THE RELIGIOUS THOUGHT

OF
MIR SAIYID ALI HAMADANI
ABSTRACT
A THESIS SUBMITTED
TO
THE ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH

FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
PHILOSOPHY

BY
MUHAMMAD HAYAT
M.A., M. Phil. (Alig.)

Under the Guidance of

Dr.Mohammad Anzarul Haque

DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH
ie@5
 The dilemma of the modem maa ie that his "sost
treasiired scientific derelopieiits'* are harbouring the forces
of destruction for him. His oiriliEation is challenged by
its oim offspring. He has been rendered simply as a tool
by the mechanical civilization. He has lost his authentic
being. He ie throvn far and aloof from his metaphysical
boundaries. He is in the grip of such objective sciences
which hare resulted in the dehumanisation of man and hare
alienated him from the spiritual stream of the universe.
He has no first hand experience of the transcendent realities,
which ie gained through intuition.

This process which takes him away from this world

to the one above is generally known to the Muslims as
*tazlqa*. It is a way of living, action and practice, which
provides a transcendent description of the universe based
on the first hand and immediate experience of the mystics
or seers. Sufism is the core nucleuB or the esoteric aspect
of the tead:iings of Islam. Its long history shows that it
has worked as the beacon torch for the mankind and especially
for the men and societies who were spiritually lost.

The Bufis, who were the embodiment of the Islamic

ideology and culture, influenced the Indian mind in many
ways. Mir Saiyid Ali Hamadanl being a practising sufi
deserves our serious attention, for he by his socio-political
thoiaght Influenced Kashmir to a good d e a l . Though very
eminent s u f i m a s t e r , he was unfortunately l e f t unattended
uptil now. He has been s t u d i e d caxly i n h i s t o r i c a l
pex«peotive and no comprehensive work has been done on h i s
m y s t i c a l thought. This work i s an att«Bipt to f i l l t h i s gap
as i t undertakes an e x p o s i t a r y - c u m - c r i t i c a l study of his
m y s t i c a l philosophy. The p r e s e n t t h e s i s comprises the
following c h a p t e r s !

I n t r o d u c t i o n , which deals with t h e n e c e s s i t y

of the present work, advent of Islam i n Kashmir and l i f e
and works of Hamadani.

The f i r s t chapter i s devoted t o Metaphysics. It

g i v e s a b r i e f survey of Sufism before Hamadani and o u t l i n e s
i n b r i e f Hamadani*s metaphysical p o s i t i o n .

The second chapter i ^ l a t e d to the e t h i c s of

Hamadani p r e s e n t s a b r i e f s u i r e y of e t h i c a l thought before
him and contains a discussion on the e t h i c a l themes
presented by him i n h i s w r i t i n g s . The most s i g n i f i c a n t
e t h i c a l themes discussed by him are as follows:

i) Nature of man
ii) The end
iii) Virtues
iv) Vices.
 3

The t k i r d cliapter i s devoted to p o l i t i c s . It,

dealing f i r s t with the Islamic concept of s t a t e and
government, proceeds to discuss Hamadani's views on the
society, s t a t e , and i t s administration.

Conclusion

Hamadani i s rightly considered as an important

and i n f l u e n t i a l figure in the i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e of Islam.
He i s an e c l e c t i c thinker. His greatness l i e s in his
adoption, reinterpretation and refoimulation of eclectic
ideas from the c l a s s i c a l Islamic atmosphere to his own
age. His metaphysical, e t h i c a l and p o l i t i c a l ideas, which
are embedded in the Quran and Tradition and the Sufi thought,
marked a significant influence <m. the i n t e l l e c t u a l and the
s o c i a l scene of his times and afterwards, especially in
Kashmir. The fozm of his metaphysics and social philosophy
i s greatly indebted to that of al-Ghazeli, Ibn' Arabi and
al-Mawardi, but the contents are of his o-m. which he has
derived from the Quran and Sunnah, He i s s t r i c t l y a monist
or non-dualist. He i s usually described as a pantheist
and i t i s amply Justifiable from his own aiy^umen-tei. His
e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l philosophy contains certain valid and
humanistic principles which can make the hxmian society
 4

peaceful, dynamic, prosperous and authentic if applied

in right earnest. His approach is humanistic. He wants
to eradicate evil frcsm human society and motivates man to
cultivate virtuous ezoellenoes in order to lead a happy
life in this vorld and the world hereafter. He condemns
every such activity which dehumanizes man, and prescribes
Islamic methods for their eradication. His politico-
ethical principles, seen in broader perspective, contain
humanistic, practical or pragcaatic and \miversalistic
elements. They hold relevance to the modem situations
also.
 :NTRODUCTION

Jiysticismj though a u n i v e r s a l constant and deaply

rootee". in human n a t u r e ^ has a t t a i n e d mora pragmatic
importance for the modex'n man v/hose s c i e n t i f i c "most
treasured developments" are harbouring the forces of
d e s t r u c t i o n for him. His ' ' c i v i l i z a t i o n i s challenged by
i t s very offspring"» He has l o s t h i s peace,, solace., identi'jy
and a u t h e n t i c i t y . , The machines have rendered him simply
a tool„ The developments and r a p i d s c i e n t i f i c changes hav^
rendered his being divided and aloof from h i s metaphysical
and e x i s t e n t i a l boundaries. He i s brokenj divided and
frightened of h i s o\-m. e x i s t e n c e . He i s engaged in analysis,,
but has l o s t the i n s i g h t and a p p r e c i a t i o n as a Seer. He
i s no;; p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the process of the 'becoming' of the
entire universe. His developments and experiences are
l i m i t e d to t h a t with senses and reason but he has l o s t the
f a c u l t i e s v/hich enable him to r i s e above ordinary experience
and a t t a i n a f i r s t hand conta^jt with the transcendent
r e a l i t i e s . , in the realm of^ as e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s say, race
of inhuman s c i e n c e s .

This f i r b t hand contact with the transcendent

r e a l i t i e s i s rooted in - s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e ' , p u r i f i c a t i o n of
h e a r t and s o u l . "The process of s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e and
 2

development has been u n i v e r s a l l y likened to a way taking

man from t h i s world t o the one above.

This vray known to Chinese as the 'Tea' , to Moslems

as the ' T a r i q a t ' , i s the "Via Mystica" of Christian Theology,

Mysticism i s a way of l i v i n g , a c t i o n , and p r a c t i c e .

I t provides a transcendent d e s c r i p t i o n of the universe
based en the f i r s t hand and immediate experience of the
mystics or s e e r s . I t a l s o offers " p r a c t i c a l methods of
Theophany and d e i f i c a t i o n enabling men to transmute t h e i r
psychological equipaent so as to a t t a i n t h e apotheosis of
•5
t h e i r consciousness in b e a t i f i c v i s i o n " .

The I s l a m i c form of mysticism i s known as sufism.

I t i s the c o r e , n u c l e u s , or the e s o t e r i c aspect of the
teachings of Islam. As the h i s t o r y of sufism shows t h a t i t
has worked as the beacon torch for the mari^kind and e s p e c i a l l y
for the men and s o c i e t i e s who were s p i r i t u a l l y lost.

The t r a d i t i o n of sufism in the Indian subcontinent

i s as old as the coming of Islam in i t . The 'Mubaligin'
or the propSigators of Islam in I n d i a were the s u f i s like
Moin-ud-din C h i s t i , All H i j u i r i j Nisam-ud-din Auliya,
Makhdura~i"Jahaniyans Saiyid Ali Hamadani e t c . These
sufiP^vjho v/ere the embodi.'nent of Islamic ideology and
culture, influenced t h e I n d i a n mind i n many w a y s .

M i r S a i y i d A l i Hamadani b e i n g a p r a c t i z i n g sufi

deserves our s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n , for he^by his

bOcio-political thought^influenced

K a s h m i r t o a good d e t i l . H i s e m i n e n c e and c a l i b e r h a s been

a c k n o w l e d g e d by t h e P o e t P h i l o s o p h e r , S i r Mohammad I q b a l and

t h e e m i n e n t s c h o l a r of I s l a m S a i y i d A b u l A l a M a u d o o d i .

Unfortunately he was t i l l now l e f t unattended. No work

has been done on h i s m y s t i c a l t h o u g h t . He h a s been studied

only in H i s t o r i c a l perspective. T h i s work w i l l f i l l this

g a p by u n d e r t a k i n g an e x p o s i t o r y - c i i m - c r i t i c a l s t u d y of hie

mystical thought.

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of Hamadani's t h o u g h t caxLJiot be

clearly u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t knowing t h e b a c k g r o u n d of the

a d v e n t of I s l a m i n Kashmir.

THE ADVENT OF ISLAM IN KASHMIR

H i s t o r L a n s a r e n o t c l e a r a b o u t t h e a d v e n t of Islam

i n Kashmir, Mixhammad b i n Qasira i n v a d e d S i n d h i n t h e eighth

century of the C h r i s t i a n E r a , He a n d o t h e r M u s l i m s planned

t o i n v a d e K a s h m i r b u t due t o h i s t o r i c a l and geographical

conditions could not fulfil it. But t h e r e a r e indications

which s u g g e s t t h a t M u s l i m s had had some c o n t a c t w i t h Kashmir

even before the Kashmiri Hindus were converted to Islam
by the muslim m i s s i o n a r i e s .

"Islam i s e s s e n t i a l l y a missionary r e l i g i o n l i k e
Buddhism and C h r i s t i a n i t y , and the Muslim missionary^ be he
a P i r i . e . , a s p i r i t u a l guide, or a preacher c a r r i e s with
him the message of Islam to the people of the Land i n t o
4
which he p e n e t r a t e s " .

Saiyid Sharf-u'd-Din (d.727/1326) popularly known

in Kashmir as 'Bui Bui Shah', a 'Musavi Sayyid from Turkistan'
a d i s c i p l e of Shah N i ' m a t u l l a h Wall Farsi a Suhrawardi
5
S a i n t ^ f i r s t time introduced the Suhrawardi order in Kashmir.
Rinchana or Rinchan the r u l e r of Kashmir accepted Islam
a t h i s hand. After h i s conversion he was named as Sultan
Sadr-ud-Din, After h i s death Hindu r u l e was r e s t o r e d to
Kashmir J for a short p e r i o d , which came to an end by the
hands of Shahmir, in 1339. He ruled 'under the t i t l e of
Sultan Shams-ud-Din and 'firmly e s t a b l i s h e d the Muslim r u l e '
7
in Kashmiri Bui Bui Shah e s t a b l i s h e d a Khanqah on the bank
of River Jehluci ( v i t a s t a ) . I t i s c a l l e d as Bui Bui Lankar.
I t i s "about 200 yards below- Ali Kadal, the f i f t h bridge
in Moh2^11a Bui Bui Lankar S r i n a g a r " . He died there in
727/1327 but was succeeded by no outstanding Khalifa.
During the reign of Sultan Zainul Aabidin (1420-70),. Saiyid
Muhammad I s f a h a n ! , an eminen i- Suhrawardiya s u f i , a d i s c i p l e
of Saiyid Jalal-ud-Din Bukiiari . of Uch, generally knowi
as MakJadum Jahaniyan^came to Kashmir.j and revived the
Suhrawardiya order in Kashmir. The other well known
Suiiravfardiya s a i n t s who came to Kashmir were Saiyid Ahmad
of Kirman, and Saiyid Jamal-ud-Din Bukhari„ Saiyid Jamaluddin
Bukhari stayed in Kashmir only for s i x months but he made a
s p e c t a c u l a r impact on the s u f i scene in Kashmir" by
9
i n i t i a t i n g a 'most t a l e n t e d Kasiimiri Shaikh Hamza.

Though Islam was introduced to a g r e a t nuniber of

masses by the Suhrawardi s a i n t s , but i t was a c t u a l l y the
dominating p e r s o n a l i t y of Saiyid Ali Hamadani who speedily
spread Islam in Kashmir.

He introduced the Kubrawiya order in Kashmir, He

was a great m y s t i c , s c h o l a r and a man of missionary z e a l .
He did not only spread Islam but a l s o influenced a l l walks
of l i f e by reshaping Kashmiri c u l t u r e . The g r e a t philosopher
poet I q b a l has summed up h i s l i f e and work very beautifully
in 'Javed Mama'.10

>^« i_ 4>jJ-.±w , i>-.'5i>J 3 ;i3 ;i-'i-'° y-O <2-ti>- 0^ -*-*•/-

 Mir Saiyid All Hamadani, generally known in Kashmir
(y
as Shah~i-Ham'dan (the lord of Haraadan) or Amir~i-Kabir (the
g r e a t Amir), a l s o known as A l i - i - 3 a n i , the second All^ was
born on Monday 12 Ra jab, 714 A,H., 22 October, 1314 A.C„
11 »
a t Hamadan in I r a n , He was a Husaini S a i y i d . His fathers
name was Saiyid Shihab u'd-Din and mothers name Fatimao He
i s r e l a t e d to A l i , I b n - T a l i b , through Imam Husainj d i r e c t l y
in the s i x t e e n t h descent.1 2 His father was a governor of
Hamad9X1» His maternal uncle Saiyid Ala-ud-Daula was an
eminent m y s t i c . Saiyid A l l ' s father took l i t t l e interest
in h i s education. I t was Ala-ud~Daula who taught him theology
and guided him to mysticism. Hajnadani memorized the whole
13
Quran by h e a r t at the age of twelve.-^

'J ,1.. L». Sufi w r i t e s , that Hamadan i , "became, in the f i r s t

i n s t a n c e a d i s c i p l e of Shaikh Abu'l Barakat Taqi-ud-Din Ali
Dusti and a f t e r h i s d e a t h , of Shaikh Sharaf-ud-Din Mahmud
Nizamud Din Muzdaqani, in Ray. Shaikh Muzdaqani was a
d i s c i p l e of Shaikh Ala-ud-Daula Simnani. Hamadani a t t a i n e d
more t r a i n i n g in sufism, on the advice of his p i r , Shaikh
huzdaqani, from o t h e r d i s c i p l e s of Shaikh Ala-u'd-Daula
Simnani such as Shaikh Najm u'd-Din Muhammad Adllani I s f a r a n i
16
and Akhi Muhammad D a h i s t a n i .

He completed h i s mystic t r a i n i n g with Ala-u'd-Daula

Simnani in his Khanqah in Siranan. "Probably, about t h i s time
Saiyid A l i , and Saiyid Ashraf Jahangir met each other"„1 7
 /

Hamadani travelled the then Muslim world thrice. It is said

that in his travels, he met 1400 saints. After his extensive
travels he came back to Ilamadan, but was forced to leave
Hamadan because of the atrocities uf I'imur, which he was
doing with Saiyids. but Kafiqui quotes the view of Jafar
Badakhshi that Hamadani left Hamadan, on the advice of his
18
tu uide Shaikh Kuzdaqani, to preach the t r u t h t o the people^

I t i s not only Hamadani but a l s o o t h e r s a i n t s of

the irubrawi order who l e f t Iran and made extensive t r a v e l s
to preach Islaiii, for example, Fiir Saiyid Ashraf J a h a n r i r
Simnani,, I t i s said chat Hamadani and Saiyid Ashraf
t r a v e l l e d toij^jether, for some tjjiie. After t h e i r se^'CXralion,
Saiyid Ashraf reached India and s e t t l e d at Kichaucha in
faizauad, Jo fore h i s comin^^ to Kashmir, Haruadani sent there
two of his cousins, Saiyid faj-ud-Din and Saiyid Husain.

Hamadani entered the v a l l e y , accompanying with 700

S a i y i d e s , in the reign of 3ulta.n Shihab u'd-Din in 774/1372,
After s t a y i n g for a short time Hamadani l e f t for Mecca. He
v i s i t e d Kashmir second time in 781/1379 in the reign of
Sultan Qutb-ud-Din, This time he stayed there for two and
a h a l f years and ihea l e f t for ^-arkistan via Ladalch in 763 A.H,
He paid the t h i r d v i s i t in 765/1333$ stayed for a short
period, and then l e f t "l.ashimir on account of i l l - h e a l t h
 8

and s t a y e d at Eakhli for ten days at the request of the

1 Q
r u l e r of t h a t lolace whose name was S u l t a n Muhammad".-"

Eut R a f i q u i says, q u o t i n g from 3aharistan-i-Shahi

t h a t Hiuaadani l e f t K a s h m i r f o r good b e c a u s e o f h i s differences

with the Sulttm CiUtb-u'd-Din, i-uler of Kashmir, on h i s un-

satisfactory implementation of L h a r i a 20
.

he d i e d on 6 Z u l ' h a j , 736 A.II. , 19 J a n u a r y , 1335

at t h e a^e of 73 i n K u n a r , a place in the v i c i n i t y of

Palchli, " h i s body was c a r r i e d t o K h u t t a l a n now i n Uussain

Tajkistan and was h u r r i e d t h e r e on 25 ciumadul Awwal, 787,

14 J u l y , 1385"?^

There i s a c o n t r o v e r s y regarding the dates and

times of hamadani's v i s i t s to h a s l i i i i i r , We n e e d n o t go into

the d e t a i l s of t h i s controversy, for i t is a matter t o be

d e c i d e d by h i s t o r i a n s . Some o l d h i s t o r i a n s l i k e 2'irza Haider

a n d A b u l F a z a l ai'e of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t Haiuadani v i s i t e d the

vall.ey only o n c e . Lax t h e r e a r e some o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s such

a s Hasan and L l i s k i n who s u p p o r t the view t h a t Hamadani

visited tne vfilley three t i m e s?2

;

h a m a d a n i l i k e many o t l i e r s u f i s e.g. al--Uhazali and

I b n A r a b i , was a p r o l i f i c author. There i s a d i f f e r e n c e of

 9

opinion about the number of liis v / r i t i n g s . Only four of his

works have been published so f a r , e . g . Zakhirat-ul-Mulak,
Risala-i-Dah Qaiyida, Minhaj-ul Aabidin and Aurad-al-Fathiya.

His w r i t i n g s are preserved i n manuscript forci in

v a r i o u s l i b r a r i e s of I n d i a , B r i t a i n and I r a n . The B r i t i s h
Museum and Indian Office Library in iiJngland, Raza Library
Rampur in I n d i a , ilitab-ivhana M i l a l of Tehran in Iran and
the O r i e n t a l Research Department S r i n a g a r , KasMir have
preserved the valuable documents,

Zakhirat-al-Kuluk i s w r i t t e n in persian language.

I t d e a l s with sufi e t h i c s , p o l i t i c s and r u l e s of a good
government. I t c o n s i s t s of ten c h a p t e r s :

(a) F a i t h , (b) Doing the r i g h t s of God,

(c) V i r t u e , (d) Rights and d u t i e s of p a r e n t s ,
wives, children e t c . (e) Rules of government
a.nd r i g h t s and d u t i e s of s u b j e c t s ,
(f) S p i r i t u a l kingdom, s o u l , and the s e c r e t s of
human Kingdom, (g) Execution of t h e lawful
and abstinence from t h e unlawful, (h) Thankfulness,
(i) Patience and ( j ) P r i d e , anger and h u m i l i t y .

I t was published by Niaz Ali ivJrian at Amritsar in

1521/1905. I t s ardu translcition was published under the
 10

t i t l e of Mirihaj~us-3uluk. I t was " t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Latin

by Ernest P r i e d r i c h Carl Rosenmueller in 1825 A.C. and i n t o
French by D.Solvent in 1829 A.G"?' Rise.la-i-Dah-Qaida ajid
Minhajul Aabidin were a l s o published by tlos same p u b l i s h e r .
Aurad-i-Fathiya i s a t r e a t i s e on the u n i t y of God and His
attributes. I t has been published many t i m e s . I t is
w r i t t e n in Arabic* A copy of i t s manuscript i s in the Maulana
Azad L i b r a r y , Aligarh Muslim U n i v e r s i t y , Aligarh.

R i s a l a - i - D a h Qaida i s a t r e a t i s e on the s u f i path.

Hamadani has given in i t the ten d o c t r i n e s of sufi course,
Risala~i-Maktubat i s a c o l l e c t i o n of l e t t e r s of Haimadani,
w r i t t e n t o the s a i n t s and the r u l e r s on d i f f e r e n t occassions„
Mirat'ut-^Taibin i s a t r e a t i s e on concept of Repentance,,

R i s a l a - i - F u q r i y a deals with the concept of poverty,

Risala-i--Akhlaqia i s a b r i e f exposition of vices„ Masharib-
al-Azwaq t r e a t s the concept of love of God„ Risala-i-
A i t i q a d i y a i s an exposition of r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a t i o n s .
Risala-i--Hali Mushkil gives an exposition of the concept of
knowledge of God, Risala-i-Mushabih-Digar t r e a t s knowledge
of God, p u r i f i c a t i o n of h e a r t and difference between
i n t u i t i o n and knowledge„ Risala-i-Istalahat is a treatise
on metaphysical concepts„

R i s a l a - i - A u r a d i y a i s a t r e a t i s e on r e c o l l e c t i o n .
Asraru'xi Nuqta and Qudusia deal with metaphysics. Risala-i-
A h a d i s i - s a d a t i s a c o l l e c t i o n of t r a d i t i o n s „ P u t u t i a gives
 11

an exposition of the sufi concept of brotherhood. Hamadani

was a poet also. Chihl Asrar 'is a small collection of
24
h i s r e l i g i o u s and mystic poems'. Araba. Aaini-Amiriya,
c o n s i s t s of forty t r a d i t i o n s regarding the l i f e after
death?^

R i s a l a - i - Z i k r i y a - s a g i r i a i s a t r e a t i s e on concept
of repentance and r e c o l l e c t i o n . Risala-i-Nafsia-farsia
gives a d e s c r i p t i o n of s o u l . Risala-i-Murifat-i-Zuhd
i s an e x p o s i t i o n of a b s t i n e n c e . Risala-i-Manamiya i s a
t r e a t i s e on dreams.

G ,i'';. IJ. Sufi has mentioned some other t r e a t i s e s of Hamadani,

namely as (a) I l m ' a l ' Qayafa', (b) Kitab-al-Mawidat-fil-Quran,
(c) Kitab'al Sabin-fi F a z e i l - i - A m i r ' i l Muminin,
(d) Rozat-ul-FirdoS; (e) Pirdos'al-Akhyar, (f) Manazil-
al-Salikin, (g) Risala-i-iiuriya, (h) Dar Hacjayiqi Tuaba'
(i) Dar M u a r i f a t - i - S u r a t - w a - s i r a t - i - I n s a n and (3) Sharhi
Qasidai Khumriya, Farziya.

Rafiqui quotes from Wahab some more t r e a t i s e s

w r i t t e n by Hamadani e.g.^ Mashariqul Anwar, Sharh-i-Asma--i-
Hasna, Risala T a l q i n i y a , Adabul Muridin, R i s a l a - i - K h a w a t i r i y a
etc. He quotes Wahab as saying t h a t Hamadani had written
170 works?^
 12

As regards the Rasail r e f e r r e d to above, twenty

of them are a v a i l a b l e i n manuscript form in the O r i e n t a l
Kesearch Department, 3 r i n a g a r , Kashmir. They are as follows
R i s a l a - i - K i n h a j u l A a r i f i n , R i s a l a ' i Dah Q a i ' d a , R i s a l a ' i
M a a r i f a t ' i - Z u h d , R i s a l a ' i - M a k t u b a t , R i s a l a ' i Hal-i-Mushkil^
R i s a l a ' i Auradiya, R i s a l a ' i Ghihl Hadith, R i s a l a ' i
A r b a ' a i n i a , Kisala'i-Mushabiha' Digar, R i s a l a ' i F u t u t i a ,
R i s a l a ' i A s r a r ' u l - N u q t a , R i s a l a ' i Nafsia? R i s a l a ' i Munajat,
R i s a l a ' i - Z i k r i y a , R i s a l a ' i Fuqriya, R i s a l a ' i I k h l a q i a ,
R i s a l a ' i Zikriya S a g i r i y a , R i s a l a ' i Khawtiriya, R i s a l a ' i
A h a d i s - i - S a d a t , R i s a l a ' i Kashf~ul Haqaiq Nur Bakhshia,
R i s a l a ' i I s t a l a h a t - i - N u r Ud-Din J a f f a r , R i s a l a ' i Qudusia,
R i s a l a ' i M i r a t ' t u Taibin, R i s a l a - i - A t i q a d i y a . A s r a r i Lawhi,
M a s h a r i b ' u l Azwaq, a c o l l e c t i o n of poems and three copies
of Zakhirat-ul-i'luluk are in Maulana Aztid L i b r a r y , Aligarh
Muslim U n i v e r s i t y , A l i g a r h .

Kashf-ul-Haqayiq, Risala'iDah Qaida, Risala'iDar-

Weshiya, Risala-i-Waktubat and R i s a l a - i - M a s h a r i b u l Aawaq,
R i s a l a ~ i - Z i k r i y a and Risala-i-Sharh-i~Mushkilat are in
manuscriot form in B r i t i s h Museum, London. A Persian
transla~;ion of Fusus al-Hikam i s i n manuscript form in
S i r S a l a r Jang Museum, Hyderabad.
 13,

KA!J Jsi^xljlij.i C ^ J

1. w a r r u e t t e , J a c q u e s De, I n t r o d u c t i o n to Comparative
^ i ] / s t i c i s : . i , B h a r a t i y a Y i d y a Bhavan ,
Bombay, f9fa5, p . 1 1 .

2. 1 bid. , p . 2 ^ ,

3. ibid., p . c3.

4. S u i i , G.K.D., iCadhir Leinr; a t l i G t o r y o f l l a s h a i r ,

iro:u _^h.e j ^ a r - l i e s t _ _ lirae_s j:o_i)ur_0_m L i g h c
a n d L i f e i ' u b l i s h e r c , I^evj D e l h i , 1 9 7 4 , p . B 1 .
5. ibid., r.82.

6. Anonymous, Eaharia tmi-i-ChahJ , O r i e n t a l Research

Department, 3rina;:;ar, p.G.
iarik}i-i-l!as}iiiiai-L-Kasliinlr, 0.R.D. ,
Srinagar, p.15.

7.h.afiqi, i>-.C,, S u f i s m i n i a s l u n i r , B h a r a t i y a P u b l i s h i n g
Bouse , Dt- I h i , }i. Ui .
B.A.A. B i z v i , A B i s t o r v of Buiisiii
i n iiiui a, p. 290.
d.. Bufi, G.i"..1., o.o':5.

9. Ki z V 1 , L). A. .-i. , A B i s Tory of >^u fiBm i n I n d i a ,

M u n s h i nam B o n o h a r ~Lal B u b l i s h o r ,
P v t . i.tQ. , ::ti\{ D e l h i , 197B, p . 2 9 0 .

10. I q b a l , S i r , i.ahrxLnad, J;ayed .. cuiia, I t i q a d Publishing

House, D e l h i , 1973.
11. Bufi, G..'-.D., p . 8 5 . Bizvi, o.A.A., p,2qi.

12. i b i d. , -J. yj .

13. ibid., p.~'5, B-ifLCsL, ^,..^., ,^.31.

1 4 . i b i d. , p . 83 .

15. ibid., p . "•>'), u i z v i , B.A.A., }j.2'-'1.

1 C . :^i z\ 1 , B . A. A . , [1,291.
1 7. i b i d . , p.;f91 .

1 d. Kcif i q i , A . >:,. , p . 34 .

19. >-> L-LIi , G . r . . L'. , pp. 86-7

20. iiaiiqi, A.Q., p. 39.

21. ibid., p.39.

22. ibid., pp.55-6.

23. Sufi, GJ:.D. , p. 90.

24. ibid. , p.oi.

25. ibid. , p.91.

2 b. ibid., pp.90-I.

27. i-.tLliqi, A.Q., p.40.

2 8. ibid., p.d9.
 15
CHAPTER I

HA1'4ADANIS MYSTICAL PHILOSOPHY AND ITS

Mi; TAPHY31CAL FCTO] DATIONS

SUFI rnOUGHT Bii^PORj: HAIUDANI; A brief survey;

Before d i s c u s s i n g the d o c t r i n a l a s p e c t s and

developments of S u f i s m u p t o t h e p e r i o d o f Eamadani i n order

to determine his place in the history of m y s t i c a l thnu^-ht

in Islam, it seems n e c e s s a r y to outline the fundamental

features o f S u f i s m a s s u c h . "Keli-^^ion i n g e n e r a l and the

mystical q u e s t i n p a r t i c u l a r a r e p e r m a n e n t a s human

existence i t s e l f , f o r man c a n n o t remain w i t h o u t seeking

the i n f i n i t e and w i t h o u t w a n t i n g t o t r a n s c e n d himself".

To be human m e a n s to want t o t r a n s c e n d the merely human.

Hence t o be s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e m e r e l y hiiman i s to f a l l into

tne infra-human state.

embe/ded

This p r i m a r y and p c r e n i a l q u e s t , / i n man's nature,

is indeed a quest for t r u t h , concerning the nature

o f God, man and u n i v e r s e . V a r i o u s Isme in the h i s t o r y of

human thou^jht h a v e b e e n p r o p o u n d e d to p r o v i d e solutions

o f t h e j..roblemfi r e l a t e d t o God, n a n and w o r l d . These

problems a r e b a e i c a l l y m e t a p h y s i c a l in n a t u r e , a n d have
 IB

been answered on three different plrines or levels e.g.,

philosophical, religioiis and mystical.

In the following pages, we shall concentrate our

attention to the approach adopted by Sufis in general and
Hamadani in particular, towards the understanding of these
problems.

"The mystic tendency in human nature — has been

characteristic of serious minds in all ages and among
every section of society". It is undoubtedly, as Arbery
States, 'a universal constant'. Its variations can be
observed to be very clearly and characteristically shaped by
2
the several religious systems upon which they were based,

Sufism is "a way of spiritual realization and the

'-5
attainment of sanctity and gnosis". "It is a purely
Islamic discipline which builds up the character and inner
life of the Muslims by importing certain ordinances and
duties, obligations and impositions which may not be abandoned
in any way by any man". It is the Esoteric or Inward aspect
of Islam. It is the intrinsic aspect of the teachings of
Islam. It is the core or nucleus of the teachings of the
Quran and Siinnah. Its reality^ its basic doctrines and
methods have their roots in the Revelations and the Sunnah
of the Prophet. "For a person who participates in Sufism
who lives the life of a "follower of the Path"., the first
and most perfect Sufi was the Trophet Muhammad". Junaid says,
 17

"our system of doctrine is firmly bound up with the dogmas

of faith, The Quran and The Traditions". It logically
implies that any thing "which is refuted by The Quran and
7
The Tradition is nothing but heresy".

In the early Islam Sufisra was not a distinct

element of Islamic commimity. It is a late development
like the codification of Sharia and the order of different
schools of Law.

"At the time of the prophet, the very intensity

of the spiritual life and proximity to the source of the
Revelation did not permit of a total separation of the
tradition into its exoteric and esoteric, or Shariah and
Tariqah components, although both existed in essence from
the beginning".

After the death of the prophet the ummah faced

a heavy challenge, which resulted in cheas, turmoil and
blood-shed on some political issues. It rendered the
ummah into many fractions. At this juncture of historical
developments a gi'oup of people remained neutral, and
retired to a life of learning, devotion and prayers. They
engaged themselves in ' Jihad-/-Akbar' that is war against the
lower self. They detached themselves from the mundane and
engaged themselves in the purification of heart, rememberance
 18

of God ( d h i k r ) and meditation on the s e c r e t s of the

universe. They are g e n e r a l l y known as a s c e t i c s .

Jahiz and I b n - a l - J a w z i have given a"Rleast fourty

names of the 'Zuhjd' a s c e t i c s , who took the i n t e r i o r i s a t i o n
of the e x o t e r i c p r a y e r s , as very important, which has been
q
the main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Sufi l i f e :

"Sufism i s thus the inner aspect of the teachings

of the prophet as i t gradually took foim during the 2nd/8th
and 3 r d / 9 t h c e n t u r i e s , gaining meanwhile the name 3ufism
by which the e s o t e r i c dimension of the Islam has been
known ever s i n c e " .

In the second century H i j r a , bufism develops

as an i n s t i t u t i o n . I t e s t a b l i s h e s on firm grounds and the
gradual d o c t r i n a l development emerges on the scene. All
the group's ' Zuhad, Ubad and Nusak' received a simple name
'Sufi', The word Sufi was perhaps used for the f i r s t time
f o r a Kufi mystic Abu Hashim. I t is later in the 4th century
H i j r a that the word receives a theosophical connotation.

The D o c t r i n a l Development of Sufism

The e a r l y Sufis were simply a s c e t i c s . They were

not concerned about the mystic d o c t r i n e s and t h e i r
metapJaysical i m p l i c a t i o n s . There was no formal s t r u c t u r e
of Sufism.
 19

Their main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were: t h e i r utmost

s c r u p l o s i t y (wara) in observing the r u l e s of the ShaTia,
Fear of God and the l i f e h e r e a f t e r and t h e t e r r i b l e
consciousness of s i n .

Though the ideas and concepts of the f i r s t Sufis

were mainly e t h i c a l r a t h e r than metaphysical, they did
contain c e r t a i n germs which l a t e r on led to metaphysical
speculation. In the f i r s t century Hijra Hassan a l - B a s a r i
(21/643 - 110/728) a s s e r t e d foundations of 'abstinence
(Zuh|d) in sadness'. To him the fear of God, which l a t e r on
emerged as one of the major d o c t r i n e s , i s the only source
of the p u r i f i c a t i o n of h e a r t and s o u l . The dread of the
sin over-shadowed the whole scene of the f i r s t century
Sufism.

In the second century, the concept of love was

introduced in Sufism by Rabia-al-Basari(d.752 or 801).She
too was dominated l i k e Hasan-al-Basari by the fear of God
and consciousness of the s i n , but she gave much importance
to the love of God. The d o c t r i n e of Divine l o v e , presented
by Rabia i s not simply an e t h i c a l concept but has a
metaphysical Flavour a l s o . But she does not develop i t
as metaphysical concept as i t was afterwards done by
al-Gh£izali and o t h e r S u f i s .
 0

What is love and what is its reality, Rabia

explains in her verses:

Two ways I love thee : selfishly

And next, as worthy is of thee
' Tis selfish love that I do naught
Save think on thee with every thought
• Tis purest love when thou dost raise
The veil to my adoring gaze
Not mine the praise in that or this
Thine is the praise in both, Iwis.

The vision of divine beauty is the only object for

her. She was 'overwhelmed by the consciousness of the
near presence of God I She in a discourse asserts that she
prays God, not for heaven or hell but for His 'everlasting
1 '>
beauty'.''

'The t h i r d c e n t u r y A.11. a p p e a r s to have been the

f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d i n t h e development of S u f i s m , when g r e a t
S u f i m a s t e r s such as Dhu ' 1 Nun the E g y p t i a n , Harith-al
M u h a s i b i , T u s t a r i , Ba, Yazid B i s t a r n i , J u n a i d and H a l l a j
c r e a t e d the modes of m y o t i c a l p r a c t i c e and t h e o r y i n I s l a m l . ^

Dhu'1-Nun i n t r o d u c e d t h e concept of g n o s i s
h u ' r a f a inLo Sufism. He hold.s t h a t g n o s i s i s of t h r e e types:
(a) gnoLxs of common muslimc wht se loiowledge a b o u t God
seems t o be based simply on b e l i e f .
 21
(b) gnosis of dialecticians (Mutakalimin) and philosophers
(Hukctma) who try to know God through reason and reflective
thought.
(c) Gnosis of mystics who know Him through their inner
authentic - experience. This category is the important
and best, for it provides the certitude (Yaqin) which is
14
equivalent to 'Iman-i Kamil, the gnosis of God. Arbery
rejected the idea that Dhul Nun introduced the concept of
gnosis in Sufism, for it was already prevalent in Sufis.
But the objection is not valid, for, though the idea was
prevalent in early bufij, it was presented and classified
by him.

The pantheist, Bayazid Bistami introduced the

doctrine of intoxication (Sukr) tmd self annihilation in
God (Fana) which onwards received a nucleus importance in
Sufi thought. He was also the first Sufi who took' the
prophet's Ascension' (Mi'raj) as a theme for expressing
his own mystical experience. The words of Bayazid explain
our content; "once He raised me up and stationed me before
Him and said to me, o' Abu Yazid, Truly my creation desire
to see thee. 'I said,' Adorn me in thy unity, and clothe
me in Thy self hood, and raise me upto thy oneness so that
when thy creation see me they will say, we have seen thee:
and thou will be that, and I shall not be there at all'.1S
 £2

Amongst his contemporaries Yahya Bin Maad Razi

i s important. lie i s of the opinion t h a t God ( D h a t - i - I l a h i y a )
i s pure good. Being pure good no e v i l can emanate from Him.
Good (Khair) and e v i l (iJhar) are two contrary q u a l i t i e s .
1 fi
No good can emanate from e v i l and no e v i l from good. Lvil
can^not emanate from God, for He i s pure good. Thus Razi
does not believe in the existence of e v i l . Nor he provides
any explanation for the phenomenon of e v i l whica does e x i s t
in the world.

In h i s w r i t i n g s , he has t r i e d to impress upon the

view tliat everything in the \uiiverse i s good, for i t i s
tht; creation of God who i s the absolute good.

A new epoch was opened in the h i s t o r y of Sufism

by an eminent Sufi master of lihagdad, Junaid, who introduced
the d o c t r i n e of (dahw) s o b r i e t y and opposed the p a n t h e i s t i c
d o c t r i n e s of i n t o x i c a t i o n and s e l f a n n i h i l a t i o n of Dhul Nun
of Egypt and Bayazid of Bistam. He holds them as the
lowest s t a g e s of 3ufi path, where a mystic becomes forgetful
of evei'^^'-'^'^i^e even of his ovm s e l f . He loses the power
of (i^amid) d i s t i n c t i o n and judgement. In the s t a t e of
S o b r i e t y - a Sufi i s f u l l y conscious of his s e l f and a c t i o n ,
and iariov;s that he is aiiswerable for them. He says that
a f t e r passing the stage of a n n i h i l a t i o n a Sufi a t t a i n s the
stage of: ' l i f p in God', x^aqa. 'He does not cease to e x i s t
' a s an i n d i v i d u a l ' which is an i n a l i e n a b l e g i f t from God,
 23

arter oelf annihil'ition but i s p e r i ' u c t e d , tranL;.:.ated

18
nrid e t e r n a l i z e d throU{\u G^od and in God. He [•'xve 'a

coni)i3tuat system of I s l a m i c Lheosophy w h i c h h a s certainly

not '^een i m p r o v e d u p o n , and wh i c'; fonriod the nucleus of

all trabsLqucnt e . a b o i ' a l i o n s ' .

;:u ; -iVL a c l a s j j c (iei'i .1 I l i on oi" I'auhici, by s a y l n ^ :

t h a t l a u h J d 'iican;"' the s e p a r a t i o a of the e t e r n a l from

that which was orJ i>];inated i n tJmc''. ^ Amon^^st t^ie youn{-;er

contemporaries of J u n a i d , i s Mansooi' H a l l a j . He i s perhaps

t h e most controversial fict^re i n t h e L)ufi h i s t o r y . He

i n t r o U u c e c i i n Sufis'ii t h e d o c L r i n e S ' ^ f x'^usion ( H u l u l ) ij^iion

(lUhad) ±'i'ajis;iii,'ration (xanasuk) return (.Rajac) etc.

He v,'as c r u c i f i e d on b i s famous utttitiice (anafal-Haq)

1 am Ih^ (;reaLive - Lrulh. his i d e a s which ht. ha^^ e x p J a i n e d

i n h';-> pH)etr^' a n d j i \ ' 3 e w o r k s can be b r o a d l y classified as;

(a) I'he f u s i o n of God in mm;

(b) The e t t m i ty (,^idia) of t h e rea"! i ly o f yuhammadj

(c) utii L^ oi! t h e r e J i , " - i o n s ^ •<'*'"^^''^^-i-Adyan ) . "

xlicre had oeen a l o n j run controversy but'..'een the

Sufis a n d Thcolo^'"i a n s a s r e g a r d s the s i g n i f i c a n c e of che

c s o c c r i c and t h e s - x o t e r i c a s p e c t s of s h a r i a . fhe former

called tne:;isclves •iihl-i-L\atin' and r e l i e d l a o s t l y Oii

t
inti^tion ^r d i r e c t unveilinr; cf Lhe r e a l i t y through t h e i r
 24

i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e Theologians in t h e i r views were regarded

or
as A h l - i - Z a h i r / r d l o w e r s of formal t r a d i t i o n s (Arbab-i-Rasum)
The l a t t e r , on the other hand, held dufi t e a c h i n g s ,
s p e c i a l l y , the p a n t h e i s t i c d o c t r i n e s propounded by
Dhul-Nun and H a l l a j , as c o n t r a d i c t o r y to the Quranic t e n e t s .
The gulf between these two groups went on widening t i l l
the lime of a l - G h a z a l i , who t r i e d to bring harmony between
the e s o t e r i c and e x o t e r i c aspects of Islam and thus
succeeded in bridging t h i s gulf to a l a r g e e x t e n t .

In the s i x t h century H i j r a , the g r e a t e s t mystical

genius of Arabs, lihykh Muh-i-ud-din Ibn A l i , commonly
known as Ibn'al-Arabi gives a tremendous form to the
p a n t h e i s t i c philosophy. As we have already seen the c l e a r
i n d i c a t i o n s of pantheism in Dhul Nun of Lgypt, S i r i Saqati
of Rihawand»Maruf of Karakh, and Bayazid of Bistam.
Though long before Ibrf Arabi i t a t t a i n e d a p h i l o s o p h i c a l
shape, in the w r i t i n g s of Shykh Fariduddin A t t a r and I b n - a l -
?arid^ i t was fully developed by Ibn Arabi. He l e f t an
unshakable influence on the h i s t o r y of 3ufi thou^.ht but
h i s influence on h i s t o r y of muslim philosophy in g e n e r a l
car(2,not be over s i m p l i f i e d . He i s t h e g r e a t e s t inter^j^reter
of the Islamic d o c t r i n e of Wahdat-al-V/ajud. Ibn' Arabi
t r i e d to build h i s system on the Quranic foundations.

Arbery has r i g h t l y said about him that 'he gathered

i n t o the comprehensive range of h i s meditation the e n t i r e
 25

learning of Isl'iin, and was perfectly familiar not only

with the writings and teaching's of the orthodox simni
theologians, lawyers and philosophers, and of the Sufis
from the earliest times to his own day, but also with the
schismatic and heretical movements like the Ilutazilites,
Caramathians and Ismaills. His system, vast and widely
ranging as it is, emhraces the speculations and terminologies
of all his widely various sources, so that the problem of
abstruse reference is complicated by the further constant
21
d i f f i c u l t y of an i n c o n s i s t e n t t e c h n i c a l vo-cabulary.

v/e s h a l l t r y to sketch h i s d o c t r i n e s in b r i e f .

The 'Unity of God' 'Ta^ohid' i s the fundamental

d o c t r i n e of Islam . 'There i s no God but God' l a i l a h a - i - l a - l a h
negates the l o r d s h i p (Rabubiya) of Khalao (creatures).
P a n t h e i s t i c Sufis by using i t ar La-Maw jud-i-Lalah'There i s
no e x i s t e n c e but God ' o r t h e r e i s nothing but God' negate
the existence of c r e a t u r e s a l s o . Ibrf Arabi being a
p a n t h e i s t i c Sufi holds t h a t only God, which he terms as
rtujud-i-kutlaq (The Absolute Being) i s the r e a l e x i s t e n c e .
His e x i s t e n c e i s i d e n t i c a l with His h s s e n c e . They are
i n s e p a r a b l e from each o t h e r . lie i s the only necessary
being (Wajibul Wujud-li-Dhatihi). He i s ' t h e absolute
source and ground of a l l existence and a l l t h a t e x i s t s ' .

But the universe has no a c t u a l e x i s t e n c e . Its

e x i s t e n c e i s r e l a t i v e ' e i t h e r a c t u a l or p o t e n t i a l ' . I t is
 28

both e t e r n a l e x i s t e n t and temporal n o n - e x i s t e n t ; eternal

e x i s t e n t as being in God's knowledge and temporal non-
23
e x i s t e n t as being e x t e r n a l to God.

God i s the only being. The e n t i r e imiverse i s

His m a n i f e s t a t i o n . To Ibn Arabi r e a l i t y can be viewed
from two d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s , when we regard i t as t h e 'essence
of a l l phenomena' i t i s 'Haqq,' and when we regard i t as
t h e 'phenomena manifesting t h a t essence, i t i s Khalq. Thus
OA

Ibn Arabi holds i m i v e r s e , Lhalq and God''Haqq^ identical.

The i d e n t i t y i s seen on the plane of the i d e n t i t y of His
substance Dhat-o-Sifat (substance and a t t r i b u t e s ) .
Ibn Arabi maintains that Dhat (Being) i s i d e n t i c a l
to s i f a t ( a t t r i b u t e s ) . God i s expressed or described by
His a t t r i b u t e s and names (Asma), The universe and things
in i t are the m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of the a t t r i b u t e s of God. They
express themselves in i t . In the same way the names are
i d e n t i c a l to God. For names though many, denote the same
reality 'God'?^

'..lorld i s i d e n t i c a l to God. He conceives i d e n t i t y

on two planes e . g . , by negation of t h e world end affirmation
of God*. The world has no r e a l e x i s t e n c e . The only
e x i s t e n c e i s God. I t e x i s t s o n l y as the m a n i f e s t a t i o n or
modes of God. On the plane of ' a f f i r m a t i o n of God' world
 27

is identical to Kim, for it is the modes in v?hich the

unity has differentiated itself; these modes exhaust the
unity wholly; the unity has no existence over and above
them.

Ibn Arabi holds God both as iimaanent and transcendent.

He rejects both anthropomorphist.for corporealists who hold
that the God's qualities are analogous to that of man e.g.
hearing, seeing, hands etc. and the transcendentalists
who hold God above all these qualities. He holds that the
Quran affirms both transcendence and immanence for God, but
they should be taken otherwise, e.g. God hears or sees or
has hands, means that He is immanent in all that hears,
sees, or has hands, xHis 'hands' seeing or hearing should
not be taken in the sense as mtm possesses them but that
•He is essentially the hands and feet of all that have
hands and feet*. This constitutes his Tashbih. On the other
hand, God is above all these limitations, and is manifested
in all that is. He transcends all because he is above all
27
'individualization' and l i m i t a t i o n s . 'As a u n i v e r s a l
s u b s t a n c e , He i s the e s s e n c e of a l l t h a t i s ' . This
constitutes his 'Tanzih. Thus a c c o r d i n g t o Him the transcendence
and immanence a r e two pennanent and fundamental a s p e c t s of
the reality 'Haqq'. ' N e i t h e r of them would be sufficient
w i t h o u t t h e o t h e r i f we want to g i v e a complete accoiant of
28
reality' .
 28

Ibn Arabi holdf-. man I d e n t i c a l t o God. He explains

the Quranic verse^v/y^:VfCb'j^l'-<jj\cL:3^*we a r e n e a r e r unto aim
than h i s l i f e - a r t e r y as 'God Himself i s the very essence
of the limbs and p a r t s of man't"" He holds t h a t man i s
created a f t e r His image. And I t means t h a t Yic 'Possesses
a l l the a t t r i b u t e s of God.'. Cn the same b a s i s he holds that
one who co£T:iises h i s s e l f , cognises God; As a g a i n s t
Dhankar who accepts world as mere i l l u s i o n , Ibn Arabi
accepts i t s existence^ for world and man to him are the
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of God, or are i d e n t i c a l t o Him. God.is the
only existence; whatever e x i s t s i s I d e n t i c a l to Him. Thus,
one who nef;;ates the existence of u n i v e r s e , negates God.
Ibri Arabi holds universe as the adumberation of God.
Thus i t i s r e a l , for'adumberation i s the appearance of
a s l or xhe t h i n g , i t i s a s l appearing, manifesting i t s e l f .
Hence the world i s i d e n t i c a l with God.31 But to him God
i s not the cause of universe but i t s very essence. In t h i s
way he i s in c o n t r a d i c t i o n with p l o t i n u s .

