3PAU - DiGiovanni&Fellin - 2006 - Transboundary Air Pollution (E6-38A-03-04) PDF

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING – Transboundary Air Pollution - Franco DiGiovanni and Philip Fellin
TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION
Franco DiGiovanni and Philip Fellin

Airzone One Ltd., 222 Matheson Boulevard East, Mississauga Ontario, Canada
Keywords: Long range transport, acid precipitation, acid deposition, arctic haze,
persistent organic pollutants, smog, ozone, visibility, mercury, particulate matter
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Background on the atmosphere and dynamics
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3. Smog
4. Acid Deposition
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5. Particulate Matter
6. Mercury
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7. Haze O
8. Persistent Organic Pollutants
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Glossary
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Bibliography
Biographical Sketches
To cite this chapter
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Summary
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A broad range of pollutants have been described that share the common phenomena of
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transboundary transport. It has been seen that transboundary transport occurs either
because the pollutants have very low deposition velocities (as in the case of Arctic
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haze constituents or fine particulate matter (PM)), or an extended period of time is

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required for the pollutant to develop from the precursor compounds (smog, acid rain)
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or are chemically inert (mercury) or go through a multi-hop pathway as in the case of

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persistent organic pollutants (POPs). In general, the smog and acid rain issues have
had the longest history of study and are generally better understood. More recently
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issues of POPs and mercury have come to the fore, and research is in early
development, possibly because their effects are more insidious.
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There are two major challenges with transboundary pollutants. The first is the
international co-operation required to deal with them. Fortunately, in recent years, the
political climate has become more attune to international co-operation to alleviate
transboundary air pollution (e.g., North American Free Trade Association –
Commission of Environmental Co-operation, rationalization of EU environmental
regulations, UN CLRTAP). Other factors aide these political decisions, which must
balance social and economic considerations against environmental, such as the
recognition of co-benefits of emissions reductions where certain pollutants have
multiple effects (e.g. NOx in acid rain and smog issues).
©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

The second challenge involves providing the appropriate data upon which reduction
decisions can be made. These data are generated by the scientific monitoring and
modeling investigations described in this paper. For transboundary pollutant
problems, the need to co-ordinate international networks of monitoring stations has
been successfully met in Europe (EMEP) and in North America (Environment Canada
1998) and modeling efforts have often been coordinated, although to a greater extent
in Europe under the EMEP Program than in North America. Given the complexity of
the vertical and horizontal structure of the atmosphere, and the large range of scales
atmospheric motion affecting transboundary air pollution, the types of complex
modeling efforts require are perhaps best accomplished by international co-operation.
1. Introduction
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Pollutants emitted from natural or anthropogenic sources to the atmosphere may be
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advected over distances of several to hundreds of meters (micro-scale), 1000’s of
meters to hundreds of kilometers (meso-scale) or hundreds to 1000’s of kilometers
(macro-scale) (Oke 1978). The upper end of macro-scale dispersal describes global
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dispersal patterns and is also referred to as ultra-long range transport. When airborne
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contaminants cross geopolitical boundaries or migrate across several geographic
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zones, the pollution is designated as transboundary even if the physical distance of the
boundary from the emitting pollutant source is quite short.
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Many transboundary issues trace their origin to releases from specific sources
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impinging directly upon receptors in other jurisdictions. For example, a smelter in

Trail, British Columbia, released SO2 from a tall stack that impinged directly on sites
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in Washington State, USA, under specific atmospheric conditions. This issue was the
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subject of protracted negotiations from the 1930s to the 1950s when it was resolved by
treaty negotiated through the International Joint Commission (IJC). The “Superstack”
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in Sudbury, Ontario, a 335 m chimney erected to disperse SO2 emissions from a nickel
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smelter in the late 1960s, became the single largest source of SO2 emissions in North
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America, initially at about 5 000 Tonnes/annum (currently reduced to less than 500
Tonnes/annum). Emissions were tracked as far as lower New York State in the USA.
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Many more examples are available from all over the world of transboundary pollution
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problems of this type.

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Over the last thirty years or so, however, transboundary air pollution has become
synonymous with broader, more complex issues incorporating contributions from
many sources and vast regions, complex atmospheric processes and multiple chronic
effects on receptors that are more difficult to detect and define unambiguously. The
latter view of transboundary air pollution is discussed in this article drawing upon
research experiences and regulatory and environmental issues in North America,
similar work in Europe and broader international efforts including the United Nations
Environment Program.
In this paper we begin with a brief overview of atmospheric processes that affect air
pollution transport. The rest of the paper will describe the major transboundary
pollutants. Specifically, we will describe their sources, aspects of their long-range
transportation, and their deposition or incorporation into the ecosystem.

