Understanding-Physics For-Jee-Main-And-Advanced Waves-And Thermodynamics14. Wave motion 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Contents Introduction Transverse and Longitudinal Waves The General Equation of Weve Motion Plane Progressive Harmonic Wave Speed of a Transverse Wave on a String Energy in Wave Motion 1 5 « Superposition of Waves 45-88 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 16. sound Waves htt 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 Introduction Principle of Superposition Interference of Waves Reflection and Transmission of a Wave Standing Waves Normal Modes of a String Resonance 89-152 Introduction Displacement Wave, Pressure Wave and Density Wave Speed of Longitudinal Wave Sound Waves in Gases Sound intensity Interference of Sound Waves Standing Longitudinal Waves in Organ Pipes Beats The Doppler Effect17. Thermometry, Thermal Expansion & 153-209 Kinetic Theory of Gases 17.1. Thermometers and the Celsius Temperature Scale 17.2. The Constant Volume Gas, Thermometer and the Absolute Temperature Scale 17.3. Quantity of Heat 17.4. Thermal Expansion 17.5. Concept of an Ideal Gas 17.6 Gas Laws 17.7. Ideal Gas Equation 17.8 Degree of Freedom 17.9 Internal Energy of an ideal Gas 17.10 Law of Equipartition of Energy 17.11 Molar Heat Capacity > 17.12 Kinetic Theory of Gases 18. Laws ot Thermodynamics 211-270 oom 18.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics 18.2 Further Explanation of The Three Terms Used in the First Law 18.3 Different Thermodynamic Processes. 18.4 Efficiency of a Cycle 18.5 Heat Engines 18.6 Refrigerator 18.7. Zeroth Law of Thermodyanamics 18.8 Second Law of Thermodyanamics 18.9 Reversable and Irreversable Processes. 19. calorimetry & Heat Transfer 271-306 19.1 Specific Heat 19.2 Phase Changes, Latent Heat 19.3 Heat Transfer © Experimental Skills 307-315 Hints & Solutions 817-351Syllabus , \:¢ main y Heat and Thermodynamics Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; specific heat capacity, calorimetry; change of state, latent heat. Heat transfer-conduction, convection and radiation, Newton’s law of cooling. Thermal equilibrium, Zeroth law of thermodynamics, concept of temperature. Heat, work and internal energy. First law of thermodynamics. Second law of thermodynamics: reversible and irreversible processes. Carnot engine and its efficiency. Equation of state ofa perfect gas, work done on compressing a gas. Kinetic theory of gases — assumptions, concept of pressure. Kinetic energy and temperature: rms speed of gas molecules; Degrees of freedom, Law of equipartition of energy, applications to specific heat capacities of gases; Mean free path, Avogadro's number. Waves Wave motion. Longitudinal and transverse waves, speed of a wave. Displacement relation for a progressive wave. Principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, Standing waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode and harmonics, Beats, Dopplereffect in sound Experimental Skills = Plotting a cooling curve for the relationship between the temperature of a hot body andtime, = Speed ofsound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube. = Specific heat capacity ofa given (i) Solid and (ii) Liquid by method of mixtures.J EE Advanced General Specific heat of a liquid using calorimeter. Speed of sound using resonance column. Waves Wave motion (plane waves only), longitudinal and transverse waves, superposition of waves, Progressive and stationary waves, Vibration of strings and air cohamas, Resonance, Beats, Speed of sound in gases, Doppler effect (in sound). Heat and Thermodynamics Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases, calorimetry, latent heat, Heat conduction in one dimension, Elementary concepts of convection and radiation, Newton’s law of cooling, Ideal gas laws, Specific heats (and for monoatomic and diatomic gases), Isothermal and adiabatic processes, bulk modulus of gases, Equivalence of heat and work, First law of thermodynamics and its applications (only for ideal gases), Blackbody radiation: absorptive and emissive powers, Kirchhoff's law, Wien’s displacement law, Stefan’s law.rd 14 WAVE MOTION Chapter Contents 14.1. Introduction 14.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves 14.3 The General Equation of Wave Motion 14.4 Plane Progressive Harmonic Wave 14.5 Speed of a Transverse Wave on a String 14.6 Energy in Wave Motion2° Waves and Thermodynamics | FEET introduction ‘A wave is any disturbance from a normal or equilibrium condition that propagates without the transport of matter, In general, a wave transports both energy and momentum,” The disturbance created by a wave is represented by.a wave function y (x, 1). For a string the wave function is a (vector) displacement; whereas for sound waves it is a (scalar) pressure or density fluctuation. In the case of light or radio waves, the wave function is either an electric or a magnetic field vector. Wave motion appears in almost every branch of physics. We are all familiar with water waves, sound waves and light waves. Waves occur when a system is disturbed from its equilibrium position and this disturbance travels or propagates from one region of the system to other. Energy can be transmitted over considerable distances by wave motion. The waves requiring a medium are called mechanical waves and those which do not require a medium are called non-mechanical waves, Light waves and all other electromagnetic waves are nonmechanical. The energy in the mechanical waves is the kinetic and potential energy of the matter. In the propagation of mechanical waves elasticity and inertia of the medium play an important role. This is why mechanical waves sometimes arc also referred to as elastic waves, Note that the medium itself does not move as a whole along with the wave motion. Apart from mechanical and nonmechanical waves there is also another kind of waves called “matter waves”. These represent wave like properties of particles. | FEE] Transverse and Longitudinal Waves There are two distinct classes of wave motion : (i) transverse and Gi) longitudinal Ina transverse wave motion the particles of the medium oscillate about their mean or equilibrium position at right angles to the direction of propagation of wave motion itself. crest oscillation wave / motion mean position trough Fig. 14.1 This form of wave motion travels in the form of crests and troughs, as for example, waves travelling along a stretched string. This type of waves are possible in media which possess elasticity of shape or rigidity, i.c.,in solids. These are also possible on the surface of liquids also, even though they do Not possess the property of rigidity. This is because they possess another equally effective property (surface tension) of resisting any vertical displacerient of their particles (or keeping their level). Gases, however, possess neither rigidity nor do they resist any vertical displacement of particles (or keep their level). A transverse wave motion is therefore not possible in a gaseous medium. An electromagnetic wave is necessarily a transverse wave because of the electric and magnetic fields being perpendicular ta its direction of propagation. The distance between two successive crests or troughs is known as the wavelength (2) of the wave,CHAPTER 14 Wave Motion 3 Ina longitudinal wave motion the particles of the medium oscillate about their mean or equilibrium position along the direction of propagation of the wave motion itself. This type of wave motion travels in the form of compressions and rarefactions and is possible in media possessing elasticity of volume, ic., in solids, liquids and gases. . mean position wave Motion oscillations. a a Fig. 14.2 The distance between two successive compressions or rarefactions constitute one wavelength. Sound waves in a gas are longitudinal in nature. In some cases, the waves are neither purely transverse nor purely longitudinal as, for example ripples on water surface (produced by dropping a stone jp water), in which the particles of the medium (here water) oscillate across as well as along the direction of propagation of the wave motion describing elliptical paths. We need not however, bother ourselves with any such type of waves here. Again waves may be one dimensional, two dimensional or three dimensional according as they propagate energy in just one, two or three dimensions. Transverse waves along a string are one dimensional, ripples on water surface are two dimensional and sound waves proceeding radially from a point source are three dimensional. | FEE) The General Equation of Wave Motion As we have already read, ina wave motion, some physical quantity (say ») is made to oscillate at one place and these oscillations of y propagate to other places. The ymay be, (i) displacement of particles from their mean position in case of transverse wave in a rope or longitudinal sound waye in a gas. (ii) pressure difference (dP) or density difference (dp) in case of sound wave or (iii) electric and magnetic fields in case of electromagnetic waves. The oscillations of y may or may not be simple harmonic in nature. Now let us consider a one dimensional wave travelling along x-axis. in this case yis a function of position (x) and time (f). The reason is that one may be interested in knowing the value of yat a general point x at any time /. Thus, we can say that, y= VON) Butonly those functions of x and ¢, represent a wave motion which satisfy the differential equation, ay ax? ay ae Here & is a constant, which is cqual to square of the wave speed, or kav4 Waves and Thermodynamics Thus, the above equation can be written as, Py ay . oD yt oe. i) at* ax? The general solution of this equation is of the form y= (ax + bt) i) Thus, any function of x and ¢ which satisfies Eq. (i) or which can be written as Eq, (ji) represents a wave. The only condition is that it should be finite everywhere and at all times. Further, if these conditions are satisfied, then speed of wave (v) is given by, _ coefficient oft _ b v as “coefficient ofx a ‘The plus (+) sign between axand bt implies that the wave is travelling along negative x-direction and minus (—) sign shows that it is travelling along positive x-direction. Sampie Example 14.1 Show that the equation, y=asin (wt—kx) satisfies the wave equation 2 2 2 =v? = Find speed of wave and the direction in which it is travelling. " - ey do Solution asin (or ke) or ey and £2 ~~ asin (or ke) ax? We can write these two equations as, By ot # ar? . z Comparing this with, ee an? © We get, wave speed v c Ans. The negative sign between et and kx implies that wave is travelling along positive x-direction Sample Example 14.2 Which of the following functions represent a wave @o-w? Oem Oe @ x+vt Solution Although all the four functions are written in the form f (ax + bt), only (c) among the four functions is finite everywhere at all times. Hence only (c) represents a wave. 08 Sample Example 14.3 (x, 2) = ———_ — srg x [(4e+50)? +5] and t in second. Then choose the correct alternative(s): (a) pulse is moving in positive x-direction represents a moving pulse where x and y arein metre (WEE 1999)CHAPTER 14» Wave Motion 5 () in2s it will travel a distance of 2.5m (c) its maximum displacement is 0.16 m @) itis a symmetric pulse Solution (b), (c) and (d) are correct options, The shape of pulse at x = and #=0 would be as shown in Fig. 14.3. ¥@,0) a8 =0.16m From the figure it is clear that yaa, =0.16m Pulse will be symmetric (symmetry is checked about yyy) if Atr=0; y@)=y(-x) From the given equation 08 x) = VOm 645 atr=0 and yCx)= =x 9 * ts0 or y(x)= Fig. 14.3 Therefore, pulse is symmetric. Speed of pulse: Atr=1s and x=~125m y y 0.16m 0.16m Fig. 14.4 value of yis again 0.16 m, i.e., pulse has travelled a distance of 1.25 min | second in negative x-direction or we can say that the speed of pulse is 1.25 m/s and it is travelling in negative x-direction, Therefore, it will travel a distance of 2.5 m in 2 seconds. The above statement can be better understood from Fig, 14.4. Alternate method : If equation of a wave pulse is yaf (ax t bt) che speed of wave is > in negative x-direction for y= f(ax-+ bt) and positive x-direction for a y= (ax — bt). Comparing this from given equation we can