Ibn Arabi holds that c r e a t i o n has no beginning or

end. The univer;ie was not created at some time, but i s a
continuous m a n i f e s t a t i o n of God. 'God does not c r e a t e any
thing. Creation means simply the coming i n t o the concrete
•70
manifestation of something already existing in God;
 29

This idea of Ibrf Arabi, though in complete

agreement with most muslim philosophers, is in complete

contradiction with Ghazali, who holds that the things are

•created afresh by God from moment to moment, as though

out of a vacuum,'53

Most philosophers and Sufis hold the doctrine of

'meeting' or unification, with God. But in Ibn' Arabi's

system of thought i t i s a meaningless proposition. He

holds that there i s no meeting with God but the realization

of man's (Soul) unity with Him. To him 'man never becomes

God, as God never becomes man. They are always one, even

though v/e are seldom aware of this fact. Only the true
' '•54-
myctic can be aware of it'.

Ibrf Arabi holds the r e a l i t y of Kuhamraad (al Haqiaat-

a l wuhammadiya) also named as reality of r e a l i t i e s (Haqiqat-

a l Haqaiq) as the creative, animating and rational

,principle of universe, which fully manifests in the perfect

man (Al-insan al-Kamil) or the logos'.

We have given a brief sketch of the pantheistic

philosophy of Ibn' Arabi. However, there are some more important

doctrines of Ibn'' Arabi, which we will deal while discussing

Hamadani's meta-physical thought; for Hamadani, like other

Sufi teachers appears to be highly influenced by Ibn' Arabi

in shaping his philosophical position.

 30
li

HAI^IAMI^IS MYSTICilL PHILOSOPHY

Hamadani, l i k e o t h e r t h i n k e r s , has d e v e l o p e d h i s
p h i l o s o p h y on two major p l a n e s : (a) m e t a p h y s i c a l , i n which
he d e a l s v/ith t h e problems of the n a t u r e of God, universe
and man, and the p o s i t i o n and s t a t u s of man, as t h e only
r a t i o n a l b e i n g i n u n i v e r s e , and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of man w i t h
b o t h u n i v e r s e and God; (b) e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l , i n which he
d e a l s V7ith t h e n a t u r e , s o u r c e and t h e b a s i c problems of
knowledge arid i t s v a l i d i t y . But we s h o u l d n o t n e g l e c t
the fact t h a t h i s philosophy i s b a s i c a l l y t h a t 'of a seer
and a m y s t i c ' n o t of a p h i l o s o p h e r even though he did h i s
best to explain his doctrines' i n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l way.
His p h i l o s o p h y i s d e e p l y embeided i n the muslira p h i l o s o p h y ,
r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e s and c u l t u r e . The c h i e f s o u r c e of h i s
d o c t r i n e s i s the p h i l o s o p h y of Ibn' A r a b i . A p a r t from him,
Hamadani a l s o seems to have r e c e i v e d i n s p i r a t i o n from other
Sufis, most n o t a b l e names among them a r e J u n a i d , Mansoor,
G h a z a l i , Wajmuddin Kubra, I b n - a l - F a r i d , Simnani etc.
We s h a l l t r a c e t h e i n f l u e n c e s , w h i l e d e a l i n g h i s doctrines.
He p a r t i c u l a r l y makes use of t h e Quranic v e r s e s and
t r a d i t i o n s and i n t e r p r e t s them i n a way t h a t happens to
s u i t h i s system of t h o u g h t . He i s a s t r i c t m o n i s t like
Ibn'Arabi. The term t h a t might s u i t h i s m e t a p h y s i c a l
 31

p o s i t i o n oest i s non-dualism. The term i s taken to mean

not merely the mouiclic c h a r a c t e r of h i j metaphyyical
stand point but also implies hi r, complete over^comJng of
a l l d u a l i s t i c conceptions.

His metaphysics i s based on h i s ontology in which

he deals with the nature and a t t r i b u t e s of the ultimate
Being i . e . , l o d , Haq, and the l i g h t as he c a l l s Ilim.

-jefore discussing h i s ontology i t i s necessary to

n o t e Liie following tv/o problems v/hi ch emerge while discussing
h i s system: (a) Like Ibn' Arabi he faces the problem to
r e c o n c i l e the ' p a n t h e i s t i c ' God with the u n i t a r i a n God of
the Quran. The C^uronic concept of God i s t h a t ' t h e r e i s
but one God' who i s the c r e a t o r , the S u s t a i n e r and the Lord
of a l l worlds jmd heavens. Thus Quran affirms existence
of other things as l.he c r e a t i o n of God. Hamadani does not
use the p a n t h e i s t i c Icrm (LA Ka'wJud I-La L a h ) ' t h e r e i s
n o t h i n g but God'; He simply uses the term (LA I'la'./Jud LaHa
Ba l i l '.('uJud LiLcih) 'only God e x i s t s ' . This l o g i c a l l y
implies t h a t only God has the a t t r i b u t e of " s e l f e x i s t e n c e " ,
a l l other thijags are non e x i s t e n t L-i r e l a t i o n to God. he,
as a p a n t ' : e i s t does not consider the universe as the
c r e a t i o n of God but His L.anifestation:'

.jut in h i s .MagnunopuD Z'ikhirat al-iluluk, he considers

the univerje as the c r e a t i o n of God? Here he again t r i e s to
 :^2

r e c o n c i l e the two c o n f l i c t i n g concepts: the Quranic

concept t h a t God i s the c r e a t o r of e v e r y t h i n g , and the
p a n t h e i s t i c concept t h a t He does not create anything or
in other words nothing emanates from Him; the xmiverse i s
according to i t , a manifestation of God. Consequently
He i s considered to be immanent in the n a t u r e .

Let us discuss in d e t a i l Hamadani's explanation of

t h e nature of God as presented in ' Zakhirat-al-Muluk'. He
holds t h a t God i s one and only. There i s nothing l i k e unto
Him. He has no p a r t n e r . He i s the e t e r n a l and absolute
(Samad). He has n e i t h e r any beginning (Awal) nor any end
(Abadist). His e t e r n i t y has no boundaries (Nihaya). He i s
an a b s o l u t e , l i v i n g or e x i s t e n t being. He i s the manifest
(Zahir) and the hidden. No one can comprehend Kim. He i s
omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent and the most merciful.
He i s free from a l l l i m i t a t i o n s of time (Zaman) and space
(Hakfin). He i s sud^ a substance (Dhat) t h a t has nojbody
(Jisiii), no form (Jawhar) and no length and breadth
(Ard-wa Jaht):^ He i s n e a r e r to man than h i s s p i r i t (l^afs).
One can t a s t e rlis nearneos through c u l t i v a t i n g His divine
a t t r i b u t e s and not through argumentation or reason. His
e x i s t e n c e i s manifested through His a t t r i b u t e s .

Cne can 1-aiow His e x i s t e n c e through His g-nosis.

Plamadari, l i k e other Sufis holds that His nearness can be
a t t a i n e d through His mercy. All h i s worships and prayers
 33

a r e in vain i f God does not bestow His mercy upon him to

grant him His n e a r n e s s .

Now we should turn our a t t e n t i o n to h i s p a n t h e i s t i c

view p o i n t , which he has borrowed, as a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d
above, from Ibn' Arabi, and presented in h i s s e v e r a l
t r e a t i s e s , most notable amongst them are R i s a l a - i - Q u d u s i a ,
Risala-i-Wujudia and R i s a l a i - I s t i l i h a t . Since the term
'Wujud' (Being) i s of c a r d i n a l importance in p a n t h e i s t i c
philosophy, i t i s necessary to begin our discussion with
throwing some l i g h t on i t s connotation in order to understand
i t s philosophical implications. The word 'Being' i s very
ambiguous. I t can a t ' l e a s t be understood in two d i f f e r e n t
s e n s e s : (a) 'Being as a concept' i . e . , the Idea of 'Being'
and (b) " t h a t which has being, i . e . , t h a t which e x i s t s or
subsists".

I t i s to be noted t h a t the p a n t h e i s t s do not a t t a c h

much importance t o the f i r s t meaning, as i t reduces the
Being i n t o an Idea or a c r e a t i o n of reason, devoid of a l l
existence. But 'Being' according to them i s the r e a l
e x i s t e n c e , the u l t i m a t e ground and source of a l l t h a t i s .

Jami, one of the g r e a t e s t i n t e r p r e t e r s of Vahdat-

al-^ujud explains i t a s ; "Taken in the f i r s t sense", being
i s an "Idea of the second i n t e n t i o n " which has no e x t e r n a l
 Si

o b j e c t corresponding with i t " . In the second sense 'Being'

s i g n i f i e s the Real Being, who i s s e l f - e x i s t e n t , and on
whom the e x i s t e n c e of a l l other beings depends; and in
t r u t h there i s no r e a l o b j e c t i v e existence besides Him".
By the term 'wujud' Hamadani means 'Wujud-i-Wutlaq' the
absolute Being'.

He has a l s o used the terms Haqiqat-ul-Haqaiq (the

R e a l i t y of R e a l i t i e s ) , Al, Ama' (the B l i n d n e s s ) , Gaib-ul-Gaib
(the Secret of the S e c r e t ) , Gaib-al-Mutlaq (the absolute
s e c r e t ) , or the d i a c r i t i c a l p o i n t (Al N u q t a ) , the absolute
l i g h t (Nur-i-lUutlaq) , the a b s o l u t e book (Eayaz-i-Mutlaq), ^
the Truth (Haq), Uluhiyat (God-head), Wa'hidiyat Aain, and
Hazrati I t l a q , to i d e n t i f y h i s notion of the ultimate Being,
t h a t i s God.

'Wujud-i-Fiutlaq, 'The Absolute Being' i s the only

s e l f - E x i s t e n t Being i . e . , the ' B e i n g - i n - i t s e l f (Nafsi Viujud)
He i s above a l l forms and m u l t i p l i c i t y .1 0 The a b s o l u t e
Being I F n e i t h e r completely r e a l i z e d nor f u l l y Imownto vx
any one. He alone knows His Existence (Dhat) "Inalaha
Yarifuzatihi Paqt"]''

The Being i s sj^)le and i n d e t e r m i n a t e (La Taayun

La Hu). I t s u n i t y , t o t a l i t y or absoluteness (Kul) i s
i n d e t e r m i n a t e .1 2 The indeterminate being i s devoid of a l l
names (Ism), a t t r i b u t e s (V/asf) and r e l a t i o n s (Rasm). It is
 35

bare essence which has no predicates; consequently it is

indefinable, unknowable Eind incommunicable.

The multiplicity or the universe and whatever

is in it, is simply His manifestation or His Lights
(Tajaliyat). It exists only as His modes. He is Immsinent
(muhit) in everything.

Hamadani further holds that He Transcends everything

without any fusion (Hulul) with them, either on the level
of His Being, (Dhat) or attributes (Sifat)!^ In this way
Hamadani refutes Hallaj and his followers who admit the
fusion of God in man, and 'union' of man with God.

He explains His immanence or permeation by the

help of a mathematical metaphor of nxmber 'one', the
15
diacritical point, 'Nuqta' and the first alphabet 'Alif'^
He holds that the reality of the diacritical point is its
hiddenness in the form of 'Alif' and its manifestation with
them.
The Being is simple and indeterminate. Its unity,
1 f)
totality or absoluteness (Kul) is indeterminate. The
indetenainate being is devoid of all names (Ism), attributes
(Wasf) and relation (rasm). It is bare essence which has
no predicate; consequently it is indefinable, unknowable
1 7 In its determination or descent it
and in commvjni cable.
 86

passes through five stages called as Hazrat-i-Khamsa which

exhaust the whole of i t s r e a l i t y or unity.

The f i r s t two stages are conceptual (Taayuni-Itibari)

and the l a s t three stages are actual.

In i t s f i r s t descent the Being manifests i t s e l f in

itself. In other vrords i t becomes conscious of i t s e l f as
pure being; the consciousness of names (Asma) and a t t r i b u t e s
(Sifat) is only Ijmali i . e . , general; i t remains implicit
in i t s essence. I t i s the s t a t e of i t s u t t e r one-ness
(Ahdiat). Hamadani also calls i t as the general (Ijmali)
or the f i r s t cognition (llm'awal). I t i s the s t a t e of
abstract unity and absolute essence. I t implies the
absolute Being of God. "This Being according to His
1R
e s s e n t i a l nature i s unknown and unknov/able". that i s why,
Hamadani like other Sufis, has spoken of i t as the
incommunicable (absolute) unseen (Huwiyyat-i-Ghayb), the
pure light (Nur-i-hutlaq), and the absolute eternity
(Azaliyat-i-Mutlaq).

In the second descent the Being becomes conscious

of its attributes in detail (Ilm Tafsili). These attributes
are the names of God. These names are differentiated from
each other. In this stage the Being descends from the
state of the Absolute unity (Ahdiyat) to the one (Wahidiya),
explicitly in possession of its manifold attributes. In
 37

this stage God became fully cognitive of the (Ayan)

essences. Hamadani states that at this stage the Being
manifested in seven names or attributes, i.e., Ilm
(knowledge), Qudra (power), Mashiya (will), Takalum (speech),
Sama (hearing), Seeing (basar) and Hayat (life). These
seven names are the sources of all other names and
attributes which are innxjmerable. To some Sufis the
attribute of Ilm (knowledge) is the source (Imam) of all
other attributes, because of its superiority (sharf).^

Before;' discussing the third descent, it is

necessary to make clear that the stages or descents of the
Ahdiya and the Wahidiya are identical to one another.
"These are suppositional ranks established from the vicv/-
point of the gnostics. Temporal distinction is never found
in them because it is evident that the Absolute Being could
never be conceived at any moment devoid of knowledge. God
almighty is never \maware of His own Essence, Attributes,
Names and Ideas; neither can there be implicitness and
explicitness in His Absolute knowledge. Therefore the
and attributes
Absoluteness of Lssence/which was found before the
manifestation of things is there even after the manifestation
of things"?^

The third descent is called Ta'ayyuni Ruhi. It is

the actual descent. In this stage the unity has broken
 38

itself up into so many spirits e.g., angels. The spirits

are of two types: (a) those who are pure spirits and have
no body, namely angels; (b) those who have body e.g., jin,
21
devils, animals and men.

Man comes last of all these descents and his rank

is inclusive of all other ranks, material as well as
spiriti;ial. So far as his material or bodily existence is
concerned, he claims no distinction from animal kingdom.
His distinctive feature lies in his spirit which is regarded
as a divine element in him.

The human spirit is one of the lataif (secrets)

of God. It is the full manifestation of the second descent
and is like the universal reason but superior to it. It
has been given the knowledge of entire univers^ The soul
of the prophet Mohammad is the highest among the souls.
23
I t has the knowledge of a l l s t a g e s and d e s c e n t s . "To the
s p i r i t of the Mohammad alone are given the Jawami-ul-Kalim.
Mohammad was a prophet when Adaiii was between water and c l a y " .
Ve w i l l d i s c u s s luore about him while d e a l i n g vfith the
concept of the p e r f e c t man.

The f o u r t h descent i s c a l l e d Tayyuni M i t h a i i or

i d e a l determination. I t i s i n t h i s descent t h a t the vforld
of i d e a s comes i n t o being.
 39

The f i f t h d e s c e n t i s " T a ' a y i m i J a s a d i or p h y s i c a l

d e t e r m i n a t i o n " , ' i t y i e l d s t h e phenomenal o r p h y s i c a l b e i n g s .

.From t h e above d i s c u s s i o n i t may be concluded that

" t h e s e s t a g e s (which a r e c a l l e d the f i v e p l a n ^ of Being)
a r e only g r a d u a l r e a l i z a t i o n s of t h e c a p a c i t i e s t h a t were
a l r e a d y l a t e n t i n the autributes".

Hamadani has a l s o c a l l e d t h e s e s t a g e s as 'awalim'

(worlds) and named them as t h e Alami l a h u t (divinity),
The A l a m - i - J a b r a t , The Alam-i-Amr or t h e Alam-i-I-.alakut,
t h e Alam-i-l>Iithal and t h e Alam-i-Mulk r e s p e c t i v e l y ^

THE PERFECT, MAN

Hamadani h o l d s man a s microcosm i n whom a r e

r e f l e c t e d a l l t h e a t t r i b u t e s of macrocosm. God has d e p o s i t e d
i n h i s h e a r t t h e s e c r e t s o r e l e m e n t s which a r e n e i t h e r i n
• A r s h ' (Throne) P a r s h ( E a r t h ) and Aasman ( s k y ) . Hamadani
s a y s t h a t he i s a s m a l l u n i v e r s e by a p p e a r a n c e b u t i n its
actuality, r e a l i t y and m e a n i n g s , i s t h e macrocosm ( J a h a n - "^
i-Kabir)?'^

l i k e Ibrf A r a b i , Hamadani a t t a c h e s a h i g h i m p o r t a n c e
t o t h e cosmic s i t i n i f i c a n c e of man. The u n i v e r s e , according
t o him i s a ' B i g Kan' c r e a t e d by God i n o r d e r t o s e e Himself,
vfhile man i s a s m a l l u n i v e r s e , r e f l e c t i n g l i k e a w e l l -
p o l i s h e d m i r r o r t h e o b j e c t s of n a t u r e or cosmos as they
 Q O

really are. Man embodies a l l t h e a t t r i b u t e s which a r e

foTond i n t h e u n i v e r s e . In o t h e r words he i s such a model
which r e f l e c t s in i t s e l f the e n t i r e u n i v e r s e . The perfect
man i s t h e v i c e ^ r e g e n t of God on e a r t h . He i s endowed with
t h e a b i l i t y t o cognize o r \anderstand t h e whole \ j n i v e r s e .
A l l t h e elements, of u n i v e r s e r e c e i v e t h e m u n i f i c i e n c e of
God t h r o u g h him and t h r o u g h him God b e h o l d s His creatures
and has mercy upon them.29

The S o u r c e s of Plamadani's P e r f e c t Han

Hamadani i s n o t t h e f i r s t t h i n k e r t o propound
t h e n o t i o n of p e r f e c t man. There have been many a t h i n k e r s
b e f o r e him vAo had propounded i t i n t h e i r w r i t i n g s . The
m y s t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y of Mansur H a l l a j , I b n - i - T u f a i l ' s famous
allegory, ' H a y - I b n - Y a q z a n ' , and a l - G h a z a l i ' s t h e o r y of
• a l - M u t a ' may be r e g a r d e d as an a t t e m p t t o d e s c r i b e and
d e p i c t t h e p i c t u r e of a p e r f e c t man.

Landau h o l d s t h e view t h a t s e e d s of l o g o s doctrine

were sown i n t h e Quran i t s e l f . In a number of instances
t h e term Ruh ( s p i r i t ) and Kalimah (word) a r e employed t o
d e n o t e a l o g o s concept as e . g . , i n Surah IV, I69:
' V e r i l y t h e M e s s i a h , J e s u s t h e son of Mary, i s but t h e
A p o s t l e of God, as His word which He c a s t i n t o T-'iary and
a s p i r i t from Him*.31
 But Ibn' Arabi was the first muslim thinker to put
forth a synthetic and systematic theory, or rather a group
of theories, derived fro.a different sources and brought
into one unity which one might reasonably call the first
32
muslim doctrine of Logos.

His doctrine of logos has a cardinal importance

in muslim thought. It has left an unshakable influence on
the thinkers who afterwards propounded such a theory,
There has not been any other thinker after him who has given
any original ideas about the logos theory. To a great
extent all the Sufis who have propounded such a thesis have
'simply reproduced his ideas in some form or the oth :r,
33
Some times even verbatim et l i t t e r a t i m . Hamadani has
reproduced to a l a r g e r e x t e n t the logos theory of Ibn' Arabif
He has used the following terms t o designate the perfect man:
I n s a n i Kcunil (the p e r f e c t man)
Ruh-i-Muhammadi (the s p i r i t of the Kuhammad)
K h a l i f a t u l l a h (the vicegerent)-
Aql-i-Awal (the f i r s t intellect)
Nur-i-Huhammadi (the l i g h t of the Muhammad)
S i r a j - i - M u n i r (the luminous lamp)
Ismi-Azam (the g r e a t e s t name)
Abul Arwah (the f a t h e r of s p i r i t s )
Walid-i-Akbar ( t h e g r e a t father)
Ruh-i-Azam ( t h e mosc mighty s p i r i t )
 42
34
Mantiqa -Ilayula ( t h e s p h e r e of t h e prime m a t t e r )
i i l r^uatul HSfar ( t h e c e n t r a l point)•'^
E a q - i - q a t - u l - r i a q a y i q ( t h e r e a l i t y of realities).
Hamadani has n o t e x p l a i n e d t h e s e terms i n d e t a i l .
V/e s h a l l t r y t o throw some lif^ht on them by r e d u c i n g t h e s e
terras i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e h e a d s :

1) The R e a l i t y of R e a l i t i e s , which c o n s t i t u t e s the

metaphysical aspect of l o g o s .
2) The r e a l i t y of the rluliamraad, which p e r t a i n s t o the
m y s t i c a l a s p e c t of the l o g o s .
3) The p e r f e c t man, which symbolizes t h e human or
e t h i c a l a s p e c t of l o g o s .

The R e ; i l i t y of R e a l i t i e s ; The I ' i e t a p h y s i c a l Aspect

of ihi Logos

b e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g the t h r e e a s p e c t s of t h e l o g o s ,
i t seems p r o p e r t o o x o l a i n b r i e f l y some t e c h n i c a l terms,
which Hamadani has used as syncjnymous t o it.
that
I t may be n o t e d / t h e s e t e r m s , though anologous so
f a r as t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e c o n c e r n e d , r e f e r co some
different a s p e c t s of t h e l o g o s .

Hamadani has i d e n t i f i e d the f i r s t d e s c e n t of God,

t h a t i s , t h e l o g o s or t h e f i r s t intellect, w i t h the R e a l i t y
o r s p i r i t of Kuhammad. Being analogous t o t h e logos o r the
 43

f i r s t i n t e l l e c t , i t i s the f i r s t manifestation of the real

unity 'iihdiyat' while a l l other existents are the manifestations
of the s p i r i t or the Reality of Muhammad.
u
Thus t h e l o g o s or the s p i r i t of Muhammad i s t h e
c r e a t i v e , a n i m a t i n g and r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e and, as s u c h ,
R e a l i t y of R e a l i t i e s . I t i s t h e inward a s p e c t of the God
head and t h e God head i s i t s outward a s p e c t . I t i s God's
c o n s c i o u s n e s s and, a s s u c h , c o n t a i n s a l l t h e i d e a s of
existing (or potential) o b j e c t s , w i t h o u t , however, in
i t s e l f , having m u l t i p l i c i t y " .

The m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a b s o l u t e ego and i t s aptitude

i s p e r f e c t in t h e p e r f e c t man. For t h e same r e a s o n t h e
Divine b e i n g (which i s a n o t h e r name f o r Wahdat) i s spoken
of as t h e R e a l i t y of t h e e s s e n c e of Muhammad and t h u s the
36
o t h e r name g i v e n t o V/ahdat was the R e a l i t y of Muhammad.
I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o n o t e t h a t "Dhat" e s s e n c e of Muhammad
and the R e a l i t y of Muharamcid i s n o t the same r e a l i t y . They
are entirely two d i f f e r e n t r e a l i t i e s , "The Dhat (essence
o f J4uhammad) i s the 'known' and t h e R e a l i t y of I'uhammad t h e
' k n o w e r ' , t o r e g a r d t h e s e two as one i s as i t were r e g a r d i n g
the 'knov/n' as t h e ' k n o w e r ' , the 'knower' as t h e 'known'
and t h e ' a b d ' as t h e l o r d and tiie l o r ] as the ' a b d * . It is,
a s i t w e r e , r e g a r d i n g the ' p o s s i b l e as t h e n e c e s s a r y and
t h e n e c e s s a r y as t h e p o s s i b l e ' . This i s c l e a r blasphaimy".37
 u

The light of Muhammad (Nur-i-Kuliammad) and the Reality

of Kealities are the terms x-rhich are used for the Reality
of Kuhammad. "Since the idea of Muhammad is entirely
perfect, so perfect light, (which is the hypostasis of the
absolute ego) manifests itself in it and things are
created by this perfect light only.

Let us now proceed to discuss the three aspects

of the logos keeping in view the explanation of the terms
given above. The logos in its metaphysical aspect is
identical to the first intellect. Hamadani says that,
it is the agent of the divine creativeness and the seat of
all multiplicities or pluralities found in the universe.
It subsumes all His attributes through which He manifests
the universe. It is the first creation and the first
manifestation of God.

Hamadani holds the Reality of Realities as the

essence (Dhat) of everything in the universe. The logos
or "the Reality of Realities" is God conceived as the self
revealing principle of the universe; God as manifesting
Himself in a fonn of universal consciousness at no particular
time or place, but as the reality which underlies all
realities and as a being whose consciousness is identical
40
with His essence":
 45

Thus the logos is the agent through whom God

emerges from His absoluteness, His unknowableness (and in
\ 41
a sense unknowingness) into manifestation.

Hamadani holds him the great secret among secrets.

he is the Reality of Realities through whom God is realized.
The Reality of Realities is perfectly and synthetically
manifested in the logos or 'perfect man', while as the
universe is its perfect analytical manifestation.-^ He
further says that man is 'the book' in which everything is
v^ritten, that is man is the manifestation of God.

But it is the perfect man Insani Kamil

\ another name for the reality of realities) which is the
perfect manifestation of God. He calls him as 'the grand or
complete Book' 'Wushafi Jami'. He also calls it as the
•spoken Book*, which testifies the existence of universe.
The universe can only be realized through him, for every
thing (or part) is his attribute. He being the perfect
manifestation is the embodiment of all attributes. He
asserts that he is the Divine creative principle of the
universe. In his Risala Istilahat, he explains it as:
He is the primary seat of manifestation of the divine world
(God), iiverything is written on the (Lauh) the tablet and
the tablet is nof^dxriQ, but the inner aspect of the mighty
spirit (Batin-i-iiuh-i^Azam). In this way he is the caii£. J
 46

Of the creation, a tradition runs as "I am from the light

46
of God and the whole world is from my light";

Hamadani names the' logos as the 'Mantiqa' Hayula'

the sphere of the prime matter, for it is "the essence
whence everything takes its origin".

The logos is the agent which differentiates

between the 'Dhat' essence of God, for he is the inv^ard
aspect of the God-head and the God-head is its outward
aspect. It is the*'first step by which the absolute is
removed from its absoluteness in the process of its
descent (to our knowledge), it is the first epiphany of
God to whom God addressed Himself, as the tradition of the
prophet says 'l have not created a creature dearer to He
than Thee: with Thee I give and with thee I take and with
Thee I punish etd."^^

The logos is the light or essence of the words of

Failat
creation Kalimat-i- / and the secret of the words and the
change Haraka He is the central point of all natures. He
comprehends the grand book Mushaf-i_Jami' of Godt^

The Reality of Iluhammad; Tl;e Mystical Aspect

of the Logos

Like Ibn' Arabi, Hamadani holds the prophet Muhammad

as the spiritual head of the prophets and the saints.
 47

The spiritual head of the prophets and saints

is not the Wuhammad,the man or prophet, but the Reality
or Spirit of Muhammad, the first intellect, the light of
the Muhammad (a term earlier used by Hallaj *though not in
such a philosophical flavour as it was later done by
Ibn' Arabi and his school)51 the father of the spirits and
the great naine, "which is the active principle in all
divine and esoteric knowledge".52 He is the nucleus of

their 'esoteric' knowledge. He is the basic agent and•the

source through v;hom the esoteric or Divine knowledge is
transmitted to the prophets and saints according to their
53
merit and capacity.-^

Every prophet is deter^ninated and dominated by a

divine name, but the Prophet Muhammad or the Muhammad,
spiritual head of saints is under the influence of all
54 He is the epitome of the manifestation of
divine names.
55
the names and attributes of Being 'God*.

Hamadani holds that Muliammad (the spiritual head)

comprehends all the attributes of God. He is the light of
the logoi (Kaliraat). He is the centre of the universe.
He is the macrocosm, in nim all the manifestations are
united.

In this way he believes in the same principle of

Ibn' Arabi, who holds that the prophets and saints ,"rranifest
 48

t h e a c t i v i t i e s and p e r f e c t i o n s of t h e u n i v e r s a l logos
Huliammad i n a p e r f e c t degree , The d i f f e r e n c e between
Muhammad ( t h e s p i r i t o r R e a l i t y of Muhammad) and the r e s t
of t h e p r o p h e t s and s a i n t s i s some-v/hat s i m i l a r to t l i a t
between a whole and i t s p a r t s " 57 .

The P e r f e c t Man; Human or E t h i c a l Aspect

of t h e Logos

"The e n t i t y Huhammnd, combining i n i t s e l f both

t h e s p i r i t of I-Iuhauiaiad and r.uhammad t h e man, i s f o r Ibn'
A r a b i t h e l i n k between t h e e t e r n a l and t h e t e m p o r a l , the
R e a l and t h e phenomenal. V/hile Muhammad the man was b o m ,
and was a c t i v e , and died i n t i m e , t h e s p i r i t of Muhammad
e x i s t s in a l l e t e r n i t y . I t i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h the first
intellect (Haqiqat-al~Haqaiq). I t i s the depositor (Mulqi)
of t h e l o g o i ( K a l i m a t ) of t h e e n t i r e w o r l d , and as i;uch,
identical w i t h t h e holy s p i r i t (Ruh). Muhammad i s , thus,
t h e p e r f e c t man.58

Ibn' Ai-abi has used t h e terra ' p e r f e c t ' i n a unique

sense, t h a t i s having a p o s i t i v e being, "and a s such it
may very v;ell i n c l u d e some e t h i c a l o r o t h e r imperfections".
A c c o r d i n g t o him "a t h i n g i's p e r f e c t i n p r o p o r t i o n t o the
d e g r e e of p o s i t i v e b e i n g i t p o s s e s s e s " , or as he s a y s ,
" i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e number of d i v i n e a t t r i b u t e s it
manifests or i s capable of m a n i f e s t i n g "5Q
,"
 49

According to I b n ' A r a b i , G-od i s the most perfect

being and His most perfect m a n i f e s t a t i o n i s tiie perfect
man. Here we should note t h a t the metaphysical and mystical
a s p e c t s are the t h e o r i t i c a l aspects of the logos, w h i l e -
as the e t h i c a l or hxman aspect i s h i s p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t .
That i s why, he i s c a l l e d r e a l i t y of the r e a l i t i e s and the
s p i r i t of Muhammad when r e l a t e d to f i r s t two a s p e c t s , and
' p e r f e c t man' when r e l a t e d to t h e e t h i c a l or human a s p e c t .

Following the p r i n c i p l e s of Ibn'Arabi, Hamadani

e x p l a i n s the t h i r d aspect in the same way. He, l i k e Ibn'
Arabi holds t h a t every man i s a mici'ocosom p o t e n t i a l l y .
But i t i s only the perfect man, v/ho i s a r e a l microcosm,
because he i s a perfect manifestation of God. I t i s only
the perfect man whc knows Ilim tmd msnifests h i s a t t r i b u t e s
completely. All the prophets from Adam to Jesus are the
i n d i v i d u a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , but the prophet Kuhammad i s the
p e r f e c t man and the most "perfect m a n i f e s t a t i o n of God".

He i s the cause of the c r e a t i o n . He i s the

p r e s e r v e r and m a i n t a i n e r of the u n i v e r s e . Ibn' Arabi explains
i t by saying t h a t "the universe continues to be preserved
so long as the perfect man i s in i t " .

Being the perfect m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the names and

e
a t t r i b u t e s of God, the perfect man i s Hit; v l c e r g e n t
(Khalifa-Tullah)?2
 50
Hamadani further holds that all the prophets,
saints, mystics and scholars are virtuous in relation to
him. Each of them is virtuous in accordance with his
capacity to he in proximity vrith him.63

Hamadani like Ibn'Arabi has approached the doctrine

of logos from many aspects. To conclude: in its metaphysical
aspect the locos iu the reality of the realitiesj in its
mystical aspect the logos is the reality of Muhammad and
in its hi.mian aspect the logos is the perfect man. Naturally
all the three are identical as a man remains the same,
irrespective of whether we consider him as spiritual,
biological, intellectual, racial, social or any other
entity"?"^
THE WORLD
God i s the only necessary being (w'ajib-al-u'ujud).
A l l other beings are contingent ( P o s s i b l e ) , because they
a r e not s e l f e x i s t e n t , t h e i r existence depends on God.
I b n ' A r a b i makes no room for ' p o s s i b l e ' or (contingent)
' i n s p i t e of the fact t h a t he c a l l s A y a n - a l - I h a b i t a ' possible
b e i n g s .65 He holds them 'necessary in the sense t h a t they
are p o t e n t i a l i t i e s which must of n e c e s s i t y be actualized?
On t h i s point he c o n t r a d i c t s p h i l o s o p h e r s , v/ho accept the
e x i s t e n c e of p o s s i b l e beings. Ibn' Arabi holds that a l l
t h a t e x i s t s , i s necessary_,either necessary in itself
or necessary made by other being, v:ho i s necessary in i t s e l f .
He holds t h a t a l l t h a t e x i s t s i s i d e n t i c a l to necessary
 51

being. As a g a i n s t , I b n ' A r a b i , Hamadani believes in

• p o s s i b l e ' or contingent e x i s t e n c e , as. i t i s obvious from
h i s use of the word' Imkan-iya' p o s s i b l e existence or being.
He holds God as the only s e l f e x i s t e n t being. Other beings
are h i s c r e a t u r e s . They are the modes through which God
i s manifested. The p o s s i b l e has e x i s t e n c e through the
necessary being, God. They are given existence by God so
t h a t r e a l i t y of the essence and ' t h e r e a l i t y of p o s s i b l e s '
fn
i s proved i n His J a b r u t i a unseen.

Hamadani believes l i k e Ibn' Arabi in the i d e n t i t y

between God and world. He argues t h a t God i s the only
reality. He manifests Himself through His a t t r i b u t e s which
are i d e n t i c a l to His Being. The world, being the manifestation
of His a t t r i b u t e s bears i d e n t i t y with His Being. Thus God
and world are i d e n t i c a l , for:

V/orld i s the manifestation of the Divine a t t r i b u t e s

or names and the a t t r i b u t e s or names are the manifestation
of God. In other words things manifest God and God i s
manifested in t h i n g s . God manifested Himself through
d i f f e r e n t d e s c e n t s , v/orld i s the fourth among them.

The i d e n t i t y can be shovm on the following plane

also. God i s the prime oiatter (Hayula) of every being or
e x i s t e n c e (V/ujud) , s c r i p t s (Hurf) , and words (Kalima).
He comprehends a l l t h a t e x i s t s , i^verything has i t s beginning
 52
in Him and end in Him. Whatever exists whether open or
secret returns ultimately to Him. They are essences (ayn)
of His secret (Batin) and He hides Himself in them. It
simply means that God is in everything that exists.

In this way Hamadani follows the following views

of Ibn Arabi, 'the creator is the created 'I am He and He
6q
Is I*. Since He permeates in the entire universe, Ke is
the only spiritual reality behind every phenomenon'- Hence
He as creator is identical with His creation.

'A divine attribute ic a divine name manifested

in the external world'. They are manifest in every
phenomenon (Asar) and activity (Faal). Here again, we see
the identity between the universe (creation) and the Divine
names, and between Divine names and the Divine attributes.
Again, Divine attributes are identical to God who is the
first, the last, the manifest and the hidden, and comprehends
(Muhit) all that isT^

Hamadani .vlso holds that the Heaven 'uliya' is

the image (Aks) of the unknownable incommunicable essence
(Huwiyyat-i-I'Iutlaq) and other seven heavens are the
71
manifestations or the adumberation of the attributes of God.
 v53

V/e are a£;ain drawn to the conclusions of I b n ' A r a b i ,

who holds t h a t ' Z i l l ' 'Adiomberation i s appearance of a s l
o r the t h i n g , I t i s a s l appearing, manifesting i t s e l f .
Hence the world i s i d e n t i c a l with AllahJ 72 In the saiae way
Hamadani i n d i c a t e s t h a t the world i s r e a l , but i s maujud,
b i l Ghayr. He does not c a l l the vrorld as 'i-laya' as ^hankara
holds i t . He, by a t t r i b u t i n g world as the e x i s t e n t i a l
::ianifestation (Mazhir-i-Kharji) of the names and a t t r i b u t e s
of God, affirms i t s e x i s t e n c e .

Hamadani fully follows the p a n t h e i s t i c d o c t r i n e

t h a t there i s only one r e a l i t y (God). He does not admit the
r e a l i t y of the many (Hialq or world) in terms of t h e i r
substance as opposed to essence- 'The r e a l i t y ' 'can only be
regarded as many when viewed s o l e l y as manifestation of t h a t
e s s e n c e , i . e . , v,'hen viewed by ourselves in an i n t e l l e c t u a l
or sensory way ( t h a t i s as substancef.

In Ibn' A r a b i ' s words i t can be explained as

' M u l t i p l i c i t y i s due to d i f f e r e n t points of view, not to an
a c t u a l d i v i s i o n in the one essence (ayn).

ArAH-AL-riL\i:ITA

In the metaphysical system of Ibn Arabi the Ayan-al-

Thabita occupy an important p o s i t i o n , for they have "an
internnediary p o s i t i o n between the one as the absolute r e a l i t y
 54

and tJac phenomenal world". 'He c a l l s them as the first

keys (al-Mafatih-al-Awal) and the keys of t h e unseen'
'Mafatih-al~Ghayb' because they were the opening chapter
in the h i s t o r y of the c r e a t i o n ' .75 I t i s already s a i d t h a t
Ibn Arabi does not believe t h a t c r e a t i o n has any beginning
or end. To him c r e a t i o n i s the spontaneous m a n i f e s t a t i o n
of the a t t r i b u t e s of God.

'Every day in (new) splendour

Doth Ke shine"?^

Hamadani holds the same viev/s regarding the

c r e a t i o n and the c r e a t o r . The Ayan-al t h a b i t a are b a s i c a l l y
r e l a t e d to the second descent of God, in which known and
knower are one. I t i s t h e mysterious s t a t e which i s only
known to God. Even the mystics cannot knov/ i t through
t h e i r mystic u n v e i l i n g (Kashf). I t i s not also possible
for a mystic to know i t , in the s t a t e of complete
is
a n n i h i l a t i o n (Fana) whichyimpossible in t h i s world.

I t i s a l s o impossible to loiow the 'specific

r e l a t i o n of Ayan-al-Thabita to the Divine essence, and how
they are ' r e l a t e d to t h e c r e a t i v e power of God' and how
they 'become' e x t e r n a l e x i s t e n t s for a m y s t i c , but he
can get the taiowledge of 'Ayan-al-1'habita', themselves,
p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s own, i f God r e v e a l s i t to him. Ibn Arabi
holds t h a t the 'Ayan-al-Thabita' have ' t h e unique
c h a r t i c t e r i s t i c of b e i n g both a c t i v e and p a s s i v e (or
receptive)'. I n a s m u c h as they a r e , i n a s e n s e , 'emanations'

from the o n e , and forms of t h e d i v i n e names and p o t e n t i a l

m o d e s ' i n t h e d i v i n e E s s e n c e , they a r e p a s s i v e and
receptive. And i n r e s p e c t of t h e i r e s s e n c e s , i . e . i n v i r t u e
of t h e i r p o s s e s s i n g w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s a l l t h e potentialities
of becoming what t h e e x t e r n a l e x i s t e n t s of the phenomenal
world a r e , they a r e r e g a r d e d as a c t i v e . But a c t i v i t y and
p a s s i v i t y a r e r,imply t h e l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s77
.

The A y a n - a l - T h a b i t a 'may be t r a n s l a t e d as t h e
Fixed P r o t o t y p e s ' o r ' l a t e n t r e a l i t i e s of t h i n g s ' . Ibn Arabi
h o l d s t h a t t h i n g s of t h e phenomenal v;orld were i n a s t a t e
o f p o t e n t i a l i t y i n t h e Divine e s s e n c e of God before their
coming i n t o c o n c r e t e e x i s t e n c e . They a r e , as i d e a s of His
future 'becoming' t h e c o n t e n t of ills e t e r n a l loiowledge, which
i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h His knowledge of H i m s e l f . In t h e first
descent (al-Tayyun-i-Awal) He r e v e a l e d Himselef i n a s t a t e
of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( n o t a t any p o i n t of t i m e ) i n which
He saw Himself and for Himself an i n f i n i t y of t h e s e ayan
as determinate ' f o r m s of His e s s e n c e , forms which reflected
and i n every d e t a i l c o r r e s p o n d e d to His own e t e r n a l i d e a s
of t h e m ' .73 Thus, a l A y a n - a l - T h a b i t a , may be d e f i n e d as
Affifi s a y s , ' t h e l a t e n t s t a t e s , both i n t h e mind and i n
the e s s e n c e of God, of His f u t u r e ' becomint'-:' s t a t e which
 56

can only be expressed i n tenns of the divine names and

a l l the p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s which hold between them'.79 Their
two fold n a t u r e , as being the i n t e l l i g i b l e ideas as concepts
in the mind of God and the p a r t i c u l a r modes of His Divine
Essence- i s quite explained by Ibn Arabi and h i s school by
u s i n g the teims 'Mahiya* (which explains the f i r s t aspect
of the 'ayn' i . e . i t s being an idea o r a concept') and
huwayya (the second aspect i . e . i t s being an e s s e n t i a l mode)',
These 'ayn' or 'modes' have no sep?irate existence from
the Divine Essence as our mental s t a t e thCin our minds.
Mentally, we can think s o , but p r a c t i c a l l y i t i s not s o .
In r e a l i t y they are 'one with the Divine Essence and Divine
consciousness'. But we s h a l l not confuse them as the
Divine Essence, as our mental s t a t e s a r e not our minds.
Ibn Arabi denies t h e i r existence in themselves and c a l l s
them n o n - e x i s t e n t , in the sense t h a t they have no independent
o r e x t e r n a l existence a p a r t from the Divine Essence of God.
They are 'lo^;ical colrelatives of t h e divine names but they
are also p o t e n t i a l essences. 'As p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , and as
i n t e l l i g i b l e ideas in the mind of God, they c e r t a i n l y are
mere s u b j e c t i v i t i e s but as essence, they are a l l t h a t i s ,
s i n c e they are the divine essence i t s e l f as p a r t i c u l a r i s e d
Q-4

or d e t e r m i n e d ' .
 57

Khi-'l^iliiHCE^

1. H a u r , oeyyed H o s s e i n , L i v i n g ^jufism, Handala

]Jook3, 'Jnwin PaperbackG, London,
1972, 0 . 1 5 .
2. V a l i u d d i n , M i r , The Quranic Sufism, I ' l o t i l a l
BanarsidaG P u b l i s h e r s , D e l h i , 1959, p . 1 .
S u f i s m , by A r b e r y , p . 1 2 .
5. Hasr, S.H., Three Muslim Sat'^tiS, Harvard
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Caiubridgc, 19^4, p . S 3 .
4. ibid., p.85.
5. Valiuddin, II., The Quranic Ljulism, p . 6.
6. ibid. , p.13.
7. ibid. , p.13.
8. N a a r , Li.II., Throe Has 11m Saf';cs, p . 0 3 .
9. D a i r a a - t - a l Waarif I s l a m i a , D a n i s h - i - g a h i Punjab,
•Lahore, V o l . 4 , 1959, p . 4 1 9 .
10. N a a r , S . i l . , Three I'luslim Sa^es , p . 8 5 .
11. Arbery, A . J . , Sufism, George A l l e n ?• Un\an L t d . ,
London, 1950, p . 4 3 .
12. i b i d . , p.42.
13. i b i d . , p . 5 .
14. J u f a r i , rv.x... , Tarikh-i-i'aeav/ur-i-Islam,
i-.ilab i-iansil, Lahcrre, 1950, pp.21 1-12.
15. A r b e r y , A . J . , :jufiHm, p p . 5 4 - 4 , J-ifari, pp.214-5,
10. J a f a r i , iv.A. , T;irikh-i-Tasav,"ai-i-lGlatn , pp. 217-0.
17. i b i d . , pp.219-20.
 58

IS. Arbery, A . J . , Sufism, p . 5 3.

19. ibid., p.57.
20. Jafari, p.241.
21. Arbery, p.99-
22. Affifi, k.h., The M y s t i c a l P h i l o s o p h y of
wuhyid D i n - i - B n u l ' A r a b ! Cambridge
1939, p . 5 .
Arbery, p.100, Landau, L., p.27.
23. Affifi, p.U, Arbery, p.100.
24. Affifi, p.10.
25. F a r u q i , B.A. , The M u j a d d i d ' ^ Conception of
TaA^fhid , Sh.' Mohd. A c h r a f , Lahore ,
1940", p. 9 0 , A f f i f i , pp. 3 3 - 4 .
26. ibid . , p. 92.
27. Affifi, pp.19-20.
28. ibid., p.20.
29. Faruqi, p.94.
j50. ibid. , p.93.
31. ibid., p.94.
52. Landau, Kora , The Philo£--ophy of I bn ' A r a b i ,
A l l e n : I In win, London, 1959, pp. 29 .-. 32,
33. ibid., p.?0•
3-1. ibid., p.33, Affifi, p.57.
35. Arbery, p.100.
 59
II

1. LcUndau Rom, 'Ac Philosophy of J h n ' A r a b i , p . 2 3 .

2. Hainadani, Mir S a i y i d A I I , R i s a l a - i - Q u d u s i a ,
O r i e n t a l R e s e a r c h Department, S r i n a g a r ,
p.151 a.
3. i b i d . , pp.1i?0 a-151 a.
4. Haiuadani, Zakhirat-ul-huluk, riatba-i-Afghani,
Amritsar, 1321 A . H . , p . 5 .
5. ibid., pp.5-7.
6. Valiuddin, The QurHnic Uuflaifi, pp. 8 3 - 9 .
7. Haraadani, R i u a l a - i - l m j u d i a , Bri t i s h ?iusuem ,
London, p . 3 1 4 .
3. Hamadani, R i s a l a - i - A s r a r - u n - N u g t a , O.R.D.,
Srinagar, p.78.
9. flam a dan: , Rl s a l a - i - J F. I j 1 aha t - i -M ur-Bn khshl a ,
O . R . D . , S r i n a ^ ' a r , p . 143 a.
10. Iinuiad<ani, R i s a l a - i - f . ' u . j u d i a , p . 31 4 .
1 1 . ria.aadani , R i s a l a - i - C t U d u a i a , p . 151 a - p . 143 b.
12. ilaiiiadani , i t i s a l a - i - A s r a r - u n J u q t a , p . 178 a.
13. Hamadani, R l s a l a - i - i , , u d u s i a , p. 149 a.
1 4 . i b i d . , p. 1:: 1 b.
1 5 . Hamadan i , R i s a l a - i - / > . s r a r - u n - x i u o t a , p . 1 76.
16. i b i d . , p.178.
17. iiamad'in 1 , R i u a l a - i - I s t, j l a h - ^ t - i - i l u i ' ;^akhuhia ,
p.143 b.
18. V a l i u d d i n , hir. , Th_e ».,uranic uui'ism, p. 79.
1 9 . liamad;uii, ^ c i a a l a - i - I u l i l a h a t - i - ! ^ u r DaKhnhia ,
p p . 143 b, 144" a.
i t i s a l a - i - V u j u d i a , p . 324.
 60

20. Valiuddin, k i r , p.79-

21. Ilamadani , Risala-l-Wujudla, p.324.
22. liahrul-uluiu , Abdul A l l A n s a r i , u'ahdat-al-Wu.jud >
Nadvat-ul-Muaanifin, Delhi, p.84.
23. ibid., p.87.
24. Affifi, p.73.
25. ^ a r u q i , B.A., p.89.
2 6. hamadani, Risala-i-l'/ujudia, pp. 324-5.
27. Hamadani , 2;akhirat-ul-yxuluk, p . 119.
2C. k i z v i , 3 . A . A . , A H i s t o r y of 3ufism i n I n d i a ,
Munshi Ram Manohar L a i P u b l i s h e r ,
P v t . , L t d . , New D e l h i , 1978, p . 1 0 7 .
Haraadani, K i s a l a - i - I ^ t i l a h a t - i - K u r
L a k h s h i a , p.14 5.
29. Affifi, p.83.
30. ibid., p.86.
3.1. Landau Kom , p . 5 6.
32. Affifi, p . 86.
33. ibid., p.86.
54. Hamadani, f i i s a l a - i - I s t i l a h a l - i - N u r Bakhshia,
P. H 4 b ,
2.'! khi r a t - u l - M ulu!:, p . 1 1 g.
Kisala-i->'/u j u d i a , p . 325 .
35. Hamadani, lUsala-i-Qudufcjia, pp.147 b - 148 a.
3b. "vali-uddin , h i i ' , p . 9 5 .
37. ibid., p.96.
38. i b i d . , p . 96,
39. Haraadani, Kii^ala-i-w'u j u d i a , X).324.
40. Affifi, p . 69.
 61

41. Landau, p . 5 5 , Hamadani's, Risala-i-Quduaia,

p.148 a.
42. Kajiiadani , R i s a l a - i - Q u d u s i a , p . 143 a.
45. Affifi, p.69.
44. Hamadaiii, RivSala-i-Qudusia, p. 148 a.
45. HamadJini, R i s a l a - l - I s t i l l h a t - i - N u r Bakhshia,
p.144.
46. Valiuddin Mir, p . 9 6 .
47. Hamadani, Risala-i-Wu.judia, p. 325, Affifi, p. 67.
48. Affifi, p.70.
49. Haniadani, R i s a l a - i - Q u d u s i a , p. 143 a.
50. i b i d . , p.143 a.
51. Hamadani, R i e a l a - i - I s t i l a h a t - i - N u r Baldishia, p.144.
52. Affifi, pp.70-71.
53. Hamadf-ini , Zakhirat-ul-Muluk, p. 62.
54. Affifi, p. 76.
55. Hamadani, kisala-i-Wu.judia, p. 325.
56. Hoinadani, R i s a l a - i - Q u d u s i a , p. 174 b.
57. Affifi, p.72.
58. Landau, p . 5 7 .
59. Affifi, p.77.
60. Landau, p . 5 7 .
61. Affifi, 0.34.
62. Hamadani, R i s a l a - i - I s t i l a h a t - f l u r Bakhshia, p. 144.
63. Hamadan-i , Zakhirat-al-Muluk , p. 62.
 62

64 . L n i i d a u , p . 60.

