn through it. This assembly is further enclosed
in an external protective jacket. As the material flows
through the annular chamber, air entering between
the protective jacket and the inner perforated barrel is
heated and drawn up the mesh tubing or chimney in
the center of the dryer. Air travel is controlled by a
compressed-air venturi. As heated air passes through
the plastic granules, it drives off surface moisture and
preheats the material before it enters the feed throat
of the screw. Any internal moisture remaining in the
hot pellets is flashed off almost instantaneously by
shearing action. Water vapor flashed off in the barrel
is drawn out by the mesh tubing chimney, providing
an unobstructed escape path for the moisture, which
is exhausted into the atmosphere.
Advantages of venting are: (1) little risk of con-
tamination; (2) operation independent of moisture
content; (3) reliability; (4) consistency of quality;
and (5) removal of residual monomers under favor-
able conditions.
41.6 DRYING OF SELECTED POLYMERS
From the discussion above, it is obvious that there is
an application for several dryer types for drying of
polymers and resins. For instance, suspension PVC is
usually dried either in two-stage systems involving a
flash predryer followed by a fluid-bed second-stage
dryer (with or without tubes), or by a single drying
stage such as a rotary drum dryer or, more com-
monly, an FBD with internal heat transfer surfaces
(e.g., tubes, coils, or plates). Emulsion PVCs, on the
other hand, are mainly processed in spray dryers. PP
is dried in similar systems to those used for suspen-
sion PVC, and the various forms of polystyrene are
processed in either flash or FBDs. Polyacrylonitrile,
which is frequently produced as a filter cake, is dried
either on a band dryer after being preformed into a
suitable shape, or dried in a single- or two-stage flash
dryer. Some forms of polyethylene require drying and
here again systems are either flash dryers or FBDs
with in-bed heat transfer tubes. For polyamides, col-
umn dryers are mainly used under a nitrogen blanket
in order to avoid oxidation. Some applications em-
ploy low-temperature fluid beds to dry the granules.
Polyester granules (e.g., PET) are used for the pro-
duction of bottle polymer, film (either video or wrap-
ping), and fiber or filament. These types of polyester
require quite a different system as the product first
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
undergoes a crystallization stage before reducing the
moisture to very low levels, below 50 ppm. Due to the
very special requirements for this type of polymer, spe-
cial processing systems have been developed. The fol-
lowing presents an application for the economic drying
of polyester chips to very low moisture for the produc-
tion of microfilaments. The same drying systems can be
used for any of the other polyester products, as well as
for the drying of PBT and some PC granules.
In recent years, the trend in the production of
polyester yarn is to produce ultrafine microfilament
at 5 to 7 mm diameter that requires drying to 20 ppm.
Traditional filament yarn and staple fiber having a
diameter of 18 to 22 mm typically require 50-ppm
final moisture.
The first continuous PET drying system, origin-
ally developed by Rosin Engineering (London), was a
combination of horizontal paddle crystallizer with a
vertical column dryer. This system was used exten-
sively for the production of all types of fibers, e.g.,
industrial yarn, bottle polymer, and film. Although
quite versatile in that it can be used with different
types of granules having completely different sizes, it
has the disadvantage that there is a slight formation
of dust due to the mechanical action of the paddles,
and also that space has to be left at one end of the
crystallizer for the withdrawal of the rotor shaft.
However, at the same time, fluidized bed units for
solid-phase polymerization (SPP) of PET and poly-
amide were being developed. It was observed that
there were several advantages in using a fluidized
bed for the initial heating and precrystallizing phase
as compared with the rotary paddle type of other
existing systems. Rosin manufactured its first com-
bined fluidized bed crystallizer and column dryer for
PET drying in 1970 (Figure 41.14).
The system consists of a fluidized bed heater/pre-
crystallizer and a column dryer for PET. The fluid-
bed section has five main functions:
1. Evaporation of surface and some internal
moisture from PET
2. Transformation of PET from the amorphous
to the crystalline condition
3. Heating of the chips to the temperature re-
quired for drying in the column
4. Provide sufficient turbulence to avoid sintering
or chips sticking together
5. Removal of dust from the incoming granules
PET chips are fed into the fluid bed by a variable-
speed vibro feeder and a fixed-speed rotary valve that
acts as a gas seal. They meet an oncoming stream of
heated gas (e.g., nitrogen or air) and become partially
suspended in the flow. As more chips are fed in, the
 Bag filter
or
cyclone