Appropriate reduction strategies require knowledge of the emissions, dispersal and

deposition processes, as well as an understanding of atmospheric processes and use of
that knowledge to identify significant sources. This knowledge and data is gained by
monitoring of atmospheric pollutants, often utilizing networks of monitoring stations,
and computer-based models of atmospheric dispersal and chemical processes that
allow prediction of the affects of suggested reduction methods. Such models require
monitoring data for validation, and thus monitoring and modeling studies are often
conducted in parallel.
To effectively manage a transboundary pollution issue, the source-receptor

relationship is an important one to elucidate. In other words, it is important to know
how much deposition at location “y” occurs as a result of emissions from location “x”
and, moreover, to understand if a linear or non-linear relationship exists between
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source emissions and receptor deposition. Both these factors are crucial to applying
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appropriate controls, and are especially important considerations in transboundary
transport where an appreciable disjoint may develop between variations in the
pollution emission and variations in atmospheric concentrations of the pollutants at the
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receptor. It is the relationship between emissions and final deposition of the pollutant
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that computer models attempt to simulate. Successful simulations allow the models to
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be used in a predictive mode to assess the success of various proposed reduction
strategies. Accordingly, the last two sections of each pollutant description will
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describe examples of investigative techniques and reduction strategies that may have
been implemented or are planned.
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2. Background on the Atmosphere and Dynamics

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When natural or anthropogenic pollutants are emitted from their source, air currents
carry the pollutants, dilute them, and expose them to varying environmental conditions
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or other chemicals in the atmosphere, before the pollutants are either chemically
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transformed or deposited to the earth’s surface (land or water) through dry or wet
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deposition processes. Therefore, it is essential to understand the atmospheric structure

and dynamics that control these air movements. A description is given based upon
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issues relevant to long-range transport.

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2.1. Vertical Structure of the Earth’s Atmosphere

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The vertical structure of the earth’s atmosphere is classified by the thermal gradient.
The bottom layer, where the air temperature generally decreases with increasing
altitude, is known as the troposphere. The height of the troposphere varies from
approximately 16 km over the Tropics to approximately 9 km over the Polar region.
Above the troposphere, between approximately 12 and 50 km, the stratospheric layer
contains much of the ozone that protects the earth from sun’s UV radiation.
Within the troposphere, the vertical structure is further sub-divided into the surface
layer, the planetary boundary layer (PBL) and the free atmosphere. It is within the
PBL that most of the “weather,” that affects pollutant transformation and dispersal,
occurs. The surface layer is defined as the layer with approximately constant shear
stress (a measure of the drag of the earth’s surface on the atmosphere) with increasing

height where the winds are determined by the nature of the surface and vertical
gradients of temperature. This layer may extend from 50 - 100 m above the earth’s
surface. The rest of the planetary boundary layer extends up to approximately 500 –
3000 m and is a region of transition wherein shear stresses are variable and winds are
determined by horizontal pressure gradients, Coriolis and surface friction forces and
also vertical temperature gradients. The variation of forces with increasing height
causes wind directions to vary as height increases. Above the planetary boundary
layer, the balance of the troposphere is made up by a region called the free atmosphere
where air motions are governed by the horizontal (synoptic) pressure gradients and the
Coriolis force and flow is quite laminar with winds of a high velocity.
The top of the boundary layer is marked by a temperature inversion, that is, a layer
above which environmental temperatures increase. Such a “capping” inversion
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usually traps pollutants released at the earth’s surface within the boundary layer since
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vertical movements are subdued. Turbulence and convective activity within the PBL
causes pollutants to be mixed within this layer. Because the height of the PBL varies,
and especially is lower at night, highly buoyant pollutants, released from an industrial
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smoke stack, for example, or from other elevated point sources may penetrate the
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inversion and invade the free atmosphere where the potential for long-distance
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dispersal is greatly enhanced. Also, pollutants released into the nocturnal boundary
layer (NBL) can result in elevated atmospheric concentrations because there is less
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depth available for dilution of the pollutant. The interested reader is directed to Stull
(1997) and Lutgens and Tarbuck (1986) for further details.
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2.2. Horizontal Structure of the Earth’s Atmosphere

