1.

Atoms, Molecules
and Stoichiometry
1.1 Relative masses of atoms and molecules

Atoms of Elements
Atoms are smallest particles of
the element.

The given diagram is

of coal.
Isotopes
Isotopes are the atoms of same element having same number
of protons but different number of neutrons.

Nucleon number=no. of protons+no. of neutrons

Relative Atomic Mass, Ar

It is the weighted average mass of naturally occurring atoms of

an element on a scale where an atom of carbon-12 has mass of
exactly 12 units.

Ar[Element Y]=
Relative Isotopic Mass

It is the mass of a particular isotope of an element on a scale

where an atom of carbon-12 has a mass exactly 12 units.

For example, the relative isotopic mass of carbon-13 is 13.00.

Relative Molecular Mass, Mr

It is the relative mass of one molecule of the compound on the

scale where an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of 12 units.

We find the relative molecular mass by adding up the relative

atomic masses of all the atoms present in the molecule.
For example, for methane:

formula CH4

atoms present 1 × C; 4 × H

add Ar values (1 × Ar [C]) + (4 × Ar [H])

Mr of methane = (1 × 12.0) + (4 × 1.0) = 16.0

 Relative Formula Mass, Mr
It is the relative mass of one molecule of the ionic compound on the
scale where an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of 12 units.

For example, for magnesium hydroxide

formula Mg(OH)2

ions present 1 × Mg2+; 2 × (OH-)

add Ar values (1 × Ar [Mg]) + (2 × (Ar [O] + Ar [H]))

Mr of magnesium hydroxide = (1 × 24.3) + (2 × (16.0 + 1.0)) = 58.3

1.2 The mole and The Avogadro constant
One mole of a substance is the amount of that substance that
has the same number of specific particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) as there are atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon-12
isotope.

The relative atomic mass or relative molecular mass of a

substance in grams is called a mole of the substance. So a mole
of sodium (Ar = 23.0) weighs 23.0 g.

Avogadro constant(L/NA)is the number of particles present in

one mole of pure substance. L=6.02 x 1023
Mass of substance (gram) = Number of moles (Mol) x Molar mass (g mol-1)

For elements, m = n x Ar

For compounds, m = n x Mr
1.3 The determination of Relative
Atomic Masses, Ar
To find the necessary data we use an instrument called a mass
spectrometer. The necessary data are the natural abundance of
every isotope of an element and their isotopic masses.

To calculate the relative atomic mass we follow this method: ■■

multiply each isotopic mass by its percentage abundance

■■ add the figures together

■■ divide by 100.
Fig. The mass spectrum of the sample of lead Fig. The mass spectrum of the neon, Ne
1.4 The calculation of empirical and
molecular formulae
The molecular formula of a compound shows the total number
of atoms of each element present in a molecule.

The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole

number ratio of the elements present in one molecule or
formula unit of the compound.

Molecular Formula=(Empirical Formula)n

n = molecular formula mass / empirical formula mass

■■ The formula for an ionic compound is always its empirical
formula.

■■ The empirical formula and molecular formula for simple

inorganic molecules are often the same.

■■ Organic molecules often have different empirical and

molecular formulae.
Fig. Some empirical and molecular formulae
a) Calculation of empirical and molecular
formula using combustion data

■■ Record the mass of element being burned

■■ Record the mass of its oxide formed after burning in excess

of oxygen

■■ Determine the mass of oxygen that has combined with the

element by subtracting mass of its oxide and the element

■■ Calculate the mole ratio of element to oxygen

b) Calculation of empirical and molecular
formula using mass composition

■■ Calculate relative number of moles by dividing mass

composition of the element by its relative atomic mass

■■ Divide the relative number of moles by the lowest figures

If quotient is not a whole number, obtain the lowest whole number

ratio to get empirical formula.
1.5 Reacting masses and volumes (of
solutions and gases)

■■ First we write and construct balanced chemical equation.

Balanced chemical equation shows us the ratio of moles of the
reactants and products – the stoichiometry of the equation.

■■ Then we use mole concept to determine the reacting

masses and volumes.
Volume of gas

At room temperature and pressure ( r.t.p.) one mole of any

gas has a volume of 24.0dm3. [T=20o, P=1 atm]

Number of moles( n) x 24.0dm3 = Volume of gas(V)

As we know m = n x (Ar or Mr), we can use the molar gas

volume of 24.0dm3 at r.t.p. to find:

■■ the volume of a given mass or number of moles of gas

■■ the mass or number of moles of a given volume of gas

Concentration of solution
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
dissolved in a solvent to make 1dm3 (one cubic decimetre) of
solution.

10cm=1dm

1000cm3=1dm3

Number of moles = Concentration x Volume

n=CxV
Titration
A procedure called a titration is used to determine the amount
of substance present in a solution of unknown concentration.

■■ A burette is filled with the solution A of known

concentration and initial reading of the burette is recorded

■■ The volume of the solution B of unknown concentration is

measured and poured into titration flask

■■ Indicator is added into the flask

■■ Slowly A is added to the flask from burette, the flask is
swirled all the time until the indicator changes colour (the
end-point).

■■ The final burette reading is recorded. The final reading

minus the initial reading is called the titre. This first titre is
normally known as a ‘rough’ value.
■■ This process is repeated again and again, until two titres
that are no more than 0.10 cm3 apart are obtained.

■■ Then the average of these two titres are taken

■■ By using balanced chemical equation and the mole

concept, the concentration of solution B can be determined.
The end