Children’s Self-Talk and Academic Self-Concepts The impact of teachers’ statements Paul C. Summary Data were collected from 269 Australian primary school children in grades 3 to 7. Self-report questionnaires measuring students? perceptions of the frequency of positive and negative statements directed to them by their teacher, their positive and negative self- talk; and their reading, mathematics and learning self-concepts were administered. Positive statements made by teachers were found to be directly related to positive self-talk and to maths and learning self- concepts. Teachers’ positive statements were also indirectly related to reading self-concept through positive self-talk. Negative statements made by teachers were not predictive of self-talk or self-concepts for the total sample but were predictive of maths self-concept for girls and negative self-talk for boys. Implications for teachers and educational psychologists are discussed. Introduction Influence of teachers’ feedback on children’s self-talk and self-concepts There are two models that describe how teachers? feedback impacts on students’ self-concept. The first, Craven, Marsh and Debus (1991), is a model which describes the influence of teachers’ statements on children’s self-concepts. This model was developed within the context of direct approaches to enhancing children’s self-concepts in academic areas. Craven et al describe an internal mediating process model whereby (A) a student is given specific performance feedback by the teacher (you did well on that maths task, you have good ability in maths: Positive teacher statements); (B) the student internalises the statement (I did well on that; Iam good at maths tasks; well done: Positive self-talk); and (C) the student then Educational Psychology In Practice Vol 15, No 3, October 1999 Burnett sgeneralises the self-talk to form or modify their maths self-concept which is comprised of an evaluative/ competency/cognitive component (I am good at maths and I do well at maths) and a descriptive! affective component (I like maths and I enjoy maths). Burnett (1994b; 1996b) describes these two components of self-concept. The second model was described more recently by Blote (1995). He outlines a model based on research reported by Babad (1990); Blumenfeld et al (1982); Brattesani et al (1984); Cooper and Good (1983); Parsons et al (198: ind Weinstein et al (1987). On the basis of synthesising the findings of these studies, Blote describes the following model. A teacher's expectations (A) influences his or her behaviour which is reflected in how feedback is presented to students (B). The teacher’s behaviour and accompanying feedback is then perceived, interpreted, and integrated by the student [Self-Talk] (C), who as a result of this internalisation confirms or changes his or her self- expectations [Self-Concepts] (D) in line with the direction of the teacher's expectations. The findings of the following studies are specifically relevant to the current study which focuses on the BCD section of Blote’s (1995) model. These studies noted by Blote found that: + ahigh frequency of positive academic feedback was associated with a high self-concept of abil- ity (Blumenfeld et al, 1982) * for boys, teachers’ praise was found to be asso- ciated with a high self-concept of maths ability (Parsons et al, 1982) * classrooms with high rates of criticism by the teacher were associated with Jower students’ ef- ficacy beliefs, while classrooms with high teacher-initiated interaction had students with higher efficacy beliefs (Cooper and Good, 1983). 195Steps ABC of the Craven et al (1991) model are similar to the BCD steps of the more general Blote (1995) model. Craven et al (1991) point out that the specific process as to how feedback affects self- concepts has not been investigated but instead researchers and teachers have assumed that teacher feedback and praise leads to positive outcomes for all children. Relationships between non-targeted feedback and general self-perceptions Research studies have investigated the relationships between statements made by significant others and general self-perceptions (Blake and Slate, 1993; Burnett and McCrindle, in press; Campbell, 1989; Elgin, 1980; Goodman and Ritini, 1991; Joubert, 1991). The results of these investigations indicate that positive interactions and positive statements made by significant others are related to positive self perceptions, while negative interactions and statements ‘are associated with negative self- perceptions, Additionally, positive statements made by significant adults (parents and teachers) are found to be related to children’s positive self-talk (Burnett, 1996a). Further, a number of studies (Burnett, 199433 Burnett and McCrindle, in press; Kent and Gibbons, 1987; Lamke et al, 1988; Philpot et al, 1995) report associations between self-talk and self-perceptions, particularly global self-esteem. Collectively, the results of these studies provide a substantive body of knowledge which suggests that children’s self-talk may play a mediating role between teachers’ positive statements (praise) and their negative statements (correction or punishment) and children’s self- perceptions. This study seeks to address this issue, noting implications for teachers. Teachers’ statements and self-talk Little research has been conducted which specifically investigates the relationship between statements made by teachers and self-talk. In one of the few studies conducted in this area, Burnett (1996a) found that the perceived frequency of non-targeted positive statements made by teachers