find that speed of wave iss =1.25 m/sandit is travelling in negative x-direction.Waves and Thermadynamics Sample Example 14.4 Ina wave motion y= asin (kx — 1), yoan represent: (WEE 1999) (a) elecwric field (6) magnetic field (c) displacement (A) pressure Solution (a, b, c,d) In case of sound wave, y can represent pressure and displacement, while in case of an J — re ip electromagnetic wave it represents electric and magnetic fields. © In general, y is any general physical quantity which is made to oscillate at one place and these oscillations are propagated to other places 1 3 Introductory Exercise Prove that the equation y ~asin cot does not satisfy the wave equation and hence it does not represent a wave. ‘A wave pulse is described by y(x, t) = ae"™~®, where a, b and ¢ are positive constants. What is the speed of this wave? ‘The displacement of a wave disturbance propagating in the positive x-direction is given by s at t=2s att=0 and y +(x-1* 1+x? where x and y are in metre, The shape of the wave disturbance does not change during the propagation. What is the velocity of the wave? A travelling wave pulse is given by, += an 5+ (r+ 20? Here x and y are in metre and ¢ in second. In which direction and with what velocity is the pulse propagating? What is the amplitude of pulse? . Fatt = 0, a travelling wave pulse on a string is described by the function, 10 G@? +2) Herex and y are in metre and t in second. What will be the wave function representing the pulse at time t, if the puise is propagating along positive x-axis with speed 2 m/s? { FZ] Plane Progressive Harmonic Wave Consider a function y (x), represented graphically by the solid curve shown in Fig. 14.5. ¥= fom) 1 ysti) Y= 10%) <=» Fig, 14.5 If we replace x by x ~ xo, we get the function, Y=f~X) Itis clear that shape of the curve has not changed, the same value of y occurs for values of x increased by the amount x, .in other words, assuming that x9 is positive, we see that the curve has been displaced toCHAPTER 14 Wave Motion 7 the right an amount x5 without deformation. Similarly, y= f(x +.x9) corresponds to a displacement of the curve to the left by an amount xq. For example if we have two functions: y =x? and y) =(x—5)? and y, =16atx =4then y, has the same value, atx =4+5orx=9, (x — vt) represents acurve Now, ify = vt, where ris the time, we get a travelling curve. That i moving to the right with a velocity ¥, called the wave velocity or phase velocity. y yates vO Fig. 14.6 Similarly y= f (x + vt) represents a curve moving to the left with velocity v. Therefore, we cBnclude that a mathematical expression of the form, WO, N= FEV) is adequate for describing a physical situation that ‘travels’ or ‘propagates’ without deformation along negative or positive x-axis. The quantity (x, £) may represent the deformation in a solid, the pressure in a gas, an electric or magnetic field, etc. When (x, 4) is a sine or cosine function such as, Vx, 2) = Asin k(x - vt) or v(x, 1) = Acos Ka ve) it is called plane progressive harmonic wave. In plane progressive harmonic wave oscillations of yare simple harmonic in nature. 2 7 2 ‘ R rm The quantity &has a special meaning. Replacing the value of xby x +, we get the same value of, ., Qn 2 fee 1\= asina (« +7 w= Asin [k(x — vt) +21] = Asin k(x— vt) = y(x, 0) The quantity, . mt ik: designated as wavelength, is the space period of the curve, that | the curve repeats itself every length A. The quantity t= represents the number of wavelengths in the distance x 2x and is called the wave number. Therefore, (a, ) = Asin kx ve) = Asin 2 Tee vt) Fig. 14,78 Waves and Thermodynamics represents a plane progressive harmonic wave of wavelength propagating towards the positive x-axis with speed v. The above equation can also be written as, yx, )= A sin (Fx — 1) omy cs gives the angular f-equency of the wave. Further, «9 =2n f, where fis the frequency with which y oscillates at every point x. We have the important relation, where a= vans Also if Tis the period of oscillation then, 2 Roe of We may also write, y=Asin2a (z - Thus, the equation ofa plane progressive harmonic wave moving along positive x-direction can be written as, y= Asin k (vt) = A sin (e— on) = Asin 2 -w)= Asinan(Z- 2) x peat Simitarly, the expressions x i+t) represents a plane progressive harmonic wave travelling in negative x-direction. ys Asin k (cf) = Asin (+0) = Asin 2 Displacement of a particle Position of difforent particles at at different instants ‘same instant in a sting. Fig. 14.8 Note that as y propagates in the medium (or space), it repeats itself in space after one period, because A= which shows that, the wavelength is the distance advanced by the wave motion in one period, Therefore, in plane progressive harmonic wave we have two periodicities, one in time given by the period 7, and one in space given by the wavelength A, with the two related by AaCHAPTER 14. Wave Motion 9 /mportant points in Wave motion Read so far 1. ‘As we have read in Ant. 14.3, any function of xand twhich satisfies equation number (i) of the same article oF which can be written in the form of equation number (i) represents a wave provided it is finite everywhere at all times, What we have read in Art. 14.4 is about plane progressive harmonic wave. Iff(ax + bt)is.a sine or cosine function, itis called plane progressive harmonic wave. The only special characteristic of this wave is that oscillations of y are simple harmonic in nature. The general expression of a plane progressive harmonic wave is, y =A sin(kx +t t 9) or y =A cos (kx + wf + 0) Here 9 represents the initial phase. Ihave seen students often contused whether the equation of a plane progressive wave should be, Asin (kx ~ ot) or y =Asin (at - kx) Because some books write the first while the others write the second. It hardly matters whetheg you write the first or the second. Both the equations represent a travelling wave travelling in positive x-direction with speedv = ° - The difference between them is that they are out of phase, i.e., phase difference between them is r. It means, if a particle in position x = 0 at time t = 0 is in its mean position and moving upwards (represented by first wave) then the same particle will be in its mean position but moving downwards (represented by the second wave). Similarly the waves, y = Asin (kx — wt) and y =~ A sin (kx - wt) are also out of phase. Particle velocity (v,) and acceleration (a,) in a sinusoidal wave : In plane progressive harmonic wave particles of the medium oscillate simple harmonically about their mean position. Therefore, all the formulae what we have read in SHM apply to the particles here also. For example, maximum parficle velocity is + Ao at mean position and it is zero at extreme positions etc. Similarly maximum particle acceleration is + w*A at extreme positions and zero at mean position. However the wave velocity is different from the particle velocity. This depends an certain characteristics of the medium. Unlike the particle velocity which oscillates simple harmonically (between + Aw and - Aw) the wave velocity is constant for given characteristics of the medium. ‘Suppose the wave function is, y (x,t) =A sin (x — at) efi) Let us differentiate this function partially with respect to t and x. AVON _ Ae cos (kx - at) lil) ot 206) - aK cos (kx — ot) ax Now, these can be written as, Byted) (2) v0) at kK) ax Here, oy a] =particle velocity vp : =wave velocity v10 Waves and Thermodynamics and xy ee =slope of the wave Thus, vp =—v (slope) fiv) i.e.,particle velocity at a given position and time isyequal to negative of the product of wave velocity with slope of the wave at that point at that instant The acceleration of the particle is the second partial derivative of y (x,t) with respect to f, eG -G i.e., the acceleration of the particle equals — w” times its displacement, which is the result we obtained for SHM. Thus, — @®A sin (kx - ot) =~ 0°y(x,t) ap = 6° (displacement) wlW) We can also show that, ay (x,t) (3) (x,t) at wax? 2 5 or BerRaD rg) ve TVD) eae (vi) which is also the wave equation. Figure shows the velocity (vp) and acceleration (ap) given by Eqs. (iv) and (v) for two points 1 and 2 on a string as a sinuscidal wave is travelling in it along positive x-direction. At 1: Slope of the curve is positive. Hence from Eq. (iv) particle velocity (vp) is negative or downwards. Similarly displacement of the particle is positive, so from Eq. (v) acceleration will be negative or downwards. Fig. 14.9 At 2: Slope is negative while displacement is positive. Hence vp will be positive (upwards) and ap is negative (downwards). Note The direction of Vp will change if the wave travels along negative x-direction. Sample Example 14.5 The equation of a wave is, _ [nx = vOO= .0ssin| (or-09-4]m Find : (a) the wavelength, the frequency and the wave velocity (b) the particle velocity and acceleration at x =0,5 mand t =0.05s. Solution (a) The equation may be rewritten as, (x, 1) =0.05 sin (sx: —20n0 = 5) m Comparing this with equation of plane progressive harmonic wave, y (0) = Asin (kx ar +4) we have,CHAPTER 14. Wave Motion 11 wave number k= = =5n rad/m _ A=04m Ans. The angular frequency is, c =2n f =20n rad/s Sf =10H2 Ans. The wave velocity is, ve fr=O=amis in+xdirection Ans, (b) The particle velocity and acceleration are, wae (201) (0.05) cos. (= _n- *) ot 2 4 > =2.22 m/s Ans. ay 2 (5 1 Spt 7 20)? (0.05) sin | [F—-F =140 m/s? Ans, Sample Example 14.6 Figure shows a snapshot of a sinusoidal travelling wave taken att =0.3 s, The wavelength is 7.5 cm and the amplitude is 2 cm. If the crest P was at x =0 at t =0, write the equation of travelling wave. Fig. 14.10 Solution Given, A=2cem, 2=7.5cm = =0.84cem™ k The wave has travelled a distance of 1.2 cm in 0.3 s, Hence, speed of the wave, =4em/s Angular frequency @ = (v) (k) = 3.36 rad/s ‘Since the wave is travelling along positive x-direction and crest (maximum displacement) is at x =0 = 6 =0, we can write the wave equation as, YQ 1) = Acos (kx ~ wt) or v(x, 1)=Acos(@t—kx) as cos (~6) =cos 0 Therefore, the desired equation is, (x, £) = Zem)cos [0.84 em) x — (3.36 rad/s) t]om Ans.12. Waves and Thermodynamics Introductory Exercise [®) 1. The equation of a travelling wave is, Dexa y (x,t) =0.02 angst 0)” Find: t (a) The wave velocity and (b) the particle velocity at x = 0.2 mandt =0.3.s Given cos 6 =-—0.85 where 0=34 rad 2. Is there any relationship between wave speed and the maximum particle speed for a wave travelling on a string? If so, what is it? yom) 3. Consider a sinusoidal travelling wave shown in figure. The wave velocity is + 40 cm/s. Find : (a) the frequency (b) the phase difference between points 2.5 em x(om) apart (c) how long it takes for the phase at a given position to change by 60° (d) the velocity of a particle at point P at the instant shown, 14.11 4. Transverse waves on a string have wave speed 12.0 m/s, amplitude 0.05 m and wavelength 0.4m. The waves travel in the + x direction and at ¢ = 0 the x =0 end of the string has zero displacement and is moving upwards. (a) Write 2 wave function describing the wave. (b) Find the transverse displacement of a point at x =0.25 mat timet = 0.15. (c) How much time must elapse from the instant in part (b) until the point at x = 0.25 m has zero displacement? | FE] Speed of a Transverse Wave on a String One of the key properties of any wave is the wave speed. In this section we'll see what determines the speed of propagation of transverse waves on a string. The physical quantities that determine the speed of transverse waves on a string are the tension in the string and its mass per unit length (also called linear mass density). . ‘ . y We might guess that increasing the tension rT; showed increase the restoring forces that tend to straighten the string when it is disturbed, thus increasing the wave speed. We might also guess increasing the mass should make the motithat on more sluggish and decrease the speed. Both these guesses tum out to be right. We will develop the exact relationship between 1a ‘wave speed, tension and mass per unit length. Fig. 14.12 Forces on a section of a transversely displaced string.CHAPTER 14- Wave Motion 13 Under equilibrium conditions a string subject toa tension T is straight. Suppose that we now displace the