Product
inlet

Vibro
feeder

Shut-off Rotary valve

valve
Weir

Fines bin Fluid-bed

crystallizer

Secondary
filter
Bleed off
Heater

Damper
Column
Fluid-bed fan dryer

–40⬚C Column air

Dewpoint heater
Dehumidifier
Vibro discharge

Rotary valve
Air or N2

FIGURE 41.14 Continuous fluid-bed crystallizer/column dryer for polyester. (Courtesy of Rosin Engineering/Rosin
Americas Ltd.)

fluid bed becomes established as a deep agitated mass
of material exhibiting many properties of a fluid.
When a wet chip (typically 0.5% moisture) falls
into the fluid bed, the surface moisture is rapidly
evaporated. As the chip is then further heated, crys-
tallization occurs. This amorphous-to-crystalline
transformation of PET is an exothermic reaction
and the heat given off is quite sufficient to raise the
surface temperature of PET to above the softening
point. If the chips are not moving as they do in the
fully developed fluidized state, this will produce large
solid lumps of agglomerated chips.
It is important to prevent agglomeration of chips
so that the subsequent drying stage may proceed
uniformly. Agglomerates may not dry completely,
which gives rise to subsequent processing problems,
particularly with microfilament production. In add-
ition, agglomerates can lead to material flow prob-
lems if left unchecked and can shut down entire
operations. Plug flow in the fluid bed is achieved
through a system of internal baffles (which can be
adjusted if necessary to alter the residence time) so
that each chip is given a very similar thermal treat-
ment and therefore achieves uniform crystallization.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 When the chips reach the last section of the fluid
bed in the crystallized and heated condition, they pass
over a weir and descend into the column dryer. This
unit was originally developed by Rosin in conjunction
with ICI over a period of 2 y to arrive at a design that
gives true piston or plug flow.
A constant, gentle flow of heated, dehumidified air
or nitrogen is provided upward through the column.
The dew point of this gas is carefully controlled by
either a molecular sieve absorption system when using
compressed air, or a combination of two-stage re-
frigeration/drying system for low-pressure gas sup-
plied by a fan. The compressed air systems are
more cost effective for plants with capacities up to
1000 kg/h. Above this rate, the ambient air system
is usually preferred. When nitrogen is involved, it
becomes more cost effective to use a closed-loop,
low-pressure dehumidifying system for all but the
smallest of plant capacities.
The production of chips with a final moisture
content of 50 ppm typically requires a residence time
of 2 h using heated gas with a dew point of 408C.
Whereas this moisture level is satisfactory for normal
yarns and staple fibers, microfilament quality requires
a moisture level of 20 ppm, which is achieved by
corresponding adjustments to the retention time and
gas dew point.
In Figure 41.14, the gas supply to the column
dryer is heated after dehumidification using a similar
heat exchanger as in the fluid bed. This relatively
small amount of gas mixes with the gas above the
fluid bed and the same quantity is then vented off to
atmosphere (air) or to a return line (nitrogen) after
the supply fan, such that the whole system is kept in
pressure balance. This small air loss is in fact the only
energy loss in the system. Since the gas for the fluid
bed is recycled, the heat input closely matches that
required to heat the chips, which in any case are
heated for the subsequent extrusion process. In
many instances, the column dryer is positioned dir-
ectly above the extruder.
41.7 CONCLUSION
It is clear from the discussion in this chapter that
numerous dryer types can be used for drying of poly-
mers. Rotating double-cone vacuum dryers, e.g., can
be used up to 3008C and 0.1 torr absolute pressure for
processing PET, PBT, and liquid-crystal polymers.
The combination of high temperature and low pres-
sure assists semicrystalline and noncrystalline poly-
mers to crystallize and align to increase the strength
of the polymer. Polyester, nylon, fluoroplastics, and
polyurethane can also be dried in rotating-cone
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
vacuum dryers. Such dryers can handle flakes, chips,
pellets, and crystals. The slow tumbling action does
not cause changes in the shapes of particles. Units are
commercially available in volume from 0.2 to 350 ft3.
For solvent-wet materials, closed-system operation
including solvent recovery is possible. Higher main-
tenance costs are the limitations of such dryers.
Among the new types of dryers suited for poly-
mers, one may cite the centrifugal pellet dryer mar-
keted by Gala Industries (Eagle Rock, VA), which
can be used to dry polyethylene, PP, polyester, rub-
ber, and so on in three distinct phases: (1) predewa-
tering; (2) impact dewatering; and (3) air drying. Up
to 95% of the water is removed by impact and gravity
through vertical perforated plates in the first stage.
The predewatered pellets are fed into a turbinelike
rotor encased in stationary cylindrical screens. As
the pellets move spirally (in the second stage) from
the bottom to the top of the rotor, the water content
is reduced to a value between 0.5 and 1%. Finally, air
drying reduces the moisture to below 0.05% in the
upper part of the rotor as air is forced through the
moving pellets.
Numerous papers have appeared in recent years
on drying of polymers and resins. Shah and Aroara
[17] have reviewed the state of the art of drying sus-
pension-PVC. They compare, in depth, continuous
FBDs, rotary dryers, and cyclone dryers. The impact
on energy consumption, maintenance costs, and
product quality is assessed and compared. They
show that FBD with immersed heat exchanger has
some limitations when several grades of polymers are
to be dried with frequent grade changes.
Readers interested in mathematical modeling of
polymer drying may refer to Vergnaud [18].
Following is an example of how selection of the
dryer is affected by quality of the dried product that
may be used as raw material to produce different
consumer products. Shah and Arora [19] have sur-
veyed the various possible dryers used for crystalliza-
tion/drying of polyester chips from initial moisture
content of about 0.3 to 0.5% (wb) to under 50 ppm.
Aside from low average moisture content it is also
necessary to ensure uniform distribution of moisture,
especially for certain products, e.g., production of
thin films. The uniformity constraint is less severe if
the chips are to be used to make PET bottles. Figure
41.15 shows schematics of the crystallization/drying
steps involved. Generally, it is a two-step process. The
material is heat-sensitive. The initial crystallization/
drying is faster than the drying step at low moisture
levels. A two-stage dryer is indicated and is com-
monly used. It is possible to use different dryer types
for each stage as shown in Figure 41.16. A single
dryer type (e.g., column or packed bed dryer with
 Wet chips Crystallizer/ 500–1000 ppm <50 ppm
Moisture Final Dryer
dryer Moisture