was the most significant predictor of children’s positive self-talk, being higher than positive statements made by peers, parents and siblings respectively. An interesting gender difference was found in that the perceived frequency of positive statements made by teachers was more predictive for girls" positive self-talk than it was for boys’ positive self-talk. Specifically, when the analysis was 196 undertaken separately for girls and boys, positive teacher statements were the best predictor of girls? itive self-talk, while for boys it rates fourth behind positive and negative statements made by parents and positive statements made by peers. OF note in this study was the finding that the perceived frequency of negative statements made by teachers was not found to be predictive of either positive or negative self-talk in children. This finding was replicated by Burnett and McCrindle (in press) and highlights the significant influence of teachers’ positive statements when compared with negative statements. Aim of this study Blote (1995, p 225) states that ‘further research is still needed on the variables mediating between teacher expectancy and student self-concept’. Accordingly, this study investigated the relationships between children’s perceptions of the frequency of positive and negative statements made by teachers and their self-talk and academic self-concepts (reading, mathematics and learning). Gender differences were also investigated given the previous difference findings reported by Burnett (1996b) and Parsons et al (1982). Method Participants ‘A sample of 269 children in grades 3 to 7 (aged from 8 years to 13 years) at a middle-class, metropolitan elementary school agreed to participate in the scudy. There were 144 boys and 125 girls involved in the study with a mean age of 9 years and 8 months. Instrumentation Significant Others Statements Inventory (SOSI): Burnett (1996a) outlined the development of the SOSI, which has eight sub-scales measuring children’s perceived frequency of positive and’ negative statements made by parents, teachers, siblings and peers. In this study only the teachers’ scales were administered. The reliability coefficients for the two scales for the sample used for this study were Teachers’ Negative Statements 0.70 (three items) and Teachers’ Positive Statements 0.81 (five items). Self-Talk Inventory (STI): Burnett (1996a) described the development process for the STI which resulted in the emergence of two scales: a positive self-talk Educational Psychology in Practice Vol 15, No 3, October 1999scale (eg, Just stay calm, Everything will be OK, Ie'll work out, I'll do well) and a negative self-talk scale (eg, Everyone will think I'm hopeless, This is going to be awful, I'm going to muck this up, I'm hopeless). The reliability coefficients for the 17-item Positive Self-Talk Scale (PSTS) and the 16-item Negative Self- Talk Scale (NSTS) were 0.89 and 0.86 respectively. Self-Concepts: The self-concept scales used in this study were the reading and maths self-concept scales developed and used by Burnett (1994b; 1996b). High reliabilities (Reading Self-Concept 0.87 and Mathematics Self-Con cept 0.84) were reported by Burnett (1994b). As a part of this study a Learner Self-Concept scale was developed and administered. This four-item scale was found to have an internal consistency coefficient of 0.82. Procedures An experienced research assistant administered the instruments described above in class time. If children experienced any problems with reading an item they were assisted. Data analysis and results A model-testing procedure was used to test the relationships between the three groups of variables. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used and Figure 1. Model for the total sample Teacher Statements Self-Talk ©) 2 @) SEM results: GF1=0.95, AGFI=0.91, TLI=0.95, RNI=0. Gy - the data were analysed using LISREL 7.0 within SPSS. SEM can be used to test the fit of the data to an hypothesised model. Modifications to the model can then be made to produce a model of best fit. These procedures were used to produce three diagrammatic representations of the relationships between teachers’ statements and children’s self-talks and self-concepts in general, and for boys and gicls separately. The results for all three models suggested a good fit between the data and the final models produced. The three models and their results are shown in Figures 1 to 3. Discussion The aim of this study was to investigate the mediating effect of self-talk between positive and negative statements made by teachers and their students’ academic self-concepts (reading, mathematics and learning). The results for the toral sample indicate that positive self-talk does mediate between the perceived frequency of teachers’ praise and students’ reading self-concept. This provides support for the internal mediating model forwarded by Craven et al (1991), Additionally, negative self- talk was found to be predictive of maths self-concept bur negative self-talk was not related to teacher statements, and this was needed to support the mediating model. Furthermore, the results indicate that positive statements made by teachers were more Academic Self-Concepts & .98, RMSR=0.045, ChiS The percentages of variance accounted for by the other variables are presented. Educational Psychology in Practice Vol 15, No 3, October 1999 197Figure 2. Model for the boys’ sample Self-Talk Teacher Statements Academic Self-Concepts SEM results: GFI=0.91, AGFI=( The percentages of variance accounted for by the other influential than negative statements