string sidewise, or perpendicular to its length, by a small amount as shown in figure. Consider a small section AB of the string of length dx, that has been displaced a distance y from the equilibrium position. On each end a tangential force 7 is acting. Due to the curvature of the string, the two forces are not directly opposed but make angles 9 and 8” with the x-axis. The resultant upward force on the section 4B of the string is, F,=T,-T, wali) Under the acting of this force, the section AB of the string moves up and down. Rewriting Eq, (i) we have, F,, =T (sin 6’ —sin 8) Since @ and 6’ are almost equal, we may write F,, =Td (sin) If the curvature of the string is not very large, the angles @ and 9 are small, and the sines can be replaced by their tangents. So the upward force is, F, =Td (tan@)=T {< tanoy > But tan @ is the slope of the curve adopted by the string, which is equal to ee This force must be equal to the mass of the section AB multiplied by its upward acceleration . Hence Lan 2 1 is the linear density of the string, the mass of the section AB is dx. We use the relation F = ma and write the equation of motion of this section of the string as, or Comparing this with wave equation, the wave speed, Alternate Method Consider a pulse travelling along a string with a speed v to the right. If the amplitude of the pulse is small compared to the length of the string, the tension 7 will be approximately constant along the string. In the reference frame moving with speed v to the right, the pulse in stationary and the string moves with a speed v to the left. Figure shows a small segment of the string of length A/. This segment forms part of a14 Waves and Thermodynamics ° 9 (a) >) Fig. 14.13 (a) To obtain the speed v of a wave on a stretched string, it is convenient to describe the motion of a small segment of the string in 2 moving frame of reference. (b) In the moving frame of reference, the small segment of length Ai moves to the left with speed v. The net force on the segment is in the radial direction because the horizontal components of the tension force cancel, circular arc of radius R. Instantaneously the segment is moving with speed v in a circular path, so it hasa centripetal acceleration > The forces acting on the segment are the tension Tat cach end. The horizontal components of these forces are equal and opposite and thus cancel. The vertical components of these forces point radially inward toward the centre of the circular arc. These radial forces provide the centripetal acceleration. Let the angle subtended by the segment at centre be 28. The net radial force acting on the segment is ZF, =27 sin @ = 278 Where we have used the approximation sin @ ~ 6 for small 0. If is the mass per unit length of the string, the mass of the segment of length A/is m=pALRZARe | (as A/=2R0) Fram Newton’s second law BF, =ma= v T 278 = (2uR@)|~—] La id T8 = (2B) ( R i © Speed of Wave Motion i 4. Speed of transverse wave on a string is given by, E v in Here, h =mass per unit length of the string m iNote CHAPTER 14- Wave Motion 15 a (A= area of cross-section of the string) m = (7) A (V = volume of string) -BpA (= density ofstring) Henee, the above expression can also be written as, Speed of longitudinal wave through a gas (or a liquid) is given by, £ v Pp Here, B= Bulk modulus of the gas (or liquid) and p =density of the gas (or liquid) Now, Newton who first deduced this rolation for assumed that during the passage of a soultd wave through a gas (or air), the temperature of the gas remains constant i.e., sound wave travels under isothermal conditions and hence took B to be the isothermal elasticity of the gas and which is equal toits preseure P, So, Newton’s formula for the velocity of a sound wave (or a longitudinal wave) in a gaseous medium becomes, If, however, we calculate the velocity of sound in airat NTP with the help of this formula by substituting. P=1.01x10° Nim? and p=1.29 x 10° kg/m? then v comes out to be nearly 280 mis. Actually the velocity of sound in air at NTP as measured by Newton himself, is found to be 332 m/s. Newton could not explain this large discrepancy between his theoretical and experimental results. La’place after 140 years correctly argued that a sound wave passes through a gas (or air) very rapidly. So adiabatic conditions are developed. So, he took B to be the adiabatic elasticity of the gas, which is equal to yP where ys the ratio of Cp (molar heat capacity at constant pressure) and Cy (molar heat ‘capacity at constant volume). Thus, Newton's formula as corrected by La'place becomes, For air, y=1.41 So that in air, which gives 331.6 m/s as the velocity of sound (in air) at NTP which is in agreement with Newton's experimental result We will carry out the derivation of formula, of ‘ Vp the chapter of sound (Chapter-16).16 Waves and Thermodynamics 3. Speed of longitudinal wave in a thin rod or wire is given by, E ve |< P Here, Y is the Young's modulus of elasticity. th Sample Example 14.7 One end of 12.0 m long rubber tube with a total mass of 0.9 kg is fastened to a fixed support. A cord attached to the other and passes over a pulley and supports an object with a mass of 5.0 kg. The tube is struck a transverse blow at one end. Find the time required forthe pulse to reach the other end. (g =9.8 m/s?) Solution Tension in the rubber tube AB, 7 = mg T = (5.0) (9.8) =49N amon or Mass per unit length of rubber tube, & W=—=0.075 kg/m | B 2 Speed of wave on the tube, al ie 49 ve p= =25.56 m/s n Voo . ri The required time is, als 12 1-48 oars ns. Fig. 14.14 5.56 Sample Example 14.8 A uniform rope of mass 0.1 kg and length 2.45 m hangs from a ceiling. (@) Find the speed of transverse wave in the rope at a point 0.5 m distant from the lower end. (b) Calculate the time taken by a transverse wave to travel the full length of the rope. Solution (a) As the string has mass and it is suspended vertically, tension in it will be different at different points. For a point at a distance x from the free end, tension will be due to the weight of the string below it. So, if m is the mass of string of length J, the mass of length x of the string will be, + x. Fig. 14.15 efi) or Atx=0.5 m, v= 0.5 x98 =2.21 m/s (b) From Eq. (i) we see that velocity of the wave is different at different points. So, if at point x the wave travels a distance dx in time di, thenCHAPTER 14 Wave Motion 17 or —— Ans. Introductory Exercise t 1. Calculate the velocity of a transverse wave along a string of length 2 m and mass 0.06 kg under a tension of 500 N. 2. Calculate the speed of a transverse wave in a wire of 1.0 mm? cross-section under a tension 00.98 N. Density of the material of wire is 9.8 x 10* kg/m’. | FEXJ Energy in Wave Motion Every wave motion has energy associated with it, In wave motion, energy and momentum are transferred or propagated. To produce any of the wave motions, we have to apply a force to a portion of the wave medium. The point where the force is.applied moves, so we do work on the system. As the wave propagates, each portion of the medium exerts a force and does work on the adjoining portion. In this way a wave can transport energy from one region of space to other. Regarding the energy in wave motion, we come across three terms namely, energy density (x), power (P)and intensity (7). Now let us take them one by one Energy density (u) By the energy density of a plane progressive wave we mean the total mechanical energy (kinetic + potential) per unit volume of the medium through which the wave is passing. Let us proceed to obtain an expression for it. Consider a string attached to a tuning fork. As the fork vibrates, it imparts energy to the segment of the string attached to it. For example, as the fork moves through its equilibrium position, it stretches the segment, increasing its potential energy, and the fork imparts transverse speed to the segment, increasing. ts kinetic energy. As a wave moves along the string, energy is imparted to the other segments of the string. Kinetic energy per unit volume We can calculate the kinetic energy of unit volume of the string from the wave function, Mass of unit volume is the density p. Its displacement from equilibrium is the wave function y= 4 sin (kx — ar). Its dy . Ces : speed is o where x is considered to be fixed. The kinetic energy of unit volume AK is then at18 Waves and Thermodynamics Using y= Asin (kx — of), we obtain dy _ fp 7 O90 (ke) So the kinetic energy per unit volume is oh ak =1 p70? A? cos” (kx — wt) eli) Potential energy per unit volume The potential energy of a segment is the work done in stretching the string and depends on the slope 2 the potential energy per unit volume of the string is related to the slope and tension by (for small slopes) where » = wave speed =? ay Using s AA cos (Ax ~ et), we obtain for the potential energy x AU =4 p10? cos? (ke-or) - ii) Which is the same as the kinetic energy. The total energy per unit volume is AE =AK + AU =p’ A’ cos? (kx-wr) seiv) We see that AF varies with time, Since the average value of cos? (kx ~@t) at any point is - the average energy per unit volume (called the energy density 1) is pera? wav) ‘Note (i) Equation (v) is the same result as for a massp attached to a spring and oscillating simple harmonic wave. However for a mass attached to a spring the potential energy is maximum when the displacement is maximum. For a string segment, the potential energy depends on the slope of the string and is maximum when ¥ the slope is maximum, which is at the equilibrium position of the 8 segment, the same position for which the kinetic energy is maximum, AA: Kinetic energy and potential energy both are zero. ALB: Kinetic energy and potential energy both are maximum. Fig. 14.16 (ii) Equation (ii) has been dorived in miscellaneous example number 13. yCHAPTER 14+ Wave Motion 19 Power (P ) Power is the instantaneous rate at which energy is transferred along the string (if we consider a transverse wave on a string). Its value depends on the position x on the string at time t. Note that energy is being transferred only at points where the string has a nor slope (dy/dx #0), so that there is a transverse component of the tension force, and where the string hs anonzero velocity (dy/dt #0) so that the transverse force can do work. Let us obtain an expression for power transmitted through a string. In unit time, the wave will travel a distance v. If s be the area of cross-section of the string, then volume of this fength would be sv and energy transmitted per unit time (called power) would be, P = (energy density) (volume) P=Zpa'A?ov Note This power is really the average power. The instantaneous power is given by, P(x,t)=Fy (40) -Vy (xt) which comes out to be, pw*A*sv sin*® (kx - at) or pa*A’sv cos* (kx-ot) depending on the displacement equation y (x,t). The average value of sin’ or cos” function, averaged over any whole 1 numberof cycles is. Hence the average power wll be ; pu" A’sv. Intensity (/) Flow of energy per unit area of cross-section of the string in unit time is known as the intensity of the wave. Thus, I= power P area of cross-sections 1 Z T==po? A or 3p0rd?y Again this is the average intensity transmitted through the string. The instantaneous intensity po? 4? ysin? (kx — of) or p@?.A*v cos” (kx — cot) depends on x and f. Note (i) Although the above relations for power and intensity have been discussed for a transverse wave on a string, they hold good for other waves also. (ii) Intensity due to a point source : If a point source emits wave uniformly in all directions, the energy at a distance r from the source is distributed uniformly on a spherical surface of radius r and area § = 4nr*. If P is the power emitted by the source, the power per unit area ata distance r from the source is... The average power per unit area that is incident perpendicular to the ot power p perper direction of propagation is called the intensity. Therefore: x — nr’ or Tet r20 Waves and Thermodynamics Now, as amplitude A « I, a spherical harmonic wave emanating from a point source can therefore, be written as vir.t)=4 sin Ukr -ov) Sample Example 14.9 4 stretched string is forcedjto transmit transverse waves by means of an oscillator coupled to one end. The string has a diameter of 4 mm. The amplitude of the oscillation is 104 m and the frequency is 10 Hz. Tension in the string is 100 N and mass density of wire is 4.2x10° kg/m}. Find : (a) the equation of the waves along the string (b) the energy per unit volume of the wave (0) the average energy flow per unit time across any section of the siring and (d) power required to drive the oscillator. Solution (a) Speed of transverse wave on the string is, (as =pS) v Substituting the values, we have = 43.53 m/s @=2nf =20n rad _ 6.93 = s s k=22144m" ¥ Equation of the waves along the string, y (x, 1) = Asin (ker) =(104 m)sin [ostm-):-(os84),] Ans. s (b) Energy per unit volume of the string, u = energy density -} pa? 4? Substituting the values, we have w-(})a2xioy ee 83)? (104)? =8.29x107 J/m3 Ans.CHAPTER 14. Wave Motion 21 (c) Average energy flow per unit time, P =power =(Foa?4? }oo= 09 (ov) ® 2 Substituting the values, we have P =(8.29x107) (F}«0 x10)? (43,53) =4.53x10™ J/s Ans. (d) Power required to drive the oscillator is obviously 4.53 10° W. Ans. Introductory Exercise 1. Spherical waves are emitted from a 1.0 W source in in isotropic non-absorbing medium. What the wave intensity 1.0 m from the source? 