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Wind flow over the earth’s surface is affected by phenomena of varying length and
time scales. Pollutants released into the atmosphere, and which take part in
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transboundary pollution, are influenced by motions covering virtually the entire

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spectrum of atmospheric motions. At the larger scales, the influences are controlled
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by large scale global circulation patterns, and at the smaller scales by small scale
turbulence and air viscosity effects.
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Air masses on the earth’s surface have distinct characteristics of temperature and
humidity derived from the characteristics of the surface over which it resides. As a
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result, meteorologists have classified air masses according to their sources region.
Thus the Arctic air mass has characteristics derived from the Arctic region, the Polar
air mass is characteristic of temperate regions and the Tropical air mass has climatic
features typical of the Tropics. The general circulation over the earth is such that
warmer air from the topics moves towards the poles and cold air from the poles moves
towards the equator. The flow patterns are modified by the rotation of the earth, and
the three-cell meridional circulation system attributed to Rossby. Flows patterns are
illustrated in Figure 1.
The north-south limits of each of the cells mark the general boundary between the
three air masses. However, these boundaries vary seasonally. For example, the Arctic
front moves south in northern winter and north in the northern summer. These
movements are important factors affecting phenomena such as the Arctic haze and

persistent organic pollutant (POPs) influx into the Arctic region as will be described
later.
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Figure 1. A schematic representation of Rossby’s three-cell meridional scheme

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(adapted from Lutgens and Tarbuck 1986)

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In addition, the boundaries between air masses are usually wave-like in nature, with
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the waves referred to as Rossby waves. These large scale, or planetary, waves,
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ultimately spawn low pressure systems, or cyclones, which bring clouds and
precipitation. In North America, cyclogenesis predominantly occurs in the lee (east)
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of the Rocky Mountains and along the east coast of North America, and generally
propagate to the east and northeast (Figure 2).
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Cyclones are also centers of air convergence and result in vertical movements of air.
Cyclone development and movement of the cyclone centre obviously modifies airflow
and has a fundamental affect on pollutant transport as well as deposition.
Superimposed upon the large-scale air movements, micro-scale dispersal also occurs
with time and length scales in the order of hours and kilometers, respectively. The
relatively constant wind speeds and direction within the PBL, over these length and
time scales, allows simplifying assumptions to be made about the physics of
atmospheric dispersal that greatly ease mathematical modeling of air flow and have
prompted the development of numerous dispersal models. In the main, these are based
on Eulerian or Lagrangian modeling principles and on our understanding of the

momentum or pollutant flux relationships within the surface layer and of wind speed
variations within the rest of the boundary layer (Arya 1988, Blackadar 1997, Stull
1997).
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Figure 2. Climatological summary of cyclone tracks over north America (solid lines
represent extratropical cyclones and dashed lines denote cyclones, adapted from Irving
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2.3. Pollutant Deposition

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During transport, pollutants may undergo chemical transformation, or depletion from

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the atmosphere by transfer to the earth’s surface by one of two basic mechanisms; wet
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deposition, wherein pollutants are absorbed by rain, snow or fog and deposited on to
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the earth’s surface (precipitation scavenging), and dry deposition, wherein the
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pollutants fall or are absorbed at the earth’s surface by soil, water or vegetation
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directly.
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(i) Precipitation Scavenging

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Particles: As water drops fall through the air they collide with pollutant particles and
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collect them. The efficiency with which rain drops collect particles is a function of the
radii of the rain drops and particles and the fall speed of the rain drop (assuming the
pollutant particles have negligible vertical velocity). Integration over the size range of
rain drops and pollutant particles, together with data on rainfall rates, yields the total
amount of particulate matter that a rain event can collect and transfer to the earth
(Seinfeld 1986).
Gases: The capture of particles is assumed to be irreversible; however, gas capture by

water drops may be irreversibly or reversibly captured. The scavenging rate of an
irreversibly soluble gas is determined by the equilibrium constant between the gas-
phase and aqueous phase of the gas, as well as factors such as the droplet size, fall
velocity, concentration of the gas and height of droplet fall (Seinfeld 1986). However,

the capture rate of a reversibly absorbed gas is determined by the aqueous

concentration of the pollutant gas within the droplet as well as the scavenged gas’
vapor pressure close to the surface of the drop. Thus, the point of drop saturation must
be known or calculated to determine scavenging rate and may vary with drop and
environmental conditions (Seinfeld 1986).
(ii) Dry Deposition
Dry deposition of gases or particles is a complex process which is normally