Batch Continuous

l Vacuum tumbler
Direct Indirect
l Fluid bed l Paddle dryer
l Vibro-fluid bed
l Pulsed fluid bed
l Vortex (spouted) bed
l Column dryer (with mixer)
Batch Continuous

l Vacuum tumbler
Direct Indirect
l Column dryer with internal tube l Paddle dryer
l Multistage fluid bed

FIGURE 41.15 Schematic diagram of crystallization/drying steps in the production of polyester chips.

the chips moving downward slowly under gravity) is
cheaper and hence recommended for the lower qual-
ity grade but a more expensive fluid bed followed by
another fluid bed or column dryer may be needed for
the higher quality grade. Note that numerous alter-
natives are possible in each case. It is also important
to operate the dryers at the correct conditions of gas
flow rate, temperature, and humidity. Dehumidified
air is needed to achieve low final moisture contents in
accordance with the equilibrium moisture isotherms
of the product.
Another example of dryer selection is related to
the choice of a suitable atomizer for a spray dryer.
A spray dryer is indicated when a pumpable slurry,
solution, or suspension is to be reduced to a free-
flowing powder. With proper choice of atomizer,
spray chamber design, gas temperature, and flow
rate it is possible to ‘‘engineer’’ powders of desired
particle size and size distribution. Table 41.2 shows
how the choice of the atomizer affects chamber
design, size, as well as energy consumption of atom-
ization and particle size distribution. The newly devel-
oped two-fluid sonic nozzles appear to be especially
attractive choices when nearly monodisperse powders
need to be produced from relatively moderate viscos-
ity feeds (e.g., under 250 cp) at capacities up to 80 t/h
by using multiple nozzles. More examples may be
found in Kudra and Mujumdar [21].
New dryers are being developed continuously as a
result of industrial demands. Over 250 U.S. patents