65. Affifi, p.9.

6G. ibid., pp.9-10.

67. IIamad;3Jii , K i s a l a - i - A s r a r - u l - I ' I u q t a , p.79 b.

68. ibid., p.81 a.

69. Affifi, p.12.

70. Kamadani, Risala-i-Qudusia, y.149 ^'

71. Ilamadani , R i s a l a - i - A s r a r - u l - N u q t a , p.88 a.

72. Faruqi, p.94.

73. Landau, p . 5 1 .

74. Affifi, p.n .

75. ibid., p.52.

7 6. Quran, LV-29.

77. Affifi, p. 53.

78. ibid., p.47

79. itid., p.47.

80. ibid., p.48.

81. ibid., pp.49-50.

 G3

CHAPTER II
% f

HAMADANI^ ETHICAL THOUGHT

A BRIEF SURVEY OF ISLAMIC ETHICS BEFC«IE HAMANADI

Under t h e shadow of d i v i n e g u i d e - l i n e s of the

Quran Muslims d e v e l o p e d t h e i r s c i e n c e s j and e t h i c s was n o t
an e x c e p t i o n . The Quran l a i d down t h e b a s i c and firm
f o i i n d a t i o n s o f e t h i c s , b u t e t h i c s as a s y s t e m a t i c s c i e n c e
' t o o k a l o n g time t o e v o l v e . Ibn Miskawaih was t h e first
Muslim t h i n k e r who p r e s e n t e d a s y s t e m a t i c and d i s c i p l i n e d
t r e a t i s e on e t h i c s , Muslims, u n d e r t h e Qreek i n f l u e n c e ,
u p t o h i s t i m e , c o n s i d e r e d e t h i c s as a b r a n c h of p o l i t i c s .
But he changed t h i s tradition.

The e r u p t i o n of d i f f e r e n t ' p r o b l e m s ^ i n Muslim

s o c i e t y and stat-e"'and Greek s t u d i e s i n f l u e n c e d t h e Muslim
Mind. The e a r l y Muslim P h i l o s o p h e r s are" l i v i n g example of
this influence. One cannot i g n o r e - the r o l e of t h e e a r l y
t h e o l o g i a n s of I s l a m i n the development of I s l a m i c e t h i c s .
But what i s t o be remembered i s t h a t t h e y confined their
d i s c u s s i o n t o " t h e knowledge o f . t h e good and r i g h t , and
t h e problem of t h e b a s i s of m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n s " .
 64

On. the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Quran and Sunnah,

many problems a r o s e . As S h a h r i s t a n i puts i t j "the problems
which were r e s p o n s i b l e u l t i m a t e l y for the emergence of
s e c t s in Islam were f o u r : -

1. The freedom of w i l l .
2. A t t r i b u t e s of God.
3. Faith and a c t i o n .
2
4. The s t a t u s of reason and r e v e l a t i o n " .
The questions of the freedom of w i l l , and God's
Omnipotence were not e n t i r e l y new to the world a t the
emergence of Islam. Before the advent of Islam there were
people who believed in fatalism and Free w i l l . And both
problems were and are c r u c i a l even today. On the one hand,
i f absolute f a t a l i s m i s accepted i t makes man simply a toy
i n the hands of God, and on the o t h e r hand, i f absolute
freedom i s accepted i t leaves man fi"ee to do everything
and r a i s e s questions about the omnipotence of God.

Islam considers a mid-way. I t gives t o man a

proper p o s i t i o n a s the v i c e r e g e n t of God and also l i m i t s h i s
freedom not only as His viceregent but His c r e a t i o n .

Jahm, son of Safwan, i s the founder of ' J a b a r i '

school of thought in Islam. He i s of the opinion, "that
man has no freedom of w i l l , no l i b e r t y of v o l i t i o n and no
 65

c h o i c e of a c t i o n , t h a t man i s e n t i r e l y h e l p l e s s , working,
a s a machine d o e s ; and t h a t man i s n o t r e s p o n s i b l e for
h i s deeds"?

On t h e o t h e r hand Ma'had a l - J u h a i n i founded the

S c h o o l of ' Q a d r * . He went t o the o t h e r e x t r e m e . He view^li
t h a t man i s a b s o l u t e l y f r e e i n h i s d e e d s , and i s wholly
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r them. Both the s c h o o l s remained a t
loggerheads for a long time. L a t e r r on, the Jabarites
became ' M u s h a b b i h i n ' , and t h e Q a d a r i t e s a c q u i r e d t h e name
of M u t a z a l i t e s .

But i t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e Quran was

t h e b a s i c s o u r c e of a l l d e v e l o p m e n t s , J a b a r i t e s and Q a d a r i t e s ,
b o t h based t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e t h e o r i e s on t h e Quranic v e r s e s .
Though t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s o b j e c t i o n a b l e i n t h e lucid
s e n s e t h a t b o t h s c h o o l s n e g l e c t e d o t h e r v e r s e s which would
g i v e new ways t o t h e i r thought.

MUTAZALITES

'•The M u t a z a l l t::es were t h o r o u g h g o i n g R a t i o n a l i s t s .

They b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e a r b i t e r of w h a t e v e r i s r e v e a l e d has
t o be a t h e o r e t i c a l r e a s o n " . Wasil b i n - A t t a , t h e p u p i l of
H a s a n - i - B a s r i i s g e n e r a l l y h e l d t o be t h e founder of
Mutazalism. The M u t a z a l i t e s named t h e m s e l v e s ao p e o p l e of
u n i t y and justice.
 66

Unity and justice to them imply that God is pure

and simple. His attributes are identical with His essence.
To say that His attributes are different from His essence
7
is 'Kufr', By justice it is implied that God has to reward
deeds
or p^mish those who do good or bad/respectively because
He has bestowed man with freedom of action and volition.
It is implied from God's justice that He should give freedom
and liberty of action to man. Man can not be held responsible
for his actions if he is not free. Thus freedom is
necessary. The actions of man are not creations of God,
but his own.

By j u s t i c e , i t i s also implied, t h a t God being j u s t

can:3o't ^o anything u n j u s t . Being wise, He brings for Hie
s e r v a n t s only t h a t which i s good. Things are in themselves
good or bad and not because of t h a t God has declared them
so. "The thorough going r a t i o n a l i s m of M u t a z a l i t e s i s
t h u s expressed by A l - s h a r a s t a n i in t h e s e words: "The
adherents of j u s t i c e say: A l l objects of knowledge f a l l
under the supervision of reason and receive t h e i r o b l i g a t o r y
power from r a t i o n a l i n s i g h t . Consequently, o b l i g a t o r y
g r a t i t u d e for d i v i n e bounty precedes the ordeirs given by
( d i v i n e ) law; and beauty and u g l i n e s s are q u a l i t i e s belonging
i n t r i n s i c a l l y to what i s b e a u t i f u l and ugly"?
 67
God's vision in the heaven which is the Summum
bonoum is denied by Mutazalitxes on the basis that it
implies direction and place, while God is over and above
all these things. They are of the opinion that reason is
the only criterion to differentiate between things and
actions, good or bad. 'Revelation only confirms what reason
dictates'.

Muslim scholars have given three criteria to see

whether a thing or an action is good or bad, i.e.,

(a) Whether it is meritorious or defective,

(b) Whether it is profitable or leads to loss,
(c) Whether it is rewardable or punishable;

No one objects to the validity of reason in regard

to the first two categories. The difference of opinion is
only about the third. The Asharites hold that it is only
revelation which can tell us how to win the grace and
pleasure of God and thus get reward or punishment. If
reason had been sufficient there would be no need of
messengers and revelation. And it is God who decides the
matters about the reward and punishment. But Mutazalit^es
reject the objection while saying that anything meritorious
and profitable is good and thus rewardable and anything
defective and leading to loss is punishable. When we can
decide about the first two categories, there is no reason
to object or reject the third one.1 2
 G8

A3IiARISM_

The M u t a z a l i t e movement s t a r t e d w i t h t h e intention

t o g i v e a r a t i o n a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to the problems of
religion. But w i t h t h e p a s s a g e of t i m e t h e y became thorough
going r a t i o n a l i s t s . Reason t o them was t h e only criterion
of truth.

R e v e l a t i o n was s e t a s i d e a s a s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e ;
though i t i s t h e b a s i s of r e l i g i o n . "They i g n o r e d t h e fact
t h a t the b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of r e l i g i o n a r e , by t h e i r very
n a t u r e , i n c a p a b l e of l o g i c a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n o r r a t i o n a l
proof. The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of Islam d e a l v/i th t h e
s u p e r s e n s i b l e r e a l i t i e s , and as s u c h , t h e y must f i r s t be
a c c e p t e d on t h e a u t h o r i t y of r e v e l a t i o n " .1 3 Slowly and
gradually reaction started against the Mutazalitea. The
o r t h o d o x p e o p l e came forward t o s a v e the f a i t h . Thus we
h e a r t h e names of Z a h i r i t e s , t h e Mujassamites (anthropomor-
p h i s t s ) , M u h a d i t h i n and J u r i s t s amongst t h e o r t h o d o x Muslims.

They t h o u g h t i t i n n o v a t i o n to r a t i o n a l i z e any
r e l i g i o u s concept. They were of t h e view t h a t we s h o u l d
a c c e p t them w i t h o u t any r a t i o n a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n . But t h e
s i t u a t i o n could n o t c o n t i n u e f o r a l o n g t i m e . There was a
need t o c u t t h e i r o n with the i r o n , i . e . , t h e r e a s o n v a t h . t h e
reason.
/Amongst o r t h o d o x some p e o p l e s t a r t e d d e f e n d i n g f a i t h w i t h
t h e use of r e a s o n and developed t h e ' S c h o l a s t i c K a l a m ' .
 GO

Abul~al-Hasan, A l i , a l Ash*ari, the fovmder of

Aaharism, aaid t h a t "Islam ia not opposed to t h e use of
reasoni, on the o t h e r hand, r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of f a i t h i s a
n e c e s s i t y in I s l a m " . Ashari was the d i s c i p l e of the great
M u t a z a l i t e teacher 'Abu' Ali Muhammad bin abd-al-Wahab-al-
Jubai of Basra.15

Though Asharism was a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t the

r a t i o n a l i s m (Mutazalism), but i t vms not a g a i n s t reason.
I t simply views t h a t r e v e l a t i o n has the upper hand over
reason. Reason has t o confirm only, what r e v e l a t i o n s a y s .
Revelation i s the basic source and c r i t e r i o n of t r u t h and
reality.

The problem of c r i t e r i o n i s very much r e l a t e d with

the problem of 'good and e v i l ' . As above s a i d M u t a z a l i t e s ,
as thorough going r a t i o n a l i s t s , were of the opinion t h a t
reason i s the c r i t e r i o n of good and e v i l , in a l l the three
senses i . e . (a) Merit and d e f e c t , (b) p r o f i t and l o s s and
(c) reward and punishment.

A s h a r i t e s accept the t h e s i s of Mutazalit^es about

the f i r s t two s e n s e s . But on the t h i r d one they c o n t r a d i c t
them. They are of the opinion t h a t not reason but
r e v e l a t i o n can be the c r i t e r i o n of reward and punishment.
To them "what i s commanded by shaF'' i s good, and what i s
 70

prohibited is bad. Shar' can convert previously declared

good into bad and vice versa. As actions by themselves are
neither good nor bad, there is nothing in them which would
make them rewardable (good) or ptmishable (bad). They are
made rewardable or punishable only by revelation or Shar'.

They hold the view that reason can not know what
things pleasp God, and what bring His displeasure or wrath.
It is only revelation through which we can know it. Prayers
which are obligatory for the believers are forbidden to be
performed in some periods, reason can not decide why.

They reject the Mutazalite opinion that goodness

or badness lies in the very nature of actions. They say
that action in itself is devoid of goodness or badness.
It is the commandment of shar' which makes it good or bad;
for example, fasting is good in the month of Ramdan and on
some other days, but is bad on the days of'Iddain'.

Regarding the problem of free will, they again

contradict both the schools, Jabarites and Qadarites.
Jabarites spoke about the absolute determinism of man and
Qadarites about the complete freedom. Asharites choose a
midway. They held the view that God is the creator of
everything. He is the Creator of human actions. Man is
not the creator of any action. But God has given him the
 71

power of acquisition (Kasb). Power (qudrah) is of two

types: (i) Original which lies only in the hands of God,
and (ii) derived, which is bestowed to man by God. Thus
man has no power of his own in real sense. He has simply
the derived power that is acquisition. And, "the true
meaning of acquisition is the occurrence of a thing or event
due to derived power, and it is an acquisition for the
person by whose derived power it takes place".17

The power of creation ana initiation of an action,

and "free choice between two alternatives between right and
1R

wrong", is created in man by God. Then in what respect is

man free, and for what he is rewardable or punishable.
Asharites are of the opinion that he is "free only in making
the choice between alternatives, and also in intending to do
1Q
the particular action freely chorisen".^ And he is rewarded
for the choice which is either right or wrong.

Asharites are of the opinion that the voluntary

action of man has two causes, to come into existence,
(i) real cause, God, who creates it and (ii) derived cause^
the free choice and intention of man which too is created
in him by God. "God creates in two ways, either with a
locus (Mahal) or without a locus. Human actions are His
creations with a locus. God creates and completes the action".20
 72

Man has only the power of free choice and intention for
which he is rewarded or punished.

Regarding the problem of beatific vision, Asharit!lfes

again maintained a midway. They neither accepted the
thesis of orthodox that God will be seen in heaven, through
hiaman eyes and He will be sitting firmly on the throne;
nor the Mutazalite view that beatific vision is impossible
because it implies not only direction and space but also
bodily existence; where as God is above all these limitations.
Asharites say that ''it is possible to see God even though
our sense of vision does not receive the corresponding
"impression", of the object on it. Besides; it is possible
for God to create in human being the capacity to see Him
without the necessary condition of vision, such as the
presence in concrete form of the object itself in space and

time, normal condition of the appropriate sense organ,

21
absense of hindrance or obstruction to perception and so., on.
The sufis and philosophers worked for the extension of
ethical thought. But they too had their limitations. The
sufis could not do extensive work upto the age of al-Ghazali
because they were much interested in practice than theory.
The credit goes to the great theologian and philosopher
of Islam, al-Ghazali, who gave a new orientation, to
different fields of studies and ethics was one of them.
 /'3

Philosophers were sick of Greek philosophy and

traditions. Kindi, Parabi and Ibn Sina, and the Brethem
of purity were much interested in metaphysics. They have
contributed alittle to the field of ethics, but it will be
interesting to give its sketch here.

A1-Kindi

A l - K i n d i ' s s h o r t t r e a t i s e on e t h i c s i s 'Dafa al-

Ahzan* (Removal of g r i e f ) . I n t h i s , he s a y s t h a t love of
w o r l d , and r u n n i n g a f t e r t h e m a t e r i a l t h i n g s i s t h e b a s i c
c a u s e of human g r i e f 22 .

I t i s i n h i s d o c t r i n e of S o u l where we f i n d h i s
s t r a y t h o u g h t s on e t h i c a l p r o b l e m s . He r e g a r d s s o u l as a
s i m p l e , s p i r i t u a l and d i v i n e e n t i t y . I t emanates from God
a s r a y s from t h e Sun.-^ -23 I t i s d i f f e r e n t from m a t e r i a l body.

I t has two-fold r e l a t i o n s . On t h e one hand i t b e l o n g s t o

God b e c a u s e of i t s d i v i n e n a t u r e a n d , on t h e o t h e r i t is
r e l a t e d w i t h body which i s m a t e r i a l , t e m p o r a l and bound of
causes. I t i s on t h e b a s i s of t h i s r e l a t i o n t h a t s o u l i s
n o t wholly f r e e . I t has freedom a n d i m m o r t a l i t y because of
i t s c o r r e l a t i o n with divine world. Through p i e t y one can
a t t a i n t h e knowledge of God. By the knowledge of God one
can e n t e r i n t o t h e s p i r i t u a l w o r l d . The v i s i o n of God
which i s t h e apex of p e r f e c t i o n i s only p o s s i b l e when s o u l
 74

l e a v e s body. Soul has t h r e e f a c u l t i e s : "The R a t i o n a l ,

the I r a s c i b l e ana a p p e t i t i v e " .25 Virtuous man i s t h a t whose
reason c o n t r o l s h i s passions and a p p e t i t e s . .

Al-Farabi

Human actions, according to al-Farabi, are either

praiseworthy or condemnable and the judgement is passed only
when the action is done with a free deliberation. Every
action is done with some purpose or end. The ultimate end
is the happiness. Farabi says that happiness has three
main features, "It must be desirable for its own sake, it
must be the ultimate object of desire, and it must be self
sufficient". Happiness (Saada) is the Summum Bonoum and
all other things that are good are means to it. Pleasure,
wealth or honour are usually conceived by people as desirable,
but Farabi rejects them while saying that they do not fulfil
27
the above said three characteristics.

Farabi believes in the hierarchy of beings in the

entire universe. He views that a thing has its proper place
in the related order of the universe. And this order does
not change. "The reality of a being corresponds to the
level of its existence and the nature of its perfection to
its level of existence and reality". The order of existence,
perfection and reality of a thing is according to its
participation in intelligence, which is the real cause of
everything. Matter is non being, and unreality and non
beingness of althing lies in its nearness with matter.
Matter causes disorder in being and intelligence causes
harmony and order. "Therefore, the higher a being ranks,
29 And it
in order of existence, the more unified it is".
determines his place of order in universe. Farabi further
speaks of internal gradation in intelligence. The highest
is that whose object of intellection is its ownself. Next
to it is that whose object of intellection is highest
intelligence, and the gradation goes downwords. God is the
highest intelligence. His attributes are manifestations of
his intelligence. He has no plurality. He is simple. His
essence is identical to His existence. He is uncaused but
source of all. There are ten intelligences. They are
eternal and have perfection, though of low level, except
the 10th intelligence, no one is related in any way to the
sublunar world. The 10th intelligence governs and gives
form to the sublunar world. It is also called active
intelligence because it makes everything to realize its own
perfection in this world; Prom intelligences proceed the
nine spheres or souls. They are of dvial nature. They
contemplate intelligences and the first being. Their
perfection is lower than intelligence but it is complete.
Souls have no other faculty, which other existence of lower
 76

31
levels have, except intellect. After them is the level of
all those things which are influenced by matter. They are
combination of form and matter. It is the soul or fonn
which detennines their existence. The souls of plants and
animals die with the decomposition of their matter. Man
too is an animal. He has all the faculties which plants
and animals have i.e. nutrition, growth, reproduction,
sensation,imagination and appetition. But besides them he
has the rational faculty which is of the nature of
intelligence. It is only this faculty in him which is
knowing. Hximan intelligence is not free from the fetters
of matter. It is not perfect and actual. It becomes so
only when it frees itself from matter. It is this intellect
32 Intellect
which is the real man, is the dictxmi of Farabi.
has two major functions: theoretical^through which man
realizes metaphysical realities, and practical intellect,
through which he is concerned with the scientific knowledge,
33
art, industry, morality, politics, society and family etc.
But the perfection of the ultimate happiness lies in
contemplation which reflects the first being, because His
activity is merely contemplative. It is theoretical intellect
which enjoys the bliss of contemplation and not the practical
intellect which is always engaged v/ith temporary uncertain
knowledge and objects. Thus true happiness of man lies in
becoming pure intelligence which is the 'real man* according
to Farabi. Han achieves s e l f sufficiency when he frees
himself from m a t t e r and reaches the h i g h e s t stage of 'pure
thought'. And i t i s a t t h i s stage when, "he has a b s o l u t e l y
no a c t i v i t y except contemplation, and has no need of m a t e r i a l
t h i n g s even of h i s body and i t s organs, n e i t h e r for h i s
•54
e x i s t e n c e nor for h i s a c t i o n s " . Farabi says t h a t t h i s
s t a g e i s a t t a i n e d in next l i f e , though some persons (which
are an exception) have achieved t h i s stage in t h i s l i f e as
well. This t h e o r e t i c a l a c t i v i t y i s the u l t i m a t e end of man.
I t i s the h i g h e s t b l i s s or Summum Bonum.

Farabi does not r e j e c t the " P o s s i b i l i t y of the

•55
v i s i o n of God vouschaved in an i n t e l l e c t u a l contemplation",
but he in no way accepts t h e union with God. He i s of the
opinion t h a t man may a t t a i n any stage and type of perfection
but he " w i l l always remain below the s t a g e of the a c t i v e
intelligence. I t w i l l never be able to transcend the stage
•If.
and vinite with the f i r s t being"; Virtue i s "that s t a t e of
the s o u l which gives r i s e to a c t i o n s t h a t lead to t h e o r i t i c a l
•57
perfection". Farabi in h i s Madinat-ul- Fadila explains i t
as "Happiness i s the good, the only thing d e s i r e d for i t s
own Sake. "Those voluntary a c t i o n s which are conductive
to the r e a l i z a t i o n of happiness are r i g h t and f a i r , and
the s t a t e s and q u a l i t i e s of the s o u l from which such actions
proceed are v i r t u e s . These good things are not good in
•75
themselves, they are good for t h e sake of-'hSiij^ti«i8^".
>* <,' N.

%
. 73/^
 78

Thus happiness is the ultimate end according to Farabi.

Virtues are attained through moderation, that is, one should
not go to either extremes. Farabi does not emphasize only
'The Doctrine oT means' but "elevates the status of virtue"
by laying emphasis "upon the purity of motive in the
pursuit of virtue. He who seeks justice or temperance or
any other virtue in a commercial spirit, or pursues them
for any external advantage in fact gets nothing except base
and vice qualities". Farabi gives a classification of
virtues; (a) theoretical, (b) deliberative and (c) moral.
Theoretical virtues belong to theoretical intellect and
deliberative virtues belong to the deliberative part of the
practical intellect. The deliberative virtues are concerned
with society and state. Farabi mentions some of them as
"practical wisdom (at-Taaqqul), discernment (adhdhian),
excellence of Judgement (Judatur-ray) and correctness of•
opinion (Sawab-uz-Zann)".

Moral virtues occur when the appetitive faculty

obeys the practical intellect. In accordance with the
adherence of the appetitive faculty to the practical intellect
following virtues occur: temperance, generosity, bravery,
Justice, modesty etc. The state should be run by the wise
one, philosopher or Prophet, who can lead men correctly
in their struggle to return to the first cause from where
A1
they have sprung. For the attainment of perfection
of moral order, state is very necessary. It should
 79
be run and guarded by t r u t h f u l people. Untruthful ones
who lead t h e s t a t e w i l l remain in h e l l for ever.

Ibn-Sina

Ibn-3ina presents a dual e t h i c s , one for common

people and the o t h e r for wise men. His view i s t h a t
ordinary people should follow the e t h i c s or the moral code
which has a sanction of s o c i e t y . And the wise ones should
s t r u g g l e as to reach the ' f i r s t beloved' or absolute beauty.
Ibn-Sina says t h a t e n t i r e , "universe i s governed by the
force of l o v e , which pervades i t a l l a l o n g " . The wise ones
have to come o u t , through hard s t r u g g l e , from the chains
of m a t e r i a l world as to reach the world of s p i r i t "which
l e a d s them to t h e perfect beauty"7

The Brethren of P u r i t y

The e t h i c a l system of the Brethren of Purity i s

ecletic. They held t h a t e t h i c s i s a science of c h a r a c t e r .
Character i s of two t y p e s : acqxiired and i n n a t e . The
acquired c h a r a c t e r i s developed under the i n f l u e n c e of
s o c i e t y , education, c l i m a t i c conditions and s t r u c t u r e of
body;45 They are of t h e opinion t h a t man has an a p t i t u d e
for good as well as for e v i l . Different organs have
d i f f e r e n t performances. And i t i s t h i s performance which
i s c a l l e d as i n n a t e c h a r a c t e r . To them, r e v e l a t i o n or
r e l i g i o n i s needed to have a proper check over them.
 80

They further say that man is b o m good. But

contradict their ovm statement by forwarding the thesis
that most people are of evil nature. Some amongst them
are reformed. To them character is the state of soul.
Soul has the following powers: "the vegetative appetitive
soul, the animal passionate soul, the human rational soul,
the philosophic intellectual soul and the prophetic angelic
soul". The soul becomes virtuous in character When these
powers function properly. Thus the attainment of the
highest good or Saada lies in virtues or excellences which
result from the proper or moderate functioning of the powers
of the soul.

The human soul which resides in the material body,

belongs to the world soul, or is its part, makes efforts
to reach perfection through "learning moral virtues and
right belie-fs, comprehending truth and reality and acquiring
the knowledge of government and politics"T47 The material
body is an evil and soul inhabits it for a little period.
When soul gets freedom from its fetters, it goes back to
its origin. Being divine or spiritual by nature it has
its relation with God. And it strives for its union with
Himf®

They developed a concept of i d e a l man which according

to Umar Parruq i s "A persian by b i r t h , an Arab by r e l i g i o n ,
 81

a haxiif ( s i n c e r e ) in a t t i t u d e , a Mesopotarnian in c u l t u r e ,
a Hebrew in a s t u t e n e s s , a C h r i s t i a n in manners, a Syrian in
a s c e t i c i s m , a Greek in s c i e n c e , an Indian in thought, a
s u f i in l i f e , a n g e l i c in m o r a l s , godly in views and divine
i n knowledge; Love, according t o them, i s the highest
virtue. " I t i s through love t h a t one s t r i v e s for the imion
with God". But pure love i s only p o s s i b l e a f t e r one has
a t t a i n e d the freedom from the f e t t e r s of m a t e r i a l body.
I t i s love and perfect co-operation through which the
s p i r i t u a l community can be brought i n t o existence which i s
the I d e a l of Brethren of Purity^

Miskawaih

Ibn Miskawaih developc h i s moral philosophy from

h i s metaphysical conceptions.

Ke views God as the f i r s t mover. The u n i t y ,

e t e r n i t y and i m m a t e r i a l i t y are His primary a t t r i b u t e s .
Everything emanates from Him. There i s the order or
gradation in the universe as the order of emanation. First
emanation from God i s "The f i r s t i n t e l l i g e n c e which i s same
52
as the active intelligence". The perfection of emanated
being is according to their relation or the source from
which they emanate. Thus first intelligence is "eternal,
perfect in existence and immutable in state" because of its
emanation from the first Being. The order goes downwards
 82

accordingly.'^ The s o u l emanates from i n t e l l i g e n c e . It

i s a s i m p l e and c o n s c i o u s s u b s t a n c e . I t remains i n m o t i o n ,
which i s i t s e s s e n c e . The motion i s c i r c u l a r and n e c e s s a r y
f o r s o u l , because of i t s i m p e r f e c t i o n . I t gets perfection
when i t f r e e s i t s e l f from t h e f e t t e r s of m a t t e r . Matter
i s d e v o i d of l i f e , a c t i v i t y eind r e a l i t y . M a t t e r i s only
t h e s u b j e c t upon which s o u l a c t s . The e n t i r e world i s the
c r e a t i o n of t h e s o u l . M a t t e r i s d i s o r d e r , d a r k n e s s and

evil. I t c a u s e s d i s o r d e r , i m p e r f e c t i o n and d e f e c t s i n soul.

I t makes i t s p a t h of a c t i v i t y i m c l e a r54 .

The s o u l has t w o - f o l d d i r e c t i o n i n m o t i o n , upwards

and downwards. In t h e upward d i r e c t i o n "soul ascends to
t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e , c o n t e m p l a t e s the i n t e l l i g e n c e , images its
p e r f e c t i o n and by d o i n g so a c q u i r e s l i g h t and s p l e n d o u r ,
and i t s e l f becomes i l l u m i n a t e d , t h e r e b y a c h i e v i n g i t s
p e r f e c t i o n " .5S In i t s downward d i r e c t i o n i t " c o n f e r s l i g h t
and i l l u m i n a t i o n t o m a t t e r " and t h u s goes f a r from its
real direction.

Body i s simply t h e i n s t r u m e n t of t h e s o u l . It,

b e i n g m a t t e r , i s devoid of l i f e . I t i s through the entrances
of s o u l t h a t i t g e t s l i f e . The r e l a t i o n s w i t h i t are
u n - n e c e s s a r y and h i n d e r a n c e s i n t h e p e r f e c t i o n of s o u l .
56
Thus it is necessary to be free from it as soon as possible.
 83

In contemplation, which is the pure activity of

soul, it unites itself with intelligence. When it becomes
intelligence it contemplates God and unites itself with
Him. It is the ultimate end of soul i.e., Summum Bonum.
It is the highest happiness, which Kiskawaih names as
Al-Sa*adah. But it is noteworthy that Miskawaih does not
give any explanation of the nature of this union between
57 Sa'dah is very much a vague term. To explain,
soul and God.
it can be said that it does not reflect any specific object.
Its definition includes, "happiness, prosperity, success,
perfection, blessedness and beautitude". 'sa'adah primarily
means the attainment of some desirable end or good, involving
happiness or pleasure as a necessary concomitant. But - •--
the end or good expands to embrace the whole life and become
the Ideal or the end of all the activities of the soul".
Human Foul has two kinds of states, one is that which is
praised or blamed, and the other is not. The foimer has
three states cognitive, conative and accidental. All these
states have a purpose; its contrary is inconceivable.
Every activity of soul must direct towards an end which must
be necessarily good. And all the end or the purpose of the
activities must lead to an ultimate end, which is the final
end, and where actions or states of soul find their
completion. This end is sought for its ovm sake. It is
the only desirable and self sufficient thing.
 84

A l l hxman goods are r e a l i z e d i n t e l l i g i b l e with

r e l a t i o n and reference t o the u l t i m a t e good which i s the
same as God. Sa'ada or good does not c o n s i s t in wealth,
h e a l t h , pleasure or honour e t c . , but in the proper
functioning of t h a t thing for which i t i s c r e a t e d . "A thing
i s good i f i t serves i t s own s p e c i a l purpose and serves i t
i n the required way. " And i t i s perfect and S a ' i d (happy)
i n the proportion in which i t achieves i t s purpose. A sword,
f o r example, i s meant for k i l l i n g . I h a t sword i s t h e r e f o r e
b e s t and most perfect which cuts sharp and deep". The
working of t h i s law i s f a r more evident in the case of the
s o u l which i s s u p e r i o r to n a t u r e . Obviously, therefore,
the goodness of man l i e s in the performance of t h a t function
which i s p e c u l i a r to him". And the proper function of
man, according to Miskawaih, i s in ' t h e proper e x e r c i s e of
reason'. Perfection of reason is the Sa'ada of man. Reason
i s of two t y p e s : t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l . Theoretical
reason i s pure thought. I t contemplates i t s e l f . I t directs
towards nothing except to i t s own s e l f . I t only affords
the highest p l e a s u r e , t h a t i s , union with God. I t i s through
t h i s pure a c t i v i t y of thought t h a t " r a i s e s man above the
l i m i t a t i o n of humanity".

At t h i s stage one becomes ' D i v i n e ' . The p r a c t i c a l

reason i s reason in a c t i o n . I t simply i s r e l a t e d with the
 85

•organi-zation' and direction of appetites, impulses and

emotions". Thus it helps man in reaching the theoretical
reason. But it is lower than theoretical reason, because
its direction is not towards itself but to 'the world of
matter*. Now we come to the question, whether Sa'ada is
perfectly realizable in this world or not, Miskawaih feels
no satisfaction in the answers of Plato and Aristotle,
Plato is of the view that the perfection is not possible
until one transcends his material existence. Aristotle
held that "body was a necessary base for Sa'ada, the
potentiality to be actualized in virtue. That iS; Sa'ada
is possible in this world. To Miskawaih the question of
this or that life is not important. When soul attains the
complete and perfect state of contemplation, it attains
Sa'adah. "But as a true religious man he gives preference to
6?
the next world". But Miskawaih does not give any satisfactory
answer to this question, because he does not solve the
problem whether body remains with soul in hereafter too or
not. He states two kinds of virtues of soul: spiritual
virtue, which is free and independent of body, and corporeal
virtue, which is related to body. Participation in the
intelligibles is possible only on the basis of spiritual
virtues. Thus it is higher than corporeal virtue which is
life of senses and not of contemplation, thus less important.^
The vision of God is the gift or grace of God. It is attained
 8G

only by a few i.e. philosophers and prophets. Their union

with God is highest type of union. One reaches so close
to God that only a thin veil separates hjm from God, that
too fades away in the highest experience of union with the
divine". This vision is attained only by the Ideal men
who are always happy.

Now we come to the question of moral Sa'adah. It

consists in virtuous character. Character is not an innate
thing. It is acquired. But it has a fixity. It is, to
some extent, natural because no character is developed until
its germs are in the nature of man. Virtue is rooted in
the character and is its full expression.

Human soul according to Miskawaih has three

faculties: "The rational, the spirited and the appetitive.
Virtue is the proper function or excellence of that faculty
to which it belongs. Wisdom is the virtue of rational
6S
soul, courage of spirited and purity of the appetitive".-^
The perfection is attained through moderation 'Itidal'.
S
V i r t u e shows the harmony of i t s r ^ p e c t i v e f a c u l t y . Virtue
i s "the mean between two extremes which are v i c e s . Virtue
c o n s i s t s i n keeping a p o s i t i o n between deficiency and excess".
But how to a t t a i n t h i s mean or what i s the r i g h t mean,
Miskawaih leaves t h i s question to the i n d i v i d u a l ' s own s k i l l
and a b i l i t y . And thus mean i s an i n d i v i d u a l ' s problem.
In the a p p l i c a t i o n of mean Miskawaih has shovm some t y p i c a l
 8
0/

virtue i.e. justice, "justice'^! he says, is mean betveen

depriving a person of what is lightly his and being deprived
of what is rightly one's own. To return good for evil is a
form of justice. Love is also classed under justice".
From the three faculties of soul Miskawaih has deduced three
cardinal virtues i.e. wisdom, courage, and temperence.
He also includes justice which in his system of cardinal
virtues is the result of the harmony of three virtues:
wisdom, courage and temperance. Miskawaih also enumerates
many other virtues, springing from the four cardinal virtues.
For example the virtue of wisdom has the following sub-virtues:

"acuteness of intelligence, quickness of intellect, clarity

of understanding, facility of acquirement, precision of
discrimination, retention and recollection. The virtue of
courage has the following eleven species viz., magnanimity,
collectedness, loftiness of purpose, firmness, coolness,
stateliness, boldness, endurance, condescension, zeal and
mercy. The virtue of temperance has the following twelve
species .- _--- viz., shame, affability, righteousness,
conciliatoriness, continence, patience, contentment,
sedateness, piety, regularity, integrity and liberality
(which is further divided into six sub-species). Lastly,
the virtue of justice has the following nineteen species:
friendship, union, faithfulness, compassion, brotherhood,
recompense, good partnership, fair dealing, cordiality.
 88

s u b m i s s i o n , r e s i g n a t i o n , d e v o t i o n t o God, f o r g e t t i n g of
^ e n m i t y , a b s t e n s i o n from s p e a k i n g i l l of o t h e r s , discussing
t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e j u s t , i g n o r i n g t h e a c c o u n t of t h e
unjust, and a b s t e n t i o n from t r u s t i n g the i g n o b l e , the
m i s c h i e f m o n g e r and the flatterer.

TUSI

N a s i r a l Din Tusi (1201-74 A.D.) i s an i m p o r t a n t

P e r s i a n S h i ' i t e P h i l o s o p h e r and t h e o l o g i a n . His A k h l a q - i -
N a s i r i i s a famous and w e l l - w r i t t e n t r e a t i s e on E t h i c o -
Social Philosophy, " u s u a l l y c a l l e d then the p r a c t i c a l
philosophy", i t i s , "deeply immersed i n t h e I d e a s of the
e a r l i e r Muslim S o c i o - p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i t i c i a n s , namely,
a l F a r a b i , Ibn S i n a and Miskawaih, b u t with powerful S o l v e n t
g e n i u s and p e r s o n a l i t y of h i s own".69

The t r e a t i s e d e a l s with E t h i c s , P o l i t i c s and

Social l i f e . For o u r p u r p o s e we s h a l l d e a l only with its
Ethical Ideas, A c c o r d i n g t o Tusi P r a c t i c a l Philosophy
" S i g n i f i e s knowledge of the good of the V o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s of
t h e human b e i n g s i n a way t h a t i t may conduce t o the ordering
of the s t a t e s of m a n ' s l i f e h e r e and h e r e a f t e r , and be
h e l p f u l i n r e a l i s i n g h i s p e r f e c t i o n and h a p p i n e s s "70
:
 89

Ethics, which according to him; is a part of

practical Philosophy, is "basically concerned with the
discipline of the conduct and character of individuals
(Tahdid al Akhlaq)"?^

Like all other Muslim Philosophers, his major

concern is attainment of Saada, which includes happiness or
blessedness in both the worlds. He classifies saada as;
(a) spiritual Blessedness or Blessedness relating to soul
(Sa'adat-i-Nafsani), (b) physical Blessedness or Blessedness
relating to body (Sa'dat-i Badfini) and (c) civic Blessedness
"•or Blessedness relating to civic life (Sa'adat-i-Madani).
All the three are attained to seek the eternal blessedness
(Sa'adat-i-Abadi) "everlasting blessedness in the life here-
after"?^

The discourse on ethics can broadly be divided

into two parts. In its first part "which is related to the
conduct and character", Tusi has discussed the criteria for
the evaluation of human dispositions purely at individual
level". It deals with the principles and aims and objectives
of Ethics. In its second part Tusi gives a detailed
analysis of the virtues, pseudo virtues and vices. In this
part he tried to show that "the culture of conduct and
character (Tahdib al Akhlaq) is the noblest of all disciplines
and essentially lies in the acquisition of noble virtues":
 no

He accepts divine law, ( N a m u s - i - I l l a h i ) as the

f i r s t t u t o r (Muaddib-i-Awal) ''th'at teaches the whole society
the proper course of s e t t i n g r i g h t the d i s p o s i t i o n s " , and
Philosophy (Hikmat) the second t e a c h e r (Muaddib-i-Thani)
•'which teaches only the men of d i s t i n g u i s h e d l e a r n i n g and
wisdom". He thinks i t as incumbent on parents "to bring
t h e i r children f i r s t of a l l i n t o the bondage of the Divine
injunctiois and to reform t h e i r manners and h a b i t s through
t h e various methods of education, t r a i n i n g and d i s c i p l i n e ,
and l e a r n i n g and be able t o prove themselves good c i t i z e n s
of the s t a t e " T ^

Sufi iiithics

Man has a two-fold e x i s t e n c e . He has a body. He

i s created out of m a t t e r . But in h i s body i n h a b i t s an
u n q u a l i f i e d and unknown thing which i s generally named as
s p i r i t or s o u l . Body i s n o t l i f e but s t r u c t u r e . Spirit is
n o t the s t r u c t u r e but l i f e . Thus man has a s p i r i t u a l base.
He i s divine by n a t u r e . I t i s t h i s s p i r i t u a l base which
r e l a t e s him with the s p i r i t of the e n t i r e universe and the
u l t i m a t e s p i r i t or the c r e a t o r of man. I t makes him r e a l i z e
h i s own e x i s t e n c e and r e a l i t y .

In the l i g h t of above said words, i t becomes lucid

the
that/movement of sufism in Islam was not an unnatural process,
I t can be e a s i l y said t h a t i t was the inner n e c e s s i t y of the
 ni

Islamic framework. It was a hidden ray which has to

develop in a full form at a time. The life of the Prophet

and his companions I B a live example of the mystical path;

the Prophet was the exalted true heing^embodying the Quranic/

The companionship of the Prophet was a grace, and thus there

was no need of any other name.

But, after a period, people became formal. They

engaged themselves in intellectualisation. They forgot the

spirit of the teachings of the Prophet. They became

luxurious. The outer structure of Islam persisted, but

inner structure and demands were neglected.

And it was the ripe time for those people to react

against all this hypocritical approach, whom we call as

Sufis. Like all religious, ethical and spiritual movements,

it had an evolutionary development. A brief discussion on

the Sufi ethics is as follows.

At the first stage of its development, Sufism had

had no fonnal structure. Sufis had no systematic set or

code of penetance. They engaged themselves .in prayers.

They were much interested in the purification of heart and

76
soul. They detached themselves from the world of matter,

and led a simple life. "They laboured under a terrible

consciousness of sin. This world seemed to them fleeting

and deceitful, seducing men away from heavenly bliss. They

 02

77
were t e r r i b l y a f r a i d of the world t o come":' These 'Sufis
were a s c e t i c s and q u i e t i s t s ' . The a n a l y s i s of the f i r s t
s t a g e of sufism shows:

(a) Detachment From the world; being in the world, they

LL
abtjndoned i t . They thought i t super-fJl^ous and w o r t h l e s s .

(b) Hate of t h e love of world; They thought i t the key

of success in the l i f e hereafter.

(c) Remembrance of God.

(d) Trust in God and fear of God.

(e) Meditation about s e l f and God. Hasan a l Basari

(21/642-110/728) believed t h a t meditation i s the way which
l e a d s to f a i t h , and sadness i s the best way (wasila) for
7fl
the p u r i f i c a t i o n of h e a r t .
7Q
(f) P u r i t y of h e a r t , (by c o n t r o l l i n g the lowerself) not
only through prayers and p r a c t i c e but by meditation a l s o .

But the main t h i n g about the f i r s t century Sufism

i s the dominance of the Fear of God, repentance and sadness
on s i n s .

In the second century the concept of love was

introduced by Rabi'ah al-Adawiyyah of Basrah (950 or 99C!r713
or 717-185/801). She was of the opinion t h a t man should
love God; one shouH n o t love God because of the fear of
h e l l or attainment of p a r a d i s e . One should love God
i n t e n s e l y , for His v i s i o n .
 03

In t h e f i r s t s t a g e of development of Sufism, the

virtues
above l i s t e c ^ o c c u p i e d t h e minds of the most s u f i s .

The second s t a g e of sufism shows more development

in i t . Now s u f i s s t a r t e d t o f o r m u l a t e t h e d o c t r i n e s ,
Abul Hasan S a r i - S a q a t i (253 H/870 A.D.) forwarded the
d o c t r i n e of T a u h i d . He i s t h e f i r s t man t o d i s c o v e r state
( H a l ) and s t a g e (Maqamat).

Abu Hamza Muhammad Bin I b r a h i m al-3ufi-al-Baghdadi

(96 H) f o r the f i r s t time used t h e t e r m s , p u r i t y of remembrance;
profile of courage ( J a m - i - H i m a t ) , l o v e , love of God, n e a r n e s s
t o God, and d e v o t i o n t o God e t c . Maruf of Karkh (d.A.D.815)
f o r the f i r s t time d i s c u s s e d n a t u r e of S u f i s m . He
i n t r o d u c e d t h e concept of t o t a l a n n i h i l a t i o n (Fana).
H a r i t h Muhasibi ( 1 6 5 / 7 8 1 - 2 4 3 / 8 5 7 ) d i s c u s s e d t h e s t a g e s of
the soul during the sufi course.^

Tawwab b i n - I b r a h i m - Abul F a i z Dhun Nun M i s i r i

( 1 8 0 / 7 9 6 - 2 4 5 / 8 5 9 ) w r o t e c ^ t r e a t i s e on sufism in which he
84
i n t r o d u c e d t h e d o c t r i n e s of ' h a l ' and ' m a q a m a t ' .

Abu Sai'd Bayazid L'istami ( d . 2 6 0 / 8 7 4 ) f i r s t time

i n t r o d u c e d t h e d o c t r i n e of (Sukr) i n t o x i c a t i o n . This
d o c t r i n e deeply i n f l u e n c e d t h e s u f i t h o u g h t a f t e r him. He
was a p a n t h e i s t . He t a l k e d about a n n i h i l a t i o n of s e l f
( F a n a - i - N a f s ) , u n i t y of e s s e n c e ( I t i h a d - i - Z a t ) and
 94

(Istigraq-i-Sat-i-Illahi) a b s o r p t i o n i n the d i v i n e e s s e n c e
etc. w i t h t h e pantheism of Bayazid B i s t a m i , t h e r e u s h e r e d
a new e r a i n the h i s t o r y of sufism which paved way f o r
t h e e x p o s i t i o n of t h e d o c t r i n e of wahdat-al-wujud.
S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e r e emerged an eminent p e r s o n a l i t y , no
l e s s than of J u n a i d of Baghdad who opposed t h e P a n t h e i s t i c
movement by i n t r o d u c i n g t h e d o c t r i n e of s o b e r i t y . He was
o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i n t o x i c a t i o n and s e l f a n n i h i l a t i o n were
lower s t a g e s , Man becomes f o r g e t f u l a b o u t e v e r y t h i n g even
of h i s owrJself a t t h i s s t a g e . He forwarded t h e d o c t r i n e of
s o b e r i t y (Sahw). He founded the J u n a d i y a s u f i s e c t and
e d u c a t e d the f o l l o w e r s of t h i s p a t h . But he did n o t make i t
86
a common t h i n g . He t a u g h t t h e p a t h t o s e l e c t e d o n e s .
I n t h e development of sufism Abu a l Mughith a l Husain bin
Mansur b i n Muhammad a l Bidawi g e n e r a l l y known as Mansur
H a l l a j ( 2 4 4 / 8 5 7 - 3 0 9 / 9 2 2 ) i s of a g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e , f o r he
i n t r o d u c e d u n - l s l a m i c d o c t r i n e s i n sufism such as Hulul
(Fusion) I t t i h a d ( u n i o n ) , Tanasukh ( t r a n s m i g r a t i o n ) , Raja't
on
(return) etc.

There was a long run c o n t r o v e r s y between s u f i s and

theologians. T h e o l o g i a n s were of t h e view t h a t sufi
t e a c h i n g s c o n t r a d i c t QursJiic I n j u n c t i o n a . The P a n t h e i s t i c
and e s p e c i a l l y H a l l a j ' s d o c t r i n e s s e r v e d as o i l on f i r e .
And t h e t h e o l o g i a n s came out f o r c e f u l l y t o oppose s u f i s .
 Mow, there was a g r e a t need of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n
between the two groups. By introducing t h e doctrine of
s o b e r i t y Junaid of Baghdad (d»298/910) t r i e d to d i s s o l v e
the d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e theologians and the s u f i s .
He admitted the importance of Shar' and c l a s s i f i e d the
meaning of the path of T a r i q a t . The former i s i n t e r n a l and
t h e l a t t e r i s e x t e r n a l face of t h e same r e a l i t y . He was
followed by Qushairi. Abu Talib Wakki a l s o t r i e d to bridge
t h i s gulf. But the gulf was not shortened u n t i l the great
p h i l o s o p h e r , theologian and a g r e a t p r a c t i z i n g s u f i ,
Ghazali emerged on the scene. He bi'idged the gulf to a
great extent.