as shown first, by direct paths from positive statements to positive self- talk and maths and learning self-concepts and, second, by the fact that negative statements were not predictive of any of the self-talk or self-concept variables. Some gender differences were noted when the modified model from the total sample was tested separately for boys and girls. The most significant finding from the separate analyses is the emergence of significant paths from negative statements made by teachers. For boys, teachers’ negative statements were related to negative self-talk which in turn was predictive of maths self-concept. This supports the internal mediating model. For girls, teachers’ negative statements had a direct effect on maths self-concept. Implications for teachers and educational psychologists The most powerful outcome for teachers and for educational psychologists (EPs) wishing to draw upon this study is the ‘power of the positive’. Children’s perceptions of the frequency of positive statements made by teachers, which included general praise and feedback, was directly related to their beliefs about themselves as mathematicians and learners. Children who perceived that their teachers said positive things to them had higher maths and learner self-concepts, whereas children who perceived 198 .86, TLI=0.94, RNI=0.96, RMSR=0.06, ChiS 1 variables are presented. that their teachers did not say many positive things to them had lower maths and learner self-concepts. Additionally, children who perceived that their teachers said positive things to them had higher positive self-talk and higher reading self-concept while children who reported that their teacher did not say many positive things to them had lower positive self-talk and lower reading self-concept. This indicates the impact of the presence or absence of positive statements in the classroom. There were, however, some gender differences in students’ perception of the negative statements made by teachers. Negative statements were related to boys’ negative self-talk and maths self-concept. This suggests that the boys who perceived that their teachers spoke negatively to them had high negative self-talk and low maths self-concept. However, who perceived that their teachers spoke negativ them did not have low negative self-talk but di low maths self-concept. Ir should be noted that teacher expectations for their children and the children’s academic achievement were not measured in this study. Future research could measure these in an endeavour to evaluate the circular nature of the model, which is (A) A teacher’s expectations of a child in’a specific subject area affects (B) the delivery of feedback and praise in that area which is (C) internalised as self- talk by the child and influences the (D) child’s self-concept in that specific area which in turn affects Educational Psychology in Practice Vol 15, No 3, October 1999Figure 3. Model for the girls’ sample Teacher Statements Self-Talk Gs @) (7 Academic Self-Concepts Va Lo 93, AGFI=0.89, TLI=0.99, RNI=0.99, RMSR=0.07, ChiSQ=68; df=66. The percentages of variance accounted for by the other variables are presented. (E) the child’s achievement in that area which then reinforces (A) the teacher's original expectation. In the meantime, EPs are in a key position to investigate this model through their practice. More immediately, this study along with other work cited, provides the evidence base for EPs wishing to frame recommendations to the teaching and non-teaching staff of a school about the potential value added to learning through the relatively low-cost expedient of directly communicating positive expectation to children. Acknowledgement The support and assistance of Ms Andrea McCrindle, Senior Research Assistant, Centre for Cognitive Processes in Learning, Queensland University of Technology, is gratefully acknowledged. References Babad, E. (1990) ‘Measuring and changing teachers’ differential behavior as perceived by students and teachers’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 683~ 690, Bagozzi, R.P and Heatherton, T.F. (1994) ‘A general approach to representing multifaceted personality constructs: application to self-esteem’, Structural Equation Modeling, 1, 35-67. Blake, P.C. and Slate, J.R. 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(1988) ‘The case for modifying adolescents’ cognitive self- statements’, Adolescence, 23, 967-974. 200 Marsh, H.W. (1991) ‘Multidimensional students’ evaluations of teaching effectiveness: A test of alternative higher-order structures’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 17-34. Parsons, J.E., Kaczala, C. and Meece, J. (1982) ‘Socialization of achievement attitudes and beliefs: Classroom influences’, Child Development, 53, 322-339. Philpot, V.D., Holliman, W.B. and Madonna, S. (1995) ‘Self-statements, locus of control, and depression in predicting self-esteem’, Psychological Reports, 76, 1007— 1010. Reynolds, A.J. and Walberg, H.J. (1991) ‘A structural model of science achievement’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 97-100. Weinstein, RS., Marshall, KUHL, Sharp, L. and Botkin, M. (1987) ‘Pygmalion and the student: age and classroom differences in children’s awareness of teacher expectations’, Child Development, 58, 1079-1093. Paul C. Burnett is a Professor and Head of School of Teacher Education at Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, New South Wales 2795S, Australia. This article was submitted in September 1998 and accepted after revision in February 1999. Educational Psychology in Practice Vol 18, No 3, October 1999