2. Aline source emits a cylindrical expanding wave. Assuming the medium absorbs no energy, find how the amplitude and intensity of the wave depend on the distance from the source?22. Waves and Thermodynamics Solved Examples For JEE Main & Example 1 Equation of a transverse wave wravelling in a rope is given by y=5 sin (4.01 ~0.02.x) where yand x are expressed in cm and time in seconds. Calculate (a) the amplitude, frequency, velocity and wavelength of the wave. (0) the maximum transverse speed and acceleration of a particle in the rope. Solution (2) Comparing this with the standard equation of wave motion y= sin (2x0 - where 4, f and) are amplitude, frequency and wavelength respectively. Thus, amplitude Sem => Frequency f = =0.637He Qn Again a =0.02 or Wavelength 2 = ao =100 nem Velocity of the wave Ans, (b) Transverse velocity of the particle wt =5x400s (4.01 -0.02x) =20 cos (4.04 -0.02x) Maximum velocity of the particle = 20 cm/s Particle acceleration a = a ~20 x 4sin (4.01 -0.02x) Maximum particle acceleration = 80 em/s” Ans, Example 2. A wire of uniform cross-section is streiched between two points 100 cm apart. The wire is (fixed at one end and a weight is hung over a pulley at the other end. A weight of 9 kg produces a “fundamental frequency of 730 Hz. (a) What is the velocity of the wave in wire ? Q) If the weight is reduced to 4 kg, what is the velocity of wave ? What is the wavelength and frequency?CHAPTER 14. Wave Motion 23 Solution (a)L=100cm, f, =750Hz vy =2Lf, =2.x 100 x 750 = 150000 ems“! =1500 ms“! At ) nape andy, =,)2 ee m Poe oa yu VT 1500 V9 vy =1000 ms“! = wavelength =2L =200em =2m fy = 2k 21 S00 Hz Ans. Ay 2 > Example 3. Deiermine the speed of sound waves in water, and find the wavelength ofa wave having a frequency of 242 Hz. Take Byiyp =2%10" Pa. Solution Speed of sound wave, B 0” ves Cx10) Laiams p Y 10 Wavelength Ans. Example 4 The faintest sound the human ear can detect at frequency | kHz corresponds to an intensity of about 10"? Win. Determine the pressure amplitude and the maximum displacement associated with this sound assuming the density of the air =1.3 kg/m} and velocity of sound in air =332 m/s. Solution => = x21 =2.94x107° N/m? Again, P=pvod P 2.94 x10% > Dvo 3 Pv 1.3x332x2n x10 = L107! m24° Waves and Thermodynamics Example 5 For the speed of a transverse wave on a string, we write the formula and sometimes we also write v= f h.Are these two same or different? Explain. Solution Speed of a wave depends on some special characteristics of the medium. For Problem, in case ofastring it depends on and pt. Frequency f depends on the source. Wavelength is self adjusted (- ; . Let us take an Problem. ‘Suppose tension in a string is 100 N, linear mass density (I) of this wire is 1 kg/m. Then in such @ string speed of the transverse wave is, -[E= 00 toms This value of 10 m/s is now fixed under the given conditions (T =100 N, 1 =1 kg/m). Now suppose we keep the frequency of a wave 10 Hz, then wavelength of such a wave will become] m |. Now if frequency is reduced to 5 Hz (half), the wavelength will become two times or 2 m, so that product of 2 and f remains constant (=10™m/s). Example 6 A wave moves with speed 300 m/s on a wire which is under a texsion of S00 N. Find how ‘much the tension must be changed to increase the speed to 312 m/s? Solution Speed of a transverse wave on a wire is, r (i) v= |— wld mn Differentiating with respect to tension, we have dv 1 a agF (ii) 1dT ae Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (i), we have or ar=er)® y Substituting the proper values, we have m0) (500) (312-300) N . 300 = 6.67 Aas. i.e., tension should be increased by 6.67 NCHAPTER 14. Wave Motion 25, Example 7 For the wave shown in figure, write the equation of this wave if its position is shown at 1=0.Speed of wave is v =300 m/s. y(m) Fig. 14.17 Solution The amplitude, A=0.06 m $ 2A=02 2 n > 2 =0.08 m 300 = = 30 3759 P37 0087770 =7E= 785m ' and @=20f =23562 rad/s dy Atr=0, x=0, 2 = positive and the given curve is a sine curve. Hence, equation of wave travelling in positive x-direction should have the form, ¥ (x, = Asin (ket) Substituting the values, we have » (x, t) = (0.06 m) sin (78.5 m~') x — (235628) f)m Ans. Example 8 For a wave described by, y= A sin (ot — kx), consider the following points Y x=0 x= Ty (ii) x= and i) For a particle at each of these points at t = 0, describe whether the particle is moving or not and in what direction and describe whether the particle is speeding up, slowing down or instantaneously not accelerating? Solution y= Asin (at — ke) Ny Particle velocity vp (x, 1) =2 = 4 cos (wr — kx) and particle acceleration26 | Waves and Thermodynamics 2 ap (= 22=-0?Asin (ot - ke) Mt @ 1=6, x= v, =+@4 and a, =0 i.e, particle is moving upwards but its acceleration is zero. Note” Direction of velocity can be obtained in a different ittnner as under, At t= y= Asin (-kx) =— A sin kx At t=0 Fig. 14.18 i.e., yx graph is as shown in figure. At x = 0, slope is negative. Therefore, particle velo (vp =v x slops),as the wave is travelling along positive x-direction. nu qT nT ii) t= =—: =— k=— aw ax 4k 4k 4 ~ootcos(-4)=+ 84 aye . 2 in od and ap =-@* Asin| -— |=+—— pana asa( -Z) 9 Nelovty of panicle is positive; i. the panicle is moving upwards (along postive y-direction) Further vp and a, are in the same direction (both are positive). Hence, the particle is speeding up. Gi) t2Qxa5: Vp =A cos (-1/2)=0 w’ Asin (-1/2)=07A ie, particle is stationary or at its extreme position (y — A). So, it is speeding up at this instant. iv) 1-0, x22: ait (i) t= x=7F: feat pombe ee *) A o*Asin|-— ]=+22 ( 4 v2 Velocity of particle is negative, i.e., the particle is moving downwards. Further vp and ap are in opposite directions, i.., the particle is slowing down.CHAPTER i4 Wave Motion 27 For JEE Advanced Example 1 A thin string is held at one end and oscillates vertically so thai, y(x=0, t) =8sin 4 (em) Neglect the gravitational force. Be string ’s linear mass density is 0.2 kg/m and its tension is \ N. The string passes through a bath filled with \ kg water. Due to friction heat is transferred to the bath. The heat transfer efficiency is 50%. Calculate how much time passes before the temperature of the bath rises one degree kelvin? Solution Comparing the given equation with equation of a travelling wave, yoAsinvtor) atr=0 we find, A=8cem=8x107 m @=4 rad/s Speed of travelling wave, ve E = fa =2.236 m/s, > Further, pS =p=0.2kg/m The average power over a period is, Substituting the values, we have P = (0.2) (4)? (8x10)? 2.236) =2.29 x10? The power transferred to the bath is, P SP =1.145 x10 Now let, it takes ¢ second to raise the temperamure of 1 kg water by 1 degree kelvin. Then P't=msdt Here, s= specific heat of water = 4.2 10° J/kg-°K msAt _(1)(4.2x10°) (1) P’ 1.145 x107 =3.6x105 s= .2 day Ans. Example 2. Consider a wave propagating in the negative x-direction whose frequency is 100 itz, At t=Ss the displacement associated with the wave is given by, y=0,5c0s (0.1.x) where x and y are measured in centimetres and t in seconds. Obtain the displacement (as a function of x) at t=10 s. What is the wavelength and velocity associated with the wave?28 Waves and Thermodynamics Solution A wave travelling in negative x-direction can be represented as, » (x, 1) = Acos (ke +0r +9) Att=5s, 305 1=3)= Ac0s (le + 50+9) Comparing this with the given equation, We have, A=05em, — k=O.1em* and i) Now, Ans. Ans. From Ea. (i), Atr=105, » (x, £ =10) =0.5c0s (0.1 +10@- Sa) =0,5c0s (0.1x +50) Substituting @ = 200 x, y (x, £=10) =0.5cos (0.1x +1000) =0.5¢0s (0.x) Ans. Example 3 4 simple harmonic wave of amplitude 8 units travels along positive x-axis. Al any given instant of time, for a particle at a distance of 10 cm from the origin, the displacement is +6 units, and for a particle at a distance of 25 cm from the origin, the displacement is +4 units, Caleulate the wavelength. Solution yodsin 3 (=x) Yaitbe (ts or ‘ sinan (5 *) Inthe first ease, ALasinon (é + Here, y, =+6, A=8, x, =10cm Similarly in the secord case,CHAPTER 14. Wave Motion 29 From Eq. (i), or oR or Toh = 0.08 --(iv) 2 =250em Ans. Example 4 A wave pulse on a horizontal string is represented by the function 5.0 (x, 1) ——_ (CGS unit x Drrvwesir rc ee Plot this function at t =0,2.5 and 5.0 s. Solution At the given times, the function representing the wave pulse is 5.0 36,0) ==, 1.0+x 6.25s)2 10+ (x—50)* y(cm) 10.0: ¥ («,5.508) x(em)) 50 0 50 10.0 15.0 Fig. 14.1930 | Waves and Thermodynamics 5.0 (x, 5.0) = Hea 5h) 1.0+(x-10.0)? The maximum of 4x, 0) is 5.0 cm; it is located at x = 0. Notice in the plot of figure that the pulse is also centred at this position. At ¢ =2.5 and 5.0 s, the centre of the pulse has moved tox = 5.0and 10.0 cm, respectively. So, in each 2.5 s time interval, the pulse moves 5.0 cm in the positive x-direction. Its velocity is therefore +2.0 cm/s a valuc that is also evident from the given function. Example 5 4 uniform circular hoop of string is rotating clockwise in the absence of gravity. The tangential speed is v). Find the speed of the wave travelling on this string. Solution Fig. 14.20 Let T be the tension in the string. Consider a small circular element AB of the string of length, Al=R (20) (R = radius of hoop) The components of tension 7'cos@ are equal and opposite and thus cancel out. The components towards centre C (i.e., Tsin @) provides the necessary centripetal force to element AB. +i) mass = =2UR0 = Here m= (yt) (AD =2uRt (« iengh } As is small, sin =6 Substituting in Eq. (i), we get (2uR®) v5 279 = R T or FaCHAPTER 14. Wave Motion 31 or «.(ii) Speed of wave travelling on this string, x [from Eq. (ii)] i.e., the velocity of the transverse wave along the hoop of string is the same as the velocity of rotation of the hoop, viz. vo. Ans. Example 6 4 sinusoidal wave travelling in the positive direction on a stretched string has amplitude 2.0 cm, wavelength 1.0m and wave velocity 5.0 m/s. Atx =0 and t =0, it is given that y =0and <0. Find the wave function y (x,t). Solution We start with a general form for a rightward moving wave, yx, 1) = Asin (kx - or +0) > The amplitude given is A=2.0.cm =0.02 m. The wavelength is given as, h=1.0m Wave number k 2 =2nm! Angular frequency @ = vk =10 7 rad/s ‘. V(x, 0) = (0.02) sin 2a (x 5.07) +4] We are told that for x =0, t=0, y=0 and & <0 ie, 0.02sin 9 =0 (as y=0) and ~02neos <0 From these conditions, we may conclude that o=2nn where n=0,2, 4,6... Therefore, ya, 2) = (0.02 m) sin [2x m“!).x - (Ons!) Am Ans. Example 7 4 pulse is propagating on a long stretched string along its length taken as positive x-axis. Shape of the string at t=O is given by, when |x|2a =0 when |x|<0 Study the propagation of this pulse if it is travelling in positive x-direction with speed v.32 Waves and Thermodynamics Solution ‘The pulse is semicircular in shape as shown in figure. For the wave travelling in positive x-direction, © Fig. 14.21 YG, =f (ev) Hence, y@, =a? -(- wt)? when |x—vt|Sa =0 when |x-vt|20 The above equation reduces to the equation given in the problem for f = 0. The shape of the pulse at a later time has been shown in figure (b).EXERCISES » For JEE Main Subjective Question Wave Equation and Plane Progressive Harmonic Wave 1, A certain transverse wave is described by . 