On the one hand he worked to wipe out the un-Islamic

elements from sufism, and Pseudo s u f i s , on the other he
t r i e d to free philosophy from the influence of Greek thou/';ht
by c r i t i c i s i n g 'Palasafa* and pointingiiut their inconsis-
t e n c i e s in h i s famous book ' T i h a f a t - u l - P a l a s a f a ' . He
d
p r e s e n t e d h i s own system of e t h i c s and metaphysics embedded
i n the Quranic t e a c h i n g s . We s h a l l d e a l vrith h i s e t h i c o -
m y s t i c a l teachings while d i s c u s s i n g Hamadani's thought
because i t i s deeply influenced by him. Moreover i t w i l l
save us from unnecessary r e p e t i t i o n or d u p l i c a t i o n .
 96

I'Hi:. iiTHIGAL PHlLOliOPHY OF

KIR SAIYYID ALI HAHADiUII

II

NATURE OF MAIJ

Humjin body i s l i k e a k i n g d o m . The s o u l i s its

ruler (khalifa). It controls i t . The human body i s a

microcosm in i t s e l f . Hamadani c a l l s i t as 'Aalajiii sagiri-

1
a sma31 u n i v e r s e .

kverything t h a t God h a s c r e a t e d i s microcosmically

present i n t h e human b o d y . The human h e a r t w h i c h apparently

i s a small p i e c e of f l e s h i a very big ( k a b i r ) in its

2
m e a n i n g s and d i m e n s i o n s .

I t i b , i n fact t h e e s s e n c e o f man and controls

his o r g a n i c and i-sychical f u n c t i o n s , han i s a combination

o f tv/o d i s t i n c t and d i a m e t e r i c a l l y opposed l e v e l s of

e x i s t e n c e , namely p h y s i c a l and p s y c h i c a l or spiritual.

He h a s a body and a s o u l . The I ' i t t e r i s , adiriits H a m a d a n i ,

o n e of t h e s e c r e t s of God, w h i c h h a s i t s a b o d e i n human

heart. Thus, h e e q u a t e s human s o u l w i t h human heart.

However, he has d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b e t w e e n t h e a n i m a l and the

 97

liLunjui h e a r t . According to him tho animal possesses a

piece of flttjh \;hich v/oi-kc -is lie-irt, wherei^as huimn heart
in a d d i t i o n to being a piece ol '"lec+h is a d i s p o s i t i o n in
itself. In other words i t i s a Sj)i r i t u a l e n t i t y . If i t
{_-ctG induced to th.L divine or s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t i e s , it
r e a l i z e s the s e c r e t s of God. jjut i f i t ^urns to seeK only
the mundvanc or physical pleasui'es, i t ^jets p t r v e r t t d . The
r e a l happiness (snada) of man l i e s in naintaining; a sound
balance betv/een h i s s p i i ' i t u a l yeaminf;s and physical cravings,

llamadani, l i k e a l - G h a ^ a l i , maintains that the s e l f

has two powers, motor (I-luharr i l^n) and sensory (j'udri^'a) •;'

fhie u o t o r pov^er a l s o has tv/o p r o p e n s i t i e s ;

(a) a c i i v e power (t;uv,'at-i-Fai Ja) which causes conservative
movements e.,^-. t r a i i b l i n c of body^ (b) L o t i v a t i o n a i power
((^uwat-i-Baisa). I t i s c l a s s i f i e d as (a) a p p e t i t e
(Quwat-al-bhahwaniya) and (b) an^er (Quwat-al-Gliadabiya) .
The 'i^uwat-al-Sha^waniya ( a p p e t i t e ) and '^uv/at-al--lhadaL (anger)
a r e amon{j the vices (uiuhlikat), but they are necessary for
the very existence of man. I f there v;ould n o t have been
the a p p e t i t i v e power in nan t h e r e was no chance for the
c o n t i n u i t y of human r a c e . Quwat-al-Ghadab p r o t e c t s hi:ii
fi'oii dangers etc? "The former urges the body to s t r i v e for
and obtain what i s ^'•ood for i t . I t includes hunger,
 98

t h i r s t , sexual craving e t c . The l a t t e r urges the body to

avoid or r e p e l t h a t i s harmful to i t . "

God has bestowed man with two types of knov/ledge

or apprehension, one i s c a l l e d as the e x t e r n a l apprehension
7
and second i s named as i n t e r n a l apprehension. The former
i n c l u d e s five thing's, s i g h t , h e a r i n g , t a s t e , smell and touch.

This knowledge or apprehension i s the r e s u l t of

the combination of four elements, f i r e , water, a i r and
earth. The i n t e r n a l apprehension i s manifested in the
following five d i s p o s i t i o n s : (a) Sense r e l a t i n g to h e a r t
( Q u w a t - a l - q a l a b i ) ; (b) Reason ( Q u w a t - a l - a o l i ) ; (c) ^ i r
( Q u w a t - a l - s i r i ) ; (d) Soul ( Q u w a t - a l - r u h i ) ; (e) and s e c r e t
d i s p o s i t i o n (Quwat-alkhafi).8 Haraadani says t h a t each of
them are Imown as the e x i s e n t i a l or e a r t h l y a n g e l i c power
Q
(wuwat-al-raalaika-al-arzi) .

In Z a l t h i r a t - a l - n u l u k , a t another p l a c e , uamadani
gives a d i f f e r e n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of i n t e r n a l s e n s e s . lie
d i v i d e s human brain i n t o five p a r t s . Lach part has i t s own
sense. I t includes common sense (Ilisse-r'.'ushtarik),
Imagination (Khayal), I'.emory (liafiza), r e f l e c t i o n (Zakira).
Hamadjini says t h a t common sense r e s i d e s in t h e f r o n t a l
p o r t i o n of mind. Common sense c o n t r o l s the five e x t e r n a l
senses. I t picks up the informations received by five senses
 99

They are s t o r e d by iraa^'ination in Khayal and r e c a l l e d by

memory, Ilafiza. Khayal (imacination) r e s i d e s in the second
p a r t of the b r a i n . The memory is located in t h i r d . To save
i t from the loos and f o r g e t f u l n e s s the power of r e c o l l e c t i o n
( z a k i r a ) v-i^orks. I t r e s i d e s in the fourth p a r t of the b r a i n .
I t i s the door keeper (llajib) of the reason. Reason
d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between the good and e v i l deeds.1 1 I t i s due
t o reason that man (human soul) g e t s nearness to God.1 2

at another place in Zakhirat-al-rtulok, Hamadani

i n c l u a e s Vahiii in t h e i n t e r n a l s e n s e s . He c a l l s i t as power
of fancy (uuwat-al-wahjn). I t apprehends the meanings which
13
common sense and thought could not."^

Hamadani a s s e r t s t h a t the five e x t e r n a l sensej^are

created for a s p e c i f i c purpose by G-od. They do t h e i r ovm.
work. They do not share each o t h e r s ' work v.r,. the ear does
not do the work of eye, nor the eye of ear e t c 14
.

Hamadani says t h a t the five sense? are common to

a man and animal. The things which d i f f e r e n t i a t e betv;een
man and animal and make him s u p e r i o r to a l l c r e a t i o n are
reason and w i l l .

Hamadani s t a t e s t h a t every c r e a t a r e i s over-powered

e i t h e r by ^''ood q u a l i t i e s ( v i r t u e s ) or e v i l q u a l i t i e s ( v i c e s ) .
1 '-
The angels arc dominated by the qualities of purity.'' The
 loo

P r o p h e t s possess the q u a l i t i e s of propagation and preaching

of t r u t h and are ruled by the commands and negations from
God. The s a i n t s and Sufis are dominated by the passion of
love (i'luhabbat), yearning (ohauq), w i l l ( I r a d a ) and the
Unity of God. Like-wise every animal i s over-powered by
any s p e c i f i c Quality, e . g . t i g e r by anger, lion byfearlessness,
fox by d e c e i t f u l n e s s , dog by greed, pig by d i r t i n e s s , snake
by a f f l i c t i o n , cow by food and sleep and ass by audacity.17
A l l these q u a l i t i e s are in.herent in human n a t u r e . If
he keeps a balance between thwse a t t r i b u t e s and c u l t i v a t e s
h i s l i f e according to reason, ho can a t t a i n saada. I f he
i s over-powerud by the e v i l a t t r i b u t e s , he becomes the
animal, tlie beast or the d e v i l . TIae anger and apx)etite
are S a t a n i c and reason i s a n g e l i c force in man. These r i v a l
forces continuously s t r u g g l e witli each o t h e r .1 3

llLuuan exirtonco has iyo a s p c c t r ; (a) the Cv-t'-'nial

a s p e c t which includes h i s o u t e r i n d i v i d u a l i t y a n d ' ( b ) the
i n t e r n a l aspect v;hich c o n s i s t s in h i s inner i n d i v i d u a l i t y .
The e x t e r n a l appearance i s c a l l e d as s u r a t - i - z a h i r and
the i n t e r n a l as sirat-i-batin. • The fonaer i s created
(khalaq) and the l a t t e r i s moral ( k h u l o ) . Hoth the aspects
are e i t h e r b e a u t i f u l (Ihi^n) or ugly (Qubh). If there is
a p r o p o r t i o n , mod( r a t i o n and harmony In ones bodily' organs
i t w i l l be a b e a u t i f u l appearance ( h u s n - i - s u r a t ) . Likewise
 101
i f t h e r e i s a moderation and balance in q u a l i t i e s , which
a r e i n h e r e n t in man i t i s called i n t e r n a l heautification
(husn-i-sirat). The balance in q u a l i t i e s means simply to
c o n t r o l over the two d e v i l forces ( a p p e t i t e and anger) in
man. I t never means to deroot these two forces from human
nature. To deroot them w i l l be a fake t h i n g , becau.se God
has designed the two forces for the p r o t e c t i o n of in.an's
e x i s t e n c e .21 Thus, when man keens balance in these forces
in him emerge the q u a l i t i e s of knowledge ( i l m ) , wisdom
(hikma), piety (taqwa), munificence ( s a k h a ) , courage ( s h u j a ) ,
forbearance ( h i l m ) , humility (tavmzuh), c h a s t i t y (ifa),
justice (adl), etc. Une should n o t ^;o to e i t h e r extremes.
For example i f a man goes to the extremes of generosity
(Sakha), he con.mits tvfo v i c e s , one i s c a l l e d Tabzir (spending
lavifilily) and another as Taqsir ( m i s e r l i n e s s ) . ' ^

I f man i s over-pov.'ci'ed by e v i l forces and '-liv.

reason i s dominated by i t , in him emerge tiie vices e.g.,
p r i d e ( k i b r ) , greed ( h i r s ) , m i s e r l i n e s s ( b u k h l ) , scif-love
(^J-Jti), jealousy ( h a s a d ) , malice ( h i q d ) , hypoc2-acy ( r i y a ) e t c .

ilamadnni s t a t e s that only Prophet l\uhammad (roace

be upon him) reached the highest standard of v i r t u e s . Me
was tlie embodiment -aid the source uf a l l v i r t u e s . Al] the
j ' r o p h e t s , s.-iiutL), Ljufis and s c h c l a r s are v i r t u o u s in r e l a t i o n
 102

t o him, jiach one of them i s v i i - t a o u s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h

h i s c a p a c i t y t o be i n p r o x i m i t y w i t h him. lie i s a s t e p
25
t o w a r d s t h e 'j^eamess to God.

As a^-ainst i t Satan i s t h e embodiment of all

vices. Man becomes v i c i o u s when he i s over-powered by
t h e d e v i l f o r c e s i n h a b i t e d i n h i n n a t u r e , and becomes
a n g e l i c when r e a s o n (knowledge) dominates h i s n a t u r e .

i''roiu the f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s of human n a t u r e , it

i s c l e a r t h a t according;; t o iiamadani a l l b o d i l y or£;ans and
m e n t a l f a c u l t i e s have been c r e a t e d t o h e l p man to realize
t h e i d e a l but i t i s knowledge which makes p o s s i b l e the
r i g h t use of a i l t h e s e q u a l i t i e r . in him and e n a b l e s him t o
realize it.
 103

III

Tim MP

E v e r y t h i n g has some s p e c i a l purpose or end for

which i t i s c r e a t e d . I f i t i s achieved, i t renders happiness,
There must be some u l t i m a t e end t o which a l l t h i n g s r e t u r n ,
"beyond which n o t h i n g can be d e s i r e d " 27 and must g i v e the
greatest happiness. Haraadani c a l l s t h i s end as s a d d a , or
s a a d a t - i - u k h r a v i or s a a d a t ~ i - a b a d i o r s a a d a t - i - h a q i q i .

To him s a a d a i s the end. But no end i s end i n

itself, it becomes a means f o r a n o t h e r end. The end i n
itself i s s a a d a t - i - ukhraivi. A l l o t h e r ends a r e means t o
t h i s end. Any end which i s n o t a means t o t h i s end i s n o t
saada.

THE MEANS

There are three kinds of actions (a) actions

related to heart, .(b) actions related to tongue, (c) actions
related to senses.

Actions related to heart include to spend the

possessions in the way of God (Munira), to cling to the
commands and avoid the forbidden, to do charity, to inculcate
love and devotion to God ana to pay highest respect to the
 104

Almighty. These actions are based on three things, that

is, intention (Qasd), motive (Niat) and ecstasy (Wajd).29

The other type of actions are related to tongue.

They include to express continuously thanks to God for His
t'^ifts and mercy.

The third type of actions are related to the use

of gifts (Niamat). It means to resist the devil forces
which are present in the organs of body according to the
v:ish of God. One over-comes these forces with the ^race
of God?^

Hamadani has classified the means, like al-'Jhazali,

into different groups in accordance with their usefulness
or har^nfulness: (a) useful in both the worlds, for example
knowledge (ilra) and good character (Husn-i-sirat). Hamadani
says that these two things are real gifts or means (Iliamat-i-
haqic^i). Only the i^'-jiorant ones cannot get benefit from them.
•7 0

They are condemnable in both the worldsJ^ (b) Harmful in

this vforld but useful in the next world. Hamadani calls
them as relative gifts (Hajazi), for thoj' are not the gifts
in the strict sense but lead to the real gift (Nimat-i-Haqiqi)
They are of two kinds (i) physical e.g. to take bitter
medicine in illness with patience; (ii) spiritual e.g. to
abandon passions and resist the lowerself. For ignorant
 icr)

ones i t is a trouble but f o r P r o p h e t s and m y s t i c s i t is

a r e a l gift^-"^ (c) V/hich i n a p p e a r a n c e seem t o be useful

but in a c t u a l a r e harmful. Hamadanl c a l l s them a s "Nimat-al-

wahmi". They a r e o f two k i n d u (1) r e l a t e d t o v/orld, for

example to t a k e the honey i n which poison i s mixed. The

ignorant ones t a k e i t with l i k e n e s s . It leads thorn to

destruction, (ii) R e l a t e d t o n e x t w o r l d f o r example t o do

e v i l deeds. The i g n o r a n t o n e s t h i n k them g i f t s because of

their pleasure. But t o m y s t i c s (Arbab-i-Qalub) they are

the real troubles for they lead to the b o d i l y torture and

s h a m e f u l n e s s .35

Hamad;ani h a s g i v e n a n o t h e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of means

on t h e b a s i s of s p e c i a l i t y (Khutjus) and g e n e r a l i t y (Araiim);

Haraadani s a y s t h a t God h a s b e s t o w e d e v e r y o n e v a t h His gifts.

"Nimat" i s the u l t i m a t e h a p p i n e s s and i s d e s i r e d f o r its

own s a k e . It h a s two k i n d s : ( a ) rational ( A q a l i ) , (b) Physical

(Badani).

The r a t i o n a l g i f t is concerned v/ith knowledge

(iL^) and wisdom ( H i k m a t ) . It i s s p e c i f i c w i t h man o n l y .

No o t h e r a n i m a l s h a r e s it w i t h h i m37
.

The p h y s i c a l g i f t s a r e of two t y p e s ; (a) The,

pleasures which a r e s h a r e d by b o t h man and a n i m a l s c . g ^ the

pleasure o f s e x and f o o d ; (b) The p l e a s u r e s w h i c h are

shared by man and some a n i m a l s e.g. , Quwat-al-Ghadab "anger".

 IGG

When man overcomes t h e b e a s t l y (Bahimi) and t h e ferocious

(Saba*) powers, i n him emerges t h e r e a s o n . He comes n e a r
t o s a a d a , f o r h i s r a t i o n a l f a c u l t y (knowledce and wisdom)
over-powers a l l o t h e r p l e s u r e s "of l o w e r s e l f " . ^ When t h e
p l e a s u r e of t h e c o g n i t i o n of God over-comes a l l the
p l e a s u r e s one becomes s p i i ' i t u a l l y h e a l t h y . All the veils
o f i g n o r a n c e a r e removed from h i s h e a r t . His b o d i l y
p l e a s u r e s are l i n k e d with the s p i r i t u a l p l e a s u r e s . The
p l e a s u r e of t h e knowledge and c o g n i t i o n , s a y s Hamadani, is
t h e s u p e r i o r by i t s n a t u r e but i s v e r y r a r e . Only a few
p e r s o n s do a t t a i n i t .4 1 Unlike t h e b o d i l y p l e a s u r e s , t h e
p l e a s u r e of knowledge i s e v e r l a s t i n g . I t i s u s e f u l and
b e a u t i f u l i n every s t a t e of affairs,

TPLb CLASSIFICATION OF MAN ACCORDING TO QUALITIES

There a r e two q u a l i t i e s i n man, the d i v i n e and the

devilish. The d i v i n e q u a l i t i e s a r e r e l a t e d w i t h r e a s o n
and t h e d e v i l i s h q u a l i t i e s w i t h p a s s i o n s , Hamadani says
t h a t t h e r e i s a c o n t i n u o u s t u s s l e amongst t h e two r i v a l
f o r c e s i n man. He aclmowledges the e x i s t e n c e of two kingdoms
i n t h e body. The s o u l i s t h e r u l e r of t h e d i v i n e kingdom,
t h e r e a s o n i s i t s v i z i e r , t h e c o n t r o l l e r (J a zm) i s its
vlceregent, the w i l l i t s door k e e p e r ( H a j i b ) ; j u s t i c e i s its
judge (Qazi), t h e t h o u g h t ( F i k r ) i s i t s p e r u s e r (Kusharraf),
t h e memory ( H a f i z a ) i s i t s w r i t e r ( K a t i b ) , r e c o l l e c t i o n (Zikr)
 107

is its door keeper, the Boossom (Sadr) is its post man

(burid), the heart (Qalb) is its friend (Nadira) and the
43
spiritual powers (Qawa-i-Ruhani) are its array (Lashkar).

The other kingdom is headed by passions. To the

ruler of this kingdom, Hamadani names as Amir, He does not
use the word Caliph (Khalifa) for it. There may be two
reasons;(a) that there inheres a piety to the word Caliph
and it cannot be used for a perverted ruler; (b) That the
Amir is under the subjugation of caliph but rebeJ-S frequently
as and when gets opportunity. It is not a real ruler but
a usurper. Hamadani being a sufi did support this view.
He frequently emphasizes on the weakening of the devilish
forces.

Like the divine kingdom, here again, there are

various nobles which serve this kingdom. The supersitition
(Wahm) is its vizier, the decettfulness (Makr) is its
vicer^ent, the procrastination (Taswif) its door keeper
(Hajib); the stratagem (Kaid) is its judge (Qazi), the treachery
(Ghadr) is its peruser, the greed its guard, the expectation
(Ami) is its writer (Katib), the lie (Kizb) is its post man
(Burid), the vanity (Ujb) is its friend (Nadim) and the
animal powers (Quwa-i-llaiwani) are its army (Lashkar).
Hamadani derives this analogy from the then existing political
 108

system. The v i z i e r , n a i b , k a t i b , nadim, m u s h a r r a f , hajib,

b u r i d 3 t c . were d i f f e r e n t posts in the court.

Hamadani s a y s t h a t t o t h e m y s t i c s t h e s e two powers

remain i n c o n t i n u o u s f i g h t i n man t i l l t h e l a s t breath.
And i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e dominance of t h e s e powers men
are classified into five categories:

(a) The saved f r i e n d s of God who a r e deemed to be

true believers. They a r e of two k i n d s ;
(i) The R i g h t e o u s ones and
(ii) The m y s t i c s j - '
( b) U n b e l i e v e r s and p o l y t h e i s t s j
(c) Conspirators;
(d) Insistent sinners;
46
(e) Hypocrites.

Haraadani on t h e b a s i s of knowledge classifies

people i n t o the following four categories:

(a) The m y s t i c s , whose only o b j e c t and end i s God. They

s u p p l i c a t e i n t h e f i r e of t h e l o v e of God. Such men
a r e v e r y r a r e 47
J

(b) The i g n o r a n t o n e s ; they a r e c o m p l e t e l y over-powered

by t h e l o w e r s e l f and n e v e r come out of i t s g r i p . They
are devilish. They u n d e r s t a n d e v e r y e v i l good and
good^ ^e v-148
ilj
 109

(c) Whose object is to attain the end but are sometimes

overpowered by their lowerself. They too are very
rare. But their existence is necessary for the divine
kingdom J-^

(d) Those who want to follow their lowerself, but sometimes

get enlightened. At that time they give up the world.
Such people are in majority. Hamadani's classification
of people into the above mentioned four categories is
marKedly similar to that of al-Ghazali, who divides
men according to their spiritual grades into main four
classes, viz., the meritorious (Faizun), the doomed
(Halikun), the saved (tJajun) , and the redeemed
(Mu'adhdhabun)?^

In "Risala-i-Dahqaida, Hamadani gives a classification

of the true believers and devotees. They are of three kinds:

(i) The common Muslims who follow the external rules of

religion. Hamadani calls them as 'Arbab-i-Mu'amlat'.
They perform the obligatory duties e.g. prayers, fast,
pilgrimage to Mecca, recite Quran etc. to attain the
51
salvation^

(ii) Those who purge their heart from evils. Hamadani

"52
c a l l s them as ' A r b a b - i - M u j a h a d a t ' a n d 'Muqtasidan'-J
 110

(iii) The m y s t i c s : They t r a v e l t o the c o u r t of t h e most

h i g h ' S a ' i r a n - i - H a z r a t i - o a i a a d i y a t • as Hamadani c a l l a
them. They have c o n t r o l l e d n o t only t h e i r
loweijself
but t h e w i l l a l s o . They a r e most n e a r t o God.53

Knowledge of God

The l o v e of God, and t h e v i s i o n of God which a r e

t h e supreme e n d i s or saadah of t h i s w o r l d l y l i f e and of
t h e l i f e h e r e - a f t e r r e s p e c t i v e l y , are rooted in the
knowledge of God. I t may be a t t a i n e d only a f t e r t h e complete
p u r i f i c a t i o n of h e a r t from a l l i m p u r i t i e s of l o w e r s e l f and
t h e world.

"Knowledge of God i n c l u d e s t h e knowledge of t h e

c r e a t o r and t h e c r e a t i o n c o m p r i s i n g t h e u n i v e r s e , t h e s o u l ,
t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a t t e n d i n g a f t e r d e a t h and so o n "54.

Knowledge can be a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h many s o u r c e s

e.g., revelation, observation, logical reasoning, contemplation
and i n t u i t i o n . Main cannot have t h e P e r f e c t Knowledge of God
i.e., of His a t t r i b u t e s , wisdom and c r e a t i o n . God only
p o s s e s s e s t h e p e r f e c t knowledge; " t h e r e would c o n s e q u e n t l y
a y e a r n i n g f o r God, even a f t e r God has r e v e a l e d Himself to
man i n t h e n e x t w o r l d " .55 One's knowledge i s t r u e and
p e r f e c t a c c o r d i n g t o h i s n e a r n e s s t o God.
 Ill

Al-Ghazali c l a s s i f i e s knowledge i n two broad

c a t e g o r i e s , I l m - a l - Muamla, and I l m - a l - M u k a s h a f a , The
former i s f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r c l a s s e s , ' ( i ) knowledge
of t h e world J ( i i ) knowledge of t h e c o n d i t i o n s a f t e r death',
(iii) knowledge of t h e s o u l a n d ; ( i v ) knowledge of God.
Ilamadani r e d u c e s t h e s e c l a s s e s i n t o t h r e e : The f i r s t is
r e l a t e d with the s c i e n c e s about t h e m a t e r i a l world (Ilm-i-
Sifli). The second i s r e l a t e d with t h e a n g e l i c dispositions
(Lataif-i-Malakuti). And t h e t h i r d i s - r e l a t e d w i t h t h e
r e a l i t y and a t t r i b u t e s of t h e Divine world (Alam-i-Lahuti).
No s c i e n c e i s i n f j n i t e . Each of them i s l i m i t e d i n i t s span.
The s c i e n c e s relented t o t h e m a t e r i a l world have no r e l a t i o n
w i t h the a n g e l i c knowledge f o r , every s c i e n c e has i t s own
sphere. Every s c i e n c e e n t e r s i n t o the realm of D i v i n i t y
t h r o u g h t h e a n g e l i c knowledge but a g a i n w i t h l i m i t a t i o ' n s .
Only t h e knowledge of God i s above a l l l i m i t a t i o n s or
infinite. N o t h i n g can l i m i t His knowledge. I t ends only
i n Him?^

A l l t h e s c i e n c e s whether m a t e r i a l o r a n g e l i c a r e
s u b j e c t to the p o s s i b i l i t y (Imkan) and r e n e w a l (Hudus)
e x c e p t t h e knowledge of God. His knowledge i s pure of all
s u c h p o s s i b i l i t i e s . Every s c h o l a r i s l i m i t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h h i s knowledge.57
 112
The knowledge of God has many forms. It is
differentiated on the basis of one's perfection, ability
and capacity. Like al-Ghazali, Haraadani has stated the
folloving three fundamental forms of the knowledge of God,

The lowest form of knowledge is. to know that

there is a God, who is One, Omnipotent, Eternal and
Incomparable. He did what lie willed and will do what He
wills. This kind of knowledge is shared with all faithful
persons by animals and mountains. It is innate; Ghazali
calls this form the lowest grade consisting of the faith
of common people, on the basis of authority and tradition.^

w The second type of knowledge is rational. It is

the conventional Imowledge which js concerned with the
objects and informations regarding them. It is attained
through the words of the Book and Tradition. It includes
the traditional or rational proofs of God. Al-Ghazuli
names it as the knowledge of the learned based on deduction
and reflection.

yThe third type of knowledge is attained through

the vision (Mushahada). It is imparted to the Prophets and
the friends of God after the purification of the heart and
the soul, through revelation, Divine intuition, angelic
inspiration, and Divine secrets. At this stage man is lost
in the Divine secrets due to continuous inspirations. Some
 1.13

people who are not really the travellers of the sufi path
make false claims and some people who are truely the
travellers of the sufi path are baffled on the manifestations
of the secrets of the lights of God. But there are some
people who dive into the ocean of secrets of God, to reach
Ilim and attain . the Pearls of His vision. They have the
clear understanding of the obstacles of the sufi path. They
have tremendous power to overcome the difficulties and to
remove the veils of darkness of the course. They keep
reason and understanding away when they enter into the
spiritual world. At this stage the souls of the Prophets
and saints hear the voice of God, saying that:
"'C God, we could not recognise you as it was your right*.
[V
This is eqdalent to Ghazali's highest form of knowledge
which he describes as Ilm-al-Mukashafa.

Hajnadani states that the preachers of the mystic

path should express the exaltedness of God in the way it
should be done. The scholars should explain these commands
in a proper way, and should remove all the old and dead
ideas from them. But they should realise that their
thoughts and ideas are limited to the universe vfhich is in
the space and time. If they want to understand the world of
divinity with the help of their knowledge, it is impossible.
God is so exalted and high that even the Prophets cannot
praise Him. The Books cannot express His exaltedness.
 114

The tongue cannot praise and expalin His secrets which are
present in the Universe. The reason and understanding of
all the people in the world cannot comprehend His reality,

God is Omniscient. He knows all the difficulties

and troubles of the people. The secrets of the entire
universe are so lucid to Him as the shining Sun. He knows the
the secrets of the heart. God with His guidance imparts
knowledge to the people and with its help they are able to
understand the puzzles of the secrets, the ideas of the
perverted persons and the causes of the ignorance of the
Ignorant ones.64

Purification of heart is a preliminary condition

for the knowledge of God. One cannot attain the goal until
and unless he purges his heart from all the germs of
polytheism. One has to purify his heart from all vices by
meditation and contemplation.65 Hamadani quotes Yahya-bin-
Maaz Razi, saying that the unity of God (Tauhid) is light
(Nur). The polytheism which is contrary to it, is fire
(Aatish). The light of the \inity removes the defects and
impurities of the true believers. Contrary to it, the fire
of polytheism destroys the good qualities of polytheist.66

The love of world is the root cause of all

destructions. One has to segregate his heart from the love
of world and all the desires of his lowerself.
 10

Hamadani b e l i e v e s t h a t knowledge i s a v i r t u e .
God has i m p a r t e d i t to His c r e a t u r e s . Man must realise
i t and use i t t o apprehend t h e s e c r e t s of D i v i n i t y . Here
knowledge i s r e l a t e d w i t h m o r a l i t y . Man must have
knowledge t o become v i r t u o u s .

LOVE OF GOD

Hamadani i n t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of R i s a l a - i - K a s h a r i b
al-Azwaq s t a t e s t h a t God i s b e a u t i f u l and l o v e s b e a u t y .
Beauty i s one of the e t e r n a l a t t r i b u t e s of God, The common
s e n s e u s e of t h e word ' B e a u t y ' i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o God,
f o r He a l o n e i s t h e b e a u t y and a l l t h e world i s its
reflection. The beauty of e n t i r e u n i v e r s e i s d e r i v e d from
Him.

Hamadani r e j e c t s t h e t h e s i s of some people that

t h e r e c a n j a o t be any l o v e r e l a t i o n between God and man. He
q u o t e s a ' H a d i s - i - Q u d s i * t h a t "The v i r t u o u s a r e d e s i r o u s
6q
to see Me and 1 am more desirous to see them"."^ The Quran
has often refe^ed to the people who love God. "But those
of faith ai^e oveiC-flowing in their love of God". 'He loves
them and they love Him, verily Allah loves the repentant
71
and those who purify themselves".

Hamadani states that to mystics ]ove is the highest

attribute and the perfection of man. It is proved on the
 iG

b a s i s of r e a s o n and m y s t i c a l r e v e l a t i o n s t h a t i t i s the
r e s u l t of knowledge o r g n o s i s . The more knowledge of God
he h a s , t h e more he l o v e s Him.72

Hamadani s t a t e s t h e f i v e c a u s e s of l o v e which he
seems t o have borrowed from A l - G h a z a l i * s classification
of t h e same:

(a) Love of s e l f (Mahabbat-i-Nafs)J

(b) Love of b e n e f a c t o r (Mahabbat-i-Muhsin);
(c) Love of t h e man of p e r f e c t i o n (Mahabbat-i-Sahib-i-
Kamal);
(d) Love of beauty ( M a h a b b a t - i - J a m i l ) ;
(e) Love based on s p i r i t v i a l c o g n i t i o n (Mahabbat-i-
Taaru£-i-Ruhani).

Love of S e l f

The love of the self means preservation and

perfection of the self. Everyone desires it and strives
for those things which are useful and beneficient to him
and shuns pain giving and miserable things. He expresses
74
it to the best extent.

Love of Benefactor

One loves a benefactor because of the benefits

he receives from Him. God is the highest benefactor.
75
When man realises it, he loves God intensely.
 117

Love of the Man of Perfection

Some men reach, the highest stage of perfection in

some attributes e.g. knowledge, piety and munificence etc.
vf
People love them on the basis of their perfection. God
is the ultimate source of all perfections. The people owe
their perfections to Him. The realisation of these
77
realities leads one to the love of God.

Love of Beauty

Man loves beauty and the beautiful objects. But

the beauty of the world and its objects is transitory. It
is a fancy and reflection. The beauty of man is a veil
which hides the dirt and filth lying in his entire body.
The beauty of man and other objects change v/ith the span
of time. Even a little accident can mar it. Thus one
should love the source and spring of beauty: which is ever
perfect and subject to no change. The beauty of all
7H
creatures is a faint reflection of His beauty.

Love Based on ^spiritual Co^^ition

The love based on spiritual cognition is innate

in man's nature. It lies hidden in the soul. Man needs
realise it.-
 118

Hamadani states that it is proved on the rational

as well as traditional basis that there is a real relationship
of love between God and man. In the ordinary language
love means liKing of the self. But this type of love is not
possible with God. The ignorant persons consider it
possible. One who cognixes his-self realUses the virtue
and vice. The love of worldly beauty is not free from
limitations. Its results create greed and repacity. It
makes man useless plights. Inspite of its uselessness man
is arrested in its captivation. He does not realise that
this love is transitory and ever changing. All the things
in existence are the reflections of His beauty which in
accordance with their proportion have assumed one or the
other form. For the seekers of truth the worldy objects
are a trap in which they are arrested to attain the gnosis,
and should consider the love of the world as an insignificant
particle of the eternal love. The worldly objects are the
hinderances in the way of the love of God. They must be
neglected.

Hamadani states that love of God results from

Divine blessings and Divine mercy. God out of His mercy
bestows it upon His servants. When they are gifted with it
they have the knowledge of the Divine secretn. It purifies
 ; -9

h e a r t from a l l i m p u r i t i e s . I t ends a l l t h e causes of

e t e r n a l d e s t r u c t i o n of man and l e a d s him t o t h e n e a r n e s s
t o God.

Love of God oozes from the knowledge of God.

Everybody does n o t havejkn e q u a l knowledge of God. Thus
l o v e of God v a r i e s from man t o man i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h h i s
83
knowledge o f God.

On t h i s b a s i s Hamadani c l a s s i f i e s t h e l o v e r s of
God i n t o four g r o u p s :

(a) Khas ( S p e c i a l ) ; (b) Am (Common); ( c ) Akhas (Woot

s p e c i a l ) a n d ; ( d ) A'am (Nost common).

In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the people
Hamadani p r e s e n t s a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the worlds t o which
they belong.

( a ) ' There i s no change in t h e l o v e of truthful

ones ( b i d d i q i n ) b e c a u s e they a r e l o s t i n t h e ocean of love
and t h e i r e x i s t e n t i a l a t t r i b u t e s a r e a n n i h i l a t e d . They a r e
most s p e c i a l and belong t o t h e world of power (Alam-i-Jabrut)

(b) The s p e c i a l l o v e r s a r e t h o s e who see t h e

a t t r i b u t e s of b e a u t y through t h e i r h e a r t . They a r e in
p r o x i m i t y w i t h God (Huqarraban) and belong t o t h e world of
angels (Alam-i-Malakut).
 120

(c) The m o s t common p e o p l e whom Hamadaiii calls

a s T a l i b i n b e l o n g t o t h e w o r l d of p e r c e p t i o n (Alam-i-
85
Shahadat). T h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i s b a s e d on f i v e senses.

(d) The fourth category i s of the travellers

(Salikin). They over-come t h e i r lowerself. They belong to
the world of s e c r e t s and fomis (Alam-i-Ghaib-wa-Misal).
On t h i s l e v e l they v i s u a l i s e some s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t i e s .
They are common.

Knowledge of God leads to the love of God and the

love of God to His v i s i o n . Hamadani b e l i e v e s l i k e Ghazali
i n the v i s i o n of God but he gives no explanation of i t s
n a t u r e , where.'3-S a l - G h a z a l i has given a v i v i d p i c t u r e of
the nature of the same. He holds t h a t the u l t i m a t e end
i . e . , v i s i o n of God c o n s i s t s of seven elements; Life without
d e a t h , pleasure without pain, knowledge v/ithout ignorance,
wealth without poverty, p e r f e c t i o n without d e f e c t , joy
without sorrow and Honour without d i s r e s p e c t . Making use
of the terminology adopted by a l - G h a z a l i , Hamadani some^^times
c a l l S i t the u l t i m a t e end, (3aadat-i~Aukhravi), sometimes
the Heal end ( S a a d a t - i - H a q i q i ) and sometimes e t e r n a l
O Q

blessing (oaadat-i-Abadi).

I t can^ however^ be deduced from h i s w r i t i n g s that

to him the v i s i o n of God i s not p o s s i b l e in uhis world but
in the l i f e h e r e - a f t e r . A traveller can linow the s e c r e t s of
the world in t h i s l i f e but cannot have His v i s i o n ? ^
 121

IV

VIRTUES

Man i s a microcosom i n i t s e l f . His 'Summum Bonum'

i s t o a t t a i n t h e l o v e and t h e v i s i o n of God, h i s creator.
God has bestowed him w i t h a l l the p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . He has
a Soul which i s one of the s e c r e t s of God. I t i s the
d i v i n e element i n man. Apart from i t , h i s s e l f i s innately
endowed w i t h t h e powers of a n g e r ( Q u w a t - a l - g h a d a b ) , and
p a s s i o n s ( Q u w a t - a l - S h a h w a n i y a ) , which become d e v i l forces
whenever t h e y d e v i a t e from t h e path of m o d e r a t i o n . To
a t t a i n Saadah mpn h c s t o c o n t r o l t h e s e f o r c e s and over-
power t h e i r extreme e x p r e s s i o n s by u s i n g them a c c o r d i n g to
t h e d i c t a t e s of s o u l .

2
He has t o r e c o g n i a e h i m s e l f . Recog-nition of one's
own s e l f l e a d s one to the r e c o g n i t i o n of God, Heart i s the
abode of God. One has t o c o m p l e t e l y p u r i f y h i s h e a r t to
receive the divine l i g h t . He has t o c r e a t e i n h i m s e l f the
a t t r i b u t e s of God or v i r t u e s . A d a r k h e a r t or a vlc:ious
s o u l i s a bad c o n d u c t o r . I t can^not r e c e i v e the d i v i n e
light. V i r t u e s l e a d one t o s a l v a t i o n 'Munja'. Thus v i r t u e s
are 'hunjiyat'. i i l - U h a z a l i t o o c a l l s v i r t u e s as 'hunjiyat'
and v i c e s as ' I - i u h l i k a t ' . In G h a z a l i a n e t h i c ^ . we f i n d
t h a t he does n o t g i v e much i m p o r t a n c e t o the " h e r o i c v i r t u e s
l i k e courage ". He simply p r e s e n t s t h e Quranic v i r t u e s
 122
e . g . , thankfulnesG, t r u s t in God, repentance e t c . ilaraadani
too has not given much importfincc, perhaps under the
i n f l u e n c e of a l - G h a z a l i , to the t r a d i t i o n a l c a r d i n a l v i r t u e s ,
namely wisdom, courage, temperance and j u s t i c e . In R i s a l a -
Dah-Qayida, he maintains t h a t there are as many ways to
reach God, as the number of people. They are not countable,
they can,however, be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e types according
to t h t i r excellences:

(a) The f i r s t path i s t h a t of the common man (Arbab-i-

Muamlat), which c o n s i s t s in performing the o b l i g a t o r y d u t i e s
( e . g . , p r a y e r , f a s t , pilgrimage and holy vrar) and following
the e x t e r n a l laws of Ihe S h a r i a . But one carCnot reach
God or a t t a i n the 'union' on2y on the b a s i s of the
performance of e x t e r n a l duties^

(b) The second path i s t h a t of the people of Penetance,

(Arbab-i-Mujahadat), which c o n s i s t s in the p u r i f i c a t i o n of
h e a r t and s e l f through m o r t i f i c a t i o n . Hamadani c a l l s them
as 'Abrar' (the Reverent)or 'Wuqtasidan'^

(c) The t h i r d path i s t h a t of the mystics (Sairan-i-IIazrat-

i - S a m a d i y a t ) , which c o n s i s t s in a t t a i n i n g the complete s e l f
r e a l i z a t i o n through o j c r c i s i n g a proper control over d e s i r e s
and passjons. They are the most exalted and v i r t u o u s ones?
 123
Hamadanis e t h i c a l Gystem i s very much s i m i l a r ,
both in i t s fonii as well as in i t s c o n t e n t , to t h a t of
al-Ghazali. His a n a l y s i s of the n a t u r e uf man, the ultimate
end and the means of i t s attainment is essentially
Ghazalian. But h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of v i r t u e s t h a t lead to
the a t t a i n m e n t of the u l t i m a t e end, though follov/s
Ghazalian form, seems to have been influenced by Shaikh
Najmud-Din-Kubra, t h e founder of the Kubrawiya o r d e r , in
its contents.

Ham ad an i , l i k e Shaikh I^a jraud-Din-Kubra has l a i d

down ten basic p r i n c i p l e s or excellences ( i . e . , v i r t u e s )
to a t t a i n the highest end or saada. These a r e , Tauba
( r e p e n t a n c e ) , Zuiid ( a b s t i n e n c e ) , Tawakul (Trust in God),
Qana't (contentment), Sabr ( P a t i e n c e ) , Wuraqaba (C(jn templation) ,
Riza ( C o n c i l i a t i o n ) . Haraadani ^;ives an extensive l i s t of
the v i r t u e s in h i s R i s a l a Fuqriya: remeraberanee,thouf^ht,
d e t e r m i n a t i o n , f e a r , hope, lament, Svttention, h u m i l i t y ,
a b s t i n e n c e , s e l f - r e s t r a i n t , s i n c e r e i t y , t r u s t in God,
Submission, Total Surrender, P a t i e n c e , C o n c i l i a t i o n ,
thankfulness, modesty, t r u t h f u l n e s s , s a c r i f i c e , will,
c o n v i c t i o n , devotion, poverty, knowledge, for-bearance,
wisdom, I n s i g h t , ijnderstanding, peace, l o v e , yearning,
Unity of God and a n n i h i l a t i o n .

All these v i r t u e s are a l s o the s t a g e s of the sufi path.

 12d

REPMTiUTCi;

The R e p e n t a n c e i s t h e first principle, which

leads one t o S a a d a . God i s m e r c i f u l , and w i s e . Sin i s a

v e i l b e t w e e n man and t h e A l m i g h t y . The r e p e n t a n c e i s the

medicine to cure the d i s e a s e s , r e s u l t e d by s i n s . It is a

m e r c y and l i f e w h i c h He b e s t o w e d upon t h o s e who a r e led

Q

astray by ignorance. The end of a l l things i s God. Kan

should love Him. Anything which comes as a hinderance, in
the way of God, i s a v e i l . And anything which becomes a
v e i l between God and man causes the l o s s of the end.
Heart i s pained when i t s d e s i r a b l e object i s l o s t .
And the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t i t was l o s t because of i t s own
a c t i o n s g r i e v e s i t much. Thus, ;';rief i s c a l l e d pudency and
the pain which i s the r e s u l t of g r i e f and c o n t r i t i o n i s
called s t a t e . The s t a t e i s r e l a t e d to a l l t h e three u n i t s
10
of time; p r e s e n t , past and f u t u r e .

Karaadani says that anything which pains heart a l l

the time i s a s i n . And i t i s the sin which causes separation
between the l o v e r s . One has to compensate the s i n , either
d e l i b e r a t e l y or forcefully to a t t a i n Saada. But r e a l i z a t i o n
of a l l these things depends upon knowledge which i s the key
to Saada. Ilamadani s t a t e s t h a t t h i s t<jiowledp-e i s called
f a i t h and unshakable conviction. Faith means, confirmation
and clearance of a l l doubts. Faath and t r u s t i s the basis
 125
of pfudency. I t i s the r e a l i z a t i o n of the l o s s of the
end, the f e e l i n g of shame f o r the s i n , the disappointment
and the p r i v a t i o n which i s caused by sin;', which causes
pain in r e p e n t a n t s h e a r t 11
.

C o n t r i t i o n i s the basis of r e p e n t a n c e . And

knowledge i s the basis of c o n t r i t i o n . Repentatice, says
Hamadani, means to tuz^n back. I t means to give up a l l the
o b j e c t s and s i n s which are o b s t a c l e s in the way of God.1 2
He s t a t e s t h a t one can r e t u r n to God e i t h e r v o l u n t a r i l y or
involuntarily. Repentance, or giving up a l l the things
c o n s c i o u s l y , i s a voluntary a c t . One should give up every-
thing to reach God.

Death i s an involuntary a c t . Man becomes h e l p l e s s

when death comes. I t takes away everything from m.an
involuntarily. Hixmadani s t a t e s t h a t the traveller should
give up not only the o b j e c t s of t h i ^ world but a l s o of the
o t h e r world. The traveller can, not reach the end u n t i l and
unless he becomes unconscious of everything even of his
ownjself and r e t u r n s to God completely. I t i s very necessary
f o r the subsist-ence (Baqa) of the trav^er.

Repentance implies a d e l i b e r a t e abtf^ndonment of a l l

t h e v i c e ^ e . g . p r i d e , v a n i t y , envy, etc. A prophetic
t r a d i t i o n runs as "repentance i s c o n t r i t i o n " T The repentance
removes a l s o the i m p u r i t i e s from the h e a r t of the repentant.
 1 O
26

In Risala Zikriya iJagiria, Ilamadani says that

the passions, the vices, the false beliefs and knowledge
become hurdle in reaching the end, the vision or blessings
of God. The veil weakens the relationship between God and
the human soul.1 5 One can reach God only if he has
cultivated in him the attributes of God e.g. Tawrit
(dissi.Tiulation) , Safa (Purity) and i^amal (perfection). This
relationship is retained by turning back to the real source,
God. This returning is from the things which are dear to
the lower-self. It has three conditions.

(a1 Contrition: It is the quality of people of Paradise.

(b) Asking forgiveness (It is related with tongue).
(c) Abstaining one's self from evil deeds. V^
is also based on three conditions - which are again
external and internal:

(a) The will not to do the sin again^

(b) To reap a good crop in the life hereafter, he
should be a Friend by knowing it as evil^
(c) He should find out the faults of others in his
person.16

They are e x t e r n a l a s p e c t s of these c o n d i t i o n s .

The i n t e r n a l a s p e c t s a r e as follows;

(a) He should detach himself from the d e s i r e of r e s p e c t

so t h a t h i s repentance may be a fonB of Tauba-i-3aiirayia.
(b) He should abstain himself from the desire of glamour
(Jah).

(c) He should detach himself from the respect of the self

so that it should let him repent,

Hamadani then speaks about 'Anabat'. To him it is

the higher stage of Repentance. It means returning to God
by segregating one's self from all desires and pleasures
of the flesh and bone. At this stage the traveller
strengthens the bondage of repentance. He commits no sin
and if at all it is committed undeliberately he laments
in the way as he enjoyed committing sin in the past with
deliberation. He faces with pleasure all the adversities
17
• that befall on him in the course of his worship to God.

The travellers of the patli (Din) are of two types.

(i) The rationalists (Istadlali ) and (ii) the men of
prudence (Ahli Nazar). The rationalists are those who need
reason, at every step for the acceptance of things. They
become astonished when things happen or when they see the
strange things of those who follow the path. Their failure
lies in the importance, which they give to reason. If some-
thing secret becomes visible to them, it is transitory and
short-living.
 128

The second g r o u p i s t h a t of t h o s e whose i n t e r i o r

i s i l l u m i n e d by t h e l i g h t of God. They a r e r i g h t guided
ones. They r e c e i v e r i g h t g u i d a n c e through minor s i g n s .
God e n l i g h t e n s t h e i r h e a r t w i t h liis l i g h t and congizance
( I r f a j i ) ,1 R They a r e s p i r i t u a l l y so h i g h t h a t t h e y need no
r e a s o n f o r t h e proof of t h e n e c e s s i t y of Tauba ( R e p e n t a n c e ) .
Through t h e i r i n s i g h t , they r e a l i z e and s e e t h e n e c e s s i t y ,
reality, requisites and t h e r e s u l t s of r e p e n t a n c e , /md
t h r o u g h i t they a l s o r e a l i z e t h a t i t l e a d s one t o t h e
S a a d a t - i - A a b a d i , t h e u l t i m a t e end. This r e a l i z a t i o n i s t h e
s o u r c e of p r o t e c t i o n from t h e e t e r n a l d e s t r u c t i o n . They
p u r i f y t h e i r h e a r t s from a l l love and i m p u r i t i e s of the
world. They know t h a t i t i s only t h e love of t h e passions
and t h e t r a n s i t o r y world which i s a b a r i n a t t a i n i n g the
u l t i m a t e end.^ I t i s t h e l o v e of t h e world and i t s off-shoots
e . g . p r i d e e t c . which a r e t h e v e i l and h i d e the reality.
The r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e s e t h i n g s i s t h e r e a l i t y of R e p e n t a n c e .
And i t i s t h i s c o n g i t i o n which removes t h e d a r k n e s s of
i g n o r a n c e from t h e h e a r t .