conceptualized as being analogous to electrical or heat transfer, and occurring in three
consecutive steps:
1. the aerodynamic component, wherein substances are transferred from the
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atmosphere to the deposition surface, and is largely controlled by atmospheric
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turbulence and stability,
2. the surface component, wherein substances are transferred through the laminar
sub-layer surrounding objects, which is largely controlled by molecular
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diffusivity, and,
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3. the transfer component, wherein substances are absorbed by the surface, and
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which is controlled by species solubility and/or absorptivity.
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Although the laminar sub-layer surrounding objects (plant leaves, soil surface, etc.)
may be quite thin (10-1 to 10-2 cm thick), it is often a crucial step in the entire transfer
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process. The strength of dry deposition is represented by the deposition velocity, vd

(units of velocity), which is a constant of proportionality between the atmospheric flux
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to the surface and the concentration of a particular pollutant at some reference height.
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The three components of dry deposition are combined in the form of resistances, thus
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vd = (ra + rs + rt )-1
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where ra is the aerodynamic resistance, rs is the surface resistance and rt is the transfer
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resistance. These components are often derived theoretically or experimentally and

readers are referred to various articles (e.g., Brook et al. 1999) and texts (e.g., Seinfeld
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1986) for further description.

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With these concepts firmly in mind it is now useful to describe specific “pollution-
based” issues that are of concern and that can be attributed, at least in part, to
transboundary movements of pollutants.
3. Smog
3.1. Introduction
Smog is one of most well known pollutants among the general public. It occurs
mainly in urban or built-up areas and causes reduced visibility and can make breathing
difficult, even for healthy people, and can also increase susceptibility to cardio-
respiratory diseases (Burnett et al. 1995). Smog is a complex mix of pollutants

including nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), particulate matter (PM) and ozone (O3), but can also contain many other
compounds. Smog issues first came to light during the famous smoke and fog (thus
“smog”) episodes in London during 1952 for which over 4000 deaths are attributed
(Wark et al. 1998), although most smog problems today are produced by
photochemical oxidants.
Ground-level (as opposed to Stratospheric) ozone is a colorless and highly irritating

gas that forms just above the earth's surface. It is called a "secondary" pollutant
because it is produced when primary pollutants undergo reactions due to
photochemically induced production of free radicals. Two primary pollutants that
strongly affect ground-level ozone are NOx and VOCs. NOx includes the gases nitric
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and are produced mostly by burning fossil
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fuels.
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Ozone not only affects human health, it can damage vegetation and decrease the
productivity of some crops, injure flowers and shrubs and may contribute to forest
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decline (e.g., in Western Europe [Lubkert et al. 1984]) and can also cause collateral
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damage to manmade materials (Seinfeld 1986). Fine particulates also cause health
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problems that are described more fully in a later section.
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3.2. Emissions and Transport
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Smog tends to be a regional pollutant, as opposed to a global problem. An example of

a transboundary smog problem occurs in southern Ontario, Canada. About half of the
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nitrogen oxides and VOCs that form smog in southern Ontario originate in the United
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States Midwest and are carried by prevailing winds through the Ohio Valley
(www.ec.gc.ca) to the north-east. But as with other transboundary pollutants, local
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sources are also important. In Ontario, the largest single domestic source of smog is
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vehicle emissions; about 40 per cent of ozone-forming nitrogen oxides come from this
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source. Long-range transport of peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN, another smog constituent)

and ozone were also reported in northern Europe (Hov 1984, Hov et al. 1986, Brice et
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al. 1984). The atmospheric residence time of these pollutants is approximately of the
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order of the breakdown time for the anticyclonic PBL in the mid-latitudes (2-5 days).
In this length of time, the pollutants disperse over geopolitical boundaries in Europe
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and North America.
Nitrogen oxides and VOCs are also emitted by many industrial processes, including
refining and power generation. Solvents and coatings used in industrial processes
produce smog-forming VOC emissions, as do many cleaning products, paints,
pesticides and fertilizers that contain solvents. In addition, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) are given off naturally by some vegetation especially broad leaf
trees (Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts 1986).
Fine particles are emitted directly into the air from many sources such as combustion
sources (forest fires, internal combustion engine emissions, power plants, etc.). They
are also formed in the atmosphere from the chemical reaction of gaseous pollutants,