1) = (6.50 2n{—*—-—_1_ 3 = 6.50 mm) cos (aoe waa: ) Determine the wave’s (a) amplitude, (b) wavelength, (c) frequency, (a) speed of propagation and (e) direction of propagation. 2. For the wave y=5 sin30n [¢ — (x/240)], where x and y are in cm and ¢ is in seconds, find fe (a) displacement when ¢ = 0 and x =2cm, (b) wavelength, (©) velocity of the wave and (d) frequency of the wave. 3. The equation for a wave travelling in x-direction on a string is y= (3.0cm) sin{(3.14cm™')x -G14s7!)¢] (a) Find the maximum velocity of a particle of the string. (0) Find the acceleration of a particle at x = 6.0cm at time = 0.11s. 4, A wave of frequency $00 Hz has a wave velocity of 350 m/s. {a) Find the distance between two poings which are 60° out of phase. (b) Find the phase difference between two displacements at a certain point at times 10™ s apart. 5, At¢=0, a transverse wave pulse in wire is described by the function; 6 =a where xand yare in metres. Write the function »(x, t) that describes this wave ifit is travelling in the positive x-direction with a speed of 4.50 m/s. 6 A wave is described by the equation; y=(.0mm)sinx[ t 2.0cm oan) (a) Find the time period and the wavelength. (b) Write the equation for the velocity af the particles. Find the speed of the particle atx = I.0cmat time 1=0.01s. (c) What are the speeds of the particles at x =3.0.cm, 5.0.cm and 7.0cm at t= 0.018? (4) What are the speeds of the particles at x =1.0cm at = 0.011, 0.012and0.0138? A simasoidal wave travelling in the positive x-direction has an amplitude of 15.0 em, a wavelength of 40.0 cm and a frequency of 8.00 Hz. The vertical displacement of the medium at = Qandx =Ois also 15.0 cm, as shown in figure. (2) Find the angular wave number k, period 7, angular frequency @ and speed v of the wave.34 Waves and Thermodynamics (b) Write a general expression for the wave function. y (om) 8. For the wave shown in figure, find its amplitude, frequency and wavelength if its speed is 300 m/s. White the equation for this wave as it travels out along the +x-axis if its position att = (is as shown, y 0.06 m |- x= 200m 9. Transverse waves on a string have wave speed 8,00 m/s, amplitude 0.0700 m and wavelength 0.32 m. The waves travel in the negative x-direction and at ¢=0 the x =Oend of the string has its maximum upward displacement. (a) Find the frequency, period and wave number of these waves. (6) Write a wave function describing the wave. (c) The transverse displacement of a particle at x = 0.360 m at time ¢ =0.150s. (d) How much time must elapse from the instant in part (c) until the particle atx = 0.360 m next has maximum upward displacement ? Speed of a Transverse Wave on a String 10. A copper wire 2.4 mm in diameter is3 m long and is used to suspend a 2 kg mass froma beam. Ifa transverse disturbance is sent along the wire by striking it lightly with a pencil, how fast will the disturbance travel ? The density of copper is 8920 kg/m*. 11. A uniform rope of length 12 mand mass 6 kg hangs vertically from a rigid support. A block of mass 2.kg is attached to the frve end of the rope. A transverse pulse of wavelength 0.06 mis produced at the lowerend of the rope. What is the wavelength of the pulse when it reaches the top of the rope? A flexible steel cable of total length L and mass per unit length 1 hangs vertically from a support at ‘one end. (a) Show that the speed ofa transverse wave down the cable is v= y/g (L — x), where x is measured from the support. (b) How long will it take for a wave to travel down the cable? 13. A loop of rope is whirled at a high angular velocity @, so that it becomes a taut circle of radius R. A kink develops in the whirling rope. (a) Show that the speed of the kink in the rope is v=@R. {b) Under what conditions does the kink remain stationary relative to an observer on the ground? rRCHAPTER 14+ Wave Motion 35 14. A wire of variable mass per unit lengthy =}! 9x, is hanging from the ceiling as shown in figure. The length of wire is /,. A small transverse disturbance is produced at its lower end. Find the time after which the disturbance will reach to the other end. 15. A non-uniform wire of length J and mass M has a variable linear mass density given by t = kx, where x is distance from one end of wire and & is a constant. Find the time taken by a pulse starting at one end to reach the other end when the tension in wire is T. 16. Oncend ofa horizontal rope is attached to a prong of an electrically driven tuning fork that vibrates at 120 Hz. The other end passes over a pulley and supports a 1.50 kg mass. The linear mass density of the rope is 0.0550 kg/m. (a) What is the speed of a transverse wave on the rope ? (b) What is the wavelength ? (c) How would your answers to parts (a) and (b) change if the mass were increased to 3.00 kg? Energy in Wave Motion 17. A certain 120 Hz wave on a string has an amplitude of 0.160 mm. How much energy exists in an 80 g length of the string? 18. A taut string for which pt =5,00 x10 kg/m is under a tension of 80.0 N. How much power must be supplied to the string to generate sinusoidal waves at a frequency of 60.0 Hz and an amplitude of 6.00 cm? 19. A 200 Hz wave with amplitude 1 mm travels on a long string of linear mass density 6 g/m kept under a tension of 60 N. (a) Find the average power transmitted across a given point on the string. (b) Find the total energy associated with the wave in a 2.0 m long portion of the string. a. A transverse wave of amplitude 0.50 mm and frequency 100 Hz is produced on a wire stretched toa tension of 100 N . If the wave speed is 100 m/s. What average poweris the source transmitting to the wire ?36 Waves and Thermodynamics Objective Questions ‘Single Correct Option .. The displacement function of a wave travelling along positive x-direction is y A harmonic oscillator vibrates with amplitude of 4 cm and performs 150 oscillations in one minute. Ifthe initial phase is 45° and it starts moving away ftom the origin, then the equation of motion is (a) 0.04sin (snr) (b) 0.04sin (sn -£) (c) 0.04sin (4+) (d) o.odsin 2) .. The speed of propagation ofa wave in a medium is 300 m/s~!. The equation of motion of point at x =0is given by y=0.04 sin 600 nt (metre). The displacement of a point x = 75cm at ¢=0.01s is (a) 0.02 m (b) 0.04 m (c) zero (d) 0.028 m 1 ati =Oand ee 1 y=—— 5 at f= 2, where y and x ate in metre. The velocity of the wave is 24+3(x-2) (a) 2m/s* (b) 0.5 m/s {c) tm/s (@) 3 mis |. The displacement from the position of equilibrium of a point 4 cm from a source of oscillation is ~ half the amplitude at the moment = z where Tis the time period. The wavelength of the travelling wave is (a) 0.24 m (6) 0.48 m (©) 0.96 m (d) None of these A source oscillates with a frequency 25 Hz and the wave propagates with 300 m/s, Two points A and Bare located at distances 10 mand 16 m away from the source. The phase difference between A and Bis n ® MZ OF On (d) 2a The equation of a transverse wave propagating in a string is given by y=0.02sin (x +307) where x and y are in metre and tis in second. If linear density of the string is 1.3 x10 kg/m, then the tension in the string is (a) 0.12N (b) 12N (©) 12N (@) 120N . The angle between wave velocity and particle velocity in a travelling wave may be (2) z0r0 os OE (@) Allthe these ‘A100 Hz sinusoidal wave is travelling in the positive x-direction along a string with a linear mass density of 3.5 x10? kg/m and a tension of 35 N. At time 1=0, the point x =0, has maximum displacement in the positive y direction. Next when this point has zero displacement the slope of the string is /20. Which of the following expression represent (s) the displacement of string as a function of x (in metre) and (in second). (a) y=0.025 cos (200nt ~ 27x) (6) y=0.5 cos (200n1 ~2rex) (©) y=0.025 cos (100nt - 10nx) (@)_y=0.5cos (100m - 107)i 15. i. CHAPTER 14° Wave Motion 37 .. Vibrations of period 0.25 s propagate along a straight line ata velocity of 48 cm/s. One second after the emergence of vibrations at the initial point, displacement of the point, 47 cm from it is found to be 3 om. [Assume that at initial point particle is in its mean position at ¢= and moving upwards). Then, (a) amplitude of vibrations is,6 cm (>) amplitude of vibrations is 3¥2 cm {c) amplitude of vibrations is cm (a) None of the above Transverse waves are generated in two uniform steel wires A and B by attaching their free ends to a fork of frequency 500 Hz. The diameter of wire A is half that of B and tension in wire A is half the tension in wire B. What is the ratio of velocities of waves in A and B? (@) 1:2 (b) V2:1 (©) 2:1 (a) 1:v2 The frequency of A note is 4 times that of B note. The energies of two notes are equal. The amplitude of B note as compared to that of A note will be (a) double (b) equal (c) four times (d) eight times If at ¢ +0, a travelling wave pulse on a string is described by the function. 6 ye x43 What will be the wave function representing the pulse at time ¢, if the pulse is propagating along positive x-axis with speed 4 m/s? (@) y= () v= = = dd = Grates OGrantas Geo @y (e=1)? +12 . If the speed of longitudinal waves equals 10 times the speed of the transverse waves in a stretched wire of material which has modulus of elasticity £, then the stress in the wire is (a) 108 (b) 1002 (©) EN0 (a) E00 . Equation of progressive wave is given by, y=4sin [ (: -z}+4] where x and yare in metre. Then (a) ve5mis (b) 4=18m (©) 4=0.04m (@ f =50Hz ‘The equation of a wave is given by ¥ =5 sin 10m (¢ - 0.0 Lx)along the x-axis. (All the quantities are expressed in SI units). The phase difference between the points separated by a distance of 10 m along x-axis is ® nt > b c) 2m d) = (a) 3 (b) x (©) (d) 4 A transverse wave travelling on a stretched string is represented by the equation 2 y=——_——_. Then, (2x -6.21)? +20 (a) velocity of the wave is 3.1 m/s (b) amplitude of the wave is 0.1 m (c) frequency of the wave is 20 Hz (d) wavelength of the wave is 1 m38 Waves and Thermodynamics 17. For energy density, power and intensity of any wave choose the correct options. fa) w= energy density = pa A? (b) P=power=3pa42v () I = intensity =} p02 A*Sv @ I == 18. For the transverse wave equation y= A sin (mx + mt), choose the correct options at t = 0 (a) points at x =0 and x =1are at mean positions (b) points at x =0.5 and x = 1.5 have maximum accelerations (©) points atx =0.5 and x =1.Sare at rest (d) Alll of the above 19. In the wave equation, 2 y= Asin = (x- bt) (a) speed of wave is a (b) speed of wave is b (c) wavelength of wave is a/b (@) wavelength of wave is a 20. In the wave equation, y= Asin 2 G - ‘) ab (a) speed of wave is a/b (b) speed of wave is b/a (c) wavelength of wave is a (@ time period of wave is b 21. Corresponding to y=x graph of a transverse harmonic wave shown in figure Y Choose the correct options at same time, : (@ ry ~h : : Po © (d) LACHAPTER 14+ Wave Motion 39 For JEE Advanced Assertion and Reason Directions; Choose the correct option. (a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and the Reason is correct explanation of the Assertion. (6) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. (c) If Assertion is true, but the Reason is false. (@) If Assertion is false but the Reason is true. Assertion: Transverse waves can’t travel in gaseous medium. Reason: They do not possess modulus of rigidity. 1 2. Assertion: Transverse waves can travel on the surface of water. Reason: Surface terision property of water plays the role of modulus of rigidity. 3. Assertion: Two wave cquations are y, = Asin (wt — kx) and y, = Asin (kx - ot). These two waves have a phase difference of x. $ Reason: They are travelling in opposite directions. 4. Assertion: Wave speed is given by v= fA If frequency f is doubled, v will become two times. Reason: For given conditions of medium wave speed remains constant. a . Assertion ; On moon you cannot hear your friend standing at some distance from you. Reason: There is vacuum on moon. 6. Assertion: Wave number is the number of waves per unit length. 