Human h e a r t i s the ' L o c u s ' of t h e e x p r e s s i o n of

these r e a l i t i e s . Knowledge, w i l l , c o n t r i t i o n , power and
a c t i o n a r e a l l the c r e a t i o n s of God. They have been c r e a t e d
by God w i t h a s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e20
.
 log
Ic:

Kamadani explains, by giving an example. He says

that God created delicious food for man, and gave him the
knowledge that it will kill his hunger and also gave him
the knowledge of the things which are miserable for his
health. Knowledge creates in man the will and power to take
the food. The inGtInct which initiates man to take the
food is called the 'Power'. All these things, knowledge,
will and power are interrelated.21 All of them depend
upon the knowledge of God. These are the very conditions
for the emergence of any thing.

Some of them call it as (Khabar-i-Mahad) accident,

some as invention (Ikhtira) and some as acquisition (Kasb).
But it is not astonishing for the people of insight (Arbab-i-
Qulub) or mystics.

They pay no attention to these differences. They

see the destination with the light of their insight. They
22
bear about r e a l i t i e s from the world of secrets and angels.
Hamadani s t a t e s that from the c l a r i f i c a t i o n about
the necessity of Repentance, one should realize that i t is
necessary to repent immediately after a sin.

I t is clear that to stand against r e a l i t y and truth

i s the cause of one's destruction. To keep destruction away
i t is necessary to repent. One who commits a sin or does not
repent immediately after i t , does so because of ignorance.
 -«
30

Hamadani explains it by giving an example of

one who is warned by a doctor about the poison in the cup.
If he takes it, it does not mean that he negates the
existence of the physician, whom he sees by his open eyes,
but it simply indicates about his ignorance, that is, his
belief in the saying of the doctor is not firm. Thus,
Hamadani states, one sins because his faith is not perfect.

He states that for the real travellers, all the

objects and pleasures of the world and life here after are
hinderances in attaining the goal. Thus, he (the trav^er)
should purify his heart from all these impurities. His
faith is like a healthy man, who has no defects^ Where-
as the sinner is like a man whose body is completely damaged.
Thus it is a necessary condition for attaining the Baada,
that one should have a firm conviction in the \mity of God
and should purify his heart from all impurities.

The sins are miserable for faith like the defective

eatables. They destroy one's spiritual health. And this
leads one to the eternal destruction, -so it is necessary
to purge one's heart from all these miserable and dreadful
25
things as to reach Saada.
 131

ABSTINENCE

The second principle which leads one to Saada is

'Zuhd' Abstinence. In Risala~Dah-Qayida, Hamadani states
that one should voluntarily give up the world and all wishes
and desires which belong to it. One should also abandon
voluntarily the wealth, Jah (Glory) and honour. He makes
it more clear while saying that man gives up all things
at his death. He states that the three basic signs are
present in the interior of an abstinent.

(a) He is neither pleased on possessions nor grieved at

•their loss. Contrary to it he is grieved at possessions
and pleased on their loss;.

This is 'Zuhd' abstinence in possessions (Mai).27

(b) To the abstinent praise and condemnation are of no

significance. It is ' Zulid' in Jah (Glory) and honour.

(c) They have affability (Uns) with God. They are near
to Him.

Hamadani states that the love of the world and the

love of God are like water and air. They car;_jiot remain at
the same place. One who loves God can_not remain engaged
with the transitory world. Thus the abstiner-. I gives up the
 J 32

world with all the objects related to it. It is abstinence

'Zuhd' in world?®

One whose faith is not deeply rooted works for

both the world and the life here after. But when faith
enters the depths of one's heart, he hates world and does
not work for it. Hamadani thinks that one becomes abstinent
(Zahid) to the extent as he abandons the world. It is on
the basis of this principle that he classifies the 'Zuhd'
in three kinds:

(a) One who gives up the world because of the fear that
it will destroy his religion is an abstinent.

(b) One who purifies his heart to the extent that he

forgets others, but does notforget his own self is
a learned one, (Alim). And it is the abstinence of
a scholar (Aalim).

(c) Those who are lost in God, and forget even their own
self, the world and even the paradise, attain the stage
of 'Aarif. It is the abstinence of 'Aarifin'
gnosticsT Hamadani quotes the tradition "The world
is forbidden for the people of world and both are
•50
forbidden for the people of God.

He further states that God is above all pleasures.

To attain Saada, it is necessary that one should give-, up
 1 o ':
33

both the worlds. I t i s only through the abandonment of

both the v^orlds that one can £;et the knowledge of the
secrets. One who remains occupied with the world can_not
know the s e c r e t s "51
.

The above s a i d s i ^ s of abstinence ooze from the

love of God. These signs c r e a t e other signs of abstinence
in man. For example one renounces the v/orld. He makes
no claims. He f e a r s Crod"^ tli s h e a r t i s ..ot hSardhed like
the l o v e r s of the world. I t i s very soft (Raqio^). He
loves death as a t r u e believei'. Deatdemaxicipates one from
the bondages of t h i s t r a n s i t o r y v/orld. I t xemoves the v e i l
between the lover and tiie beloved.

The t r u t h f u l ones l i k e l i t t l e poGsessionG and

children because both these things bt co.ne obijtacleo in t h e i r
way. Those tv.-o things tngage them in the ]ove of world
which i s the r e a l cause of d e s t r u c t i o n , A t r a d i t i o n of
Caliph Ali runs as "I wonder about the man ulio runs a f t e r
the world but does not a t t a i n i t . He CI-IVVA: attain
p a r a d i s e , for he does not work for i t " .

Hamadani says that one who i s pleased with the

possessions i s a greedy person, and cne who is i_,ric-vcd at
t h e i r loss ehcws h i s d i s p l e a s u r e to Uod, and one who i s
pleased en h i s p r a i s e i s s u l f - c o n c c i t i n g which i s the root
•'jA
cause of all destruction of actions.
 Jt OCy |

P An EN Oh

I t i s obli^^atory to remain p a t i e n t on the i l l n e s s ,

g r i e f and hardships . Those v/ho bear the hardships and
remain content on the v a i l of God are bestov;ed with fifts
35
by Him. I t a l s o determines t h e i r love witij God and the
s t a g e th^..j' have reached. The p a t i e n t ones a t t a i n guidance
in t h i s vrorld and 'Naim-at al-Aul;hravi' v i s i o n and b l e s s i n g s
the
of God i n / l i f e h e r e - a f t e r . Patience i s of utmost importance
in c o n t r o l l i n g the lowerself, and obedience to God. 2he
c u l t i v a t i o n of r e l i g i o u s excellences and Saada i s r e l a t e d
' t o patience. A prophetic ci'adition runs as; 'God p u r i f i e s
His lovers from i m p u r i t i e s mid judges t h e i r sincerl^ty by
p u t t i n g them i n t o unbearable t r o u b l e s and hBrdshipc'^ ^ The
hardships and the t r o u b l e s cure one's s p i r i t u a l diseases and
make him able to receive the theophany.
The highest stage i s not a t t a i n a b l e simply through
good deeds. I t i s the g i f t of God, vfhom He p l e a s e s , bestows
upon. And He bestov/s i t to those whom He judges by hardships,

The Patience i s h a l f of the f a i t h . There i s a

controversy regarding i t s i n t e r - p r e t a t i o n . Hamadani says
t h a t some people are of the view tl.-it f a i t h i s r e l a t e d to
religious principles. Some say i t i s r e l a t e d both to the
p r i n c i p l e s and good a c t i o n s . He s t a t e s t h a t a l l the three
 -f o rr
35

are r i g h t . He forwards a tradition to justify his statement,

v57
saying that "faith has more than seventy branches"^

He thinks that the Patience is half of the faith

because of its relation with actions. Action is faith.
Thus faith hao two orfansiCa) Conviction, (b) Patience. By
conviction HajnadfOii means 'the Cognition (Marifat) through
the Principles of religion, which becomes the source of
guidance foi* man. By patience he means, action according
to the Imowledge with certain'^ty. The realisation leads
man to action and Saada. Thus evils are harmful and
obedience useful. But action is not possible v:ithout patience,
For example one who wants to give up sins, needs patience
to give them up.' Thus it is patience which leads one to
Saada. The Quran has referred to patience more than seventy
two times and has referred to all the higher stages vjith
their relation to patience.

The religious stages arc attained in two ways:

(a) Traditional and rational, (b) theorjtical knowledge.
Theoritical knowledge cannot be attained until and unless
one knows its reality. But its reality depends upon the
realization and loaowledge of God.41

All the stages of Din (Religion) consist of three

things.—-l^owledge, state and action. Hamadani states that
 136

knowled^'e i s l i k e a t r e e , sta'^e i t s b r a n c h e s and a c t i o n

its fruits, bame i s t h e case w i t h p a t i e n c e . I t i s not
p o s s i b l e v ; i t h o a t i t s knowledge. x^'or i t one has to c o m p l e t e l y
p u r i f y h i s h e a r t from a l l i m p u r i t i e s of s e x , passions,
wealth etc. Purification of h e a r t i s t h e b a s i s of t h e
fruits, t h a t i s n e a r n e s s t o God. A^ain, Karaadani s a y s , one
c a n n o t p u r i f y h i s h e a r t u n t i l he has t h e Imowledgo of
a n g e l i c and human and animal f o r c e s embedded i n h i s n a t u r e .
He f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t both a n g e l s and a n i m a l s have no
p a t i e n c e , f o r a n g e l s a r e pure from a l l i m p u r i t i e s . Like
t h e a b s t r a c t r e a s o n they a r e pure of a l l w o r l d l y d e s i r e s 42
.

Animals a l s o have no p n t i e n c e , f o r t h e y l a c k
rational faculty. They ai'e i m p e r f e c t and have only the
p a s s i o n s of sex and food. They cannot d i s p l a y patience
in f u l f i l l i n g t h e s e n a t u r a l ur4';es. The r e a l i t y of p a t i e n c e
l i e s i n the r e s i s t a n c e . I t i s t h e power of difference
which c r e a t e s r e s i s t a n c e . Child has only p a s s i o n s , t h a t i s
43
why he has no p a t i e n c e . " ^ Ilajuadaiai s t a t e s t h a t God a p p o i n t s
two a n g e l s f o r e a c h man when he i s m a t u r e . These a n g e l s
differentiate man from a n i m a l s .
They a r e named as ' H a d i '
(Guide) and 'Muqavi' ( f o r c e f u l ) . ' ^' 4 C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e two
a n g e l s m^in p o s s e s s e s two p o s s i b i l i t i i . . . 3 ; ( a ) HidayD. ( g u i d a n c e )
and (b) Qudrah ( p o w e r )45 .
 13?

Hidaya provides him the laiowledge of God and His

apostles. I t p u r i f i e s h i s heart and thus helps him a t t a i n
divine l i g h t ? The Qudrah on the other hand brings up his
body and thus helps him a t t a i n the p h y s i c a l e x c e l l e n c e s .
There i s a continuous war between man's heart and body which
r e p r e s e n t angelic and S a t a n i c forces r e s p e c t i v e l y in man.
The h e a r t i s the basic center of war. Sometimes an^^elic
forces come triumphajit and sometimes the d e v i l f o r c e s .
The a n g e l i c forces help the soul and the e v i l forces the
lowerself. Thus, says Ilamadani, patience means to r e s i s t
the passions and overcome them. And one who helps the
a n g e l i c forces i s a p a t i e n t . And one who helps Satanic
f o r c e s , becomes the member of t h e i r team;

I'he two angels deputed to record the a n g e l i c and

the S a t a n i c deeds of man are c a l l e d as Kiraman-al-Katibin.
They keep watch on human a c t i o n s . Man w i l l see his
book of deeds twice i . e . , at the time of death and in the
l i f e hereafter. The 'people of f a i t h ' use a l l these forces
to a t t a i n the ' e t e r n a l happiness', 3 a a d a t - i - A b a d i . V/hen
man a t t a i n s the oaada with t h e proper use of t h e said f o r c e s ,
i t i s shukr (th£=uikfulness). And the q u a l i t y of helping
t r u t h and r e s i s t i n g d e v i l forces i s c a l l e d p a t i e n c e .
Hamadani s t a t e s t h a t a l l the things which are h e l p f u l to
r e l i g i o n are r e l a t e d to p^.tience. The a f f a i r s of r e l i g i o n
on which patience depends have t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s which are
 138

determined on the basic of intensity, weakness, dominance

and suppression.

(a) They help the religion and overpower the passions

and make it their slave. They purify the kingdom of body
from the passions. It is not possible to get success in
this war without patience, that is why that the patient has
50 such people have
been called as successful. In all times''^
been in minority.

(b) The lower self overpowers the things which are

helpful to religion, to such an extent that they become
absolutely weak. In such a situation the self is controlled
5 1 This is the condition of the majority
by Satanic forces.
of the people. Hamadani calls them as ignorant ones. Their
reason is overpowered by the lowercelf. They do any sin to
fulfil the vash of their lowerself. He states that these
ignorant ones justify their sins by saying that they are
destined to do it. And when they are asked to reform
themselves they say God is merciful.

(c) Neither of the forces (Angelic and Satanic) are

completely overpov/ered. There is a continuous war between
the two forces. 53
This group is in ti-:e middle of sufi course.
These people neither completely overpower the Satanic
forces nor are they completely overpowered by them. They
 -f O f
39

fight with the Satanic forces in the hope of mercy of God.

54 (
These people have two states. .
i ) They overpower the
lowerself with the things which help religion and purify
their heart from all impurities. But due to their negligence
are again overpowered by the lowerself. (ii) They
overpower some passions, but do not overpower others. For
example a man takes wine but keeps away himself from
adultery. Thus the states of patients are determined by
the power and weakness of their patience.

Hamada.ni classifies human deeds into two groups',

(a) Obedience, (b) Sin.

They are further classified into two:(i) obligatory

and optional, (ii) Henious sins and prohibited.

As it is essential to abstain from the Henious

sins, it is essential to keep patience as obedient in the
performance of duties. In the optional prayer patience lies
in obedience. To abstain from prohibitions is also
optional. To be patient on something which is displeasing
and harmful is prohibited. To do something displeasing or
harmful is a sin.

Thus patience is of five ki:.Jf-.-.

(a) Obligatory (b) Optional (c) mandub (Harmful)

(d) Henious sins (e) Prohibited.
 ilO

The Makhtur has a l s o t h r e e k i n d s . F i r s t i s called

as admirable p a t i e n c e and t h e other two as i l l - f a v o u r e d
patience. The obedient (Muti) i s dependent on patience in
every s t a t e of obedience may i t be the performance of good
a c t i o n or keeping himself away from s i n s 57
. With regard to
obedience (TaaT) the obedient (Muti) has t h r e e s t a t e s aind
in every s t a t e he needs p a t i e n c e .

(a) I t i s r e l a t e d to i n t e n t i o n and s i n c e r i t y . To the

mystics rmd learned ones i n t e n t i o n determines the p u r i t y
of an a c t i o n . The most d i f f i c u l t type of patience i s to do
an action without a l l i n t e r i o r and e x t e r i o r elements of
hypocrisy. The Quran a l s o gives p r i o r i t y to patience and
good deeds.

(b) I t i s r e l a t e d to a c t i o n s . One should be p a t i e n t

upto the end of the a c t i o n .

(c) I t i s r e l a t e d with the time when action i s completed,

One should be p a t i e n t and should not be caught by s e l f - l o v e
(Ujb). He should not understand h i s action g r e a t .

The second kind of patience i s r e l a t e d to Lhe e v i l

deeds of man. Here patience becomes more necessary for him.
The mystics and friends of God r e s t r a i n themselves from
e v i l deeds and p a s s i o n s . Hamadani quotes a t r a d i t i o n as
5Q
"Mahajir is the man who runs away from evil deed".-' This
 141

kind of patience i s from oblif'jaloT-ies. Habit i s the fifth

element of man's n a t u r e . Some people are l^Id to e v i l
deeda by t h e i r h'^bitc. For example a man becomes h a b i t u a l
of l i e . He often t e l l s l i e not with the i n t e n t i o n of lying
but as h a b i t . I f passions get r e l a t e d with the h a b i t i t
becomes more helping to S a t a n i c f o r c e s . Only the truthful
ones can r e s i s t such an e v i l . The followers of the lowerself
cai\jiot divorce i t . I t i s very d i f f i c u l t to keep patience
in such a s t a t e . One can overcome i t by the force of firm
conviction and a t t e n d i n g to one of the things which help
r e l. i.g.i o n .60

jJut r.ome3'iiTies patience becomes a s i n . For

example, i f one keeps patience at the time of some body's
murder, ^von a f t e r being able to stop i t .

To keep patience on wrong-doing i s forbidden and s i n .

The p a t i e n t has to follow the shaf*'in every condition. The
t h i n g s are of two types, eithei- they are loving to the s e l f
o r d i s p l e a s i n g to i t . For example, h e a l t h , wealth and Jah
(honour) are loving to man. Man needs patience in a l l
these t h i n g s . I t i s in the n a t u r e of man t h a t he does not
keep away from the things which are comfortable to h i s s e l f J
t h a t i s why the mystics say that one can keep patience in
hardships and t r o u b l e s . But only the t r u t h f u l ones are
p a t i e n t in the days of fortune and p r o s p e r i t y .
 J42

The second kind i s concerned with the patience

which i s r e l a t e d t o the things h a t e f u l to the s e l f . They
are of two t y p e s :

(a) Which are in the c o n t r o l of man e . g . , obedience and

disobedience (b) The c a t a s t r o p h i e s . I t has two k i n d s :
(i) vjhich are not in the c o n t r o l of man in the beginning
but a f t e r t h e i r emergence they are in h i s hands e . g . not
to take revenge ( i i ) which are in no way in the control
of men e . g . s i c k n e s s , death of children e t c . Though these
t h i n g s are not in the hands of man but patience on them i s
very much v/ithin h i s reach.

I t i s the liighest stage of p a t i e n c e . ^ Patience

has t h r e e s t a g e s :

(a) One who does not express h i s hardsliips and

exagerate them i s a p a t i e n t .

(b) One who keeps patience for seeking God's reward.

Such person can spend h i s physical g i f t s for the s p i r i t u a l
pleasures.

(c) One who p u r i f i e s h i s h e a r t from e v e r y t h i n g except

God, a n d t h i n k s t h e d e s i r e oft h e B e l o v e d a s h i s own d e s i r e

64
is on t h e s t a g e of t h e truthful ones.

Hamadani s t a t e s ^ " e v e n if sufi suffers from the

calamities of b o t h t h e v i s i b l e and t h e invisible worlas, he

 143

should not u t t e r a sigh (in g r i e f ) . And i f he i s subjected

to the hardships of both worlds, he should accept them
patiently"^^

The sufi course needs patience in a l l situations

a t every step, ii-very action io related to the time and
space. Thus the name of patience changes according to the
conditions. Patience means to keep patience on external
calamities. If i t i s patience on sex or stomach i t is ' Ifa'
( c h a s t i t y ) but if i t i s related to otherthings-it is called
as ' s e l f control' (Z.abt-i-Nafs). I t s opposite is (Batar)
arrogance. Patience in war is 'Shaja' (Courage). Its
opposite i s 'Jubn' (Cowardliness). Patience on anger is
Hilm (endurance); i t s opposite i s Hatak ( I n s u l t ) . If i t is
on day-to-day experiences i t is Saadas Sadar (Broad
mindedness). I t s opposite i s Ilanjra (narrow mindedness).
If patience i s related to hiding the secrets of others i t
i s called as Kitraan-i-yir. I t s opposite i s Iblag (Spreading)
Patience on luxuries i s Zuiid (abstinence). I t s opposite i s
(Hirs) greed. Patience on l i t t l e possessions is Qana
(contentment) and i t s opposite i s Shara (Greed).68 Thus
Hamadani says, i t is present in the major aspects of faith.
Patience leads one to iSaada and impatience to Shaqawa
'destruction'.
 lU

hany things become o b s t a c l e s in the way of

patience. One should c o n t r o l them according to t h e i r
methods. For example i f one i s caught up by sex he needs
f i v e things to c o n t r o l it:

(a) One should b e l i t t l e the food,

(b) One should r e s t r a i n himself from those things
which add to chaotic c o n d i t i o n s . One should r e t i r e i n t o
solitude. He should not see b e a u t i f u l faces e t c .

(c) One should provide to the s e l f the needful and

should not check i t improperly, for example, b e l i t t l i n g the
food i n t o the extent that the body gets weak. ilamadini says
t h a t some3;imes i t s r e s u l t i s very b i t t e r . For, on one hand
the body becomes weak and on the o t h e r man does not become
pious.

(d) One should study the l i f e of the Prophets and the

f r i e n d s of God.

(e) One should develop h i s power of p a t i e n c e , so that

he may control h i s lower s e l f .70 With regard to the
controversy of p r i o r i t y of yhukr ' t h a n k f u l n e s s ' and Sabr
• p a t i e n c e ' , Hamadani s t a t e s t h a t , i t i s a m a t t e r of opinion.
Some mystics e.r. F u d a i l , l i a s s a n - a l - B a s a r i , iiufyan l i u r i ,
dunaid and others are of the opinion t n a t Sabr i s p r i o r to
71
Shukr. AS a g a i n s t i t some mystic^are of the view t:.at
Shukr i s p r i o r to Sabr. When v^e compare them, sometimes they
 i4o

seem to be similar and sometimes they overpower one

another. Both these qualities depend on obedience.

But Hamadani favours the view that Sabr is prior

to Shukr. Patience is related to poverty.
The higher type
72
of light of faith and conviction is in the heart of poor.

TRUST IN GOD

Man h e l p l e s s l y and i n v o l u n t a r i l y abandons a l l the

t h i n g s 8Lnd r e l a t i o n s of t h e world a t t h e time of d e a t h ,
Hamadani a s s e r t s t h a t t h e t r a v e l l e r s h o u l d abandon a l l the
t h i n g s and r e l a t i o n s v o l u n t a r i l y f o r the p l e a s u r e of God.
He should t r u s t in God i n complete .-and w i t h o u t any h e s i t a t i o n
ana q u a l i f i c a t i o n . - ^ I t h e l p s one t o a t t a i n Saada.

CONTMTI'uENT

The l u x u r i e s make a man p r o u d . One can g e t r i d of

t h e p r i d e and ( v ; i l f u l s e l f - d e c e p t i o n ) 'Gurur* i f he has a
good u n d e r s t a n d i n g . One should do t h i n g s as they a r e needed.
He should r e a l i z e t h e r e a l i t y of the world and the l i f e here-
after. A good r e a l i z a t i o n of the t r a n s i t o r y and t h e eternal
life l e a d s one t o c o n t e n t m e n t . To a t t a i n ijaada i t is
n e c e s s a r y t h a t one sliould g i v e up a l l the d e s i r e s and
passions. He should t a k e only t h a t much which i s n e c e s s a r y
for h i s life?^
 J4G

Solitude is one of the ways to attain salvation.

Hamadani states that to keep one self away from all
creatures is solitude. One should retire into seclusion
completely. He should keep himself away from people and
worldly objects as the death keeps him. He should not sit
in the company of people except his guide (Pir) who is
necessary for the purification of his >ieart. The traveller

is like a corpse in the hands of the pir (guide), who

75
purifies his heart as the Gasal (Bather) washes the corpse.

Hamadani states an example of a doctor who

prescribes for the patient a particular diet to cure his
disease. in the same way the true guide also prescribes
a path of regulative diet to purify the soul from all
impurities. Solitude is the diet and rememberance of God
7 f\

i s the medicine of the traveller as t o cure h i s s o u l .

Hamada^ii s t a t e s t h a t the r e a l s e c l u s i o n i s t o c o n t r o l the
five senses. Because a l l the t r o u b l e s which the s o u l g e t s
i s due to them. The v e i l between God and man i s caused by
them;77 So one should remove t h i s v e i l by keeping himself
away from a l l d e s i r e s and n o t - f o l l o w i n g the S a t a n i c way.

Hamadani in some of h i s v e r s e s says t h a t a hard

labour i s very much necessary f o r tiie a t t a i n m e n t of higher
 147

stages. H a r d s h i p s open t h e g a t e s t o r e a c h r e a l i t y . Man

s h o u l d ptjj?ify h i s h e a r t from a l l t h i n g s and s h o u l d make i t
t h e abode of t h e l o v e of God. Then and only then a l l the
7R
p u z z l e s can he s o l v e d .

TAtfAJJUH

Tawajjuh means attention. In the mystic sense it

means to present one's self entirely with all devotion
before God. It also implies the negligence of all the stages
and rising higher to all claims.

The traveller should completely pay no attention

towards anything except God. If the stages (Maqamat) of
the Prophets are told to him he should pay no attention to
them and should not forget the exaltedness of God.

Hamadani quotes a saying of Jixnaid of Bhaghdad that

if a traveller has spent his thousands of years in the path
of God and becomes negligent for a while, he losjes all the
RO
blessings which he had achieved in thousands of years.

RAZA

Raza. i s t h e h i g h e s t sjtage of t h e s u f i course. It

means t o a c c e p t v o l u n t a r i l y and p l e a s i n g l y t h a t what comes
from God. I t a l s o i m p l i e s t h a t one s h o u l d g i v e up h i s wish
and w i l l f o r t h e w i l l of God. leaving a l l his qualities
a s i d e he should r e l a t e h i m s e l f w i t h t h e a t t r i b u t e s of God.
 i48

By abandoning h i s vrill he r e c e i v e s t h e g i f t s from

God which a r e n e i t h e r known t o any one n o r seen by any
one. By t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n of h e a r t he becomes competent
to receive these g i f t s . By e x t i n g u i s h i n g h i s wishes he
r e c e i v e s , from t h e L i g h t of God, t h e powers which make him
S o a r i n t h e c o u r s e of d i v i n i t y and u n i t y . He i n no way can
be compared w i t h t h e i g n o r a n t ones who canQiot s e e even a
f l i c k e r of His l i g h t . The traveOQ-er by t h e g r a c e of God can
know t h e i g n o r a n t o n e s , who a r e caught by t h e m i s e r i e s and
whose l i f e i s f u l l of envy, g r e e d and o t h e r v i c e s 32
.

ZIKR

iiikr means reraemb^rance. In the m y s t i c t e r m i n o l o g y

i t means to f o r g e t v o l u n t a r i l y t h e rememb^rance of e v e r y -
t h i n g e x c e p t God. I t i s a medicine for heart.

I t i s c o n s t i t u t e d of a f f i n n a t i o n (Isbat) and
negation (Nafi). L a ' I l a ' h a i s t h e n e g a t i o n of a l l impurities.
The d e s i r e s s t r e n g t h e n the l o w e r - s e l f and develop t h e
p a s s i o n s and v i c e s which c r e a t e d i s e a s e s i n the h e a r i 33
.
Hamadani names some of the v i c e s e . g . P r i d e , envy, I i a l i c e ,
m i s e r l i n e s s , s e l f - l o v e , g r e e d and h y p o c r i s y . Kach of t h e
vices diseases the h e a r t . RememtrTrance of L a - i l l - a h removes
a l l i m p u r i t i e s from h e a r t and makes i t the abode of God.
The rememb^'ance of I l l a - L a h , g i v e s a new l i f e to h e a r t .
 49
Td''i

It becomes spiritually healthy. Zikr protects the heart

from all the vices. The manifestation of the divine light
removes all darkness from the heart. The soul, then which
is the viceregent of God, becomes the ruler of the human
body with firm conviction. It enables the soul to receive
the sublimity and the perfection of God.34

The entire bo^y is illiuained by this li;^';ht. He

knows the secrets of the Day of Judgement and his inoignificant
existence gets lost in the ocean of existence to know the
truth. And the zakir shakes off all the burden from his
shoulders. And the dictum of God "I am with you where ever
you are" becomes a truth. He sees through the eyes of God.
His face becomes illumined with the divine light.

In Risal-ia Zikriyah Sagiriya, Hamadani states that

zikr has two aspects:

(a) Attention to God and (b) Attention towards ci-eatures.

The reality of ' rememb*^rence' is to free ones self

from ignorance. It also impllt-n to forget others completely,
to attain the proximity of God. Kememb^T^rance has three
stages,

The first stage consists of the rememberance of

His exaltedness, prayers and observerances. As for the
'remembrance' of praise is concerned, it means to say 'God
is pure and above all defects.
 lUO

The remerabrarice •^.f o b s e r v a n c e s i s c.^-. praycx-.

I t i s i n i t s e l f a reraerabraice. I t c o n s i s t s of comiaands of
God and the P r o p h e t35 .

Hamadani f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t a remembrance which

i s n e a r t o t h e o b j e c t o r g o a l i s t h e remembrance.of the
La-Illaha-Illa-Lah (There i s no God b u t - G o d ) . It keeps
one away from P o l y t h e i s m , and u n i t e s t h e h e a r t with God.
I t p u r i f i e s h e a r t from every t h i n g e x c e p t God. I t makes
t h e h e a r t a good r e c e p t o r of t h e m c i n i f e s t a t i o n of s e c r e t s .
P r o p h e t Muhammad s a i d t h a t i t i s the g r e a t e s t z i k r (Afzal
Zikr)?^

The second s t a g e of z i k r i s to remember God s i l e n t l y .

Due to the c o n t i n u i t y of the r e c a l l e d i n t u i t i o n s (Shahud) i t
r e s u l t s i n t o the forgiveness of s i n s . But i t anticipates
the e x i s t e n c e of '2akir'.

The t h i r d stage of remembrance i s the highest stage

of Zikr. I t means to remember God only. At t h i s stage the
traveller forgets even h i s own e x i s t e n c e .

Man should remember God only. For, the remembrance

f o r man i s n o n - e x i s t e n t but God knows. On t h e basis of h i s
i n t u i t i o n and the remembrance he mujt r e c o l l e c t only God
with s i n c e r i t y . God alone should be the object to be
 •f
51
r:

e x p r e s s e d b e f o r e him. He s h o u l d r e a l i z e Him as t h e only

37
o b j e c t of r e a l i t y t h r o u g h t h e o b j e c t s of knowledge.

As he remembers God i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s s e l f he
s h o u l d a l s o r e a l i z e h i s e x i s t e n c e i n His remembrance. Unity
means complete s e g r e g a t i o n , n o t f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t He i s
a pure m a n i f e s t i v e and c o n t i n u o u s e x i s t e n c e , but f o r t h e
r e a s o n t h a t He i s p a r e , above a l l w i t n e s s and remembrance.
His u n i t y i s t h e w i t n e s s of His B e i n g . In t h e f i r s t the
Z a k i r w i t n e s s e d His e x i s t e n c e by p i o n o u n c i n g La I l a h Ila/aA
b u t a t t h i s s t a g e he r e a l i z e s t h a t he n e e d s no w i t n e s s .
The r e a l remembrance i s t h e union of t h e remembrance and
t h e remembered. When he r e a c h e s t h i s s t a g e he r e a l i z e s the
s e c r e t s of God, His b l e s s i n g and His a b s o l u t e n e s s . He i s
g r e a t and e x a l t e d i n t h e eyes of t h e s e e r s . He t r a n s c e n d s
a l l the worlds. This r e a l i z a t i o n g i v e s t h e t r a v e l l e r the
knowledge of the b e s t of a l l e x i s t e n c e i n the universe.
He r e c e i v e s t h e d i v i n e h e l p . Some t i m e s the l i g h t s of the
a n g e l s , names and a t t r i b u t e s a r e r e v e a l e d t o him.

In R i s a l a - i - A u r a d i y a , H a m a d a n i s t a t e s t h a t J a a d a i s
n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t the l o v e of God which i s a t t a i n e d 'ay
'remembrance. In t h e e a r l y s t a g e s i t i s n e c e s s a r y for
t r a v e l l e r t o keep h i s s e l f away from a l l the d e s i r e s . One
who l o v e s anybody, remembers him c o n t i n / o u s l y . The l o w e r s e l f
i s an o b s t a c l e i n t h e remembrance. Thus one s h o u l d make
 i rrn
i 0>C

91
his self habitual by the continuity of remembrance. When

the remembrance is emb^ded in his nature, he should engage

92
and give ease to himself in it.

The mystics have adopted different types of

remembrance, hvery remembrance consists of the names of

God. Hamadani states that different names create different

states of heart, livery state initiates him to the new

dimensions of intuition. He receives the secrets of God

and imbues his soul with divine blessings for which he

hopes. Hamadani says that continuity is necessary in

remembrance. He quotes a Prophetic tradition:

"God loves a good deed, if it is done continuously,

94
though it may be very little".

Regarding the controversy about the priority of

95
inward and outward Zikr; Hamadani favours the inward Zikr.

He quotes the Prophetic traditions in favour of both. The

concealment allows no artificiality to admit in the worship

and remembrance. Silent remembrance also does not effect

the worship of others.

If it Ls not so, loud remembrance Is good for

ten rear.ons:

(a) it requires more labour,

(b) It checks heart and tongue from ignorance,
(c) The loud remembrance unites thought with
secrets and reality and engages his audition
•,-,96
as well^
 153

(d) The loudness removes the sleep,

(e) It increases pleasure and removes laziness;
(f) It is expected that others sleeping around
would also be induced to worship,
(g) It may create interest in others for remembrance,
(h) The Zakir becomes soft hearted,
(i) It is dearer to the Prophet that one beautifies
the reciting of the Quran by his beautiful
. 97
voice;

MUNIFIC::.NCE

Munificence is one of the major attributes of

soul which leads it to Saada. A Prophetic tradition runs
as "My followers shall not entt-r the heaven only on the
basis of their performance of obligations e.g. prayer, fast
etc. but on the basis of ijakha (Munificence)". It is the
ideal of the attributes of the Prophet: Sakha is the basis
of love, and the love of unity and nearness. These things
99 Hamadani
help in the beautification of religion (Din).
states that munificence is the mean or balance between the
two extremes i.e. lavishness and miserliness. To keep and
realise the mean is very difficult. It is of a very
delicate nature. Both the extremes are ill favoured in the
eyes of God.
 51
-» r:

Hainadaiii states that one should give to others

according to their need. upending extravai^antly is a
devilish act. He views that munifjcents are of three kinds;

(a) The truthful ones: They do not hold possessions.

They spend whatever they have in the way of God. They
purify their heart from everything except God.101

(b) The devotees: They secure possessions by lawful

means according to their need. They continuously search
the needy ones and spend their extra possessions on them.

(c) The common Muslims: This is the lowest stage of

bakha. They ^,ive according to the letter. They are
overcome by miserliness ana extremely favour wealth. Their
love of God is very weak and they pay very little attention
towards the life hereafter.102

POVLRTY

AS a mystic virtue the poverty has a basic

importance. Hamadani has quoted many traditions and verses
from the Quran to show its importance. A Prophetic tradition
runs as, "shall I inform you about the people of paradise,
they are the weak people, who remained content, what God
bestowed upon them. They are the poor ones. They were
absolutely poor in this world. They had no share in power
of wealth"!^^
 155

The Quran calls them as successful people. In

another Prophetic tradition they are called as the most
knowledgeous people. Hamadani says that they have
completely purged their heart from all impurities, with the
light of the face of God, Their heart is the place of
secrets of God. Their paradise is not the paradise of
luxuries as of common one's but the vision of God.

hamadani states about their qualities as:

(a) They have completely overcome the lower self,

ana have completely purified their heart from all imparities,

(b) To attain the vision of God they turned their

nights into days, that is prayed at nights.

(c) The world was created for the people who are dear
to God and obedient to His will.105

(d) Alongwith the preachers and devoted worshippers

they spread the message of God in the people of ignorance.
By carryinaput the divine tradition they benefitted the
people with the Icaowledge of the divine munificences. They
kept themselves away from the world when people were
speedily ruding after it.

The irnorant ones blamed them for their poverty,

bat they remained content upon the wish and will of God.
1 n (^
aome people blcim_^d them of transgressing the Sharia,
 15G

b u t i n a l l c o n d i t i o n s they remained c o n t e n t . Hamadani

s a y s t h a t t h e s e a r e t h e people a b o u t whom God s a y s :

"By ( t h e Token of) Time ( t h r o u g h t h e a g e s ) ,

v e r i l y Man i s i n l o s s , e x c e p t such as have
f a i t h , and do r i g h t e o u s d e e d s , and ( j o i n
t o g e t h e r ) i n the m u t u a l of t r u t h , and of
p a t i e n c e and c o n s t a n c y " 107
.

Hamadani s p e a k s of the a d v i c e s of h i s g u i d e (Pir)

M a l i k S h a r a f u d d i n Shah r e g a r d i n g t h e p a t h of d e v o t i o n :

One s h o u l d f o l l o w t h e commands of God, and

should keep h i m s e l f away from a l l t h o s e t h i n g s
which s t a n d t o t h e i r c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
They keep p a t i e n c e i n h a r d s h i p s and d i v e r s i t i e s .
They c a r e f o r t h e times of p r a y e r s . They p r e a c h
v i r t u e and s t o p o t h e r s from d o i n g e v i l . They a r e
kind to the p e o p l e and s t a n d by t h e i r words.

They n e v e r become u n j u s t . They keep a s t r i c t

watch on t h e i r l o w e r - s e l f , and always f i g h t their evil
self. They a s s i g n works t o t h e i i - l o w e r - s e l f . They a r e
kind and good towards their neighbours, r e l a t i v e s and
friends. They h e l p poor and f i g h t h y p o c r i t e s . They l o v e
orphans and a r e t h a n k f u l t o God. And a l l t h e s e qualities
l e a d t h e t r a v e l e r t o s a a d a . t - i - A u k h r a v i or t h e u l t i m a t e end. °
 AOi

THANKFULN.b:iS

Man c a r Q i o t c o u n t t h e g i f t s o f God. But h e m u s t

be t h a n k f u l t o God f o r t h e m . Unthankfulness of God i s in

every c o n d i t i o n and s t a t e harmful and t h e s o u r c e of

shamefulness f o r man.

Thankfulness is the highest stage of S a a d a . The

ignorant o n e s car^^not r e a l i z e i t . God h a s r e s t r i c t e d all

the g i f t s , whether e x t e r n a l (zahiri) or i n t e r n a l (batini),

special or g e n e r a l from t h e m . They a e i t h e r r e a l i z e God's

gifts n o r thank for them, u n t i l they are k e p t by some

disease or h a r d s h i p s 110
.

Hamadani s t a t e s that thankfulness is one of the

states of f r i e n d s o f God (Awliya).

All the states of t r a v e l l e r s h a v e t h r e e basic

p r i n c i p l e s ; (a) toowledge, (b) s t a t e and ( c ) action.

Ilm (iOicwledge) i s the f i r s t basic principle of

the path. State is its result, and a c t i o n i s its fruit or

result. But i n t h e s u f i course the sequences of t h e three

is different. There, action i s the f i r s t basic principle,

state is its r e s u l t and knowledge i s the f r u i t of both.

Only t h e p u r i f i e d o n e s can u n d e r s t a n d i t . For i t is related

with the d e l i c a c i e s of t h e path.

 J 58
I nov/led{re (lira) depends upon t h r e e t h i n g s :

(a) R e a l i z a t i o n of t^ift,

( b) One ijhould r e a l i z e t h a t a i:if t i s a b l i s s for him

and not Tor otiiers', for example one has an enemy, i f the
enemy dies i t i s a i^ift for him not for o t h e r s , or to
the enemy,

(c) R e a l i z a t i o n of the iissencc and a t t r i b u t e s of the

g i v e r of the g i f t s , for He i s t h e i r s o u r c e . I t i s the
s t a r t i n g point of the path for the t r a v e l l e r s .

I t has four s t a g e s :

(i) R e a l i z a t i o n of the unity and grandeur of God: It

means to Icnow t h a t God i s above and pure from a l l d e f e c t s .
I t i s equal to the r e a l i z a t i o n of the v;ord "Pure i s He".111

(ii) To think upon the unity of the essence of God,

regarding a l l the g i f t s of God, which He has bestowed,
whether concerned v;ith s p i r i t u a l or physical p l e a s u r e s . It
i s equivalent to the meaning of ' P r a i s e to God'.

(iii) The v i s i o n of Godl I t means to be l o s t in His

love and theophflmy.It i s equivalent to the meaning of
' i'here i s no God but God'.
 -» r:
GO

(iv) xo accept his p e r f e c t i o n with hujnilityl To Icnow

t h a t God i s above our p r a i s e , i s equivalent to the meaning
•God i s Great' V^

R e a l i z a t i o n of the above said four s t a g e s i s the

fountain-head of the l i g h t of u n i t y . I t vanishes the
darimess of polytheism.

A t;nostic ' A r i f r e a l i z e s the g i f t s of God through

h i s l<jiov;ledge. For example i f a man- receives g i f t s from
a man on behalf of h i s master, he should not think him the
g i v e r of the g i f t s . I f he does s o , he i s i g n o r a n t . 'Jame i s
the case v:ith the agencies or sources from vjhich man
r e c e i v e s the ^ i f t s of God. I f he thinks t h a t they are given
by them and not oy God, -^ he i s unthankful. One should
know that a l l the t h i n g s belong to God.

This r e a l i z a t i o n i s the "Tauhid-i-Afial" 'Unity

of a c t i o n ' , u n t i l and unless the b e l i e v e r reaches t h i s s t a g e ,
he can^;iot be said free from the s e c r e t genis of Polythjism.

Though I'nn i s free in h i s actions but he i s

dctenniacd with ^-overal p r e s s u r e s . And when God wishes him
to do any 'iCo, he does i t , and he i s bound to do i t . The
good dcca. whicfi he does are because of the God's w i l l and
'.v'lsh, God i s the only and t r u e bestower (I-iUhsin). One .vho
r e a l i z e s i t , taiows the r e a l i t y of thankfulness.^
 IGO

The other basic x)rinciple is the state. It is

the result of the knowledge 'Ilm'. It has three staged.

(i) The happiness (Farah) attained from achjeving

the gifti It is the state which is devoid of everything
else except pleasure. The seeker of such pleasure does not
thank God, for his only purpose is to attain pleasure,
^ 115
from any source.

(ii) The second is a person who is not pleased with

gift but V7ith the giver (Munim). All his pleasure is the
thankfulness of the giver. If he gets something in the
woods whether of importance or insignificant he will not
be pleased to have it, for thankfulness. The thankful ones
are also very rare, but one thankful person weighs equal
to a generation. These are the selected ones, says "damadani,

There are ten conditions for thankfulness:

(a) Realization of God vathout any cause or desire of

objectj

(b) Expression of humility on the gifts of God; one should

not be pround of his possessions^

(c) To praise the sources in a good manner which helped

in their achievement^

(d) Respect to the will of God at the time of their use;

 1
61

(e) ?'o keep one s e l f away from e v i l s . For example one

should not complain a t r e c e i v i n g g i f t s latej

(f) Taking i n t o consideration the exaltedness of God,

one should hold even the l i t t l e g i f t s as highj

(g) Taking i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n the raxmificence of God,

one should •accept His g i f t s whole-heartedly and
sincerely^

(h) Being dominated by the feelings of shame and modesty

on the c o n t i n u i t y of g i f t s from God;

(i) One should ask God with humility to accept h i s thanks',

(3) R e a l i z a t i o n of the thankfulness as one of the g i f t s

of God!11' '7

The traveOlers having attained any of these stages

are grouped again in three categories:

(i) . Those who thank after receiving the gifts according

to their wish. This is the earliest stage of the travellers
of the path of intention and devotion. Taking into
consideration the meaning of the reality of thankfulness the
followers of all religions are on this stage. It is the
very lowest stage of the stages of thankfulness.

(ii) Those who are pained when they achieve possessions

and pleased when they are kept in grief and calamities.
 162 -

Their heart is full of poverty. They prefer poverty on

possessions. They should keep watch of their self lest
118
people may make them proud by praising them, turn their
1 19
eyes from transitory world , and keep their selves aloof
^ .
from Ignorant,.onea.120

(iii) Those who are at the highest stage of thankfulness.

It is reacJied when a traveller is thankful on the evidences
of the manifestations of the divine lights. He forgets
all other worldy evidences related to the objects. The
theophdny creates in him the state of temperance. This
stage is attained by the few who are completely lost in the
divine being, ;ind one dear to him. Their souls have been
purified in the ocean of divinity. They have remained fidel
throu^ihout their lives. And in the course of their
fidelity have experienced the afflictions of annihilation
and have tasted the sweet wine of the union with God. Their
souls are still garbed in the robe of faithfulness. Their
nature is pure from all licenciousness and debauchery. And
God has, for this reason purified them from all profanities
and have made them the rulers of the immortal kingdom.
They are completely isolated from the world and are not
affected vith decCltfulness and betray^tl of the world. They
are free from all external and internal pains and agonies.
They have no desire to attain spiritual pleasures and
 G3

b l e s s i n g s but the v i s i o n of God. Such people are blessings

for o t h e r s . These s a i n t s are known to God a l o n e . The
1 21
i g n o r a n t ones have no knowledge of them.

C0NTa4PLATI0N

In some of h i s v e r s e s Hamadani s t a t e s t h a t one who

b e f r i e n d s God g i v e s up both t h e w o r l d s . Both the worlds can-
n o t weigh h i s h a p p i n e s s . At every moment he remains i n
t h e p r e s e n c e of God; r e c e i v e s His l i g h t . Thus he i s n e v e r
led a s t r a y . One who wants t o s h a r e t h e s e c r e t s of God
s h o u l d pay no a t t e n t i o n to o t h e r .

They even f o r g e t t h e i r own s e l f ; for i t is

I n f i d e l i t y t o remember ones s e l f i n t h e m y s t i c p a t h 1. 22

C o n t e m p l a t i o n means t o come out from o n e ' s s e l f

and t o g i v e up the w i l l - p o w e r . I t has two s t a g e s , iit t h e
first s t a g e t h e t r a v e l l e r c o n t i r ^ u s l y keeps h i s eye on the
goal. At t h e second s t a g e , t h e t r a v e l e r a f t e r the
purification of h e a r t from a l l t h i n g s w a i t s f o r t h e blessings
of God. He g i v e s up a l l h i s g o a l s and s i n k s i n t o the ocean
of i m i t y ( A d h y i h t ) . He s t e p s i n the e t e r n a l l o v e through
t h e vmlimited g r a c e of God. He 1 oses h i s e x i s t e n c e i n His
u n i t y .1 2'5 Through s e l f m o r t i f i c a t i o n he removes t h e v e i l of
s i n s from h i s h e a r t and i l l u m i n e s i t w i t h x4is theophany ,
Thus a l l t h e p e r v e r s i o n s of h i s s e l f w i l l be washed out and
 164

ho will become all virtue. He will despise the world and

get lost in the love of the eternal beloved. He will have
the vision of His theophdny in the eternity and all the
darkness of profanities will be removed.

OBLISANCE

Obeisance (Tawazah) is one of the virtues. It is

one of the stages of the 'People of conviction'. Like
other virtues it also has either extremes, (a) Pride,
(b) Humility. Obeisance is the moderate way between pride
and humility. Both the extremes are not favoixrable. But the
A of,
m o d e r a t e way i s p r a i s e w o r t h y .

Hamadani c i t e s an example, A sweeper or a shoemaker

goes t o a r e l i g i o u s s c h o l a r . I f he r i s e s t o look a f t e r his
s h o e s , i t i s condemnable, Hamadani quotes a t r a d i t i o n to
s t r e n g t h e n h i s statement " I t i s not permissible for a
b e l i e v e r to degrade his self".

The extreme of a moderate way makes an a c t i o n

p r a i s e - w o r t h y .1 27

S i t u a t i o n s and c o n d i t i o n s change t h i n g s . One t h i n g

becomes e x t r e m e and t h u s i l l favoured a t one p l a c e and i t
become p r a i s e - w o r t h y a t another.
 i G5
nr:

Haraadani s t a t e s t h a t the method which the religious

s c h o l a r has u s e d , when the shoe-maker met hirn^is an extreme
and i l l - f a v o u r e d . But such an a c t i o n i s praise-worthy
when done f o r ones r e l a t i v e s and friends.

J u s t i c e means t h a t the c u r t s e y s h o u l d be shown i n

a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the c o n d i t i o n s of t h e p e r s o n . Obeisance
(Tawazah) of a r e l i g i o u s s c h o l a r w i t h a shoe-maker i s that,
he s h o u l d t a l k t o him i n low tune and answer h i s questions
w i t h l o v e and a f f e c t i o n arid should t r y t o s o l v e h i s problems.
He s h o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d him as low i n h i s h e a r t . He
s h o u l d be f r i g h t e n e d of t h e end o r d e a t h ; f o r iKXZy^ody knows
on what c o n d i t i o n he w i l l d i e . When sucti a c t i o n s g e t a
flow o r m a n i f e s t a t i o n from him w i t h o u t any d e l i b e r a t i o n ,
1 ?8
i t i s the moderate means which i s v e r y h i g h t o ' r i g h t path'.