Polymers chips:
quality parameter

High Medium Average

e.g., for magnetic tape e.g., for speciality fiber, e.g., for PET bottles,
film staple fiber, etc.

A. Crystallizer: fluid bed A. Crystallizer: fluid bed Single column

B. Finish dryer:
multistage fluid bed
with dehumidified air
or pulse fluid bed or crystallizer/dryer with
paddle crystallizer a mixer in the top
crystallizer section
B. Finish dryer: to avoid agglomeration
column dryer with a
central tube for Low capital/operating
smooth downward cost, smaller space
flow of chips requirements

FIGURE 41.16 Possible dryer types for drying of polyester chips.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

TABLE 41.2
Spray Drying of Emulsion-PVC. Effect of Selection of Atomizer on Spray Dryer Performance: A Comparison
between Different Atomizers

Parameter Rotary Disk Two-Fluid (Sonic) Two-Fluid (Standard)

Dryer geometry Conical/cylindrical Tall-form cylindrical Tall-form

H/D  1.2–1.5 H/D  4 Cylindrical H/D  5
Evaporation capacity (water) (kg/h) 1600 1600 1600
Chamber (D  H) (m) 6.5  8 3.5  15 3  18
Number of nozzles 1,175-mm disk 16 nozzles 18 nozzles
15,000 rpm 4 bar pressure 4 bar pressure
Power for atomizer (W/kg slurry) 25 20 80
Capital cost High Medium Medium
Operating cost Medium Low High

are granted each year related to dryers (equipment)
and drying (process); in the European Community
about 80 patents are issued annually on dryers.
Kudra and Mujumdar [21] have discussed a wide
assortment of novel drying technologies, which are
beyond the scope of this chapter. Suffice it to note
that many of the new technologies (e.g., superheated
steam, pulse combustion—new gas-particle contac-
tors as dryers) will eventually replace conventional
dryers in the next decade or two. Among the more
popular new dryers for polymers is the pulsed bed
dryer. This dryer uses pulsating motion imparted to
the bed of particles by periodically relocating the
fluidized region of the vessel. This type of dryer has
been claimed to have a higher efficiency and lower air
consumption for fluidization and for drying. It is
discussed in detail by Kudra and Mujumdar [21].
New technologies are inherently more risky and
more difficult to scale-up. Hence, there is natural
reluctance to their adoption. Readers are encouraged
to review the new developments in order to be sure
that their selection is the most appropriate one for the
application at hand.
It is well known that most polymers leaving the
polymerization reactor contain various but small
amounts of unreacted monomer, solvents, water,
and/or various reaction by-products. The presence
of these volatiles in the polymer is undesirable. Their
concentrations may range from several parts per mil-
lion to several tens of percentage. Their separation
from bulk polymer is necessary to improve polymer
properties, to recover monomer and solvents, to meet
health and environmental regulations, to eliminate
odors, and/or to increase the extent of polymeriza-
tion. This process of devolatilization is usually per-
formed above the glass transition temperature of the
polymer. The reader is referred to Albalak [20] for
detailed discussion of the theory of devolatilization
and various devolatilizing equipments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to S.N. Rosin (Rosin
Engineering, London) and Michael Spino (Rosin
Americas, Montreal) for the contents of Section 6 of
this chapter and Figure 41.14. We are grateful to
Purnima and Anita Mujumdar for their assistance in
preparing this chapter.
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ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

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ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
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