and are thus called ‘secondary’ particles. Fine particle sources are described more
fully later.
Human activities are responsible for the increases in ground-level ozone in recent
years. About 95 per cent of nitrogen oxides from human activity come from the
burning of coal, gas and oil in motor vehicles, homes, industries and power plants.
3.3. Investigation Methods
(i) Monitoring
Networks of monitoring sites across North America measure the constituents or
indicators of urban and regional smog. Canada maintains two air-monitoring
networks which are involved in measuring smog constituents. The National Air
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Pollution Surveillance (NAPS) Network is primarily an urban network, gathering
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measurements on ozone, PM, SO2, CO, NOx and VOCs, with 239 air monitoring
stations across the country. The Canadian Air and Precipitation Monitoring Network
(CAPMoN), mentioned also in the acid deposition section, is a rural network with 10
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air monitoring stations in Canada and one in the USA. CAPMoN locations are chosen
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to ensure measurements are regionally representative and unaffected by local sources
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of air pollution and so data from CAPMoN are used to assess transboundary transport
of pollutants.
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In the U.S., the EPA's ambient air quality monitoring program includes measurement
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of smog and smog precursors and is carried out by State and local agencies. The
program consists of three major categories of monitoring networks that measure the
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criteria pollutants (including ozone and PM); State and Local Air Monitoring Stations
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(SLAMS), National Air Monitoring Stations (NAMS), and Special Purpose

Monitoring Stations (SPMS). Additionally, a fourth category of a monitoring station,
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the Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS), which measure ozone

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precursors (approximately 60 volatile hydrocarbons and carbonyls) have been

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established under the 1990 Amendments to the US Clean Air Act (Figure 3).
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In Europe, the EMEP program (Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and

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Evaluation of the Long-Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe, e.g., United

Nations 1991) (www.emep.int) is a co-operative program for monitoring and
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evaluation of the long range transmission of air pollutants in Europe, and includes
assessing the transboundary transport of photo-oxidants. In addition, the formation of
acidifying species is included and, more recently, also persistent organic pollutants
(POPs) and heavy metals.
(ii) Modeling
Modeling of smog transport and chemistry has had a relatively long history in North
America. In the US, much developmental work has culminated in the regulatory
application of photochemical models. In particular, the US EPA has developed, and
promotes the use of, the Urban Airshed Model (UAM, Environmental Protection
Agency 1990). UAM is an urban scale, three dimensional, grid-type numerical
simulation model. The model incorporates a condensed photo-chemical kinetics

mechanism for urban atmospheres. The UAM is designed for computing O3

concentrations under short-term, episodic conditions lasting one or two days resulting
from emissions of NOX and VOCs.
Models-3 is an environmental modeling system developed by the US EPA to simulate

smog development and transport, among other pollutants. The initial version of
Models-3 contains a Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling system for
urban to regional scale air quality simulation of tropospheric ozone, acid deposition,
visibility and fine particulate matter. The target grid resolutions and domain sizes for
CMAQ range spatially and temporally over several orders of magnitude.
In Europe, the EMEP program utilizes both Eulerian and Lagrangian modeling
techniques.
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Figure 3. Locations of Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Network in the USA

non-attainment areas. (http://www.epa.gov/air/oaqps/pams/pamsfig2.pdf)
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3.4. Reduction Actions
Within Canada, as with other airborne pollutants, provincial environment ministries

use regulations, standards and approvals to limit industrial emissions of many
pollutants, including smog precursors. Voluntary measures by industry, such as the
adoption of codes and management practices, are also utilized. A coalition of
government, business and other organizations has developed smog reduction plans
aimed at lowering emissions of nitrogen oxides and VOCs by 45% of 1990 levels by
the year 2015 (Ontario Ministry of the Environment 1998) in regions affected such as
southern Ontario. Similar actions are also being taken in the lower Fraser Valley
(Vancouver) and the Atlantic region. Other provincial initiatives include mandatory