A Prophetic t r a d i t i o n reveals t h a t obeisance is

g i v e n by God t o whom He p l e a s e s and wants to r a i s e h i g h .
Those who c u l t i v a t e o b e i s a n c e a r e most n e a r t o God.1 29

FUTUT

, God created the entire creatures from nothing

(Adam), Man is the epitome of all creatures. God bestowed
him with the beauty of faith (Husn-i-Iman) and recognition
and wisdom (Irfan). He made love and Futut complementary
for his perfection.
 Putut is from the munificience of God. It is the

alchemy of the eternity. God breathed it into human soul.

It was partly present In every prophet but was perfected in

1 "50
the prophet Muhammad. One can attain it in relation to

him.

Futut is on the one hand a stage of sufi path and

on the other it runs through all the stages of the path.

It is the soul of all stages.

Hamadani states that the word Akhi (Brother) is a

word of common use. But in its real sense it has a broader

connotation. The common people do use it in its verbal

1 31
sense -^nd do not understand its real meaning. They are

ignorant of the realities of the religion (Din). Some

people call others as their brother because of their

• -V 1 32
interests. But it results nothing except enjmlty.

Hamadani states that according to the mystics the

word Akhi has three meanings and accordingly has three l a ^ s :

A. (a) Aam (common), (b) Khas (special), (c) Akhas

(most special).

B. (a) The literal meaning, (b) The sensual and real

meaning (Hisi Ilaqiqi), (c) Etymological or termino-

logical meaning.
 167
The word Akhi l i t e r a l l y means b r o t h e r . Generally,
p e o p l e c a l l a man b r o t h e r who i s of t h e same p a r e n t s .
Sometimes anybody i s c a l l e d by anyone as b r o t h e r but i t is
a fomaal e x p r e s s i o n . P o r , he does n o t u n d e r s t a n d him r e a l l y
so. I t i s t h e f i r s t meaning as w e l l as t h e f i r s t stage.

The second s t a g e i s t h a t of t h o s e who a r e faithful

ones and s c h o l a r s of b h a r i a . They r i s e h i g h e r from t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s and c u s t o m s . They r a t i o n a l i s e t h e term
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n j u n c t i o n s of t h e Quran and tradition.
But t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s e c r e t s and r e a l i t i e s of r e l i g i o n
i s l i m i t e d t o t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of S h a r i a . A tradition
r u n s as "The b e l i e v e r s a r e br-ethCren". On t h i s b a s i s they
u n d e r s t a n d t h e b e l i e v e r s as t h e i r b r o t h e r s .1^-^
33

The most s p e c i a l g r o u p i n c l u d e s the m y s t i c s

( A r a b a b - i - A h l - i - 9 k u l u b ) and t h e s c h o l a r s ( A h l - i - T a h q i q ) . To
them a t r a v e l l e r of t h e p a t h i s a b r o t h e r . They c a l l their
d i s c i p l e s i n whom they see t h e q u a l i t i e s of F u t u t e.g.,
generosity, munificience c h a s t i t y , honesty, affection,
forbearance, o b e i s a n c e and p i e t y as A k h i . They d e c l a r e
1 34
them as their Khalifa and give them the sufi garment.
Sometimes they bestow them with robe, which is sometimes
the clock (Ivhriqa) and sometimes the cap. To him both these
1 35
things comprise the clock.-"^ The cap is the essence (asl)
of the robe. For, it is the sign of sainthood. The Jubbah
(GOV.TL) is for covering the body.
 IG8

Futut i s one of the stages of the travellers.

I t i s a part of j'uqr aiul a type of sainthood. Hamadani
3aya th-it thoufli i t i s one of the ntacos of the pa Lh ond
povbi'ty but iu J t;= rtaliscnse j t i s the essence and r e a l i t y
of a l l the Gtafjes oC Sufi course. All the stages of
i'eli;f_:ion or path depend upon i t . All the human perfections
a r e r e l a t e d ;ind connected with i t . I t runs throu^^jh a l l
Lhe v i r t u e s .i;;^

Hamadani warns that as i t i s necessary to a t t a i n

the worldly knowledf;e from a t e a c h e r , so i s with the r e n l
knov/lfcdi^^e. Thou(;h a man might be very i n t e l l i g e n t ojid may
study thousands of books but Li? a u t h o r i t y and judgement
(Fatwa) i s not acceptable u n t i l he has a t t a i n e d the
knowledge from a t e a c h e r . Same i s t h e case vrith the man
who follows the path (Tariqa) and poverty and performs
mortification Cor hundreds of y e a r s . liis Futut and p r a c t i c e
i s not v a l i d l u i t i l ht a t t a i n s i t under the gui-iance of a
guide. yie i s of the opinion that the prophet Muhammad
imparted the imowlodge of Futut to Ali who became the source
of knowledge to o t l i e r s . Thus no order which does not I'rive
i n s p i r a t i o n and laiowledge from him can. n o t a t t a i n the
cognition of Futut.

n'araadani holdtJ t h a t there are d i f f e r e n t views of

mystics regarding the meaning of F u t u t . Tt i s to do ju;;tice
 JG9

v/ith a l l t h e c r e a t u r e s o f God v a t h a d e e p s e n s e of

obli^^ation. Tt a l s o i t t i p l i e s t h a t one s h o u l d n o t demand

justice from o t h e r s . To M u h a s a b i and P u d a i l A y a z , i t means

c p e n d i n c t h e boionfcies of God on o t i i o r s w i t h o u t any

discrimination of f r i e n d and f o e o r Muslim o r n o n - m u s l i r a 137

.

J i i n a i d o f Baghdad v i e w s t h a t to r e s t r a i n ones ownself from

e v i l d o i n g and d o i n f ^'ood and v i r t u o u s d e e d s a l l t h e time

is Futut. I'o <Saiml-bin-Abdullah, f o l l o w i n g t h e Suunnah

of the p r o p h e t i n complete i s Futut. To him t h e h a t e of

t h e world is its lov/est s t a g e . The h e a r t w h i c h l o v e s the

v^orld d o e s n o t t o u c h F u t u t . To B a y a z i d o f B l s t a m Futut

means to c o n s i d e r the r ; i f t s s p e n t on o t h e r s a s littl:;.-"^

Accordln;"; t o ^ a h y a - i b n - M a a z F u t u t i s of t h r e e kind;-::

(a) {^ood a t t i t u d e with p i e t y , ( b ) a t^ood a n d h o n e s t

conversation, (c) friendship with loyalty.

IInmaua.ni i n f e r s from t h e s t a t e m e n t t l i a t God h a s

b e s t o w e d man -..'i t h three ^ i f t s : (a) Beauty, ( b) l i l o q u e n c e

a'ld clearfaxLce and ( c ) Wealth.

The iU'.hi s h o u l d u s e a l l t h e t h r e e ^':j f t s to nltain

1 3"^
the oaada.'^-'

To Abu Hafc Had dad F u t u t i s forbearance. It also

inoladcs t o fui\-',ivc others on Lhei r s i n s and t o answei- the
evil of i ^ ^ n o r a n t s v/ith ^ o o d . Tht,se were t h e q u a l i t i e s of
the Prophet. God tias r e v e a l e d him t o k e e u these attributes.
 171

Abu Ali Daqaq said t h a t Putut i s to remain close to people

but l i v i n g a l i f e of estrangement amongst them. I t implies
Chat an iikhi should lead a l i f e of close contacts with
the people e x t e r n a l l y . He should t r e a t them v;ith love,
benevolence and should .'^ive them good advice but in r e a l i t y
he should be estrange to a l l and n e a r to God only. One
should face hai'dships with happiness.

L'liiiiadani holds Lhat Futut has a wide connotation

but concludes "Cliat It c o n s i s t s of four major p i l l a r s . lie
accepts i t on the a u t h o r i t y of A l i , whom he accepts as the
l e a d e r (Imam) of pious ones and the embodiment of ? u t u t .

(a) To forfive others even a f t e r being powerful.

(b) To keep forbearance in the s t a t e of anger.
(c) To do good w i t h enemy.

(d) To s a c r i f i c e for o t h e r s even a f t e r being in

need!^^

H;imadani says that i t i s r e l a t e d with t/ie r i g h t s

of people. He c l a s s i f i e s man broadl^/- i n t o two groups:
(a) favoured by God ( H a q b u l a n - i - H a z r a t - i - J m n a d i y a t ) ,
(b) diimned by God (iCardudan-i-bargah). Tlie l a t t e r are
f u r t h e r c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two groups; (i) the people of
dis cress (Ahl-i-Shaaawat) , i, i i ) the people in loss (^i-hl-i-
Khasarat).
 171

The people of d i s t r e s s are those who are condemned

to eternal failure. They are devoid of reason. Their
h e a r t s are closed and receive no l i g h t s of conviction and
f a i t h in the unity of God. They are in the r e a l sense
dead.

The people in l o s s ; they are those v/ho are

completely over'^powcred by t h e i r l o w e r s e l f . Their h e a r t s
are impure. They are destroyed.1 41 They n e i t h e r accept
nor search for t r u t h . They only "believe in t h e i r a n c e s t r a l
practices. They receive no v i s i o n of the ani:elic l i g h t s
and s e c r e t s of God.

Hamadani c l a s s i f i e s the favoured ones (Ahl-i-i'iuqbul)

i n t o two p-roups: (a) the pious (abrar) and (b) the people
in proximity (muqarraban). The people in proxrnity are
those who Icnow Tariqat and t r a v e l on the path of r e a l i t y .
They have p u r i f i e d t h e i r h e a r t from a l l possibilities
(audus). They have completely over powered t h e i r lowerself.
Their love of God has dominated t h e i r every wish and w i l l .
They are free froui and above the l i m i t s of space mid time.
They extiriifuish Lheir p o s s i b l e existence (v;a jud-i-mabhum).
They are u t e r n a l . They see the t r u t h with the eyes of t h e i r
sou] and not oi body. They come out from the -v/orld of
sei'vitude and ^ et l o s t in the realm of Ile-ness ('luvdyat).
They a t t a i n e d the Saada. -^ They have the Imowledfje of the
 ] 72

secrets oi' the divine world and become the source of

existence. They extend the munificience of existence in
the entire world.

The Abrar (pious ones) are further classified

into two groups. The first group consists of two types
of people;

(a) Those who are lost in the ocean of 'onity and

the divine secrets. God selects them as His ovm and they
have no concern with the world.

(b) There are some who annihilate themselves in the

ocean of love. Their reason gets lost in the unity. They
are unable to perform external worship and are called the
people of Tariqat.

They realise the meanness and deceitfulness of

the world throtu^h their reason. They leave the pleasures
and austensibilities of the world and devote their life to
attain the eternal bliss. They pass their every moment
of life in worship. They are abstinents.

The second group consists of those whom God has

appointed for the service of people. Their hearts are
fll.lod with love and mercy. They are called as Arbab-i-futut.
 1173

Those who possess these q u a l i t i e s or seek for

them are called Akhi.

Hamadani s t a t e s t h a t Saadah i s a t t a i n e d through

t h r e e types of prayers and obediences.

(a) The p r a y e r s r e l a t e d to heart: i t includes the

unity of God, t r u s t i n God, p a t i e n c e , thankfulness,

s u b m i s s i o n and r e s i g n a t i o n , truthfulness, sincerity, pleasure,

conviction, l o v e and c o g n i t i o n e t c . They a r e t h e key to

i n t u i t i o n and c o m p r e h e n s i o n . They a r e t h e s t a g e s of sufi

145
course also.

(b) Bodily p r a y e r s : they are of two types ( i ) which

are concerned with God e . g . , Namaz, Roza e t c . ( i i ) which
a r c r e l a t e d to c r e a t u r e s . I t i s b e a u t i f i c a t i o n and r e l a t e d
to the r i g h t s of man. The l i q u i d a t i o n of the r i g h t s of
God i s not p o s s i b l e for the common people. The s u f i s alone
do i t in the r e a l s e n s e . The common people worship God
e i t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l l y to avoid shainefulness. They w i l l be
of no use in l i f e h e r e - a f t e r , rifimadani's opinion regarding
the prayers of the common man does n o t seem to be in
congruence v;ith t h e basic teachings of Islam. Islam i s not
the r e l i g i o n for s u f i s only. I t i s more for the common man
than Che s e l e c t e d ones. The Qurjin c a t e g o r i c a l l y a s s e r t s
t h e e s s e n t i a l i t y of the prayer for common man on s e v e r a l
 174

places. God i s a l l j u s t and w i s e . He w i l l d e c i d e i n the

l i f e h e r e a f t e r about t h e p r a y e r s of t h e Muslims. He i s
t h e b e s t o w e r and t h e f o r g i v e r . He can adrait o r r e j e c t the
p r a y e r s of a p e r s o n . I t can n o t , t h e r e f o r e , be s a i d t h a t
t h e p r a y e r s of common a r e l i k e t h e dead b o d i e s as Hamadani
holds, auch an a s s e r t i o n r e d u c e s common man t o n a u g h t
and l i m i t s t h e purview of r e l i g i o n t o t h e s u f i s only.

The w o r s h i p I s n o t a t r a d i t i o n a l or costomary
t h i n g , says Hiunadani. The worship demands a complete
p u r i f i c a t i o n o f the body, h e a r t and s o u l from a l l the
i m p a r i t i e s of t h e s i n s and the w o r l d . He s h o u l d s e e k and
f a c e t h e r e a l Q i b l a (God).

Hamadani t h i n k s t h a t only the p r o p h e t s and the

sufis can perfonn such a p r a y e r . Common masses cannot even
imagine i t 147
.

But one can a t t a i n ijaadah by f o l l o w i n g the right

hand o n e s . Une s h o u l d spend h i s p o s s e s s i o n s i n t h e way of
God. I t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o s t a n d i n t h e rank of sufis.
But one s h o u l d make h i s e f f o r t s t o be i n the rank of
Ahl-i-?utut people of maf'^ianimity. I f one does n o t do so
1 4R
he will be amongst the people in loss.

r.en are created dependant. They need each others^

help f^r the fulfilment of their works and their success.
 175

Thus the people should help each other according to t h e i r

capacity. ^ To substantiate i t he quotes a Prophetic
t r a d i t i o n , "the Prophet said that Muslims are like a
building, in which every brick gives i t due support in i t s
erection and establishment. In the seune way the individual
Kuslims are like the bricks giving e s s e n t i a l support to the
e d i f i c e of Muslim society, iixtemally strong people
possessing the gifts of God must spend them in His way. But
on the contrary they forget t h e i r duty and the rights of
others"! ^°
 17G

VIGLS

As already i n d i c a t e d above, human existence has

two a s p e c t s , the e x t e r n a l and t h e i n t e r n a l , constituting
h i s i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l i n d i v i d u a l i t y . Both t h e s e
a s p e c t s are e i t h e r b e a u t i f u l or ugly according to the
p r o p o r t i o n , measure and harmony.

iJvery c r e a t u r e i s dominated by some s p e c i f i c

quality. I t may be a good q u a l i t y ( v i r t u e ) or e v i l
2
quality (vice). Man becomes animal, a b e a s t , a d e v i l or
an angel according to the dominnnce of these q^ualities.

We may reduce these four q u a l i t i e s i n t o two groups

a n g e l i c e . g . , reason i f i t operates in moderation and
S a t a n i c e . g . , a p p e t i t e and anger, i f they deviate from the
path of moderation. Thus both aiiger and a p p e t i t e are not
in themselves s a t t m i c . I t i s the Ji-jviation from the path
of moderation t h a t makes them d e v i l i s h . Indeed, God has
c r e a t e d these forces in man for h i s p r o t e c t i o n .

I f they are controlled and used for the vei-y

purpose for which they are c r e a t e d , they lead man to 3aada.
But i f they dominate him, they lead him to Shaqawa, ultimate
destruction. Hamadani, c a l l s them as 'Muhlika'?

He deals with some v i c e s as p r i d e , greed, v a n i t y ,

m i s e r l i n e s s , hypocrisy e t c .
 1 i i

MISJJ:RLIN£SS

M i s e r l i n e s s i s t h e f i r s t amongst t h e s e v e n major
vices. G e n e r o s i t y , *Karam' i s one of t h e a t t r i b u t e s of God.
Miserliness is i t s opposite. Thus i t i s one of the g r e a t e s t
7
vices!

A Prophetic t r a d i t i o n runs as the Miser,

t h e t y r a n t , and t h e S a d i s t w i l l n o t e n t e r
i n t o t h e heaven*.

M i s e r l i n e s s means to c o l l e c t p o s s e s s i o n s , and n o t
t o spend from them i n t h e way of God. God has bestowed
man w i t h His b o u n t i e s , w e a l t h and p o s s e s s i o n s . He s h o u l d
spend them i n His way t o e a r n f o r the l i f e h e r e a f t e r . One
s h o u l d n o t be proud of h i s p o s s e s s i o n s , and s h o u l d n o t make
q
i t a s a t o o l t o e x p r e s s h i s g r e a t n e s s . Hamadani q u o t e s
t h e Quranic v e r s e s i n which i t i s r'evealed t h a t the possessions
of a m i s e r w i l l be of no use i n t h e l i f e h e r e a f t e r . It will
become t h e cause of h i s d e s t r u c t i o n 10
.

M i s e r l i n e s s c a u s e s d e s t r u c t i o n , b l o o d - s h e d and i s
an open r e v o l t a{;ainst God. Hamadani q u o t e s a t r a d i t i o n
which runs as "save y o u r s e l f from m i s e r l i n e s s . It caused
t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e p e o p l e befoi'e y o u . Due to i t they
d i d t l o o d - s h e d rjnd made f o r b i d d e n (Haram) l a w f u l (Halal).
They a r e condemned t o H e l l " ]
 •f >••

78

Hamadani s t a t e s t h a t man should overcome t h i s

d i s e a s e by spending the wealth in God's way. He should s i t
12
in the meetings of good one.? ; to reach the goal or attain
the Saada.

To follow the loworself, and the love of the world

1 "5 One should purify
is the cause of all the causes of evil.-^
14
his heart and control his lowerself to attain the Saada.^

ANGLK

Hamadani s t a t e s that anger i s a power which has

been emberded in the n a t u r e of man t o keep away the d e s t r u c t i v e
and harmful things from him. The power of anger i s
manifested in revengi?, which brings s a t i s f a c t i o n to h i s
excited self. One who i s caught by excessive angei' becomes
i g n o r a n t of i t s harms.

The an{:er l i k e a l l o t h e r q u a l i t i e s has three

degrees: (a) excessive, (b) d e f i c i e n t and (c) moderate.
In i t s excessive e x p r e s s i o n , anger overcomes the man and his
reason i s unable to see any expediency.1 ^
a
In t h i s stage he needs a company of v i r t b u s ones.
I f he i s accompanii.'d by ignorant ones, who on the basis of
t h e i r ignorance c a l l h i s anger as bravery and source of h i s
p e r f e c t i o n , he i s caught by anger. I t comes i n t o i t s r e a l
 179
e x p r e s s i o n , when he ignores the advice of o t h e r s . He loses
the d i s t i n c t i o n of good and e v i l .

(a) The humility which i s embeded in h i s nature i s

dominated by anger and he faces d e s t r u c t i o n . I t i s expressed
17
when he becomes hot-blooded.

(b) The d e f i c i e n t expression of anger l i e s in showing

weakness and t i m i d i t y in a l l such circumstances which
demand exercise of courage and r e s i s t a n c e . Both these
elements are i l l - f a v o u r e d because i t i s the expression of
shamelessnesB and cowardice. And according to the t r a d i t i o n
1R
i t i s the sign of unmanliness. One who t o l e r a t e s the
forbidden c o l d - h c a r t e d l y and does not care for the honour
of h i s mother and s i s t e r , i s a v i c i o u s man. I t shows the
h o s t i l i t y and stagnancy of h i s n a t u r e . Both the extremes
of anger are ill-favoured.

(c) The balanced or moderate expression of anger i s

praiseworthy.

The anger i s necessary for the m o r t i f i c a t i o n of

s e l f and attainment of LJaada. The traveller overcomes the
forces of passion and anger by h i s p a t i e n c e . aome-times he
destroys the force of passions by the power of anger. These
two powers (anger and passions) are the two wings of a
 180
travelur-T. One who keeps them in c o n t r o l and moderation
a t t a i n s the s t a g e of nearness.-^

I t may be noted that Ilamadani's explanation of

anger i s s i m i l a r to t h a t of a l - G h a z a l i ' s a n a l y s i s of s e l f -
assertion. He holds t h a t one can a s s e r t one's s e l f in
t h r e e ways: (i) excessive s e l f a s s e r t i o n , ( i i ) lack of
s e l f a s s e r t i o n and ( i i i ) moderate s e l f expression. Both
excess and lack of s e l f a s s e r t i o n a r e d e v i l i s h . The excess
of s e l f a s s e r t i o n blackens the h e a r t , and one s t e p s aloof
from reason and thought. In the excess of s e l f a s s e r t i o n
one has no c o n t r o l over h i s insif;;ht, thought and w i l l , and
can not d i f f e r e n t i a t e between good and e v i l .20 One who lacks
s e l f a s s e r t i o n i s l i k e an a s s , because he lacks the very
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of r e s i s t a n c e against e v i l . I t i s moderate
s e l f a s s e r t i o n which i s required by 'Din' and Reason.
P u r i f i c a t i o n of s e l f i s impossible without i t . One should
c o n t r o l h i s passions by h i s power of s e l f a s s e r t i o n 21
.

The anger can be suppressed in five ways:

(a) One should f e a r the wrath of God, when he i s

expressing h i s anger on o t h e r s ,

(b) One should keep himself away from en^mity, revenge

and the b e a s t l y q u a l i t i e s . Although these things are n e i t h e r
 ISl

h e l p f u l in the l i f e h e r e a f t e r nor are they rewardable yet

they lead to the u l t i m a t e end."

(c) One should think upon the things which become

hind^rances in h i s for-bearance sin d f o r g i v e n e s s , and
i n s t i g a t e h i s power of anger for revenge. These are Satanic
t h i n g s and one should not c u l t i v a t e them even i f o t h e r s
consider him to be unable to take revenge or to show his
anger.'^ One should t h i n k t h a t nothing can harm and trouble
him unless God v d l l s . The admiration and the blames of the
people would not a f f e c t h i s r e l i g i o n but these things would
spoil i t .

(d) One should show anger only for the cause of Ood
and not for h i s ovm s e l f .

(e) One should think t h a t forbearance i s g r e a t e r than

anger. Forbearance leads one to reward and the greed of
rev/ard leads ^ine to overcome h i s anger.

A l l v i c e s , says Hainadani, are rooted in pride and

vanity. I t i s oblJ£;atory to overcome them. One can overcome
them and purify h i s h e a r t from a l l i m p u r i t i e s i n two ways ?^

(a) The r e a l i s a t i o n of f a u l t s of the s e l f and t h e i r

ro-cult.
 1S2

( b) R e a l i z a t i o n of t h e power and wisdom of God.

R e a l i z a t i o n of the s e l f leads one to r e a l i z a t i o n of God.
Hriraadani s t a t e s t h a t one should r e a l i z e the three stages
of the developriien t of h i s s e l f , :\Q i t w i l l lead him to
r e a l i z a t i o n of God and ul-cioiatuly to Saada. The three
sta.£es a r e as Collovjsv

(i) Awaliyat (the e a r l y period of the development of

human s e l f ) : Wan should r e a l i z e t h a t he has been created
from clay whicli is the lowest thing in the c r e a t i o n . Thus
he owes h i s nature and r e a l i t y from inCanimate o b j e c t s .
Before his c r e a t i o n he had no Ij f e , no Icnowledge, no power,
and was devoid of motj.on. Thus liis m o b i l i t y i s preceded
by h i s i n a c t i v i t y , taiov/ledge by ig-norance, power by weakness,
l i g h t by b l i n d n e s s , hearing by deafness, speech by dirabness,
wealth by poverty mid r i g h t guidance by wickedness. This
i s the f i r s t stage of h i s e x i s t e n c e ,

(ii) Ausatiyat (The middle puriod of the developmtnt

of huiiifaja s e l f ) : God bestowed him power, knowledge, w i l l ,
r i g h t guidance, five senses and uncountable g i f t s . Thus
he should becc ;e a f a i t h f u l servfmt. Only God i s e t e r n a l ,
s u b s i s t i n g and worthy of a l l p r a i s e . To Ilia belongs the
pride. Kan must l i v e a l i f e of humility and servitude and
not of p r i d e . Kan should think upon the d e f e c t s and
weaknesses embeded in h i s n a t u r e . His body i s so created
 183

that if any organ of his body functions abnormally he

becomes h e l p l e s s . This i s the second stage of his existence,

(iii) Aakliriyat (x'he l a s t period of Human e x i s t e n c e ) :

Ilamadani s t a t e s t h a t in t h e l a s t man d i e s . He becomes
dust with dust and food of d i f f e r e n t i n s e c t s . V/ith his
death he i s rendered p h y s i c a l l y non e x i s t e n t . This i s
the f i n a l stage of h i s e x i s t e n c e in t h i s v/orld.

By keeping his r e a l i t y in mind man should not be

proud of h i s g i f t s .

Ilamadani s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s a difference betv/een

the pride and(LTjb) s e l f - l o v e . fie says t h a t ujb i s to
understand o n e ' s s e l f e x a l t e d .

I t needs no object for i t s e x p r e s s i o n , v/hore^^as

pride needs i t for the same.27 The person who boasts of h i s
p e r f e c t i o n s with no submission to God i s a f f l i c t e d with
vanity. P r i d e , on the o t h e r hand, l i e s in t h i n k i n g other
persons as i n f e r i o r to one s e l f .

The lowest type of Pride i s to understand others

as low, and the h i g h e s t type i s to undei-stond them not even
able for h i s s e r v i c e . I'hese people do not pray to God, for
they think i t to bt uhrmeful to them. I t i s the r e s u l t of
t h i s q u a l i t y that tlie h e a r t i s darkened and one can'^not see
 18i

through a l l the elements of f a i t h , t h a t i s why t h a t he

28
wi l l not e n t e r i n t o the heaven.

Hamadani s t a t e s that the Pride i s the source of

o t h e r vices e.g., M i s e r l i n e s s , envy, b a c k b i t i n g , l i e e t c .
And a l l these vices lead one to h e l l . The Pride i s the
source of a n r e r and the anger i s the cause of God's wrath.

The Prj.de b a s i c a l l y ori^'inates from d e v i a t i o n .

I t i s manifested in many forms. Some-times one shov/s Pride
a g a i n s t God, by disobeying His commands; sometimes one
i s proud of h i s power and sometimes blaming and not b e l i e v i n g
in P r o p h e t s . '

According to Hamadani, there are seven major

causes of p r i d e . Two are r e l a t e d to the r e l i g i o n and five
to the world. The causes r e l a t e d to t h e world are
(a) Pedif;:reo, (b) beauty, (c) s t r e n g t h , (d) wealth and
(e) jah ({;lory). The tvro causes r e l a t e d to r e l i g i o n are
knowledge and ;iction. Hfimadani seems to have borrowed these
seven causes of Pride from al-Ghazali who maintains t h a t
the thought of p e r f e c t i o n and possessions whether r e l i g i o u s
or mundane f i l l s one's h e a r t v/ith n r i d e . One becomes prou<i'
of h i s excoD-'.-ncen on account of the following seven f a c t o r s :
( i ) Iruiowledge, ( i i ) a c t i o n , ( i i i ) beauty ( i v ) wealth,i^)fi^d^Q^^^p
(vi) power and (vil) the number of r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s .
 t o85
r-

Let us now discuss b r i e f l y Hamadani's explanation

of the above mentioned causes of P r i d e .

One f e e l s proud of one's s e l f on the basis of one's

p e d i g r e e , in comparison to others v;ho are b e t t e r than he as
regards to knowledge and a c t i o n . He understands otJiers
as h i s s l a v e s . He does n o t l i k e to s i t with them. His
eyes are f u l l of anger. And the signs of h i s malfifvolence
a r e l u c i d in h i s a c t i o n s . He can cure t h i s d i s e a s e , i f he
r e a l i z e s t h a t i t i s f o o l i s h to understand others low on
t h e basis of pedigree."50

The second cause of pride i s beauty. I t i s mostly

p r e s e n t in women. I t c r e a t e s the tendency of backbit^ing
and envy. One should r e a l i z e the Satanic q u a l i t i e s which
have blackned h i s c h e s t , and i s not competent to receive
the heavenly l i g h t s . He should think of f i l t h which i s in
his inside. He should r e a l i z e t h a t the beauty i s transitory.
Even a minor disease can mar i t .

The s t r e n g t h also causes p r i d e . One should r e a l i z e

t h a t a minor d i s e a s e can make him h e l p l e s s . Thus l e t him
32
not be proud of h i s s t r e n g t h .
The wealth causes p r i d e . Mostly the kings, farmers,
tradesman are seized by such p r i d e . C o l l e c t i o n of wealth,
 186

ignor-ince of the dangers of the world and the rejection

of the priority of poverty is one of the most henious types
of pride. One should realize that the wealth will cause
trouble in the hereafter, for everyone has to account for
his possessions. Wise men do not understand wealth as
honour. One may be proud of number of his relatives,
friends and supporters. Usually this type of pride is
found in the kings and wealthy families. But all these
things are nothing but a fantasy. They are shortlive4"
and will not remain for ever. Man himself dies at an
appointed time. One should realise that the passions of
sex and anger, which are embeded in his nature work for

his destruction. If he realizes his helplessness, he would

•54
n o t be c a u g h t by p r i d e r

The two causes which are related to religion are

knowledge and action. Only a few scholars abstain from
pride. Most of the ulama are proud of their knowledge.
They understfind others as ig-norant. They think it obligatory
for others to respect them. ITot only this, they even
understand themselves highly acclaimed before God.

Only the right guided, pious and real seekers

of truth neither follow their passions nor express their
Imowledge inadequately. They keep away themselves, from
the useless discussions. They always keep themselves
 187

engaged in the search of the r e a l i t y of s e c r e t s and the

depths of Imowledge. They never igjiore the p r i o r i t y of
knowledge, iiuch people are not caught by p r i d e .

S i m i l a r l y sometimes a man i s found to be proud

of h i s a c t i o n s . He claims respect from h i s fellows for h i s
p r a y e r s and worship. He also makes f a l s e claims t o be
i n possession of the knowledge of the mysteries of t h i s
l i f e and the l i f e h e r e a f t e r . He considers himself to be
saved and others as ruined on account of h i s bodily worships.
This i s a l l due to h i s ignorance.16 Inffact
f he i s unable t o
know the essence of worship.

There are people who pray with a fear whether

their prayers are granted. They have no pride. They
realize the greatness of God and depend on His mercy. He is
all powerful to grant or reject the prayers. No one among
them claims himself to be saved.

To emancipate from the vice of pride one should

feel pCudenC/on his deliberate or undeliberate sins. He
should Irnow that God has created him to do good deeds but
he does otherwise. His reason should guide him to follow
the path of divinity. Ho should illumine his heart with .
the divine light. He should realise that humility is
indispensable to be in proximity with God.
 188

REFi^RENCLii

1. A n s a r i , A.il. , The E t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y of Ibn

Hiskawaih, A l i g a r h , p.IX.
2. U a d v i , o.f'l.D., Muslim Thouf^ht and i u s S o u r c e s ,
Mohd. A s h r a f , Kashmiri B a z a r , L a h o r e ,
pp.11-12.
3. ibid., pp.18-21.
4. ibid. , p.21.
5. S h a r i f , M.M., H i s t o r y of Muslim P h i l o s o p h y .
V o l . I ~ ( i ' a k i s t a n ) , I 9 6 6 , p . 199.
6. ibid., p.199.
7. i b i d . , p.200.
8. A l - S h a h r a s t a n i , K i t a b - a l - M l l a l W a l - N i h a l . Quoted
by A . J . VJensich i n 'The Muslim Creed'
Ctuubridge, I 9 5 2 , p . 62. Quoted by
S h a r i f , p.202 .
9. Nadvi , S.H.D. , p . 4 2 .
10. S h a r i f , K.M., p . 2 3 2 , H a d v i , S.M.D., pp.63-4.
1 1 . N a d v i , S.M.D., pp.64-65.
12. i b i d . , p.42.
1 3 . S h a r i f , M..^., p . 2 2 1 .
14. i b i d . , p.226.
15. i b i d . , p.223.
1b. i b i d . , p . 2 3 2 .
17. A l - A s i i a r i , A l - n a q a i a t , p . 542. Quoted by
S h a r i f , p.229*
18. i b i d . , p.229.
 189

19. ibid. , p.230.

20. ibid., p.230.
21. ibid., p.234.
22. Nadvi, 3.M.D., pp.11-12.
23. S h a r i f , i-i.k. , p . 4 3 2 .
24. Umaruddin, The E t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y of A l - G h a z a l i ,
A l i g a r h Muslim U n i v e r s i t y , A l i g a r h , p . 4 6 .
25. S h a r i f , ILl-l, , p . 4 3 2 .
26. A n s a r i , A.M., The Moral P h i l o s o p h y of a l - F a r a b i ,
Aligarli, p. I4.
27. ibid., p.16.
28. i b i d . , p . 1 6.
29. i b i d . , p . 16.
30. ibid., pp.10-19.
31. ibid., p.20.
32. ibid., p.22.
33. i b i d . , p . 24.
34. i b i d , , p. 20.
35. ibid., p.31 .
36. ibid., p.30.
37. ibid., p.39.
3S. Fai'abi , ' i i l - H c i d i n a t ' a l - F a d l luh Quote by
A n s a r i , A . A . i n The I-loral P h i l o s o p h y
of F a r a b i , nlii^-arh, p. 39-
39. ibid., p.43.
40. ibiri. , p.46.
41. Umarraddin, p . 4 6.
42. ibid., p.47.
 ino

43. ibid., p.47.

44. S h a r i f , M.K., p . 3 0 6 .
45. ibid., p.307.
4 6. A n s a r i , A.K. , The E t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y of
I bn-His kawa'ih, p . 4 1 .
47. ibid,, p.42.
46. Uuiuruddin , i'he iiJthical I h i l o s o p h y / A l - G h a z a l i ,
A l i g a r h Muslim U n i v e r s i t y , A l i g a r h ,
p.47.
4 9. Jmar P a r r u k , I k h w a n - a l - S a f a B a i r u t , 1953, P. 1 3^, ,
Quoted M o r a l " P h i l o s o p h y of a l - F a r a b i ,
p.42.
5 0. Uraar ad din , 'i.'he L t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y of A l - G h a z a l i ,
Ali£;arh Muslim U n i v e r s i t y , A l i g a r h , p . 4 7 .
51 . A n s a r i , A. li. , The E t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y of
I bn-i-iiskawaih, p . 4 2 .
52. a h a r i f , A.i'^., p.471.
5 3. i b j d . , p.471 .
54. Ansari, A.il., The l i i t h l c a l P h i l o s o p h y of
I b n - M i s k a w a i h , p . 5 6'."
55. ibid., p.62.
5 6. i b i d . , pp. 62-r3.
57. ibid., p.60.
58. ibid., p.70.
59. T a h d i b , p p - 9 - 1 1 , C^aoted by ^ i n s a r i , The .ii'u.hical
P h i l o s o p h y of Ibn-i'iiskatfaih, A l i g a r h .
60. ibid., p.73.
b1. S h a r i f , M.i^i., p . 4 7 6 .
62. A n s a r i , A . i l . , The . a t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y of
1 b n - I i i s k a w a i h , pp. 7 7 - 8 0 .
 101

63. ibid., p.81.

64. ibid., p.88.
65. ibid., p.89.
66. ibid., p.70.
67. S h a r i f , W.M. , p . 4 7 4 .
63, J a f a r i , K.A., Tarikh-i-Tasawuf-i-Islam,
K i t a b M a n z i l , L a h o r e , 1950, p p . 1 3 2 - 3 .
69. A n z a r u l Haq, M., A C r i t i c a l Study of J a l a l a l Din
al-Dav;anis C o n t r i b u t i o n t o S o c i a l P h i l o s o p h y ,
(Ph.D. T h e s i s ) , A l i ^ a r h , p.118.
70. ibid., p.119.
71. ibid., p.119.
72. ibid., p.120.
73. i b i d . , pp.120-21.
74. ibid., p.121.
75. ibid., p.121.
7 6. Umaruddin , The . h t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y of A l - G h a z a l i ,
Ali^-arh Muslim U n i v e r s i t y * A l i g a r h , p . 4 0 .
77. Jafari, L.A. , T a r i k h - i - ' r a s a v m f - i - I s l a m ,L± bab
M a n z i l , LaHore, 1950, p . 1 5 2 .
78. ibid., p.144.
79. i b i d . , p.147.
80. Farid-ud-Din A t t a r , i'azkirat-ul-Auliya,
Quoted by J a f a r i , London, p . 2 0 6 .
81. J a f a i ' i , Tarikh-1-Tasawuf-i-13l;:uu , F i t a b K a n z i l ,
L a h o r e , 1950, p . 2 0 7 .
 : f 19
32

82. i b i d . , p.20c3.
83. ibid., p.209.
84. i b i d . , pp. 2 1 4 - 6 .
85. i b i d . , pp.219-21.
86. Urn a rudd i n , The K t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y of A l - G h a z a l i ,
A1 i£,aTWMUi3lim LFniversity, A l i g a r h ,
p.41 .
87. J a f a r i , K.A. , Tarilch-i-Tasawuf-i-Islam,
i \ i t a b i^Ianzil, L a h o r e , 1950, p . 2 4 0 .
 193
II-UI

1. HPai'iu^uii, ki K u i i r a t - u l - h u l a k , p.im.
2. ibid., p.110.
3. i b i d . , J. 191 .
4. ibid., p.191.
5. i b i d . , pp. 5^5-9.
6. Uiuarudd_La, w . , i'he . b t h i c a l r'iiiloGQpli.y of Al-Ohrizaii
/ • i c u i t y ui' artii i'ubLicaLion, A.M.U., A i i ^ r i r h ,
pp.'j9-00.

7. 'Iruu'id'uii , baldiii-o t - u l - M u l u l ; , p.191

«. i b i d . , p . /! >M.

9. ibid., p.1^1.

10. ibid. , p . 1 21 .

11 . ibid. , p . 1 21 .

12. ibid. , •- 1 "•?

1 3 . i b i i . , p p . 1 o-j-'ob.

14. ibid. , p.122.

15. ibid. , i>. 1 3 <-.

1('. ibid. , p.1^e.

17. i b i d . , 2.13'^.
18. i b i d. , p . 1 3 0 .
19. i b i d . , p.9 \
20. ibid. ,
2 1 . i b i d . , P. 9 o.

iuid > t' •

 194

i r i -I
23. P-':) b .

24. ibid . p. 6{>.

25. i b i (i. p . ( 32.

26. ibitl. f p . 52.

27. Umaruddia , . 1 ,

23. irlamadani, Za

29. ibid. p. 1 75.

30. ibid., p . 175.

31. i b i d . > p . 175.

32. ibid . , t). 176.

33. i b i d . , p . 176.

34. ibid . r p. 77.

55. ibid. i.'. 77,

36. ibid., p. ' 77,

37. ibid., p. ' 7 7 .
38. ibid. , p. 77.

39. ibid. p. 77,

40, ibid. p. 7o.

41. ibid . p . ' 7 ^^.

42, ibid. p. ' 7 8 ,
43. i b i d . , p. 1 30.

44. i b i d. , p . 1 3 0 ,

45. i b i Ci. , p . ' 2 6.

4u. ibid . , p. ' 30.

47. i bi::. , p. ' JO.

 105

4S. ^- b i d . , p . 130.^

49. i b i d . , p.180.

50. I J m a r u d d i n , F>. , p . 1 5 3 .

51. Ilariuidani , Risala-i-i/ah Qai'da, p. 5a.

52. ibid., p.5b.

53- ibid., p.5b.

54. Umai-uddin , H - , p . 9 4 .

5 5. ibid., p.Q5.
5 6. Ham; id a n i , Zp-i:hj T-Ht-\tl-i-iiiluK , p . 1 2 3 .

57. ibid., p.12 3.

5 8. ilfimadani, k i s a l a - i -Ha l i Tl us h k i 1 , p . 2 8 a .

59. Umaruddin , h. , p . 5 9 .

60. 11 fiinrxd• i11 i , i . i _ s a l a - i - l l a l i / . u s l i l ' - i l , p. 2da.

Li , i b i (i. , p . 200 .

62. i b i d . , p . 28r(.

63. ibid. , p.28b,

64 . i b i d . , p . 2 9''i.

65. i.aaadani , L.isala-i-i'iUohabi-hi-di;';;ar, p.59a.

66. Ilamadani , Zakuirat-ul-kuluk, pp. 123-4.

67. Ilamadani, iLioala' - i - M u s h a b i J i i - d i g a r , p . 59b.

68. _.;i,u-idaiii , -iaf h a r i b - u l - A z ' , ; a q , p , 3 6 4 .

69. ibid., pp.365-0.

70. The ''^uran il, 165.

71. ibiu., II, 2 2 2 , V, 5 5 .

 13G

72. xI:aiiauanL, M a s ha r i b - a 1 -A z v/a q,, p . 3 6 6 .

73. i bid. p . 'y-'O.

74. ibif^. , :.'.3"6.

75. ibia., 0.3 66.

7 6. i b i d . , p . 3 6 0.
77. i b i d . , P. 3 6 7 .
78. ibid. p.367.

79. i bi d . , p . 3 6 7 .
80. ibid. p.367.
81. ibid . p.367.
02. i b i (1 . p . J 68 .

33. i b i d . , p . 3 6>8 .
84. ibid . , p . 3 6 J .

55. ibid. , P. 3 6 8 .

86. ibid . p. 368.

07. Hamad: m i , Zakhirat-al-i4ulak, p.59.

88. ibid., PP.119 , 1 37.

89. ibid. p.137.

 197
IV

1. Hamad;uii , Z.akhii-at-ul-lHuluk, p . 120.

2. ibid., p.1b4.

5. Ham a d -ui i , Risala-i-Dah Qaida, p. 5 a.

4. ibid., p.5a.

5. ibid. , p.'3b.

6. ibid. , p.5 b.

7. Hamadani, Ki s a l a - i - I''u q r i y a , O . R . D . , S r i n a g a r , p.116b,

8. Fiiuia'Vmi, K i ^ a l a - i - D a h Q a i d a , p.'3b.
Q
J * Haiiiadani, uisala-i-lHirat-tu-i'aibin, O.K.D.,
3rina;-;ar, p . 152b.

10. i b i d . , p.153a.

1 1 . i b i d , , p . 155.'i.

12. ibid., p.155b.

\''j , .iuiiia(';ui i , .vJL^a I a-i-"Uali L^aida, p. 5 b.

1 4 . H a in a d an i , K1sa l a - i -M i r a t - 1 u-x': i i b i n , p . 1 5 5 b .

15. Hamadani, itina] a - i - L i i . r i y a SMJ' - i r i y a , O.k.D.,

^i rina;^-rF^I p. 122a.

1 0. ibid. , -. 12:-'!.

17. ibid., p.125a.

13. Hamadani, laaala-i-.'lirat-ta-^'aibin , p. 154a.

19. ibid , , i). 1 54c .

20. ibid., p.154b.

21 . ibid. , [). 154b.

22. ibid., p.155a.

 198

23. i bi rt. , p. 1 5 5 a .

24. i b i c . , p . 1 5 (• ; i .

25. i l ) i d . , p . 13b.

2 u, ii;ufl;id;iiii , rJ-LUila-i-Dah v,,alda , p . 6 a .

27. H;i-madani , K i r ; a l a - i - I ' i u a r i f . ' a t - i - Z x i h d , O.R.D, ,

S i-ia-3i:ar, p . 10a .

2b. ibid., y,lOn.

29- ibid., p.10b.

30, Il.'unad.'Uii , KiGala-i-Dah Qaida, p . 6a.

31. ibid. , p.6a.

32, Hriinadani, ivi s a l a - i -M ua r i Tat - i - Zulid , p . 10b.

33. ibid., p.11 a.

34. ibid., p.11b.

35. }I,'i:aadaiii , ZaIchirat-ul-Ruluk, p. 202.

36. ibid., p.203.

37. ibid., p.20b.

38, ibid., p.20b.

3^T. ibid., .0.209.

40, i b i d . , I). 2 0 9 .

41. ibid. , p.210.

4 2, ibid., p.210.

4 3. i b i c ; . , 0. 2 1 1 .

44,

43. i b i d . , p.21 1 .

4C, ibid., p.211 .

4 7, ibid . , p.212 .
 189

48. J-Dlu. p . 21 2.
49. ibin . p.212.
50. ibid. p.217.
51. ibid, p.217.
52. ibid. p. 21 8.
53. ibid, p. 2 1 3 .
54. ibid, p. 218.
55. ibid. p.218.
56. ibid, p . 218.
57. ibid, p . 2 1 Q.
53. ibid, p.219.
59. ibid, p.220.
60. ibid. p.221 .
61. ibiri. p.222.
62. ibid, p.223.
63. i bi d. p.2?4.
64. ibid . p.225.

05
huaain x t - u l - o a r i a , cjuoted lYoiu h c i f i q i , p. 54,

bo. ni , L i a r . h i r a i - u l - r . u l u k , p. 226,
b7. ibid, o.2:>b.

68. ibid , J.221.

6q. i b l d. 2 I •

70. ibic .
71 ibid. 0.213.

72, ibid . D. 21 0 .
 200

75. iiamadu-nx , i ( i s a i a - l - D n , r i i.^aid:-i, p . 6 a .

74. ibid., p.bb.

75. ibid., p.bb.

7 6. ibiH,, p.7a.

77. i b i d . , p . (,h,

76. ibid., p.7a.

79. ibid., p.ba.

80. i b i d . , p . 3-x.

81 . ibid, , p.ga.

82. i b i d . , p.^^b.

83. ibid., p.7a.

84 . i b i d . , p.'/'b.

fj5 . li;uiiadanL , i>is;-..la-i-t«ikri.va I j a r i r i y a , p p . 1 2 3 b - 1 2 4 :

8b. i b i d . , p . 1 2'1n.

87. ibid,, P.124H.

88. ibid., p.124b.

89. ibid., p.124b.

90. .iLuaad-iuii, i.isaiu-i-Aaradi.'i, O.K.D.,

91 . i b i d . , p . 3 •>•...

92. ibid . , p.'yvh.

Q5. i b i c ; . , p . 37r..

94 . i b i d . , p . ':58b.

9'j . i b i d . , p. 39n.

96. ibid . , p.40;i.

97. ibid., p.40b.

 2f]l

9o. Ixajnadani, ^>akhirat-ul-I-xUl uk, p . 123.

99. ibid., p.12b.
100. i b i d . , p.l2d.
101. i b i d , , p . 3 ^ ' .
102. i b i d . , p . 3 7 .
103. Hamadmii, Risala-i-Muarifat-i-Zuhd. p.11a.
104. i-lamadaiai , i d s a l a - i - F u q r i a , O.R.D.,
Srl^nacar, p . 1 14a.
105. i b i d . , p.115a.
106. i b i d . , p.115a.
107. i'he '^uran G lit, 1-3.
100. iiaiiiadani, K i s a l a - i - J u q r i y a , p . 115b.
109. i b i d . , p.116a.
110. H.amadani, Z a l c h i r a t - u l - i \ a l a k , p . 200.
111. i b i d . , p.172.
112. i b i d . , p.173-
1 13. i b i d . , p. VJ'i,
114. i b i d . , p.174.
115. i b i u . , ^. . 174 .
116. i b i d . , p.195.
117. i b i d . , p.197.
118. i b i o . , p.197.
119. i b i d . , p.197.
120. i b i d . , p.193.
121. i b i d . , p.199.
122. Ilaraadani , i t i s a l a - i - D a h Qaida, p . 8b.
 202

123. ibid. , p.3b.

124. 1 Dia.

ni, Ijakhirat-ul-l'iuiui<:, p.5S.

126. ibid, p.250.

127. ibid . p.250.

128. ibid, p.251 .

129. ibid. p.2'^0.

150. li;auad ^j » Risala-i--Put a l i a , O.K.D.,

L> r i n a t ! ; a r , p . <>
: 1 b.

131. ibid, p.02a.

132. i IJ d. p . 02 a .

133. ibid, p.62a.

134. ibid, p.02b.

135. ibid . p . 63:x.

136. ibid . p.63a.

137. i b i d. pp. 63b-64a.

130. ibid . p. 04a.

13^^. ibid. p . 04a.

140. ibid. p . 05 b .

141 . ibid, pp.b^b-OOa.

14 2. i b i d. J.00b.

143. i b i '^. :..66b.

