Appendix 7: Equations

Students need not memorise formulae for these qualifications.

The formulae below will be supplied in each examination. Any other formulae that are
required will be provided in the question. Symbols used comply with the Association for
Science Education (ASE) guidelines (which are based on International Union of Pure and
Applied Physics (IUPAP) recommendations).

Unit 1: Mechanics and Materials

Mechanics

Kinematic equations of motion (u + v)t

s=
2
v = u + at
s = ut + 12 at 2
v 2 = u 2 + 2as

Forces ΣF = ma
F
g=
m
W = mg
Momentum p = mv

Moment of force = Fx

Materials
Density m
ρ=
V

Stokes’ law F = 6πηrv

Hooke’s law ∆F = k∆x

Young modulus F
Stress σ =
A
∆x
Strain ε =
x

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 σ
E=
ε

Elastic strain energy ∆Eel = 12 F∆x

Unit 2: Waves and Electricity

Waves and particle nature of light

Wave speed v = fλ

Speed of a transverse wave on a T

string v=
µ

Intensity of radiation P
I=
A

Refractive index n1 sin θ1= n2 sin θ2

c
n=
v

Critical angle 1
sin C =
n

Diffraction grating nλ = dsinθ

de Broglie wavelength h
λ=
p

Photon model E = hf

Einstein’s photoelectric equation hf = φ + 12 mvmax

2

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Electricity

Current ∆Q
I=
∆t

Potential difference W
V=
Q

Resistance V
R=
I
Electrical power, energy and P = VI
efficiency
P = I2R
V2
P=
R
W = VIt

Resistivity ρl
R=
A
I = nqvA

Unit 4: Further Mechanics, Fields and Particles

Further mechanics

Impulse F∆t = ∆p

Kinetic energy of a p2
non-relativistic particle Ek =
2m

Motion in a circle v = ωr
2π
T=
ω
v2
a=
r
a = rω 2
Centripetal force mv 2
F = ma =
r

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 F = mrω2

Electric and magnetic fields

Electric field F
E=
Q

Coulomb’s law Q1Q2

F=
4πε 0 r 2
Q
E=
4 πε 0 r 2
V
E=
d

Electric potential Q
V=
4 πε 0 r

Capacitance Q
C=
V

Energy stored in capacitor W = 12 QV

W = 12 CV 2
1
Q2
W= 2
C

Capacitor discharge Q = Q0 e-t/RC

Resistor-capacitor discharge I = Io e-t/RC

V = Vo e-t/RC
t
ln Q = ln Q0 −
RC

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 t
ln I = ln I 0 −
RC
t
ln V = ln V0 −
RC

In a magnetic field F = Bqv sin θ

F = BIl sin θ

Faraday and Lenz’s laws − d ( Nφ )

E =
dt

Nuclear and particle physics

In a magnetic field p
r=
BQ

Mass-energy ∆E = c2∆m

Unit 5: Thermodynamics, Radiation, Oscillations and Cosmology

Thermodynamics

Heating ∆E = mc∆θ
ΔE = LΔm

Ideal gas equation pV = NkT

Molecular kinetic theory 1

m<c 2 > = 23 kT
2

Nuclear decay

Mass-energy ∆E = c2∆m

Radioactive decay A = λN
d𝑁𝑁
= −λN
d𝑡𝑡

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 ln 2
λ=
t 12

N = N0 e-λt
A = A0 e-λt

Oscillations

Simple harmonic motion F = − kx

a = − ω2x
x = Acos ωt
v = − Aω sin ωt
a = − Aω2 cos ωt
1 2π
T= =
f ω
ω = 2πf

Simple harmonic oscillator m

T = 2π
k
l
T = 2π
g

Astrophysics and cosmology

Gravitational field strength g = F/m

Gravitational force Gm1m2

F=
r2

Gravitational field Gm
g=
r2

Gravitational potential − Gm
Vgrav =
r

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Stefan-Boltzmann law L = σT4A

Wien’s law λmaxT = 2.898 x 10-3 m K

Intensity of radiation L
I=
4 πd 2

Redshift of electromagnetic ∆λ ∆f v
z= ≈ ≈
radiation λ f c

Cosmological expansion v = Hod

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Appendix 8: Data sheet
The value of the following constants will be provided in each examination paper.

Acceleration of free fall g = 9.81 m s−2 (close to Earth’s

surface)

Boltzmann constant k = 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1

Coulomb law constant k = 1/4πεo = 8.99 x 109 N m2 C-2

Electron charge e = −1.60 × 10−19 C

Electron mass me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg

Electronvolt 1 eV = 1.60 × 10−19 J

Gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2

Gravitational field g = 9.81 N kg−1 (close to Earth’s

strength surface)

Planck constant h = 6.63 × 10−34 J s

Permittivity of free space εo = 8.85 × 10−12 F m−1

Proton mass mp = 1.67 × 10−27 kg

Speed of light in a c = 3.00 × 108 m s−1

vacuum

Stefan-Boltzmann σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4

constant

Unified atomic mass unit u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

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