1 Reason: Wave nurnber = x 7. Assertion: Electromagnetic waves don’t require medium for their propagation. Reason: They can’t travel in a medium. Assertion: Two strings shown in figure have the same tension. Speed of transverse waves in string-I will be more. 8. 1 2 ——— Reason: y« Fe Here wis mass per unit length of string. in 9, Assertion: )-x graph ofa transverse wave ona string is as shown in figure. At point A potential energy and kinetic energy both are minimum. y A Reason: At point B kinetic energy and potential energy both are maximum,40 | Waves and Thermodynamics 10. Assertion: —j+x graph of a transverse wave ona string is as shown in figure. At the given instant point P is moving downwards. Hence we can say that wave is moving towards positive x-direction, y x Reason : Particle velocity is given by : y, 11. Assertion; If two waves of same amplitude produce a resultant wave of same amplitude, then phase difference between them will be 120°. Reason: The resultant amplitude of two waves is equal to sum of amplitude of two waves. Match the Columns 1. For the wave equation, y=asin (bt cr) match the following two coh ee ae (a) wave speed oe | an (b) maximum particle speed (q) = an (©) wave frequency w2 werd Kd) wavelength [(s) None 2. For the wave equation, y=(4em) sin [tt + 21x] Here fis in second and x in meters. Column I yn IT (a) atx = 0 particle velocity is \(p) 05s maximum at ¢ = (b) atx =@ particie acceleration is —_|(q) 1.08 ‘maximum at ¢ = (©) atx =0.5m, particle velocity is (r) zero ‘maximum at ¢= (A) atx = 0.5 m, particle acceleration is |(s) 15s maximum at ¢ 3. _y-x graph of a transverse wave at a given instant is shown in figure. Match the following two columns,CHAPTER 14. Wave Motion 41 x ® Y Columnt (a) velocity of particle A (b) acceleration of particle A (©) velocity of particle B ‘@) acceleration of particle B_ Columa it (p) positive (q) negative () zero (s) can’t tell 4. For a travelling wave match the following two columns. Column I (@) energy density () power (©) intensity (@) wave number 5. Match following two columns. ‘Column T Column it > (p) (MUT?] @ So0*Asy (© [MCT] _ | None Column (@) y=A sin (ot — ke) —_|(p) travelling in positive x-direction (b) y=A sin (kx-ar) —(q) travelling in negative x-direction —A.cos (wt + ke) (r) at t= 0, velocity of particle is positive at x = 0 ~ A cos (fer - Gar) |() at t= Oacceleration of particle is positive at x = 0 Subjective Questions 1. The figure shows a snap photograph of a vibrating string at =0. The particle P is observed moving up with velocity 203 cm/s. The tangent at P makes an angle 6o" with x-axis. (@) Find the direction in which the wave is moving. (b) Write the equation of the wave. (c) The total energy carried by the wave per cycle of the string. Assuming that the mass per unit length of the string = 50g/m. 4 (x10 m) 2v2 . A long string having a cross-sectional area 0.80 mm? and density 12.5 g/cm}, is subjected to a tension of 64 N along the positive x-axis. One end of this string is attached to a vibrator at x =0 moving in transverse direction at a frequency of 20 Hz. At t=0, the source is at a maximum displacement y=1.0cm. (a) Find the speed of the wave travelling on the string. (b) Write the equation for the wave.42 Waves and Thermodynamics wn (©) What is the displacement of the particle of the string at x = 50cm at time 1 =0.05 s? (4) What is the velocity of this particle at this instant? One end of each of two identical springs, each of force-constant 0.5 N/m are attached on the opposite ke m sides of a wooden block of mass 0.01 kg. The’ ther ne ends of the springs are connected to separate rigid supports such that the springs are unstretched and are collinear in a horizontal plane. To the wooden piece is fixed a pointer which touches a vertically moving plane paper. The wooden piece, kept on asmooth horizontal table is now displaced by 0.02 m along the line of springs and released. If the speed of paper is 0.1 m/s, find the equation of the path traced by the pointer on the paper and the distance between two consecutive maximas on this path. A wave pulse is travelling on a string with a speed v towards the positive x-axis. The shape of the string at f=0 is given by y(x) = A sin(x/a), where A and a are constants. (a) What are the dimensions of 4 and a? (b) Write the equation of the wave for a general time ¢, if the wave speed is v. Figure shows a plot of the transverse displacement of the particle of a string at =Othrough which a travelling wave is passing in the positive x-direction. The wave speed is 20 cm/s. Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the wavelength, (c) the wave number and (d) the frequency of the wave. Two wires of different densities but same area of cross-section are soldered together at one end and are stretched to a tension T. The velocity of a transverse wave in the first wire is double of that in the second wire, Find the ratio of the density of the first wire to that of the second wire. Two long strings 4 and B, each having linear mass density 1.210 kg/m are stretched by different tensions 4.8 N and 7.5 N respectively and are kept parallel to each other with their left ends at x =0. Wave pulses are produced on the strings at the left ends at ¢=0 on string 4 and at ¢=20ms on string B. When and where will the pulse on B overtake that on A? A sinusoidal transverse wave travels on a string. The string has length 8.00 m and mass 6.00 g. The wave speed is 30.0 m/s and the wavelength is 0.200 m. (a) If the wave is to have an average power of 50.0 W, what must be the amplitude of the wave ? (b) For this same string, if the amplitude and wavelength are the same as in part (a) what is the average power for the wave if the tension is increased such that the wave speed is doubled ? A uniform rope with length L and mass mis held at one end and whirled in a horizontal circle with angular velocity «. You can ignore the force of gravity on the rope. Find the time required for a transverse wave to travel from one end of the rope to the other. Hint:CHAPTER 14. Wave Motion 43 Answers Mi! Introductory Exercise 14.1 2. c/b 3. 0.5 m/s ® 4, The pulse is travelling along negative x-axis with velocity 2 m/s. The amplitude of the pulse is 2m. 5. y-__10 Oa +2 Introductory Exercise 14.2 1. (@)-5m/s (6) -L.7 m/s 2. Yes, (p)mnax = (KADY 5x 1 3. (@)1OHz (&) rad (©) Gs @) 1.26 m/s 4. (a) (x, t) = (0.05 m) sin[(60x syt- (Sn mx] (b) - 3.54.cm (c) 4.2 ms Introductory Exercise 14.3 1, 129.1 m/s 2, 10 m/s Introductory Exercise 14.4 1 1 2 1 a tw? 2Aet, tat an vr ' For JEE Main Subjective Questions 1. (a) 650mm (b) 28.0cm (c)27.8Hz (d)7.8 m/s (€) positive x 2. (a)-3.535 em (b) 16cm (c) 240 cm/s (d) 15 Hz ye 6 3. @)9A m/s (b)zero 4 (A) OEM — 0/180" y= Fe fx to] 6. (a) 20. ms, 4.0.cm (b) v= -(n/10 mr --t_}, (@) 20 ms, 4.0 em (b) v= C/O m/s) cos x)= = 28H (©)O m/s, O m/s, 0 m/s (d)9.7 cm/s, 18 cm/s, 25 cm/s 7. (a) 0.157 rad/em, 0.125 s, 50.3 rad/s, 320 cm/s (b) y = (15.0 em) cos (0.157x ~ 50.3t) 8. Amplitude = 0.06 m, Frequency = 3750 Hz, Wavelength = 8 cm (0.06 m) sin{(78.5 mx — (23562 st] 9. (@) 25.0 Hz, 0.04 s, 19.6 rad/m (b) yx, t) = (0.07 m)cos 2x (c)0.0495m (d)0.015s 10. 22m/s 11.0.12m = 12. (b)t aft g 23. (b) The kink will be stationary with respect to the ground if it moves clockwise with respect to the 16. (2) 16.3m/s (b) 0.136 m_(c) both increase by V2 times. T058mJ 18. 512W 19. (a) 0.47W (b)9.4mJ_— 20. 49 mW44 | Waves and Thermodynamics Objective Questions L@) —_2(b) 3) 4b) BCC) (a) 76d) B(a) (a). «106 IL) 1(b)-13.(¢)14()15.(b) 16.) 17.(a.d) 18.(4) 19.(b,) 20.(a,0.4) 21.(d) h For JEE Advanced Assertion and Reason 1@ 2@ 3@ 4@ 5@ 6@ 7.©@ 8) 9%) 10. 11.© Match the Columns L@or 3s @>p @s - @oar )>Ps rar @ops @>s 3p O+s Mor @>s (b)>pq 7s dos @>pr 7p Oras @ ps Subjective Questions 1. (a) Negative x (0) y = (0.4 cm) sin (tone + xe 5p (€)16x 10°) sree 2. (@)80 m/s (0) 7= 1.9 emp.cos dons-ts - (Emr}e] (ecm (4)89 cm/s v2 3. y= 0.02 cos (10f ~ 100x)m, 0.0628m 4. (a) LL @ne~ Ase") 5. (a)1.0mm (b)4em (c)1.6cm? (d)5Hz 60.25 7. att= 0.15, atx=20m . . 2. 8. (@)7.07 cm (o)400.0W 9.TES SUPERPOSITION | WAVES 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 Chapter Contents Introduction Principle of Superposition Interference of Waves Reflection and Transmission of a Wave Standing Waves Normal Modes of a String Resonance46 Waves and Thermodynamics Introduction When a wave strikes the boundaries of its medium, some part of it is reflected and some is transmitted. The incident and the reflected waves overlap in the same region of the medium. This overlapping of two or more waves gives rise to some spesial characteristics of waves. The overlapping of waves is based on the principle of superposition discussed in Art. 15.2. The phenomenon like interference of waves and beats in sound are based on superposition principle. Young's double slit experiment is an example of interference in light. Standing wave is an another example of interference. When there are two boundary points or surfaces such as a guitar string tied at both ends, we get repeated reflections. In such situations we find that sinusoidal waves can oceur only for certain special frequencies, which are determined by the properties and the dimensions of the medium. These special frequencies and their associated wave patterns are called normal modes. In this chapter our focus will be on the interference of mechanical waves on a stretched string. But interference is also important in light (electromagnetic) waves. It explains the colours seen in soap bubbles. (EE principle of Superposition Two or more waves can travel simultaneously in a medium without affecting the motion of one another. Therefore, the sesultant displacement of each particle of the medium at any instant is equal to the vector sum of the displacements produced by the two waves separately. This principle is called ‘principle of superposition’. It holds for all types of waves, provided the waves are not of very large amplitude. We can express the superposition principle in the form, FE D=WGNANG Ott HHO or 3,0= Dy, 0 fi Here, the y, are the individual wave functions, and their sum, the wave function y(x, 1) describes the resultant behaviour of the medium as a function of position and time. The principle of superposition is of central importance in all types of waves. When a friend talks to you while you are listening to music, you can distinguish the sound of speech and the sound of music from cach other. This is precisely because according to principle of superposition two different waves can travel in a medium simultaneously without disturbing the other. Superposition also applies to electromagnetic waves (such as light) and many other types of waves. ° ‘Asan example, consider a long stretched string AB. At the Overtap of two wave pulaos travalng end A, a pulse is generated which propagates towards B with fromboptobotom some speed (say v). At B an identical pulse is generated which Fig. 16.1 travels towards A with the same speed v. The snapshot of theGHAPTER 15 «Superposition of Waves 47 string at different times are shown in figure. From this figure you might have understood how the two waves superimpose and what is the meaning of principle of superposition. e /mportant Points in SUPERPOSITION 4. Consider the superposttion of two sinusoidal waves of same frequency at a point. Let us assume that the two waves are travelling in the same direction with same velocity. The equation of the two waves teaching at a point can be written as, Vy =A, Sin (kx ~ wt) and Yo = Ap sin (kx - ot + 4) The resultant displacement of the point where the waves meet is Y=WtYo =A, sin(kx — cot) + Ap sin(kx - ot + >) =A sin (kx oot) + A, sin (kx - of) cos 6 + A, cos (kx ~ at) sino =(Ay + Ap Cos 6) sin (kx — at) + Ap sin 6 cos (kx ~ ot) = A cos sin (kx — wt) + Asin 0 cos (kx - wt) or y = Asin (kx — at +) Here, A, + A, 008 6 = A cos® and A; sing = Asind or AP =(A, + A, cos 9) + (A; sing)? or Az VA? + AB + 2AA, cos 6 and tane= A8ind A, sing ~ Acos0 A, + A; cos} 2. The above result can be obtained by graphical method as well. Assume a vector A, of length A, to represent the amplitude of first wave. Another vector A. of length A), making an angle 9 with A, represent the amplitude of second wave. The resultant of A, and A, represent the amplitude of resulting function y. The angle @ represents the phase difference between the resulting function and the first wave. Fig. 15.2 Sample Example 15.1 Two harmonic waves are represented in SI units by, v4 (4, 0=0.2sin (x—3.01) and yp (x, 1) =0.2sin (x—3.01 +9) 1 (a) Write the expression for the sum y= y, + y, ford= 5 rad. (b) Suppose the phase difference $ between the waves is unknown and the amplitude of their sum is 0.32 m, what is 248 | Waves and Therniodynamics Solution (a) yEmty ® =0.2sin (x —3.0/) +0.2sin (x ~3.01+ x) = Asin (x~3.01+8) 5, Here, A=4(0.2)? + 0.2) =0.28m OY sk, and 6 ak Fig. 15.3 4 y=028sn(x-3.0r+£) ‘Ans. (b) Since the amplitude of the resulting wave is 0.32 mand A=0.2 032= {0.2 +02)? +2) 02) @.2)cos Solving this, we get 6 =41.29 rad ‘Ans. Exercise What is the resultant wave obtained when y,(x,t)=Asin(ke-Ot+9,) and 2 = Asin (kx ~ 1 +0, )are added? Used =2 rad and a rad. Ans (x, t)=V34 sin (kee —@r + 10/3) | FEE] Interference of Waves ‘We have seen earlier that if two sinusoidal waves of same angular frequency w meet ata point where phase difference between them is@, the resulting amplitude is given by, A? =A} + AZ +24, A, COS wd) Further in Art. 14.6, we have also read that intensity of a wave is given by, =! ope? 1=5pd?o*v ie, Te A? So, iffp, @ and v are same for both interfering waves, Eq, (i) can also be written as, T=], +1, +2yhh cos i) From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we see that the resulting amplitude 4 and intensity f depends on the phase difference 6 between the interfering waves. Where cos =+1, A= Ajax = Ay + Az or $2 Dy #(fh + VhY and the waves are said to be interfering constructively. Similarly where cos =—1, A= Apig = 4, ~ 4; or 1 =lae =i ~ fia? and the waves are said to be interfering destructively. Note Detailed discussion on interference will be done in the chapter of wave optics.CHAPTER 15 - Superposition of Waves 49 Sample Example 15.2 Two waves of equal frequencies have their amplitudes in the ratio of 3:5. They are superimposed on each other. Calculate the ratio of maximum and minimum intensities of the resultant wave. Solution Given, ® (as I « A?) Maximum intensity is obtained, where coso=1 and Ime, =(Why +2)? Minimum intensity is found, where cos¢=-1 and Mmin =(VT) — vin)? (eget) Hence, Tain (Wh - Via in hh _(3/5+1)° _64_16 Ans. 35-1) 4 1 EXERCISE The ratio of intensities of two waves is 9 :16. If these two waves interfere, then determine the ratio of the maximum and minimum possible intensities. Ans 4 | FEZ] Reflection and Transmission of a Wave Before starting the reflection and transmission of a wave from a boundary where two media separate cach other, let us talk about a denser and a rare medium in reference to its behaviour towards a wave. A medium is said to be denser (relative to the other) if the speed of wave in this medium is less than the speed of the wave in the other medium. Rather we can say speed of a wave in a denser medium is less ‘han its speed in the rare medium. Thus, it is the speed of wave which decides whether the medium is denser or rare for that particular wave and Vener i and p< | @ () Fig. 15.4 Any type of wave is associated with the following physical quantities : (i) speed of wave (v) (ii) frequency (f), time period (7) and angular frequency («) (iii) wavelength (.) and wave number (k) (iv) amplitude (4) and intensity (7) and (v) phase () 7 Now, let us see what happens to these physical quantities when they are either reflected or transmitted. @ Speed of wave(v): Speed of a wave depends on the medium and some of its characteristics. For example, speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string depends on the tension 7 and its mass per unit length .In reflection medium and hence, its characteristics do not change. So, in reflection speed of wave does not change. On the other hand, in transmission, medium and hence the speed of wave do change. (ii) Frequency ( f), time period(7)and angular frequency () : These three are related to each other by the relation an @=2nf = Or we can say, if any one of them is known, other two can easily be obtained. Frequency of the wave depends on the source from where wave originates. In reflection and transmission, since source does not change. Hence, none of the three change. (iil) Wavelength (A) and wave number (k): These two are related to each other by the simple relation, ah a v Further, A= f Here, v depends on medium and f on source.CHAPTER 15 » Superposition of Waves 51 So, ifany one of them is changed, the wavelength will change. Therefore, in reflection A and k do not change as medium and source both remain unchanged, while in transmission, as the medium is changed so A and k do change. iv) Amplitude (4) and intensity (I): Expression for the intensity of a wave is, x T=5por4y Te A? Intensity is the energy transmitted per unit area per unit time. When a wave is incident on a boundary (separating two media) part of it is reflected and part is transmitted. Hence, intensity and amplitude both change in reflection as well as transmission. Unless 100% reflection or 100% transmission is there (v) Phase: _In transmission no phase change takes place. While in reflection phase change is zero if the wave is reflected from a rare medium and it is 7 if it is reflected from a denser medium. For example, in Fig. 15.4 (a), the reflected ray suffers a phase difference of x with the incident ray, because for electromagnetic wave water is denser, while in Fig. 15.4 (b) the reflected wave is in phasedwith the incident wave. Because for sound wave water is a rare medium. The above results in tabular form are given below. Table 15.1 » does not change changes fT. do not change do not change Aik do not change change Al change change é Ad = 0, from a rarer medium does not change AQ =, from a denser medium Sample Example 15.3 Two strings land 2are taut between two fixed sapports (as shown in figure) such that the tension in both strings is -— same. Mass per unit length of 2 is more than that of 1. Explain which sering is denser for a transverse travelling wave. Fig, 15.5 Selution Speed of a transverse wave on a string = ee Now, H2>H, (given) 1 w>M determined by the mass densities. In figure (a), the pulse approaches from the light string. The heavy string behaves somewhat like a wall but it can move, and so part of the original pulse is transmitted to the heavy string. In figure (b) the pulse approaches froma heavy string. The light string offers little resistance and now approximates a free end. Consequently, the reflected pulse is not inverted. MW? ve ©) Fig. 15.854 | Waves and Thermodynamics 4. Suppose the equations of incident wave, reflected wave and transmitted wave are, y= A sin (kx —at) J, =A, sin (kx + ot) and Y= A, sin(kx — ot) etarw ees ; & d = mn s My eM ~_ 4 Vy + Vp 4 Now let's take a look at what happens under certain special conditions. Note The above relations can be proved from energy conservation principle. For more details see solved example 4. ¥,>v,! When v, > ¥,,i-e.,medium 1 is rare and 2 is denser, A, = negative and| A,|and| A,|both are individually less than | A. Negative value of A, indicates that the reflected wave suffers a phase change of x. ¥, <¥pi_ If opposite is the case, i.e.,v; A;. wey Rare Denser ve —H @) —y, W v, and forv, 0,80, -» =» and we can show that, A=0 and A=A ‘Sample Example 15.4 4 harmonic wave is travelling on string. Ata junction with string 2it is partly reflected and partly transmitted. The linear mass density of the second string is four times that of the first siring, and that the boundary between the two strings is at x =0.If the expression for the incident wave is, y= A; £08 (k,x—-00,2)CHAPTER 15 » Superposition of Waves 55 (a) Whatare the expressions for the transmitted and the reflected waves in terms of A;, ky and@,? () Show that the average power carried by the incident wave is equal to the sum of the average power carried by the transmitted and reflected waves. Solution (a) Sincev=y7/p, T=T and py =4hy y we have, Vv) = 2 wi) From Table 17.1, we can see that the frequency does not change, that is =0, ii) oO 1. ‘ . Also, because k = 2, the wave numbers of the harmonic waves in the two strings are related by, v «iii) > 2 24/2 The amplitudes are, 4,-{22-)4,-| 20) |? iv) y+) vy +(/2| 3 y- ys (2) — : aa 4,=(222) 4, -]Or2—] 4, --4 te) y+) v4 + (4/2) 3 Now with Eas. (ii), (iii) and (iv), the transmitted wave can be written as, 2 8, =¥ A 008 (2kyx 1) Ans, Similarly the reflected wave can be expressed as, A, yp a= eos (hy +00,1) Aj = hos (kyx +0)! +1) Ans, (b) The average power of a harmonic wave on a string is given by, ere P=—pA*a 3P. sv 1 =5 470'hw (as ps=n) Now, P =ofatuin svi) 1, (2 4a . P, =501 (34 ) (4) (e \-geratin - (vii) . 1 4 1 a 5 nate AJ ermo=teisnn - From Eqs. (vi), (vii) and (viii), we can show that P,=P,+P, Hence proved.56 | Waves and Thermodynamics Sample Example 15.5. 4 triangular pulse moving at2 cm/s on a rope approaches an end at which it is free to slide on a vertical pole. (@) Draw the, pulse at simtervaluntil itis completely reflected. (b) What is the particle speed on the trailing edge at the instant depicted? Fig. 15.10 Solution (a) Reflection of a pulse from a free boundary is really the superposition of two identical waves travelling in opposite direction. This can be shown as under. Zom ter @ 2om_ [tem © Tem] tem“ icm (9)CHAPTER 15 - Superposition of Waves 57 Att=2s o ) 0 Fig. 15.12 In every 3s each pulse (one real moving towards right and one imaginary moving towards left) travels a distance of 1 cm, as the wave speed is 2 cm/s. (b) Particle speed, Vp =| v(slope)| Here, v=wave speed=2cm/s and slope =5 > Particle speed =1cm/s Ans. Sample Example 15.6 Figure shows 2 rectangular pulse and triangular pulse approaching each other. The pulse speed is 0.5 cm/s. Sketch the resultant pulse at t =2s 2 1 0 12 3 —> x(om) Fig. 15.12 Solution In 2 s cach pulse will travel a distance of 1 cm. The two pulses overlap between 0 and J cm as shown in figure. So, A, and A, can be addedas shown in figure (c). (a) 2om 2em Resultant puise ati=25 Fig. 15.1358 Waves and Thermodynamics Introductory Exercise FE)! 1. Two pulses of identical shape overlap such that the displacement of the rope is momentarily zero at all points, what happens to the energy at this time? 2. The pulse shown in figure has a speed of 10 cm/s. ® re Fig. 15.34 (@) If the linear mass density of the right string is 0.25 that of the left string, at what speed does the transmitted pulse travel? (b) Compare the heights of the transmitted pulse and the reflected pulse to that of the incident pulse. 3. Awave y, = 0.3.cos (2.0x - 40¢) is travelling along a string toward a boundary at x = 0. Write expressions for the reflected waves if (a) the string has a fixed end at x = 0 and (b) the string has a free end at x =0. Assume SI units. 4. The harmonic wave y; = (2.0 x 10) cos m (2.0x — 50t) travels along a string toward a boundary at x = 0. with a second string, The wave speed on the second string is 50 m/s. Write expressions for reflected and transmitted waves. Assume SI units. 