144. ibid, p.67a.

145. ibid . p.6da.

 203

14 6. ibid., p.bba.
147. ibid., p.70a.
14B. ibici. , p.70b.
149.. i b i d . , p.71a.
150. ibid., p.72a,
 204

1. Haraa(K-u:ii, ^akhirat-ul-KuluJ-, p.58.

2. i b i d . , p . y^d.
3. ibid., p.5y.
4. ibid., p.6b.
5. ibid., ?.5S.
6. ibid., p.6u.
7. ILiiuadani, K i s a l a - i - A l c h l a q i a , 0.i:.D.,
^ r i n a g o r , p . 1 2.
b. Hamad an j , Zakhira t - u l - L aluic, p . 2 3 4 .
9. ibid., p.234.
10. i b i d . , p.234.
11. i b i d . , p.234.
1 2. Hamaaani , l i i a a l a - i - t i k h l a q i a , p . 13a.
13. i b i d . , iJ. 1 2a.

14. iiamadan i , Lisala-i-r!ushabihi-dif:ai-, p.9,

1 5 . Hamadan L , L;iLhira l-ul-!'<uluk , p . 25 2.
16. i b i d , , p.253.
17. i b i d . , p.253.
18. i b i d . , p.253.
19. i b i d . , p.25^.
2 0 . Umaruddin, p. £"7
21. i b i d . , p. Qy
22. Uamad;uia , ^'tkhirat-al-Muluk, p.255.
 205

23. ibid. , p. 25''.

24. ibir-. , p.256.

25. ibid. , p.257.

26. ibid. , pp. 258--60

27. ibid, , p.235.

28. ibid. , P. 2 3 6.

29. ibid . , p . 2 3 7 .

30. ibid. , p.242.

31. ibid. , p.243.

52. ibic^. , p. 24 3.

33. ibid. , p.i.'f-''

34. ibid. , pp.244- -45

35. ibid. , P.245.

36. ibid. , pp.247- -8.

37. ibid,, p . 2 4 9 .
 206

CHAPTER III

HAMADANIS POLITICAL THOUGHT

THE QURANIC CONCEPT OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT

"The p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y of t h e Quran i s
e s s e n t i a l l y based on i t s fundamental concept of t h e u n i v e r s e " .
T h i s concept when s t u d i e d from t h e p o l i t i c a l p o i n t of
view g i v e s prominence t o t h e f o l l o w i n g principles:-

(a) God i s the Creator of e n t i r e laniverse. He i s the

only ( r e a l ) r u l e r , d i r e c t o r and a d m i n i s t r a t o r of the
universe.

(b) Sovereignty belongs to Him only. All attrioutes

and Powers of sovereignty e . g . a b s o l u t e n e s s , u n i v e r s a l i t y ,
permamency and i n d i v i s i b i l i t y are ' s o l e l y His p r e r o g a t i v e s ' .
No one can share them. "He i s the l i v i n g self-existent,
self-sufficient, e t e r n a l , omniscient omnipotent, and
exalted above a l l , flaw, d e f e c t , or weakness. His i s the
supreme a u t h o r i t y ; everything submits to Him w i l l i n g l y or
u n w i l l i n g l y ; to Him belong a l l powers". No one "has the
power to i n t e r f e r e in or review His commandments". All
harm and b e n e f i t l i e s in His hands. "He i s accountable to
 207
n o n e ; everyone e l s e i s accountable to Him". He i s gaurdian
of everyone. He i s the supreme lord over a l l other r u l e r s .
He g r a n t s an oppcjH;unity to r u l e on His e a r t h to whomsoever
He d e s i r e s and withdraws t h i s p r i v i l e g e whenever He so w i l l s
These e s s e n t i a l powers and a t t r i b u t e s of a sovereign being
2
v e s t , Solely in God". On the b a s i s of i t s concept of
universe the Quran holds t h a t the r e a l sovereign of mankind,
l i k e the e n t i r e u n i v e r s e , i s God. He i s the only r i g h t f i i l
a u t h o r i t y and lawmaker in every a f f a i r and no one has the
r i g h t to make laws, decide m a t t e r s or give orders on h i s
own.

Thus in the physical sphere of universe everything

including man follows His rules, willingly or unwillingly,
for there is no option to them to do otherwise-Everything,
from an atom to the magnificient galaxcies in space are
totally regulated by the inexorable laws of nature. However
manlclaims a vital distinction for exercising his freedom in
his volitional acts. He has been given a limited freedom
of choice in the volitional sphere on the basis of which
he as the vii^eregent of God will be rewarded or punished.

But God has not left him astray even here also.
He has sent His revelations and guidance to him for the
correct action and judgement through His Prophets. He is
free in hia choice and actions in this sphere; and has
 208

no compulsion, for it would make the given freedom

meaningless. The Quran invites man to follow right path
in this sphere also, by accepting the lordship of God and
establishing his sent rules and regulations in every walk
of life with deliberate willingness.

"The Quran has discussed the different aspects

of this subject at great length. For instance:

(a) Man must fully recognise that "the lord of the

universe is indeed his lord".

(b) The right course is to submit only before God, for

He "alone has the right to decide and order".

"The right to rule and right to order and decide

belongs to God alone because He is the creator and the
ruler of the universe. His rule is right and Just because
He alone comprehends reality and none else is in a position
to give unerring guidance";

"On these grounds the Quran lays down that an

unadulterated obedience is the due of God alone; that it
is His law that should rule supreme; and that to obey
others or to follow one's own wishes against the law of
God, is not the right way. The Quran also asserts that no
one has the right to transgress the limits that have been
laid down by God for the regulation of human affairs. It
also points out that all orders and decisions in contravention
 209

of the law of God are not only wrong and unlawful but
a l s o unjust and blasphemous. I t condemns a l l such orders
as a n t i - I s l a m i c and the attempt to abide by them as negation
of f a i t h " ^

The Prophet i s the law bearer from God. He i s

i t s basic i n t e r p r e t e r . He, as the messenger of God, i s the
only source of our knowing the law of God. He explains
t h e laws by h i s words and a c t i o n s . His obedience i s the
obedience to God. To believe in him and to follow him i s
complementary f o r the b e l i e f in God.

He has to be accepted as the r u l e r , judge, and the

authority. "Thus the Prophets are embodiment of the l e g a l
6
s o v e r e i g n i t y of God". The Quran holds the coimnandments of
God and His Prophet as the Supreme law. No Muslim can
decide on a matter upon which the d e c i s i o n of God or His
Prophet has come. And those who do a g a i n s t i t are led
a s t r a y and are u n b e l i v e r s .

The Quran holds t h a t "the r i g h t form of Government

f o r mankind i s one in which the s t a t e r e l i n q u i s h e s i t s claim
t o s o v e r e i g n i t y in favour of God and, a f t e r recognizing the
l e g a l supjdmacy of God and His a p o s t l e , accepts the p o s i t i o n
of the c a l i p h a t e (vicegerency) under the s u z e r a i n t y of the
R i g h t f u l Ruler. In t h i s capacity a l l the l e g i s l a t i v e .
 210

executive and judicial powers of the state will necessarily

be circumscribed by the limits which have been discussed
in the above lines. Thus the conception of caliphate which
the Quran has put forth can be summed up as; "All the
powers that man possesses in this world are delegated to
him by God. He has assigned to him "The position in which
he may exercise these delegated powers within the

prescribed position by Him". Thus man is not an independent

7
master but the viceregent of the real sovereign.

Any nation which acquires the power and authority

•to rule in any part of the land is in reality the vicegerent
of God. But its rightful or wrongfulness depends on the
obedience to God. A state or a nation or a man who does
not follow the laws ordained by God is not a viceregent
but a rebel against God.

The powers of true caliphate vest in the hands of

a good community (Umma) and not in the hands of any person,
family or group.

In the light of the Quranic verses it is clear that

any good Muslim can be installed as Caliph. "It is this
aspect of Islamic Caliphate that distinguishes it from a
Kingship, an oligarchy, and a theocracy. It is different
even from modem democracy. There is a basic difference
 211

between the two. The edifice of democracy is raised on

the Principle of popular sovereignty; while in Islamic
caliphate the people themselves surrender their independence
to the sovereignty of God and of their own accord limit
their powers within the four comers of the divine law and
the promise of vicegerency has been held out to them only
if they are morally good". The obedience to Caliphate

is not unlimited. It is restricted only with the right

q
and lawful matters. Any obedience in evil-doing is forbidden.

"In all affairs of the state, right from its

constitution to the election of its Head and members of
its Parliament, and the matters of legislation and
administration, the Muslims should make it a rule to take
10 And this must be done through
counsel among themselves".
an agency called 'Shura' in the Quranic Terminology. The
shura is not only a necessity in Islamic Polity but a
commond of God.

The Shura (council) has a cardinal importance in

the structure of Islamic government and politics. It is
the soul of Khilafa*. There can be no Khilafa or Islamic
government without Shura. The council in its super structure,
is the Grand Parliament, which in its real sense has an
international and humanistic spirit. It is the real
government. In the present state of affairs of politics.
 212

when there is no existing international or multinational

super-structure of Islamic politics or khilafa, the Council
can be termed as the free and real parliament of the people
of an existing Islamic state and not of Muslim state. The
Council in its true sense is not only the expression of the
wish of people but the wish of ordained laws. It is the
voice of the ummah. Abu Hayan Undlasi says that Council
is a grand assembly of Uma which discusses the matters in
the light of the Quran and Sunnah taking help, if needed,
from reason and Ijtihad.

There is no place for kingship, or dictatorship

in Islam. The caliph is a trustee. He must be elected by
Muslims. All the Muslims have been ordained by God to
establish His 'Din'. Caliph performs this obligatory duty on
their behalf. The trust or election through which Muslims
handover their trust to the Caliph is called as 'Bait'Sharia'
has not prescribed any hard and fast lines neither for the
system of Government nor for the election of Caliph. It
has been left to the faithful one^ to judge according to
their own situations and conditions. Thus we caxfj^ot say
that presidential or Parliamentary form is the only Islamic
or valid form of government or direct or indirect election
is the Islamic pattern of election.
 2 13

The following qualifications are necessary in

electing the people responsible to run the Islamic State:
"They must have faith in the Principles according to which
they have to manage the affairs of the caliphate-Evidently,
an ideological system canChot work in the hands of those
1 2 They should be
who do not subscribe to its principles".
,u
just, honest, trustworthy, God fearing and virtfous, well
educated, wise, intelligent, and both bodily and physically
fit to run the state. "They should be men of integrity
so that they may be safely entrusted with public responsibi-
litie^'. The people who do not possess these qualifications
13
can_jiot be elected to run an Islamic State.-^

The Islamic state is a constitutional state, ItS:

constitution shall be based on the following principles:
"0 ye who believe} obey ALLAH, and obey the Apostle and
those of you who are in authority, and if you have a
dispute concerning any matter, refer it to A L L A H and the
Apostle if ye are (in truth) believers in ALLAH and the
Last Day. That is better and more seemly in end". This
verse explains five constitutional points:

(a) "That obedience to God and His apostle must be

given priority to every other obedience.

(b) That obedience to those who are in authority

is subject to the obedience to God and His apostle.
 214

(c) That the Head of the s t a t e must be from amongst

the b e l i e v e r s .

(d) That i t i s p o s s i b l e for the people t o d i f f e r with

t h e government and i t s rulers.

(e) That in case of dispute the f i n a l a u t h o r i t y to

decide between them i s the Law of God and His a p o s t l e " 15 .

The Quran has not given any hard and f a s t rules

about t h e method of e l e c t i o n and c o n s u l t a t i o n . I t lays
down only broad based p r i n c i p l e s and leaves the problem
of t h e i r implementation t o be decided in accordance with
the Exigencies of time and the requirements of the s o c i e t y " .
The l e g i s l a t u r e has no r i g h t to l e g i s l a t e in those m a t t e r s
about which " c l e a r injvyctions have been given or d e f i n i t e
p r i n c i p l e s l a i d down or l i m i t s prescribed by ijod or His
17
apostle". The l e g i s l a t u r e can only i n t e r p r e t them "or
frame bye-laws and r u l e s of procedure to bring them i n t o
1 ft
practice". I t can frame laws only about those m a t t e r s ,
in which Sharia i s s i l e n t . " For a l l purposes and needs of
the s o c i e t y keeping in view the s p i r i t and g e n e r a l
p r i n c i p l e s of I s l a m " 1. Q^

"The j u d i c i a r y must be free from every pressure

and influence to adjudicate i m p a r t i a l l y without being
c a r r i e d away by the public or the people in a u t h o r i t y .
 21^

Its f o r e - m o s t duty i a t o g i v e v e r d i c t s t r i c t l y i n a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h t h e law and r e q u i r e m e n t s of j u s t i c e w i t h o u t b e i n g
swayed e i t h e r by t h e p a s s i o n s or p r e j u d i c e s of i t s own
20
members or t h o s e of o t h e r s " .

•Siyaaa', p o l i t i c s i a n o t s e p a r a t e from ' D i n ' , They

a r e complementary t o e a c h o t h e r . The s t a t e i s t h e basic
m a c h i n e r y which e s t a b l i s h e s and e x e c u t e s t h e 'Din* i n human
life. The Quran h o l d s i t n e c e s s a r y b r o a d l y f o r two r e a s o n s :

(a) E s t a b l i s h m e n t of j u s t i c e and e q u i t y and e r a d i c a t i o n

of wrong d o i n g i n a l l human affairs.

(b) E s t a b l i s h m e n t of S h a r i a , e n f o r c i n g good and e r a d i c a t i o n

o f e v i l w i t h i t s f u l l f o r c e f o r t h e w e l f a r e of p e o p l e .

I s l a m i c S t a t e i s t h e g u a i r a n t e e r of j u s t i c e . It
works f o r t h e e r a d i c a t i o n of e v i l and e s t a b l i s h m e n t of good.
I t h a s t o s a f e - g u a x d and g u a r a n t e e the f o l l o w i n g fundamental
r i g h t s , g i v e n by s h a r i a , t o a l l i t s c i t i z e n s , without
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and d i f f e r e n c e of r e l i g i o n , c a s t e and colovir
e t c . ; Right t o l i f e , R i g h t t o p r o p e r t y . P r o t e c t i o n of honour,
R i g h t of p r i v a c y , t h e r i g h t t o p r o t e s t a g a i n s t injustice.
R i g h t of c r i t i c i s m and t o e n j o i n what i s good and f o r b i d
evil. Freedom of a s s o c i a t i o n , . P r o v i d e d i t i s f o r good ends
and does n o t c r e a t e t u r m o i l , disseYjsion and fundamental
differences in society, Freedom of f a i t h and c o n s c i e n c e .
 216

"Protection against wrongfully hurting ones religioua

susceptibilities", "limiting the responsibility of every
person to his or her own deeds" "Security from action
being taken against any one on false reports about his or
her crime", Right to equality, Right of equal treatment
and "Right of the destitute and the needy to be provided
with basic necessities of life by the state", Right to
avoid and keep away from sin and right to disobey the wrong
doers, right of participation in the matters of state and
government. Right of the protection of dignity of women,
and right of economic safety etc.21

An Islamic state asks its citizens to fulfil the

following duties which are deemed necessary for its safety
and survival:

(a) "That they must submit to its authority.

(b) That they must be law-abiding and should not

disturb the public order and tranquility.

(c) They must give unstinted support to the state in

its rightful activities.

(d) They must be prepared to sacrifice their life and

2?
property for the defence of the state".

One of the basic characters of an Islamic state

is that it is based on the ideology derived from the Quran
and Sunnah. In other words it happens to be an ideological
state.
 217
Those persons can run it who accept, its ideology
"whole heartedly". It is the upholder of Islajnic world
view, and is committed to follow it in every walk of life.
It declares the legal as well as political sovereignty
of God. It applies and executes the rules sent:'by God
through His Prophet. It is neither based an colour, creed,
language, or land (though it does not minimize their
importance as such) or economical or political uttercfeice.
Like every other state it also needs land, and population
for its establishment,or coming into existence. It is
committed to the welfare of its citizens without any
discrimination. It is binding on it to propagate and
establish the Din, to judge according to the Book and
tradition and to enjoin what is good and to forbid what is
evil. This is the basic principle which distinguishes it
from other states.

In Islam the law is superior to state and government,

The state is bound to follow the laws sent by God. Its
powers are not absolute. They are delegated and are assigned
through the Book and Tradition. The obedience to God and His
Prophet is prior and above every law and principle, livery
one has to be faithful to sharCia; the state is bound to do
good activities.

The nucleus of the entire field of life is the

obedience to God. The position and posts which are of key
 218
i m p o r t a n c e i n p o l i c y and law making of s t a t e can be v e s t e d
only in t h e f a i t h f u l hands. "As f o r t h o s e who do n o t
s u b s c r i b e t o i t s I d e o l o g y but l i v e w i t h i n i t s territorial
b o u n d s , the s t a t e g u a r a n t e e s them t h e same c i v i l rights
( n o t p o l i t i c a l ) as a r e e n j o i n e d by o t h e r i n h a b i t a n t s provided
t h e y pledge t o behave as law-afclding c i t i z e n s " 23 .

In i t s t r u e s e n s e , I s l a m i c s t a t e i s n o t a l s o a
theocratic s t a t e . For t h e r e i s no p r i e s t l y c l a s s i n I s l a m ;
which p l a y s a r o l e of m e d i a t o r between God and man. In
t h e o c r a c y , s o v e r e i g n t y l i e s with God, b u t t h e a c t u a l rulers
a r e t h e p r i e s t s , whose laws a r e t h e laws of G o d - H i s t o r i c a l l y
such a p r i e s t l y c l a s s has been among C h r i s t i a n s , Jews and
Hindus but n o t i n Muslims.

The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e which l i e s between I s l a m and

t h e o c r a c y i s t h e p l a c e of world i n i t s t h o u g h t s y s t e m .
I s l a m g i v e s a p r o p e r p l a c e t o i t and s a y s t h a t man has been
s e n t on e a r t h as t h e v i c r e g e n t of God t o f o l l o w His l a w s .
I s l a m i c s t a t e i s not a t h e o c r a t i c s t a t e in i t s absolute
s e n s e "For" s a y s Taha Hussain of E g y p t , "Islam a f t e r a l l , is
a r e l i g i o n which l a y s emphasis on the u n i t y of God, Prophethood
( o f Muhammad) and t h e n on r i g h t e o u s l i v i n g . I t a l s o draws
a t t e n t i o n towards t h i s and t h e o t h e r w o r l d l y l i f e but it
does n o t d e p r i v e human b e i n g s of t h e i r freedom and i t (Islam)
does n o t become an a b s o l u t e m a s t e r of man n o r does i t
suspend h i s c r e a t i v i t y to act"
 219
It, on the other hand, makes him the master within
certain limits. But in theocracy, and the theocratic systems,
world has been conceived as an evil, and man has been thrown
here in consequence of his commission of sin. This attitude
towards life and world is completely against Islam which
stands for the integrity and vicegerency of man and not as
something fallen and thrown. Islam accepts the sovereignty
of God, here it shares with theocracy, but the gap is more
widened when Islam deprives all the priestly class from the
right of law making and rule, and gives it to any faithful
who is qualified for the post of Khalifa etc. It adheres
strictly to the principle of the unity and equality of man.

Though, 'CounBil' free choice in election, and

equality before law are basic features of Islamic state it
is quite different from democracy. In democracy the laws
of State can be changed by public will. Sovereignty lies
with the people in its ful]/sense. In Islamic state the
Ideology, law and the basic internal and external policy
is determined by the law of God; people carOiot change it.
Their rights are limited. The final and absolute authority
and power lies with God and His Prophet and not with state
or people.

It is a welfare state in its true sense. The

government is not the master but the servant of the masses.
 220

It is its duty to rem'ove all the obstacles which are in

the way of equality, Justice and prosperity. It guflxantees
every citizen the right, "to be provided with basic
necessities of life by the state" It has to stand for
justice. It has to remove the poverty as it removes the
heresy. It has to work and provide facilities for the
development of man in every walk of life. It has to
eradicate evil and maintain good. It is a state with a
purpose and a mission. It has not only to defend the
territory against the external attacks and maintain internal
law and order but has to strive "for the achievement of
social justice, promotion of good and eradication of evil
also"?^

This state is a "Mualim" or Dayi. state, which has

to propagate the message of God in the Land of God. "The
real spirit / this . :' state lies in subordinating politics to
morality and conducting affairs conscientiously and God
fearingly. Honour and eminence must come through moral
excellence alone. Paramount importance should be given to
character besides ability in selecting men of authority.
Honesty, fairness, and justice are to prevail in every sphere
of domestic administration, arid the whole foreign policy
is to devolve upon truth, faithfulness, love and peace,
fair dealing, and international justice".
 221

Keeping in view the conception of an Islamic

S t a t e presented above, l e t us now proceed to analyse and
examine Hamadani's p o l i t i c a l philosophy which a l s o aims a t
e s t a b l i s h i n g the same type of s o c i e t y and s t a t e in h i s
book, Zakhirat-ul-Muluk.
 II 222
HAM ADMITS CONCEPT OF STATE M P GOVERNMENT

Political theorists in Islam may be classified

into four distinct groups.

(a) Those who have made a detailed study of political

thought, analysed different political theories and gave a
new system in the light of the political situations of the
time. They made a situational compromise and accepted
the system present in their times with some modifications.
These mojifications and changes, which they recommended,
and which some of them even practised, were simply to
safeguard the caliphate, and free it from the tyranic hands
of military powers. They made no attempt to revive the
theory, traditions and practices of early caliphate, but
gave a new theory of state, and framed new rules and
practices. That is why we see that the caliphate of their
times (which was in a true Islamic sense a kingship) is
declared by them valid and constitutional. Al-Mawardi is
the most noted representative of this group of political
theorists.

(b) Those who gave no political theories but were

interested in administration. They framed rules and
regulations for the running of administration in the light
of the Quran and traditions and the practies of early
 223

caliphate. The name of Abu-Yusuf may be c i t e d as one of

the prominent advocates of t h i s school of thought,

(c) Those who were pure P h i l o s o p h e r s , and gave new

p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i e s voider the Greek and s h i t e i n f l u e n c e .
To them S t a t e i s a n e c e s s i t y for the human c i v i l i z a t i o n
which i s ordered and d i r e c t e d towards one end, the
happiness. To them the head of the s t a t e i s l i k e an
i n f a l l i b l e Imam of the S h i t e s and the philosopher king of
Plato. Parabi r e p r e s e n t s t h i s school of P o l i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s ,
as he has advocated to e s t a b l i s h Immamate blending i t with
p l a t o ' s philosopher king in h i s famous t r e a t i s e 'al-Madinat
al Fadila'.

(d) Those who gave no p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i e s , but provided

advices and g u i d e - l i n e s derived from the Quran and Sunnah,
to the r u l e r s for the smooth functioning of the s t a t e .
We may mention t h e name of Ibn Tamiya as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h i s
school of p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s .

3aiyid Ali Hamadani belongs to the l a s t group.

He wrote h i s famous book '2akhirat-ul-Muluk' on the request
of some r u l e r s , whom he did not mention, who they were.
This book may be compared with a l - G h a z a l i ' s Ihya al-Ultun-ud-Din
m i t s form and content both. The book d e a l s , l i k e Ihya, with
p o l i t i c s , e t h i c s , metaphysics, and s o c i a l philosophy.
 224

Hamadani has also written several letters to some rulers

of his time giving them advices regarding the 'good polity'.

He has not given any new theory of politics,

state or administration. However, his thought not only shows
clarity in approach to run the state administration but
also provides religious guidance to the rulers of his timCp
which aims at the revival of the early caliphate. In his
opinion there is no difference between religion and politics.
He states that these are complementary to each other. One
can neither be established nor exist without the other.

Like al~Mawardi and al-Ghazali, he accepts and

realizes the political realities of his time. Hence he
often uses the term 'king' 'sultan' instead of caliph for
the rulers, whom he deemed as the viceregent of God on earth.

The real sovereignty, according to him, belongs to

God. He is the real ruler of the entire universe. He sent
his prophets to establish His 'Din* and guide the humanity
to the true destiny. All the prophets were, on the one
hand the 'messengers' of God, to guide humanity and teach
them the right way, and on the other 'the rulers' to
establish the 'Din' of God on earth. Hamadani says that
'Adam' was the first man who was bestowed by God, with
kingdom (Sultanat) and prophet hood (Nabuwah)?
 225

Like o t h e r s u f i masters, Hamadani accepts prophet

Muhammad as the ' l o g o s ' or ' p e r f e c t man'- He i s the embodiment
of a l l v i r t u e s . He s t a t e s , when reason dominates the
lowerself of man in him (man) emerge the v i r t u e s . Only
the prophet Muhammad reached the h i g h e s t standard of v i r t u e s .
The Quran c a l l s him as "Ye have indeed in the a p o s t l e of
God a b e a u t i f u l p a t t e r n of conduct". "And thou ( s t a n d e a t )
4
on an exalted standard of c h a r a c t e r " .

He i s the embodiment and source of a l l v i r t u e s .

He i s the source of peace, l o v e , human brotherhood and the
h i g h e s t tower of the l i g h t of guidance f o r mankind. He
i s for e n t i r e humanity and n o t for a s p e c i a l r a c e or
nation.

Hamadani hold5 the prophet as the f a t h e r of

i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s and model of the statesmanship for
(Bani-a-3iyasat-i-Aqwam) e n t i r e mankind. Prophet M\ihammad
taught e n t i r e humanity the divine p r i n c i p l e s of s t a t e and
i t s administration. He was the prophet and r u l e r . He
e s t a b l i s h e d the f i r s t Islamic s t a t e in Madina. He enforced
•n
the Quranic inflections regarding the p o l i t i c s . He c a l l e d
people to enjoin good and forbade them from e v i l and
unlawful.

Hamadani's p o l i t i c a l thought i s based on the

'Invaniyat' or the b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of Islam. In t h i s way
 2Z^

he has some affinity with the Hum-balite theologian,

Ibn Tamiyia. Though this element is common in political
thought of muslim theologians, Ibn Taimiyia has applied
it in a systematic way,

Hamadani, following Islamic spirit divides rulers

into two distinct groups;
who
(a) those/follow and establish the ordained laws of
God and the sunnah of the prophet, dispense justice and
give their dues to the people. They are the viceregents
or adumberation of God on earth.

(b) The other group consists of the rulers who negate

the ordained laws of God, do not follow the sunnah of the
prophet and act according to their wish. They are the
enemies of God and His Prophet, and the viceregents of
Satan and (Antichrist) "Dajal" on earth.

A ruler of Islamic state has to follow the ordained

laws of God and the sunnah of the Prophet. He can neither
deceive any one, nor can make any trickery to continue his
rule. Here emerges the basic difference between him and
his contemporary western political thinker Machiavelli.
The prince of Machiavelli can do any thing good or bad for
the stability of his rule. He is not bound with moral
principles, where,^s the caliph of Islamic state or the
ruler of Hamadani cahUhot cross the limits of worality.
 2 27

Thus, h i s p o l i t i c s i s deeply rooted in h i s e t h i c s . To

him the attainment of e t h i c a l l y u l t i m a t e ends leads to
success in t h i s world and the world h e r e a f t e r . Hamadani
h
i s opposed to the tyran^j-cal foim of government.

He r e j e c t s the ' s i t u a t i o n a l compromise' of the

muslim t h e o r i s t s , who accepted the r u l e of t y r a n t s as
v a l i d and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l . In the present day muslim
p o l i t i c a l thought, his echo i s hearel in the p o l i t i c a l
philosophy of Maudoodi of Pakistan ^ Qutub Shehid of Egypt
and A l i S h a r i a t i of I r a n . They use the teim 'Tagut* for
t h e vicious and xonislamic r u l e which i s equivalent to
Hamadani's concept of the vicegerent of D a j j a l . Hamadani
a l s o d i f f e r s with philosophers l i k e P a r a b i , whose model of
r u l e and statesmanship i s the Philosopher King of P l a t o
and S h i t e i n f a l l i b l e Imam. He holds prophet as the model
of the s t a t e s m a n s h i p . The pious c a l i p h a t e i s the model of
r u l e and c a l i p h s the r u l e r s for him. He holds t h a t i t was
only the prophets l i k e Adam, Joseph, Moses.David, Soloman,
and the prophet Muhammad and h i s c a l i p h s who dispensed the
r i g h t s which was t h e i r duty to do as r u l e r s in a t r u e and
just sense. They were pious and i n f a l l i b l e . They were
f r e e from the clutches of lowerself and i t s demands.

He f u r t h e r holds t h a t the dominance of lowerself

o r passions leads humanity to p e r v e r ^ o n . The perverted
 2£8

ones use the power for the fulfilment of the instincts of

their lowerself.

The real and correct method of statesmanship is

not possible until the lowerself is controlled, or not
allowed to transgress its limits.

The state is necessary for the human civilization

and its right order. It is the main agency which through
its powers and sources directs, guides and leads man to a
happy end in both the worlds. A just and a learned ruler
is very necessary for the right functioning of state.

Haraadani asserts the necessity of a ruler for the

following reasons:

a) To lead and direct people to do and enjoin good

and to prevent them from doing evil.

b) To establish the ordained laws of God.

c) To establish and execute the Islamic Penal Code

without any discrimination.

d) To Prevent the powerful ones from doing any

cruel3!ty or atrocity to the weaker sections of the society,
for the right functioning and order of the world.

e) To stop innovations in religious rules and the

7
penal code.
 229

f) To prevent people from doing mischievous deeds

so that the motivational power may not overcome them.
9
g) To propagate and protect the law^ of sharia.
h) To fulfil the basic needs of the people, so that
they may live a peaceful life and cultivate the virtues.

These also constitute the basic duties and

responsibilities of the ruler of an Islamic state.

Head of the State.' • Qualifications and Responsibilities

Hamadani has not given any comprehensive discussion

regarding the qualifications of the ruler of an. Islamic
state. However, they may be derived from the rights and
duties which he assigns to the subjects (Muslims and non-
Muslims) and the ruler of an Islamic state. We may formulate
them in the following way:

a) He must be a muslim, just,learned, wise, sagacious

and a man of statesmanship.

b) He must be a man of power and determination so that

he may execute the sharia and ordained laws by force when
12
violated.

c) He must be p i o u s , generous and l a r g e - h e a r t e d .

1 "^
d) He must seek reformation of his subjects.
e) He must be honest, truthful and faithful etc.
 230

The government which Hamadani names sometimes

kingship'is necessary for the establishment of 'Din' and
the maintenance of Duniya (World). The matters related to
religion (Din) or life hereafter (Din) and world (Duniya)
cgm not be regulated properly without the state. For the
proper regulation of these matters, Hamadani prescribes
some rights and duties for both the ruler and the ruled.
He warns the rulers that if they failed in the proper
discharge of these duties, they will be subjected to severe
p^onishment in the life hereafter. A ruler must follow,
according to him, the following ten rules which are conducive
to the proper functioning of the state:

1) He should adhere to the principle of equality before

law. He should clearly bear this fact in his mind that he
and his subjects both are equal in the eye of the Sharia.
While deciding a case, he should consider himself in the
place of his subjects, and should not order for them, which
he dislikes for his ownself.'^ This rule reflects the
prophetic tradition, in which it is said that one who does
not like the same for his muslim brother, is not a true
believer (mumin).

2) He should consider to satisfy the needs of the

muslims as the highest form of worship. He should always
seek to satisfy the needs of his subjects.1 6
 31

3) He should follow the f o o t - s t e p s , of the r i g h t guided

c a l i p h s in matters of food and d r e s s . He should not make
himself h a b i t u a l of s u p e r i o r and fine dress and d e l i c i o u s
dishes. He brings t h e example of A l i , the foiirth r i g h t
guided c a l i p h , who never wore fine dress and a t e d e l i c i o u s
d i s h e s .1 7

4) He should be polite in his conversation and should

not be unnecessarily harsh. He should not be grieved by
the long discussions of people, and should not feel
uneasineas while talking to the poor and needy ones.

5) He should implement and establish the ordained laws

of God without any hesitation and delay. He should keep
himself aloof from adopting the policy of appeasement,
while executing the provisions of the ordained laws.
Hamadani holds that it is very difficult to please every one
He explains the fact that mostly half of the subjects
remain unhappy with the ruler. He admits that it is the
nature of rule that all subjects caiQiot be pleased, for
there are contradictory and varying interests of the people,
which a just ruler caiOiot satisfy or fulfil. It is true
for all times. Hamadani holds that a just ruler should
execute the laws of God and please the Almighty.
 232

6) He should be aware of the p e r i l s embejteled in the

r u l e of law. He should r e a l i z e and know i t fully that
•power* leads to 'Saadah' e t e r n a l b l e s s i n g s , i f i t i s
properly exercised or shaqawah, e t e r n a l d e s t r u c t i o n i f it
1 fl
i s misused.

7) He should always try to v i s i t and seek the company

of learned (Alim) and the righteous ones. Hamadani holds
t h a t nowadays such people are very few. The majority of
the s o - c a l l e d ulama and m y s t i c s , p r a c t i c e sycophancy as they
p r a i s e every t y r a n t , for t h e i r mean purposes and worldly
g a m s .19
-^

8) The ruler should not horrify the people by his pride

and arrogance. He should treat and win the hearts of the
weak and poor ones with justice, benevolence and loving
kindness. Hamadani quotes a tradition in which it is said
that the king who befrxends the people and is befriended
by them is the best one. The most wicked ruler is he who
makes people his enemies or is understood by them as their
20
enemy.

/ 9) He should keep a strict watch on the activities of

his officers so that they do not become cruel and dishonest.
He should not show any leniency in administration and
political matters. He should not hesitate in punishing his
officers if they are found guilty of commiting wrong, cruel
and sinful deeds.
 233

10) Hamadani holds s a g a c i t y and wisdom as indispensable

q u a l i t i e s for a r u l e r .21 A r u l e r caiCnot know the r e a l i t y
of a case
iir/depth, u n t i l he possesses these q u a l i t i e s .

It is obligatory for a ruler to vmderstand the

reality of a case put before htm, by his wisdom, reason
and understanding. He should think irvdepth its causes
and consequences. After understanding them properly, he
should pronounce judgement in accordance with the Sharia.
In comi^licated cases where their causes and consequences
are not easily understood, he should exercise his sagacity
and wisdom, to work them out, so that he could decide the
case in hand in the light of his findings. He should not
rely entirely on the statements of the witnesses in such
cases.

Thus Hamadani holds, sagacity, prudence and wisdom

22
as p r e - r e q u i s i t e s for a r u l e r .

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

Hamadani t h i n k s t h a t t h e r e a r e two t y p e s of
s u b j e c t s i n a muslim s t a t e , t h e b e l i e v e r s and h e r e t i c s
(Kafir). Hence t h e i r r i g h t s and d u t i e s d i f f e r accordingly.
However; t h e f o l l o w i n g fundamental r i g h t s a r e s h a r e d equally
by both t h e muslims and t h e n o n - m u s l i m s .
 234

1. R i g h t t o L i f e and P r o p e r t y

Every c i t i z e n has a r i g h t t o l i f e and p r o p e r t y .

I t i s t h e duty of an I s l a m i c s t a t e t o safeguEird ones life
and p r o p e r t y w i t h i n i t s t e r r i t o r y . F o r c e s c a u s i n g danger
t o p e a c e f u l l i v i n g e . g . , l o o t e r s , r o b b e r s , t h i e v e s and
m i s c h i e f m o n g e r s e t c . a r e t o be d e a l t w i t h heavy h a n d .
The Quran and T r a d i t i o n has o r d a i n e d s e v e r e punishment for
r o b b e r s , t h i e v e s and m i s c h i e f m o n g e r s , who make the life
unsafe. The ' F u q a h a ' h o l d d e a t h penalty/ as t h e punishment
of r o b b e r s and t h e l o o t e r s . Hamadani h o l d s t h a t i t i s the
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of a r u l e r t o make t h e h i ^ w a y s c l e a r from
s u c h d i s a s t r o u s and d e v i l i s h e l e m e n t s 23
.

2. Right t o E q u a l i t y

In I s l a m i c p o l i t i c s and e t h i c s e q u a l t r e a t m e n t
on e q u a l f o o t i n g has a c a r d i n a l i m p o r t a n c e . One s h o u l d
t r e a t o t h e r s as he wants h i m s e l f t o be t r e a t e d . One s h o u l d
be j u s t and f a i r i n h i s t r e a t m e n t in every walk of life.
I t i s more i m p o r t a n t f o r r u l e r s , f o r they have t o d e a l n o t
o n l y with a few, b u t a l l muslims and non-muslims of their
state. He s h o u l d t r e a t everybody i n Kantian terminology
OA
a l w a y s a s an end and n e v e r as means.
 235

3 . • R i g h t to J u s t i c e and E q u a l i t y b e f o r e Law

They ahould be t r e a t e d w i t h b e n e v o l e n c e , respect,

l o v e and a f f e c t i o n , and n o t w i t h m a l i c e , proud and a r r o g a n c e
by t h e r u l e r . Justice is one of their fundamental
rights. I t i s to be e n s u r e d to them. The r u l e r should
judge and d e c i d e t h e i r c a s e s with j u s t i c e , wisdom ana
h o n e s t y w i t h o u t g i v i n g e a r t o t h e e x p l o i t e r s 25
.

J u s t i c e demands t h a t t h e c a s e s a r e t o be d e c i d e d
w i t h o u t undue d e l a y . To d e l a y j u s t i c e i s to deny i t .
Hamadani h o l d s t h a t a r u l e r s h o u l d q u i c k l y d e c i d e the
d i s p u t e s among m u s l i m s . He shoi^ld n o t make d e l a y i n it,
f o r i t g i v e s b i r t h t o envy and enTmity. I t i s very n e c e s s a r y
for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of p e a c e , p r o s p e r i t y and u n i t y . That
i s why I s l a m c o n s i d e r s t h e d f . s p e n s a t i o n of j u s t i c e as one
of the b a s i c f a c t o r s f o r the e x i s t e n c e o f a s t a t e .

J u s t i c e a l s o demands t h a t no one i s t o be c o n v i c t e d
merely on the b a s i s of s u s p i c i o n . Every c i t i z e n has a r i g h t
t o defend h i m s e l f a g a i n s t an a l l e g a t i o n n o t actually
commited by him. I t i s t h e duty of t h e r u l e r t h a t he should
t a k e a c t i o n only on t h e b a s i s of c o n c r e t e evidences.

4. Right to Privacy

Islam has given utmost importance to the right of

Privacy. Many t r a d i t i o n s t e s t i f y i t t h a t the prophet forbade
 23G

s t r i c t l y to e n t e r i n t o any house without permission.

Everybody, whether a muslim or a non-niuslim,has a r i g h t
to maintain h i s p r i v a c y .
k
The ruler or any officer is not allowed to break
this right. However, there are certain exceptional
conditions in which it may be allowed.27

5. The Ri^ht Aie:ainst E x p l o i t a t i o n

Respect of man has a c o r d i n a l importance in Islamic

ethics. I t v a r i e s according to the s t a t u s , m e r i t , and age
of man. I t i s a r i g h t of an old man to be respected and
t h e r i g h t of c h i l d r e n or young ones to be t r e a t e d with
loving kindness. Hamadc?jal emphasized the same e t h i c a l
p r i n c i p l e in p o l i t i c s . He holds i t necessary for a r u l e r to
t r e a t e l d e r s with r e s p e c t and younger ones with loving
kindness. He quotes a t r a d i t i o n in which i t i s s a i d that
•one who does not r e s p e c t elders and t r e a t the younger ones
with loving kindness i s not from u s ' .

6. Ri^ht of Equal Treatment

Everyone has a r i g h t to be t r e a t e d according to

h i s m e r i t s and e x c e l l e n c e s . A r u l e r should assign d u t i e s
to everyone according to the s t a t u s , q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and
capacity.^
 237

7. Keeping ones promise i s of utmost i m p o r t a n c e

in Islamic p o l i t i c s . I f a p e r s o n o r a community i s given
a word of s e c u r i t y by a person o r a community, i t i s to
be k e p t up by t h e r u l e r or t h e i n c h a r g e army commaader.
Heimadani f a v o u r s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s r u l e i n e v e r y
walk of human l i f e 30 .

8. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e r i g h t s i t i s o b l i g a t o r y on
an I s l a m i c s t a t e t h a t i t should p r o v i d e the b a s i c n e c e s s i t i e s
of l i f e t o p o o r , weak and orphans by i t a r e s o u r c e s . In
o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h good and j u s t i c e the I s l a m i c Government
h a s to remove t h e v e r y r o o t s of e v i l , t h e p o v e r t y b e i n g
31
one of them.

In o r d e r t o remove t h e p o v e r t y Islam has taken

v a r i o u s economic m e a s u r e s such a s Z a k a t , C h a r i t y and Ushur.

STATUS Ox^ DHIMMIS AED THEIR DUTIKS

Hamadani has d i s c u s s e d t h e d u t i e s of t h e •Zimmis'

in brief, separately. His t r e a t m e n t i s based , as he
qoutes^ on t h e t r a d i t i o n s of t h e umar t h e I l n d C a l i p h . He
h o l d s t h a t t h e muslim r u l e r s v^hile d e a l i n g w i t h their
non-muslim s u b j e c t s o r t h e 'Zimmis' s h o u l d f o l l o w t h e r u l e s
e s t a b l i s h e d by Umar.32
 238

Hamadani has enumerated the following twenty-

rules to be followed by the Zimmls in an Islamic state:—

1 ) They will not construct any new temple or place of

worship in a state governed by a muslim ruler.

2) They will not reconstruct any existing temple which

has fallen to ruins.

3) They will not prevent muslim travellers to stay in

their temples.

4) They will host muslim travellers for three days

without any objection if they come to them.

5) They will neither spy against the muslim state nor

will horbour any spjes.

6) They will not prevent their relatives from embracing

Islam, if they are interested in it.

7) They will respect muslims.

8) If they are holding a meeting and any muslim comes

there, they will receive him respectfully.

9) 'They will not dress like muslims*.

10) They will not adopt miislim names.

11) They will not ride a horse with saddle and bridle;-^
 239

12) Thoy will not carry aims e.g. swords, arrows, etc.
34
13) They will not wear signet rings.
14) Thoy will neither sell nor drink wine openly.
15) They will wear their traditional dresses so that
they may be distinguished from muslims.

16) They will not openly practise their heretical

tradition, and practices among muslims.
17) 'They will not build their houses in the neighbourhood
of muslims'.

18) They will not bury their dead near the muslim graveyards
19) They will not mourn their dead loudly.
35
20) They w i l l not buy a muslim slave^-^

Hamadarxi holds these twenty r u l e s as the p r e -

condition of providing p r o t e c t i o n to the non-muslims. He
holds these r u l e s u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e , or v a l i d for a l l
times and p l a c e s :

Haraadani has forwarded these twenty rules without

giving the a c t u a l p o s i t i o n , s t a t u s and r i g h t s of Zimmis in
an Islamic s t a t e . Let us examine these r u l e s in t h e l i g h t
of s h a r i a , the p r a c t i c e s of the e a r l y c a l i p h a t e and the
judgments of the t h e o l o g i a n s .

Islam i s a r e l i g i o n of peace. I t invites entire

humanity to follow the r i g h t p a t h , which according to i t is
c l e a r l y shown in the Quran and t r a d i t i o n .
 240

The I s l a m i c s t a t e i s an i d e o l o g i c a l s t a t e . It
c a t e g o r i z e s i t s c i t i z e n s i n t o two major g r o u p s , muslims
and n o n - m u s l i m s .

The non-muslim s u b j e c t s a r e f u r t h e r d i v i d e d into

three groups.

1) Thdse who become t h e c i t i z e n s of an I s l a m i c state

t h r o u g h a peace t r e a t y o r a c o n t r a c t .

2) Those who have been d e f e a t e d i n war and thus

become the c i t i z e n s of an I s l a m i c s t a t e ,

3) Those who have become t h e c i t i z e n s w i t h o u t t h e s e

two c o n d i t i o n s 37
.

I s l a m i c law has made a d i f f e r e n c e between t h e

two groups of subjects:

a) The p e o p l e who have a c c e p t e d t h e supremacy of

I s l a m t h r o u g h a peace t r e a t y o r contract.

b) Who have been d e f e a t e d and conquered by I s l a m i c

army. Both groups a r e c a l l e d as ' M a f t u h i n ' . Though t h e
r i g h t s of b o t h groups of 'Maftuhin' a r e same, but on the
b a s i s of t h e d i f f e r e n c e of s t a t u s between them t h e laws
•50
r e g a r d i n g them differ.-^

The p e o p l e who have a c c e p t e d t h e supremacy of

I s l a m i c s t a t e t h r o u g h a peace t r e a t y a r e s u p e r i o r i n status
 241

t o t h a t of t h o s e who a r e d e f e a t e d i n war. Djizya P o l l

t a x ' i s n o t a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r them. I f they have
a c c e p t e d i t s payment i n the t r e a t y only then t h e y have t o
pay It:

They w i l l be t r e a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e conditions
l a i d down i n t h e t r e a t y . I s l a m i c s t a t e can n o t change any
c o n d i t i o n of t r e a t y on i t s own. In any c o n d i t i o n , i t has
to f u l f i l themf^

G e n e r a l l y , t h e word 'Dhimi' i s used f o r a l l t h e

non-muslim s u b j e c t s of an I s l a m i c s t a t e ;42 b u t i n a c t u a l
sense ' D h i m i s ' a r e t h o s e who have s u r r e n d e r e d t h e i r arms
a f t e r t h e i r d e f e a t .43
^ ' A c c o r d i n g t o muslim canon law, on the
c o n q u e s t of a non-muslim c o u n t r y by m u s l i m s , t h e p o p u l a t i o n
which does n o t embrace Islam and which i s n o t e n s l a v e d is
guaranteed l i f e , l i b e r t y and i n a modest s e n s e property
i s c a l l e d Dhimis*.44

Thus Dhimma i s a ' c o n t r a c t t h r o u g h which t h e muslim

community a c c o r d s h o s p i t a l i t y and p r o t e c t i o n t o members of
o t h e r r e v e a l e d r e l i g i o n s , on c o n d i t i o n of t h e i r aclcnowledging
t h e domination of I s l a m45 ;

In t h e e a r l y days of I s l a m t h e t e n n ' D h i m i ' was

g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d to t h e people of r e v e a l e d b o o k s ' christians
and j e w s ; l a _ t e r t h e Z o r o s t a r i a n a were i n c l u d e d i n it.
 242

Abu H a n i f a i s of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e P o l l t a x - D j i z y a
s h o u l d be c o l l e c t e d a l s o from h e r e t i c s and I d o l - w o r s h i j p e r s .
Thus he widens t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t e n n t o more c l a s s e s .
But he makes i t c l e a r t h a t muslims can^io't marry t h e women
46
of t h e s e o t h e r g r o u p s , n o r can e a t t h e i r s l a u g h t e r s .

Here i t s h o u l d be made c l e a r t h a t D j i z y a i s simply

a t a x which i s c o l l e c t e d from them f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n s47
But i f any one o f f e r s h i s s e r v i c e s t o I s l a m i c army he i s
exempted from it.

I t has t o be p a i d only by an a d u l t , m a l e , free

and sane p e r s o n . All handica^ed, poor, old, children,
w o m e n , i n s a n e , t h e p r i e s t s and t h e workers of t e m p l e s a r e
exempted from i t 49 j

The r i g h t s of 'Zimmis' a r e i n a l i e n a b l e . They a r e

g u a r a n t e e d by t h e Quran and t r a d i t i o n . No I s l a m i c Government
can a l t e r them. I s l a m i c Government c a r Q i o t ask any 'Zimrai'
f o r more than t h a t which i s i n c l u d e d i n t r e a t y or c o n t r a c t . ^
F o l l o w i n g a r e t h e r i g h t s of Zimmis:

1) Their l i f e , p r o p e r t y and l i b e r t y i s guaranteed.

Their blood i s e q u a l t o t h a t of a muslim. One who k i l l s a
'Zimmi' would be put t o d e a t hSi
;

2) Both muslims and non-muslims a r e e q u a l b e f o r e law.

The p e n a l code and c i v i l law i s a p p l i e d t o b o t h w i t h o u t any
discrimination.
 43

•?\ But i n t h e m a t t e r s of p e n a l code the non-muslims

have been g r a n t e d c e r t a i n ( I s t i s n a ) e x c e p t i o n s . They w i l l
n o t be punished f o r t a k i n g wine . I n t h e l i g h t of t h e
d e c i s i o n s g i v e n by Umar, the second C a l i p h and A l i , the fourth
C a l i p h , Imam Malik h o l d s t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i f any non-muslim
commits a d u l t e r y , he would be t r i e d b e f o r e h i s community
a c c o r d i n g t o h i s r e l i g i o u s l a w s52
.