5. A string that is 10 cm long is fixed at both om tem ends. At t =0, a pulse travelling from left to : right at 1 cm/s is 4.0 cm from the right end as shown in figure. Determine the next two times when the pulse will be at that point again. State in each case whether the pulse is upright toon or inverted. Fig. 15.15 6. ‘Two pulses travelling in opposite directions along a string are shown fort =O in the figure. Plot the shape of the string att = 1,0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 s respectively. y(em) 4.0 1.0. cm/s 2.0 1.0 cm/s 0 40 x(om) 2 30 80 100 120 40 Fig. 25.16CHAPTER 15 » Superposition of Waves | 59. | FEE] standing Waves We now consider what happens when two harmonic waves of equal frequency and amplitude travel through a medium (say string) in opposite directions, Suppose the to waves are, he y, = Asin (kx—@r) and yy = Asin (ke +01) By the principle of superposition their sum is YENntr or y= A [sin (x - wr) +sin (kx +0) By using the identity, sin A+sin B=2sin (42? Joos (4) we obtain > y=2Asin (kx)e0s (@*) “ This expression is different from wave representations that we have encountered upto now. It doesn’t have the form f (x + vt) or f (ax bt) and therefore, does not describe a travelling wave. Instead Eq. (i) represents what is known as a standing wave. Eq. (i) can also be written as, ye (ejeosar ii) where, A(x) =2Asin kx aii) This equation of a standing wave (Eq. (ii)] is really an equation of simple harmonic motion, whose amplitude [Eq. (iii)] is a function of x. At) or ke where sin ke =0 ), mt, 2m, ..., mm (n=0,1,2,...) Substituting k =, we have A(x)=0 where, x-0,4,2, These are the points who never displace from their mean position. These are known as the nodes of the standing wave. The distance between two adjacent nodes is > Further, from Eq. (iii), we can see chat maximum value of | A (x)| is 24, where sin kx =41 (2=0,1,2,...)60 Waves and Thermodynamics or + On— yk ‘These are the points of maximum displacement called antinodes. The distance between two adjacent antinodes i also, while that between a node and an antinode is. * In Figs. (a), (b), (c) and (d), the two travelling Waves and their resultant standing waves are shown for four different times over one period T of the travelling waves, At f =(0, the two travelling waves have the same displacement peyuhere anid add to produce the standing wave shown. At =7/4,cach wave Fig. 15.17 has moved a distance of 4/4 in opposite directions, so they differ in phase by rad and completely cancel. At ¢=7'/2 they are again in phase but the positions of the crests and the troughs of the standing 7 wave at ¢ = 0 and 7/2 have been interchanged. At )= the travelling waves completely cancel once more. Finally at ¢ = 7, or after one period, the standing wave reassumes the shape it had at Note that ina travelling wave each particle vibrates with the same amplitude. However, in case ofa standing wave it is not the same for different particles but varies with the location x of the particle. Energy is not transported in stationary waves it remains standing, although it alternates between vibrational kinetic energy and the elastic potential energy. We call the motion a wave motion because we can think of it as a superposition of waves travelling in opposite directions. We can equally regard the motion as an oscillation of the string as a whole, cach particle oscillating with SHM of angular frequency and with an amplitude that depends on its location.CHAPTER 15 » Superposition of Waves 61 In the figure, we have shown how the energy associated with the oscillating string shifts back and forth between kinetic energy K and potential energy U during one cycle. @ to © RDS 7 Fig. 15.28 1. These waves advance in a medium with definite velocity. 2. In these waves, all particles of the medium oscillate with same frequency and amplitude. 3. At any instant phase of vibration varies continuously from one particle to the other, i.e, phase difference between two particles can have any value between 0 and 2r.. 4. In these waves, atno instant all the particles of the medium pass through their mean positions simultaneously. 5. ‘These waves transmit energy in the medium. Table 15.2 Comparison between travelling and stationary waves These waves remain stationary between two boundaries in the medium. In these waves, all particles except nodes oscillate with ‘same frequency, but different amplitudes. Amplitude is zero atnodes and maximum at antinodes. At any instant the phase of all particles between two successive nodes is the same, but phase of particles on one side of a node is opposite to the phase of particles on the other side of the node, i.¢., phase difference between any two particles can be either zero or mt. In these waves all particles of the medium pass through their mean positions simultaneously twice in each time period. ‘These waves do not transmit energy in the medium.62 | Waves and Thermodynamics FER] Normal Modes of a String In anunbounded continuous medium, there is no restriction on the frequencies or wavelengths of the standing waves. However, if the waves are confined in space—for example, when a string is tied at both ends—standing waves can be set-up for a discrete set of frequencies or wavelengths. Consider astring of definite length J, rigidly held at both ends. When w@set-up a sinusoidal wave on such a string, it gets feflected from the fixed ends. By the superposition of two identical waves travelling in opposite directions standing waves are established on the string. The only requirement we have to satisfy is that the end points be nodes as these points can not oscillate. They are permanently at sest. There may be any number of nodes in between or none at all, so that the wavelength associated with the standing waves can take on many different values. The distance between adjacent nodes is A/2, so that in a string of length / there must be exactly an integral number 7 of half wavelengths, A/2. That is, hn ts (n=1,2,3...) iT : iE so that the natural frequencies of oscillation of the system are, \ song )-n (n=1,2,3...) N A N First harmonic Fundamental tone fe} 2 = —__» 1 @ WN A A N RE second narmonic Nee! First overtone ()n=2 NA A aN ref Third rarmonic Je-__———-3n2 = / —_____» Second overtone (n=3 NA A A aN Fourtn harmonic }}-_ 42. = —_____ Third overtone (@)n=4 Fig. 15.19CHAPTER 15 - Superposition of Waves 63 The smallest frequency f, corresponds to the largest wavelength (n =1), 4, = 2/: ad 21 This is called the fundamental frequency. The other standing wave frequencies are, 2v > r = 32 f= 3 72h 3v Ss 33h and so on. These frequencies are called harmonics. Musicians sometimes call them overtone. Students arc advised to remember these frequencies by name. For example, J, = fundamental tone or first harmonic fy =2,; = first overtone or second harmonic fs =3/; =second overtone or third harmonic and so on. ‘A normal mode of an oscillating system is a motion in which all particles of the system move sinusoidally with the same frequency. A harmonic oscillator which has only one oscillating particle, has only one normal mode and one characteristic frequency. By contrast, a string fixed at both ends has infinitely many normal modes because it is made up of a very large (effectively infinite) number of particles. Fig. 15.19 shows the first four normal mode patterns and their associated frequencies and wavelengths. If we could displace a string so that its shape is the same as one of the normal-mode patterns and then release it, it would vibrate with the frequency of that mode. v4 Resonance Ifthe string (discussed in Art. 15.6) is set vibrating in any one of the normal modes and left to itself, the oscillations gradually die out. The motion is damped by dissipation of energy through the elastic supports at the ends and by the resistance of the air to the motion. We can pump energy into the system by applying a driving force. If the driving frequency is equal to any natural frequency of the string, the string will vibrate at that frequency with a larger amplitude. This phenomenon is called resonance. Because the string has a large number of natural frequencies, resonance can Fig, 15.20 occur at many different frequencies. A simple way to set-up resonant waves is shown in figure. One prong of a tuning fork is attached to ‘one end of the string. The string hangs over a pulley and a weight determines the tension in it. The waves produced by the tuning fork travel down the string are inverted by the reflection at the pulley (fixed end) and travel back to the fork. Since the fork is vibrating with a small amplitude, it acts essentially as a fixed end as far as reflection is concerned. Let us look at a particular wave crest generated at the left end of the string by the fork. It travels to the right end of the string, is reflected back, and is reflected again at the fork. Since it has been reflected twice, it has been inverted twice and now differs from the next wave crest coming from the fork only in that the first has already travelled a distance2/, where /is the length of the string. If this distance is exactly64 Waves and Thermodynamics equal to wavelength 2, the twice-reflected wave will be in phase with the second wave and the two will interfere, constructively. The resultant wave has an amplitude twice that of either wave (assuming no loss by reflection). When this resulting wave travels the distance 2/ to the pulley and back and bas been reflected twice, it will exactly overlap the third wave generated by the tuning fork. Thus, each new wave is in phase with the waves reflected at the tuning fork and the amplitude continues to increase as the string absorbs energy from the tuning fork. Variqus damping effects put a limit on the maximum amplitude that can be reached. This maximum amplitude is much larger than that of the tuning fosk. Such waves exist in both the directions and they interfere to give standing waves of large amplitude in the string. Thus, the tuning fork is in resonance with the string when the tuning fork frequency is such that the wavelength in the string equals twice the length of the string. Resonance will occur if the distance 21 is any integer times the wavelength. Thus, the condition for resonance is, or (al, 2,3,...) This is the same what we obtained in Art 15.6. Itis sometimes convenient to think of the resonance condition in terms of the time necessary for the first wave to travel to the end and back. Since this distance is 2, the time will be Zz where vis the wave speed. If this time equals the period of vibration of v the fork, the first wave will add constructively to the second wave. Resonance will also result if this time equals any integer number of periods. Thus, we can write the resonance cosdition, 2 oarat v v °r fray which is the same as that found by fitting an integral number of wavelengths into the distance 21 Note 1. By varying the tension in the string by changing the hanging weight we can adjust the wave speed such that the condition, 2 nT is satisfied and resonance is obtained. 2. Whot hoppens when the frequency of the tuning fork is not equal to one of the frequencies discussed above? When the first wave has travelled a distance 21 and is reflected from the fork, itCHAPTER 15 - Superpo: ofWaves 65 diffors in phase from the wave being generated at the fork. It combines with this wave to produce a resultant new wave whose amplitude may be greater or smaller than that of the original wave, depending on the phase difference. When this resultant wave travels a distance 2! and is again reflected at the fork, it will differ in phase from the next wave generated. The phase difference of the incoming waves depends on the number of reflections. The interference will be constructive, in which case the amplitude Bf the wave on the string will increase ot destructive, in which case the amplitude of the wave will decrease. On the average, the amplitude will not increase but remain that of the first wave generated, i.e., the amplitude of the resultant wave wil! equal to that of the tuning fork, which is small. The string does not absorb energy on the average. Only when the frequency of the tuning fork equals one of the frequencies given in Art. 15.7 or 15.6 will the waves add in phase and the amplitude builds up. Sample Example 15.7 The displacement of a standing wave on a string is given by v(x, )=0.4sin (0.5x)cos (302) where x and y are in centimetres. (a) Find the frequency, amplitude and wave speed of the component waves. > (b) What is the particle velocity at x =2.4 emai 1=08 s? Solution (a) The given wave can be written as the sum of two component waves as VQ, 1) =0.2 sin (0.5x — 302) +0.2 sin (0.5x +301) ‘That is the two component waves are ‘¥(x, 2) =0.2 sin (0.5x — 302) travelling in positive x-direction and ¥2(x, t) =0.2sin (0.5x +304) travelling in negative x-direction. Now. o=30 84 and k=05em s @ _15 frequency, f =—-=— Hz Ans. au ¥ an amplitude, A =0,2cm Ans. @_30 sd dy y= 38 60 cms . = wave speed, y=? =>" =60.cm/s Ans (b) Particle velocity vp) 2 =~ 12sin (0.5x)sin (302) vp (x =2.4cm, ¢=0.8s) =—12sin (1.2) sin (24) =10.12em/s Ans, Sample Example 15.8 4 string fixed at both ends has consecutive standing wave modes for which the stances between adjacent nodes are 18 cm and 16 cm respectively. (a) What is the minimum possible length of the string? (©) Ifthe tension is 10 N and the linear mass density is 4 g/m, what is the fundamental frequency?