But t h e o p i n i o n i s n o t g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d by
muslim t h e o l o g i a n s . They hold t h a t an;ybody who commits
53
a d u l t e r y would be p e n a l i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o the I s l a m i c law.
The c i v i l law i s same for b o t h t h e muslims and non-muslims.
Everyone h a s a r i g h t t o p r o p e r t y . A l l t h e methods of t r a d e
u n l a w f u l f o r muslims a r e e q u a l l y u n l a w f u l f o r non-muslim5.
No one i s a l l o w e d t o exchange money on i n t e r e s t .

But a s p e c i a l c o n c e s s i o n h a s been g i v e n t o n o n -
muslims by s h a r i a , r e g a r d i n g t h e r a a t t e r s of t h e preparation,
s a l e and t a k i n g of wine and t o tame, s a l e and e a t i n g of
pig. I f a muslim d e s t r o y s the li<^our o r k i l l s t h e p i g , he
h a s t o pay f o r i t 54
.

4) Once the muslims havo made t h e t r e a t y they can

not break i t , on t h e i r own. On the o t h e r hand t h e 'dhirais'
can b r e a k i t a t any t i m e .

Any ' d h i r a i ' who commits t h e major c r i m e s , like,

n o t p a y i n g poDJtax, k i l l i n g a muslim, h a v i n g raped a muslim
 244

womon or i n s u l t i n g the pious prophet w i l l be p;inished,

but i t would not make the t r e a t y n u l l and void. The muslims
have to t r e a t him as a dhimi and his r i g h t s would remain
unaffected.

The c o n t r a c t becomes n u l l and void only when a

non-muslim gives up the I s l a m i c s t a t e and j o i n s hands with
i t s enemies or r e b e l l s a g a i n s t muslira s t a t e .

5) The personal matters of dhimis w i l l be decided

according to t h e i r own personal law. They are free to l i v e
according to t h e i r f a i t h . I s l a m i c Government can not interfere
in t h e i r m a t t e r s of f a i t h or personal law. Islamic
Government w i l l prevent them from doing t h a t which is unlawful
in t h e i r r e l i g i o n s , but they are free to p r a c t i s e freely
the t r a d i tions, customs and actions which are lawful in
their religions. But Islamic Government can allow or prevent
them from these p r a c t i c e s in t h e muslim populated a r e a s .
The dhimis can r e b u i l d the damaged temples constructed on
those pieces of land used as the places of worship since
long, though owned by muslims (Irasar-ul-Huslimin), No new
temples, however, can be b u i l t t h e r e .

They can build t h e i r new temples, in the areas

which do not belong to muslims.56
 245

6) They can e s t a b l i s h e d u c a t i o n a l institutions,

p r o p a g a t e t h e i r r e l i g i o n s , but a r e f o r b i d d e n t o a t t a c k Islam
o r make o b j e c t i o n a b l e remarks a g a i n s t i t 57 .

7) The ' D j i z y a ' c a n n o t be c o l l e c t e d from them t h r o u g h

violence. They c a r Q i o t be b e a t e n i f t h e y f a i l t o pay i t ;

Umar, t h e second c a l i p h ^ s t r i c t l y forbade from t h e

c o l l e c t i o n of P o l l t a x from t h e poor d h i m i s . He a l s o
f o r b a d e t o d e a l w i t h them s e v e r e l y5Q
.

The P o l l t a x w i l l be imposed a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n of a d h i m i . A l l t h e p o o r , women, c h i l d r e n ,
o l d , h a n d i c a p p e d , t h e p r i e s t s , s l a v e s and s i c k people a r e
exempted from it.

I f any-one f a l l s t o pay t h e t a x , h i s p r o p e r t y can-

fin
n o t be a u c t i o n e d .

Abu Yusuf i s of the o p i n i o n t h a t a d h i m i , who i s

a b l e t o pay the D j i z y a , can be j a i l e d , u n t i l he pays t h e t a x .

The dhimis who become p o o r , a r e exempt from P o l L t a x .

The I s l a m i c Government h a s t o pay them t h e s t i p e n d s from
its treasury.

I f a dhimi d i e s v d t h o u t p a y i n g d j i z y a , i t can
n e i t h e r be r e a l i z e d from h i s h e i r s n o r can be m e t t e d out of h i s
property.
 24G

Phimis a r e exempted from armed s e r v i c e s . The

defence of c o u n t r y i s t h e s o l e r e s p o a s i b i l i t y of muslims.
The 'djizyaV i s c o l l e c t e d from them f o r t h i s very c a u s e .

I f I s l a m i c Govenament f a i l s t o p r o v i d e them t h e
63
s a f e t y i t has t o r e t u r n the P o l l tax.-^

Hamadani's o p i n i o n t h a t t h e above mentioned r u l e s

were f o r m u l a t e d by Umar i s n o t s u p p o r t e d by h i s t o r i c a l
evidence. He has n o t r e f e r e d t o any s o u r c e i n h i s zakhirat-
al-Muluk, to p r o v i d e a u t h e n t i c i t y t o h i s o p i n i o n . Some
s c h o l a r s on t h e c o n t r a r y m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e s e r u l e s were
e n a c t e d and a p p l i e d by Umar-bin-Abdul A z i z . This o p i n i o n
too has no h i s t o r i c a l evidence in i t s support.

Before p r e s e n t i n g a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of the rules

l a i d down by Hamadani for d h i m i s , two i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s must
be clarified.

1) I t i s s a i d t h a t Hamadani i s v e r y c o n s e r v a t i v e as
he does n o t t h i n k i n t e n n s of g i v i n g c o n c e s s i o n or showing
l e n i e n c y towards n o n - m u s l i m s . His r u l e s a r e n o t practicable,
They a r e very h a r d ajad inhuman. He i n t e n d s t o curb their
freedom and reduce them t o a subhuman l e v e l o r second class
citizens. In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i t must be n o t e d t h a t no
p r i n c i p l e or r u l e s h o u l d be s t u d i e d i n vacuum. Rules a r e
always framed a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s i t u a t i o n s . Any p r i n c i p l e
 247

which seems bad today, might have been a good and p r a c t i c a b l e

one in the p a s t . Any p r i n c i p l e may i t be good, can turn
i n t o bad or challenge and change the s t a b i l i t y of a n a t i o n
i f not seen and implied in a r a t i o n a l way. I t does not mean
t h a t we want to support any bad rule or want to give a
r a t i o n a l explanation for i t . We intend to show simply t h a t
t h i n g s should be seen or studied in t h e i r r e a l or a c t u a l
p e r s p e c t i v e s i . e . , keeping in view the e x i s t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n s
o b t a i n i n g at t h a t time when any s e t of laws or p r i n c i p l e s
was formulated.

2) Hamadani, as some scholars h o l d , i s a S h a f i t e thinker.

His thought as a whole should be seen in the l i g h t of
S h a f i t e theology as w e l l . While d i s c u s s i n g h i s r u l e s we
s h a l l a l s o r e f e r to al-Mawardi^the g r e a t Shafite theologian
and p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i s t ^ f o r the rules formulated by the
foiroer are s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r to those of the l a t t e r . The
f i r s t point r e q u i r e s to see Hamadani's r u l e s in r e l i g i o u s
and h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e in order to a s c e r t a i n their
authenticity.

In the early c a l i p h a t e i t was adopted t h a t the

dhirais would not build t h e i r temples in those places or
c i t i e s made i n h a b i t a b l e by musliras. But they were free to
b u i l d new temples in t h e i r o^ra l a n d s , or could r e b u i l d t h e i r
temples i f they would f a l l to r u i n s . They were free to
 .48
^

perform t h e i r r e l i g i o u s d u t i e s and follow t h e i r customs

and t r a d i t i o n s , for to prevent them from i t would mean
curbing t h e i r fundamental r i g h t of r e l i g i o u s freedom. They
were free to prepare and s e l l and drink wine in t h e i r
community. They were simply prevented from performing t h e i r
r e l i g i o u s d u t i e s or customs and s e l l i n g wine in muslim
a r e a s , not because of any hatred against them or for any
suppression but to avoid clashes between the r e l i g i o u s groups,
which could lead to blood-shed and p o l i t i c a l chaos. As wine
and pork are s t r i c t l y forbidden in Islam, t h e i r s a l e in
muslim s o c i e t y may cause t e n s i o n . An Islamic s t a t e i s ,
therefore, j u s t i f i e d in preventing the s a l e of forbidden
t h i n g s in order to avoid p o l i t i c a l chaos and to l e t the
r e l i g i o u s sentiment of muslims unhurt. However; Islam does
n o t e s t a b l i s h one p r i n c i p l e on the cost of the r i g h t s of
o t h e r r e l i g i o u s groups. I t allows non-muslims to s e l l , eat
and drink these things in t h e i r community. Thus, Islam
speaks of complete r e l i g i o u s freedom. Islam n e i t h e r allows
any one to propagate r e l i g i o n by force nor prevents any one
from accepting any o t h e r f a i t h i f he d e s i r e s to do s o .
Thus i f Hamadcini favours the adoption and implementation of
t h i s r u l e in a muslim s t a t e , he does not intend to crush the
r i g h t s of the non-muslims but t r i e s to minimize the i n t e r -
community tensions which may lead to a l l kinds of discord and
disharmony between the peoples.
 249

To r e s p e c t men of o t h e r r e l i g i o n s and to welcome

them i n t h e i r meetings i s a good vay to get n e a r e r to each
other. This cuts the boundaries of aloofness and hatxed.
But i t does not mean t h a t respect i s a one-way traffic.
Muslims are ordained to follow the f o o t s t e p s of Prophet,
who loved h i s enemies more than h i s friends and paid them
utmost r e s p e c t . Thus the r u l e that dhimis w i l l r e s p e c t
muslims and welcome them in t h e i r meetings should be seen
in the broad p e r s p e c t i v e of t o l e r a t i o n adopted by prophet
and h i s c a l i p h s .

To provide muslimj' h o s p i t a b i l i t y for three days

i s not a g e n e r a l r u l e . I t was one of the conditions in the
c o n t r a c t between Khalid ajad the people of Haira and the
S y r i• a n s0.64
Q .

It includes that muslims will eat the same dishes

which the dhimis have prepared for themselves. They carQiot
ask them for delicious dishes. Al-Mawardi holds that this
condition should not apply to the urban but to the rural
people.

It has been made obligatory for muslims to don

particular dress and to bear Islajnic names in order to
maintain their identity. This has been generally criticized
by orientalists without understanding its purpose utility
 250

and pragmatic need. Islam not only forbids muslims but

o t h e r communities a l s o to give up t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l dress
and names and thus lose their identity. The h i s t o r y bears
witness t h a t the non-muslims, in the e a r l y c a l i p h a t e , were
n o t ordered to wear any new d r e s s . They were not forced to
change t h e i r dress or names. They were a t t h e i r l i b e r t y to
continue wearing t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r dress and bearing t h e i r
t r a d i t i o n a l names. The l o s s of i d e n t i t y g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s
in the degradation of a n a t i o n . The l i v e n a t i o n s are always
proud of t h e i r c u l t u r e , d r e s s , names and t r a d i t i o n s . It is
only the disease of enslaved n a t i o n s t h a t they f e e l shy of
their culture. They give up t h e i r c u l t u r e by following the
c u l t u r e of the r u l e r s . Islam has ever fought a g a i n s t t h i s
s l a v e m e n t a l i t y ; t h a t i s why i t prevented every n a t i o n from
doing s o . Islam has come to r a i s e mankind s p i r i t u a l l y high.
How could i t t o l e r a t e t h i s s l a v i s h approach to l i f e .

_ I:?lara, r e a l i z i n g the psychological n a t u r e of man

an'^^^P^WTTes, always t r i e s to save the i d e n t i t y of the
peop So i t i s erroneous to maintain that Islam t r e a t s
others ''erior to muslims and prevents them from bearing
the muslim names and d r e s s e s . In/fact, Islam believes in
m a i n t a i n i n g the I d e n t i t y of n a t i o n s .

We need not emphasize the importance of the rules

preventing from spying or harbouring spies and c a r r y i n g arms ,
 251

for no n a t i o n - a l l o w s i t s i n h a b i t a n t s , for obvious reasons,

to spy a g a i n s t i t s own country, or give s h e l t e r to the
spljes of t h e i r enemies and to carry arms f r e e l y .

The r u l e t h a t dhirais csr(^noX build t h e i r houses in

neighbourhood of muslims, has no a u t h e n t i c i t y in s h a r i a .
I slain does not allow mourning. The dhimis can2not mourn
t h e i r dead in muslim l o c a l i t i e s . They are, however, allowed
t o follow t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s in t h e i r OWTL localities.

Islam i s the r e l i g i o n of peace and freedom. I t has

been revealed by God, to free man from the slavery of t y r a n t s ,
Islam from i t s very beginning t r i e d to rooYout slavery by
adopting reformative methods.

History bears witness t h a t Islam e l e v a t e d the

s t a t u s of slaves and worked for gradual psychological change
in s o c i e t y and s o c i a l groups.

Islam, in order to a b o l i s h s l a v e r y , motivates

muslims to g r a n t freedom to s l a v e s , to redeem t h e i r s i n s .
I t s i n s i s t e n c e on dhirais, not to buy muslim s l a v e s may be
seen in the same p e r s p e c t i v e , as i t may be t r e a t e d as a
p o s i t i v e s t e p towards the elemination of s l a v e r y from
society.
 252

Rn-FiiiLbKCjiu

1. S h a r i f , 11.M. , p . 191 .
2. ibid., p.191, Islmii y i y a s a t , P- ^i%

3. Maudoodi, a . A , A . , K h i l a f a t - w a -- M a l u k i y a t , p . 2 1 .
4. S h a r i f , M.W. , p . 1 9 2 .
5. ibid., p.192.
6. i b i d . , p.192.
7. ibid. , p.193.
8. ibid., p.194.
9. Maudoodi, S . A . A . , Kh.ilafat-wa - M a l u k i y a t , p . 3 4 .
1 0 . S h a r i f , M.iVi. , p . 194.

1 1 . ibid., p.191, Inlrsmi S i y a s a t , p . 2 9 9 .

1 2 . S h a r i f , r\.r\. , p . 194 .

1 3 . Maadoodi, S . A . A . , K h i l a f a t - w a -- M a l u k i y a t , p p . 3 5 - 3 9
1 4 . The Quran, IV, 5 9 .

1 5 . S h a r i f , M.K. , p . 194.,
16. i b i d . , p.195.

17. ibid. , p.195.

18. i b i d . , p.195,

19. ibid,, p.195.

20. ibid., p.195.
2 1 . Salahuddin , i i . , Bunyadi Iluauq ' P-(88
Maudoodi, K h i l a f a t - w a -- M a l u k i y a t , P-
i>l .Vi. S h a r i f , p . 1 9 G.
 253

22. S h a r i f , M.M., p.I96.

23. i b i d . , p.198.
24. ibid., p.198.
25. ibid., p.198.
 25^
II

1. llam<a(lmii , 'lu.klii i-at-u 1 -Muluk, p. 1 .

2. i b i d . , pp. 9'^-9^"".

3- The Quran XXXIII, 21.

4. " " LXVIII, 4.
5. Kamadfini , Z a l v h i r a t - u l - M u l u k , p . 104.
6. ibid., p.95.
7. Hamadani, M a k t u b a t , O.R.D., S r i n a g a r , pp.13b-14a.
8. ibid., p.1tia.

9. Hamadani, 'L-c\lihirat-ul-Muluk, p. 94.

10. ibid., p.105.
1 1. i b i d . , p p . 1 0 4 , 107, Maktubat, p.10a.
12. HamfIdani, Maktubat, p.14a.

13. ibid., p.r3a, Z a k h l r a t - u l - M u l u k , p p . 1 0 6 , 113.

14. iiaiaadtini , Z a l A i r a t - u l - M u l u k , p . 105.

15. ibid., p.105.

16. ibid., p.105.

17. ibid., p.105.

lb. ibid., p.10 6.

19. ibid., p.107.

20. ibid., p.107.

21 . ibid., p.107.

22. ibid., p.1Ou.

23. ibid., p.116.

24. i b i d . , p.113-
 255

25. i b i d . , pp.110-11.
26. i b i d . , p.114.
27. i b i d . , p.112.
28. i b i d . , p.112.
29. i b i d . , p.112.
30. i b i d . , pp.112-13.
31. i b i d . , p.115.
32. i b i d . , p.117.
33. Kafiqi, Sufism in Kashmir, p . 8 1 .
34. i b i d . , p.82.
35. Hamadani, Zakliirat-ul-Muluk, p. 118.
36. i b i d . , p.117.
37. Imamuddin, Jizya ki-Hagiqat, p . 2 1 .
38. Maudoodi, Al-Jahad F i l Islam, Markazi Maktaba
J a m a t - I s l a m i , p.220.
39. Imamuddin, J i z y a - k i - H a q i q a t , p. 2 1 .
40. ibid., p.22.

41% Maudoodi, Al-Jahad F i l Islam, p.221.

42. Imamuddin, J i z y a - k i - H a q i q a t , p . 2 1 .
43. i b i d . , p.25.
44. S h o r t e r Encyclopedia of Islam, p . 7 5 .
45. ii-ncyclopedia of Islam, p.227.
46. Al-Mawardi , Ahkamul-ljultania , p . 209-
47. Nadvi, L . b . , airat-al-JIabi, Vol.1, p. 81.
48. iil-iuav/'ardi , p. 210.
 25G

49. Iffiamuddin, J i z y a - k i - r l a a i o a t , p . 2 6.
Abu Yusuf, K i t a u - a l - K h a r a j , p . 3 6 4 .
Maudoodi, / i l - J a h a d - ? i l - I s l a m , p . 2 3 1 .
Al-I-lawardl, p . 210.
50. balahuddin, Bunyadi Huquo, p . 3 1 3 -
51. i b i d . , p.315, ixaudoodi, A l - J a h a d - F i l I s l a m , p.231.
52. ibid. , p.316.
53. Maudoodi, Al-Jahad-Fil Iclam, p.232.
54. ibid., p.233, S a l a h u d d i n , .:iunyadi Huquq, p . 3 1 6 .
55. i b i d . , p.233, Salahuddin, Lunyndi Huaua, pp.31 6 - 7 .
5 6. ibid.,pp.234-5, Salahuddin, p.317.
57. Salahuddin, p.317.
58. Maudoodi, A l - J a h a d - j ' i l I c l a i a , p . 235.
59. Abu iTusuf, K i t a b , a l - l v h a r a j , p . 390.
60. Naudoodi, Al-Jahad-Fil Islaai, p.23S.
61. i b i d . , p.237, Abu Yusuf, K i t a b „ a l - i a i a r a . 1 , p . 3 9 0 .
62. ibid., p.238.
63. ibid., p.238.
64. Al-Mavrardi, Ahkain , a l - S u l t a n i a , p . 2 1 1 .
Abu Yusuf, K i t a b - a l - K h a r a j , pp.427-8.
65. i b i d . , p.211, Maudoodi, A l - J a h a d l-'il I s l a m , p . 2 4 2 .
. j h i b l i , Al-l''arooq , p . 3 5 6 .
 257

CONCLUSION

"There i s n o t h i n g new;' s a y s A r i s t o t l e ^ "under the

s\in". "One cannot c r e a t e a system of t h o u g h t of o n e ' s owi
a s i f i t s c r e a t i o n were a m e c h a n i c a l i n v e n t i o n . The
p r i n c i p l e s have always been ajid w i l l always be t h e same.
What d e t e r m i n e s t h e o r i g i n a l i t y of an a u t h o r , i n a t r a d i t i o n a l
c i v i l i z a t i o n l i k e t h a t of I s l a m , i s h i s a b i l i t y t o reinterpret
and r e f o r m u l a t e t h e e t e r n a l t r u t h s i n a new l i g h t and t h e r e b y
1
c r e a t e a new i n t e l l e c t u a l p e r s p e c t i v e " .

Hamadani may be viewed i n t h e l i g h t of t h e same

perspective. He i s r i g h t l y c o n s i d e r e d as an i m p o r t a n t and
i n f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e of I s l a m . He
i s an e c l e c t i c t h i n k e r . His g r e a t n e s s l i e s i n h i s adoption
of e c l e c t i c i d e a s from t h e c l a s s i c a l I s l a m i c atmosphere t o
h i s own a g e .

His m e t a p h y s i c a l , e t h i c a l and p o l i t i c a l i d e a s and

t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n marked a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e
i n t e l l e c t u a l and t h e s o c i a l scene of h i s times and a f t e r w a r d s ;
even today_, e s p e c i a l l y i n Kashmir. The form of h i s m e t a p h y s i c s
and s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y i s g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d t o t h a t of
a l - G h a s s a l i , I b n ' A r a b i and Mawardi, but the c o n t e n t s a r e of
h i s own which he d e r i v e s from t h e Quran and Sunnah, and
a p p l i e s to t h e s i t u a t i o n s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s p r e v a i l i n g i n
 258

h i s days. His metaphysical system i s deeply rooted in

the early s u f i thought and the s c h o l a s t i c raovemeHts of
Islam. While foimulating h i s metaphysics he derives much
from Ibn' Arabi. Though a Kubrawiya s a i n t , he i s not
i n c l i n e d to the a n t i - p a n t h e i s t i c a t t i t u d e and philosophy
of Ala-ud-Duala Simnani, who a f t e r Kubra, highly influenced
t h e Kubrawiya order of s u f i s . Like Ibn Arabi, he i s
s t r i c t l y a raotiist or n o n - d u a l i s t . His ontology i s same
l i k e t h a t of Ibn Arabi. He i s u s u a l l y described as a
p a n t h e i s t and i t i s amply j u s t i f i a b l e from h i s own arguments.

He f a c e s , l i k e Ibn Arabi, the same problem of

reconci^J-iation of the concept of t h e ' p a n t h e i s t i c God' with
the u n i t a r i a n and monotheistic God of the Quran. In h i s
"Zakhirat-ul-Muluk" he holds God as the c r e a t o r and cause
of the u n i v e r s e , and in h i s R a s a i l , Qudusia, Wujudia and
I s t i l a h a t , he maintains Him not as the c r e a t o r or cause of
the u n i / e r s e but as a s p i r i t or l i g h t manifesting iliraself
in i t . Again He does not introduce any i n t e r m e d i a r i e s
"as the f i r s t cause or the u n i v e r s a l s p i r i t " , unlike the
majority of Muslim Philosophers. In t h i s way he follows
I b n ' Arabi. Ibn' A r a b i ' s 'God i s u t t e r l y a - m o r a l ' , as he
transcends a l l c a t e g o r i e s of m o r a l i t y . But Hamadani's God,
though God of a l l , i s a 'moral' God who punishes and rewards
those who do not follow His ordained Laws. Here h i s p o s i t i o n
stands in c o n t r a d i c t i o n .'io'. t h a t of Ibn' Arabi and bears
resemblance with t h a t of a l - G n a z a l i .
 253

He holds the 'Being* or Divine essence, pure,

simple, indeterminate and as such devoid of all attributes.
He is incomprehensible. "It is endowed with attributes
2
when i t manifests i t s e l f in the u n i v e r s e " . In t h i s way
u n i v e r s e and God are i d e n t i c a l . But the universe has no
e x i s t e n c e a p a r t from God, for God i s the only necessary
e x i s t i n g Being and i t i s simply h i s m a n i f e s t a t i o n . In
o t h e r words, i t can be s a i d t h a t i t has a r e l a t i v e e x i s t e n c e .
But unlike Ibn Arabi, who negates the existence of ' p o s s i b l e ' ,
Hamadani believes in ' p o s s i b l e ' e x i s t e n c e . He holds them
as the c r e a t i o n of God and as such the modes, through which
He i s manifested. By accepting the universe as His creation
and not simply as manifestation ho d i f f e r s with Ibn Arabi.

On the questions of immanence and transcendence

which are very c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the problem of the s t a t u s
of God and universe Hamadani l i k e Ibn A r a b i , d i f f e r s from
both the anthropomorphists and transeenden t a l i s t s and
maintains t h a t God i s both transcendent and immanent as
Ibn' Arabi h o l d s . He a s s e r t s them as the two permanent
a s p e c t s of the R e a l i t y - 'Haqq'.

Though Hamadani fully accepts the p a n t h e i s t i c

d o c t r i n e t h a t God i s the only r e a l i t y , he i n d i c a t e s t h a t the
world i s a l s o r e a l , but has an a t t r i b u t e d e x i s t e n c e ,
Maujud-bil-Ghayr. In t h i s way he c o n t r a d i c t s Shankara who
considers i t simply as 'Haya'.
 260

He holds the universe both as m a n i f e s t a t i o n and

as the creation of God. But he does not solve the problem
of the ' t i m e - r e l a t i o n ' vfith i t , when he a t t r i b u t e s i t as
created. For, "If God e x i s t s , and i f everything has i t s
being in Him, i t follows that the universe was not created
at some moment in the d i s t a n t past - ever since evolving
on i t s own - but t h a t i t manifests constantly the Dirine
e x i s t e n c e of the maker. This means t h a t the universe i s i^i
a p e r p e t u a l s t a t e of c r e a t i o n " . Ibn Arabi removes the
problems by i n t e r p r e t i n g the word c r e a t i o n as , "creation
means simply the coming i n t o concrete manifestation of
something already e x i s t i n g (in God)". Hamadani does not
succeed in removing the d i f f i c u l t i e s implied in the problem
of c r e a t i o n , for f i r s t he affirms Ibn Arabis p o s i t i o n and
then negates i t by saying t h a t universe i s a c r e a t i o n .
Here he seems to bo haunted by the Ideas of a l - G h a z a l i ,
which a r e c o n t r a d i c t e d by Ibn Arabi, that c r e a t i o n means
4
" c r e a t i n g afresh by God from mornent to moment".

As already discussed, the divine names and divine

a t t r i b u t e s are i d e n t i c a l to each o t h e r , A divine a t t r i b u t e
i s simply the e x t e r i o r i z a t i o n of the divine name which i s
t h e " c r e a t i v e element t h a t holds within i t s e l f the
p o t e n t i a l i t y of a p a r t i c u l a r phenomenon". The divine essence
embraces both those aspects in i t s e l f . In t h i s way the
 2G1

p a n t h e i s t i c school of Ibn Arabi d i f f e r s with plato who^>-e

reality
i d e a 'denotes only the s p i r i t u a l / b e h i n d a phenomenon and
which d i s r e g a r d s the l a t t e r ' s concrete m a n i f e s t a t i o n . but
t h e n , for p l a t o , such m a n i f e s t a t i o n s were mere shadows.
For I b n ' A r a b i , they were p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s of r e a l i t y " ;

Divine consciousness, which Hamadani i d e n t i f i e s

w i t h the R e a l i t y of r e a l i t i e s , or the i l e a l i t y of Muhammad
o r the Logos embraces a l l the i n t e l l i g i b l e forms of
prototypes. I t i s t h e c r e a t i v e , animating and r a t i o n a l
p r i n c i p l e of universe which fully manifests in the perfect
man ( a l - l n s a n - a l - K a m i l ) , God knows Himself p e r f e c t l y in
p e r f e c t man f o r , t h e divine consciousness reaches i t s
supreme point in hira. Hamadani simply r e p r e s e n t s the
d o c t r i n e of perfect man of Ibn''Arabi. As regards the
concept of perfect man both Ibn Arabi and Haiaadani are to a
in
l a r g e extent/^on^Axmity with p l o t i n a s . But they d i f f e r from
him in naming the a c t u a l p e r f e c t man. For them he i s no
one except prophet Muhammad, while for p l o t i n u s he i s some-
one e l s e . Moreover the logos-Hulaammiad i s not the e a r t h l y
person but the s p i r i t or the r e a l i t y of Muliammad and a l l
o t h e r prophets ajid s a i n t s are simply h i s i n d i v i d u a l
manifestations.

The sources of Uamadfrni's e t h i c s , l i k e t h a t of his

metaphysics, are the Quran, Sunnah and the preachings of
 262

sufi thinkers. The only difference between h i s metaphysical

and e t h i c a l systems i s t h a t he follows I b n ' Arabi closely
i n foimulating the ideas r e l a t e d to the former, whereTas
he owes much to a l - G h a z a l i so far as t h e formulation of
the ideas P e r t a i n i n g to the latter i s concerned.

The e t h i c s of the Quran and Sunnah i s n e i t h e r

h e d o n i s t i c nor an e t h i c s of good (of Greeks). I t i s an
e t h i c s of duty based on acceptance of God's sovereignty,
Prophethood, and l i f e h e r e a f t e r . I t i s an e t h i c s of duty
but i t does not make man simply an agent who has to perform
his duties. He i s a free a g e n t , bestowed with c l e a r guide-
l i n e s and free c h o i c e . I t i s based on the knowledge of
God, and man's proper place as the v i c e g e r e n t of God in
u n i v e r s e . , I t i s not a 'formal' e t h i c s but an e t h i c s of
l o v e , respect and devotion. And those who perform
o b l i g a t o r i e s ana d u t i e s not merely because as d u t i e s but
o u t of love are more loving to God.

The Cfuran emphasises t h a t i f man c r e a t e s in him

the a t t r i b u t e of God he receives His mercy and l i g h t s .
And in the l a s t he w i l l a t t a i n the summum Bonum t h a t i s
the v i s i o n of God.

Sufi e t h i c s in general i s an e t h i c s of love and

devotion, based on the r i g h t cognizance and guidance of God.
 2G3

Its concepts are basically Quranic. lb gives primary

importance to the ethical virtues which are entirely
Quranic, for example the unity of God, trust in God,
thankfulness, repentance, obeisance, patience etc. and does
give little importance to the 'heroic virtues^, e.g. bravery
etc. These virtues are not neglected but get a proper
place and importance in the scheme of both Quranic as well
as in sufi ethics.

Sufis do understand the Prophet as the epitome

of virtues, and generally call him as 'the perfect man'
(Insan-i-Kamil). He is the highest standard of virtues.
He is the model of all virtues and all virtues culminate
in him. They hold the vision of God as the Summum Bonum,
and generally name it as Saada..

Contrary to it satan is the embodiment and source

of all vices. He leads to ultimate destruction (Shaqawah).

Hamadani being a sufi follows the sufi traditions.

His ethics is a sufi ethics and derived from the Quran and
tradition. He does not neglect the common man whom he
wants to follow it. Ho has written not only about the sufis
but the rulers and other sections of the society also.
He wants them to follow the true guide-lines of the Prophet
and reach the saada. He. too gives basic importance to the
 2G4

Quranic v i r t u e s axid not the h e r o i c v i r t u e s . His e t h i c s

i s an e t h i c s of love and devotion. But when he speaks
about the common man he does not demand from hira t h a t love
and devotion which he demands from a s u f i . He simply thinks
t h a t common man should follow the g u i d e - l i n e s in a t r u e
sense with a good cognizance, out of duty, though he should
not ignore the love and devotion which a r e the l i f e veins
of the Quranic e t h i c s .

As already d i s c u s s e d , a l - G h a z a l i was the first

s u f i t h i n k e r who t r i e d to loiit s u f i e t h i c s i n t o a system.

In Ghazalian scheme of thought Saada has a basic

importance. Saada i s the u l t i m a t e end or summum Bonum.
I t can be a t t a i n e d through love, and love i s based on
knowledge. Thus the t h r e e are very much i n t e r - c o n n e c t e d .
One can not conceive the vision without love and love
without knowledge.

The teim Saada has often been used in Islamic

ethics. The Mutakalimin ( S c h o l a s t i c s ) and the s u f i s have
used i t simultaneously. I t has a broad connotation and
i n c l u d e s various meanings in i t s c o n t e n t . 3ome_times i t
means a b l i s s or happiness and sometimes the u l t i m a t e end.
I t i s not h e d o n i s t i c even in the meaning of a b l i s s or
 265

happiness. It is related with the spritual aspect.

Farabi and Miskawaih use it in this sense. Al-Ghazali
and Hamadani use it in the sense of ultimate end.

All the ends are Saada* . The ultimate

end is the Saada^ the highest virtue. Its relative value
is determined in accordance with the levels of creation,
The Saada or the end of the animal is different from the
Saada of man. To Hamadani the vision of God is the
ultimate end or Saada.

Hamadani like many other sufis views that the

vision of God is not possible in this world, it will be had
in the life hereafter. A mystic can enjoy only the vision
of the secrets of God in this world.

It is clear that Hamadani like all other mystics

holds the view on the basis of Quranic verses which negate
the vision of God in this world.

Hamadani's ethicj'is basically a sufi ethics. He

does not ignore common people but in his scheme of thought
importance goes to sufis. He considers common people at
the lowest stage of path, (Tariqa) who simply follow the
letters. For example, when he talks about munificience he
says that common people are greedy, they love wealth and do
 2GG

7
not spend in the way of God whole heartedly. After them
he considers the worldly ulama. They are abo\'^ the ranks
of common people because of their knowledge but do not
stand with the gnostics or mystics who are seekers of G-od.

Haxaadani in the beginning of each principle says

that one should give up the world or the demands of the
lowerself or the pleasure of the flesh and bone, as he
gives them up at the time of death. But what makes it
Q

mystical i s the deliberate giving up.

Al-Ghazali gives a detailed analysis of intention,

truthfulness, s i n c e r i t y , self examination, meditation and
thought. But Hamadani has not given a detailed description
of these virtues in his writings. He has discussed in
d e t a i l the notions of patience, trust in God, repentance,
r e c o l l e c t i o n , munificience and thankfulness. He i s truly
Ghazalian in his method :and thought, However_, he has made
addition of the concepts of recollection and attention in
his scheme of p r i n c i p l e s . Al-Ghazali has given no detailed
analysis of recollection and attention, Hamadani has
analysed the concepts with the support of the Quranic verses,
t r a d i t i o n and anecdotes of mystics. He has given a detailed
description of Zikr-i-Khafi and Z i k r i - J a l i in his R i s a l a - i -
Auradiya. Both types of recollection have been irVvogue
among the s u f i s .
 r > / ^ f-~t

cut

His p r e s e n t a t i o n of vices i s t o t a l l y different

from t h a t of a l - G h a z a l i , who gives ten basic vices and
d i s c u s s e s them in d e t a i l . Though Hamadani i n h i s Zakhirat-
ul-Muluk, R i s a l a - i - A k h l a q i a and other t r e a t i s e s gives a l i s t
of seven major v i c e s i . e . m i s e r l i n e s s , anger, greed, rancour,
p a s s i o n s , pride and envy, h i s d e s c r i p t i o n i s confined to
t h r e e v i c e s only i . e . , anger, pride and m i s e r l i n e s s .

While giving t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of the two kingdoms

in man he names the organs in accordance with t h e i r functions
in t h e i r kingdoms, v i r t u e s and v i c e s . He names the w r i t e r
(Katib) of e v i l kingdom as expectation and n o t as hope,
because hope i s a v i r t u e and a stage of s u f i course,
iixpectation simply shows the v i c i o u s a s p e c t . I t i s a false
hope. The v i r t u o u s people do a c t i o n s and hope good from
God but the e v i l ones do nothing or do e v i l and hope for
good. I t i s not hope but the f a l s e hope which has no
b a s i s and thus no r e s u l t s .

Hamadani follows al-Ghazali i n giving a psychological

a n a l y s i s of the n a t u r e of man. He accepts soul as a spfritual
e n t i t y i n h a b i t e d in human body. He gives a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of human s e n s e s . He l i k e a l - G h a z a l i divides them i n t o two,
i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l . There are four elements embe/ded
i n human n a t u r e e . g . f e r o c i o u s , b e a s t l y , s a t a n i c and a n g e l i c .
 2G8

We may reduce these Tour q u a l i t i e s i n t o tv/o groups',angelic

e . g . , reason i •'" i t operates in moderation, and s a t a n i c
e . g . , a p p e t i t e and :^nger, i f tho^' deviate from the path
of moderation. Man becomes vicious I f s a t a n i c q u a l i t i e s
dominate him and becomes v i r t u o u s i f the reason dominates him

Hfiraadani, unlike a l - G h a z a l i , does not present any

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of ends. Though he d i f f e r e n t i a t e s bet;,'een
the end Liaada and the a u x i l i a r y ends. His classification
of means i s not a nevf t h i n g . I t i s already present in
al-Ghazali.

Man i s c r e a t e d to a t t a i n t h e Icnov^ledge of God.

Ke can a t t a i n t h i s knowledge through the p u r i f i c a t i o n of
heart. Knovfledge leads to love and love in r e t u r n leads
one to t h e u l t i m a t e end or the vision of God. Ilamadani
says t h a t a perverted soul con become more wicked i f
engaged in p r a y e r s . I t may c r e a t e in him the p r i d e which
i s the most henious s i n . Ke gives a broad classification
of knowledge, i . e . Itnowledge thro'ogh s e n s e s , knowledge
through reason ( I s t i d l a l i ) and l-oiowledge through i n t u i t i o n
(ivashf). Observation, contemplation and i n t u i t i o n give
one the firm and pure laiowledge of God. The e n t i r e universe
i s a sj.anbol of God. Kan through i t s localisation can a t t a i n
the i\nowlt'dge of i t s ci-eator. Only the icnowltdgc of God
i s perfect, de i s the source of a l l knowledge. A l l others
have a limited knowledge. The knowledge of God i s e t e r n a l
whereas the iaiowledge of c r e a t u r e s i s changing.
 269

Hamadani classifies knowledce into three

categories: the knowledge of common masses, which is 'Taalidi'
Traditional' the knowledge of scholars, which may be
subdivided into two categories e.g., the knowledge of
Sharia and the knowledge of traditional sciences and
f inalLyj the knowledge of mystics, which is the highest one
and attained through intuition. Like other mystics he also
says that observation, reason, intuition and revelation
are the sources of knowledge.

Hamadani has presented a manifold classification

of people on the basis of knowledge. Broadly, they can be
classified as (a) true believers, (b) ignorant ones and
(c) the sinners. Like al-Ghazali he has also given a
classification of true believers as common Muslims, scholars
(Muqtasidan) and mystics. He further classifies scholars
into two groups: scholars of traditional sciences and
scholars of Sharia, and mystics into three broad groups:
Salikin, right handed ones and truthful ones.

Hamadani's political thought is a part of his

general philosophy which is based on Sharia. Like al-Mawardi
he led a political life and never kept himself aloof from
socio-political situations of his times. The question of
ultimate end was a chief concern for him and it is this
question which dragged him into the discussion of political
 270

concepts l i k e s t a t e , r u l e r , types of c i t i z e n s and righto

and d u t i e s of c i t i z e n s . He based h i s p o l i t i c s on e t h i c s
l i k e o t h e r muslim t h e o r i s t s , and did not differentiate
between the two.

To him s t a t e i s a n e c e s s i t y for the establishment

of Sharia and e r a d i c a t i o n of e v i l from the e n t i r e human
society. The r i g h t fonu of Government according to him
i s the c a l i p h a t e . The s t a t e , which r e l i n q u i s h e s i t s claim
f o r sovereignty in favour of God a f t e r recognising the
l e g a l supremacy of God and His a p o s t l e , and accepts the
p o s i t i o n of viceregency, i s the r i g h t form of s t a t e and
rule. He maintained the Prophet as t h e model of statesmanship
and a f t e r him his c a l i p h s as the best r u l e r s . In t h i s
way he d i f f e r s with the western p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s to
whom sovereignty l i e s with the people, or parliament or
t h e s t a t e and not with God and His a p o s t l e . Hamadani does
n o t use the term ' v i c e r e g e n t of Prophet' g e n e r a l l y accepted
by the majority of mxislira t h e o r i s t s . He p r e f e r s to use the
Quranic term ' v i c e r e g e n t of God' for both, common man
and the r u l e r . However, he sometimes uses the word ' S u l t a n '
•King' and sometimes ' Z i l - i - K h u d a ' 'adumberation of God'
f o r the r u l e r s , which shov/s the I r a n i a n i n f l u e n c e on him,
f o r these terms were never used in t h e e a r l y c a l i p h a t e for
the c a l i p h s , liven al-Wav;ardi whose influence on Hamadani
 271

i s quite dominant does not use these terms for the

caliph or r u l e r .

Hamadanis classification of rulers i s quite

different from that of al-Parabi and other thinkers who
have formulated t h e i r major p o l i t i c a l ideas in the shades
of Greek thought. As against i t Hamadani's classification
seems to be derived solely from the Quran and Sunnah.
Al-Farabi's Ideal c i t y , Madinat-al-Fadila' i s similar to
that of plato's 'Republic' where3-s Hamadani's Ideal form
of s t a t e and the Government i s the caliphate. Thus, states
according to Hamadani aie of two kinds: (a) Islamic State,
governed by the Sharia through caliphs, and (b) un-Islamic
S"tate, ruled by the followers of a n t i - c h r i s t . Al-Farabi
too has given the same c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . He divides s t a t e s
into Ideal and non Ideal ones. The former according to
him i s one which i s governed by an i n f a l l i b l e Imam or a
philosopher king, taking guidance from the Sharia; where-
as the l a t t e r includes a l l the e v i l doing s t a t e s , which may
f a l l into the following three categories: (a) e v i l doing
s t a t e (al-Madinat-al-Fasiqa), (b) the ignorant state
(al-Madinat-al-Jahila) or (c) the astray going s t a t e
(al-Madinat-al-Dallalah). Hamadani does not deal in d e t a i l
and separately with the qualifications of a ruler like
al-Farabi, al-Mawardi and Ibn* Khuldm. However, the
 272

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ©f a r u l e r can be deduced frem the d u t i e s

which he a s c r i b e s te a r u l e r .

The c a l i p h a t e i n h i s opinion i s a democratic

institution. I t e n t a i l s t o e l e c t or s e l e c t the pi©us
p e r s o n s , who may or may not be confined to one family only.
Thus, i t does not n e c e s s a r i l y lend support to dynasty r u l e .
I t a l s o excludes the question of h e i r s h i p in an Islamic
state. The laiter c a l i p h a t e became simply a dynastic r u l e .
The muslim p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s accepted i t as c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ,
Hamadani too, does not seem to r e f u t e i t s constitutional
v a l i d i t y , as h i s w r i t i n g s do not contain any statement
condemning kingship o r family r u l e which was in vOgue in
h i s times in the muslim world. In the modem muslim
p o l i t i c a l thought h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s t a t e and r u l e i s
echoed in the p o l i t i c a l thinking of Maudoodi, Saiyid Qutub
and Ali S h a r i a t i .

Hamadani's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and explanation of

fundamental r i g h t s i s quite r e l e v a n t to modem world. He
has d e a l t with seven fundamental r i g h t s i n h i s 'Zakhirat-ul-
Muluk' which are as follows;

(a) Right to l i f e and p r o p e r t y , (b) Right to e q u a l i t y

(c) Right to j u s t i c e and e q u a l i t y before law, (d) Right
to p r i v a c y , (e) The r i g h t a g a i n s t e x p l o i t a t i o n (f) Right
 273

of equal treatment (g) Right of the destitute and the

needy to be provided with basic necessities of life by
the state, etc.

Hamadani claims to have derived these rights from

the Quran. Indeed the Quran and Sunnah give many more
f-undamental rights to man but Hamadani has reduced them to
seven only.

In the present realm of political thought the

fxmdamental rights are guaranteed to everyone but they have
no absolute guarantee. The state can suspend any right at
any time and there is no power to check it. As against it
the Islamic state has no such authority, for their sanction
is guaranteed from God. They cannot be violated or
suspended by an Islamic state in any situation.

While discussing the status, rights and duties

of dhimis, it has already been observed that Hamadani does
not explain the term 'dhimi'. His account of the rights
and duties of 'dhimis' is not fully in conformity with the
Quranic view and the position taken by the early caliphs
with regard to them. He commits the fallacy of changing
particular into imiversal. The rules and duties of dhimis
formulated by the second caliph Umar were not universal
in their application rather they were situational, that is
 274

s u i t e d to t h e socio-economic s i t u a t i o n of t h a t time. He
f a i l e d to understand t h a t r u l e s and d u t i e s are always
relative. They change according to the s i t u a t i o n s . Only
the basic framework or p r i n c i p l e s remain uncheinged.

Hamadani has w r i t t e n h i s book Zakhirat-al-Muluk

with a purpose to guide the r u l e r s . He^like Muhammad-bin-
Ali Taba Tabai, gives advice as a m o r a l i s t on the q u a l i t i e s
r e q u i r e d in a r u l e r , h i s conduct, h i s r e l a t i o n s with his
s u b j e c t s and t h e i r d u t i e s towards him. Ee demands a high
moral standard both from the r u l e r s and h i s s u b j e c t s . It
i s the important t a s k of a r u l e r to lead h i s s u b j e c t s to a
b e t t e r end and t r e a t them with' benevolence, love and
q
justice.

The e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l thought of Hamadsini stands

v a l i d and r e l e v a n t in my opinion, even today, as i t contains
elements which are a p p l i c a b l e u n i v e r s a l l y in human s o c i e t y .

His e t h i c s rooted in s u f i e t h i c a l thought gives

p r i o r importance to the p r i n c i p l e s of p u r i f i c a t i o n of h e a r t ,
l o v e , devotion, p a t i e n c e , contentment and poverty. It tries
to deroot a l l d e v i l i s h elements from man so t h a t he may lead
a happy and prosperous l i f e in t h i s world and the world
hereafter. I t seeks to e s t a b l i s h a s o c i e t y free from greed,
en^mity, p r i d e , d e c e p t i o n , c r u e l t y and disharmony. I t makes
 275

man to t r e a t the e n t i r e humanity as the family of God.

I t i n v i t e s him to a l i f e of peace, harmony and u n i t y . The
s u f i e t h i c a l d o c t r i n e s in t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n are as l i v e
today as they were in old t i m e s , and can produce the same
r e s u l t s as they did in the p a s t . The s p i r i t u a l u n r e s t ,
the loss of peace, the d i v i s i o n of man and other c r i s e s
c a n j ^ o t be overcome, u n t i l and unless man again c u l t i v a t e s
and a p p l i e s the humanistic p r i n c i p l e s of s u f i s . These
p r i n c i p l e s are v i r t u e s and they can lead him to a virtuous
life. They have a u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a t i o n , as they t r y to
cut the very root of moral, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c r i s e s
which l i e s in the sataJaic element embeded in human n a t u r e .

His p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t , t o o , contains c e r t a i n v a l i d
and humanistic p r i n c i p l e s which can make t h e human s o c i e t y
peaceful_,dynamic^prosperou3 and a u t h e n t i c , i f applied in
right earnest. Hamadani speaks of the d u t i e s and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of r u l e r s for the betterment of man and
the welfare of s o c i e t y . He demands them to follow the
p r i n c i p l e s of j u s t i c e , e q u a l i t y , loving kindness and
benevolence and holds them r e s p o n s i b l e for the e r a d i c a t i o n
of a l l types of e v i l s from the human s o c i e t y .

He makes i t incumbent on the people, to abide by

the I d e a l p r i n c i p l e s , revealed i n the book of God and
p r a c t i z e d by Prophet Muhammad.
 276

He presents a systematic s e t of fundamental

rights. In his treatment of 'Dhimis' he follows a humanistic
the
outC^look:. For /maintenance of peaceful p o l i t i c a l l i f e he
not only speaks of rights but lays emphasis on duties a l s o .
In his opinion every duty pre-supposes a right and every
r i g h t implies a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . In other words, there i s
n e i t h e r an absolute right nor an absolute duty. They are
closely related to each other. No socio-politic2U system
i s likely to succeed i f i t does not bring co-ordination
between the two. Hence he demands from both, the ruler
and the ruled,to f u l f i l t h e i r duties in order to ensure
their rights. His approach i s humanistic. He maintains
poverty as an e v i l , which dehxjmanizes man, and prescribes
the Islamic methods for i t s eradication. In short we can
say that his p o l i t i c o - e t h i c a l principles contain elements
of humanism, pragmatism and universalism.
 277

1. llaque, M.A. , p . 4 0 7 .
2. Landau, Rom, p.28.
3. ibid., p.29.
4. ibid., p.29.
5. i b i d . , pp.30-31•
6. Hamadani, M . S . A . , Zakhirat-ul-Muluk, p.137.
7. ibid., p.37.
8. Hamadani, M . 3 . A . , Risala-i-Dah-Qaida, p.5b.
9. Rosenthall, iJ.I.J., P o l i t i c a l ThoU|S:ht i n
Medieval Islam, p . 6 3 .
 278

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 279

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