vehicle inspection programs in Ontario (“Drive Clean”) and British Columbia,

highway patrols which issues warnings and fines to drivers of visibly polluting
vehicles, updating air quality standards and air monitoring networks, and establishing
an interim air quality criterion for fine PM.
At the federal level, mandatory emissions reporting for many substances, including
smog precursors, has been established and continually expands in terms of number of
substances reported and lowering reporting thresholds (Canada’s National Pollutant
Release Inventory web-site). Additional resources have been added to Canada’s air
pollutant monitoring networks and, in 1997, Canada initiated the first program on
smog forecasting in eastern Canada.
In June 2000, the federal government of Canada, the provinces and the territories,
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except Quebec, adopted new Canada-Wide Standards (CWS) for PM and Ozone. To
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meet its commitments under the CWS, resources have been allocated to implement a
NOx emission limit on the fossil fuelled electricity sector in Ontario and Quebec; and
reductions have been mandated for other emissions such as VOCs from a range of
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products including paints and paint coatings, degreasing agents, solvents, printing
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chemicals and cleaners.
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On December 7, 2000, an agreement to reduce transboundary smog was signed
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between Canada and the U. S. through the Ozone Annex under the 1991 Canada-U.S.
Air Quality Agreement. North American government agencies are also devoting
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resources for modeling of transboundary flows and regional smog formation and
transport. Work is also being done to conduct regional risk analyses to characterize
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major sources of smog in selected regions such as ozone non-attainment areas to

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prepare for the next round of Ozone Annex negotiations in 2004. Similar issues exist
in Europe also, and are being handled in a similar manner through the European
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Union.
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The severest regional smog problems exist in many of the large conurbations (large
metropolitan areas with populations greater than 10,000,000) in the developing world
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where vehicle populations are large, emissions regulations are either non-existent or
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poorly enforced and environmental conditions are conducive to the production of

urban smog. Mexico City (Mexico), Rio DeJaneiro and Sao Paolo (Brazil), Santiago
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(Chile), Caracas (Venezuela), Calcutta and New Delhi (India), Bankok (Thailand),
Jakarta (Indonesia), and Lagos (Nigeria) are among the megacities (as well as most of
southern China) identified with the most significant smog problems (Faiz et al 1990).
4. Acid Deposition
4.1. Introduction
When SO2 and NOx are released into the atmosphere (from combustion sources or
from ore smelting, for example) these compounds are oxidized to the produce acidic
compounds sulfuric and nitric acid respectively:

SO2+NOx+H2O+ O2 + oxidants → acidic compounds
Most of the atmospheric acidic species are rain scavenged and brought to earth via
precipitation causing “acid rain.” Because there may be other causes of acidity in
precipitation such as naturally occurring weak organic acids (where pH ≈ 5.6 for “non-
acidic” rain in equilibrium with CO2 in air), acid rain is defined as being precipitation
with pH of less than 5.0 (Seinfeld 1986). The effects of increased acidic deposition to
soil, plants and water bodies has been extensively documented in North America (e.g.,
Irving 1991) and in Europe (Overrein 1972, Overrein et al. 1980).
In North America, predominant sources of SO2 are in the USA in states to the south of
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Lake Erie (Figure 4) with effects felt in north-eastern USA and in south-eastern
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Canada. In 1995, the estimated transboundary flow of SO2 from the USA to Canada
was between 3.5 – 4.2 millions of tonnes per year (Meteorological Service of Canada
web-site http://www.ec.gc.ca/acidrain/acidrainfact.html). Studies by the Canadian
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Meteorological Service indicate that some regions in eastern Canada received
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deposition amounts in excess of the target loading of 20 kg ha-1 yr-1 for SO42- wet
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deposition (target loading = loading above which significant ecological effects are
encountered). For both SO2 and NOx, studies in eastern Canada also indicate that
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those regions receive a disproportionate amount of sulfate and nitrate deposition
compared to local emissions (Environment Canada 1997a). NOx sources include the
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transportation sector and industrial combustion sources. In Canada, the transportation

sector accounts for 60% of NOx emissions (www.ec.gc.ca).
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Both SO2 and NOx compounds are also emitted naturally. Natural sources of sulfur,
eventually forming acidic species, are predominantly water bodies (seas, lakes, etc.).
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Overall, biogenic sources of sulfur are a minor constituent of acidic sulfur in the
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atmosphere in North America. In Ontario, for example, biogenic sources are thought
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to contribute approximately 5-8% to ambient excess SO42-, but may be significant

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locally (Environment Canada 1997a) and especially so for other parts of the earth. In
terms of biogenic emissions, the primary NOx species, NO, is released as a result of
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bacterial activity in the upper few centimeters of soil (Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts 1986).
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Emissions (for SO2) and acid precipitation effects across North America are illustrated
in Figure 4.
Despite the popular term “rain,” a significant portion of the acidic species that are
adsorbed by the earth’s surface may be deposited via dry deposition (Brook et al.
1999) and also by fog, especially at higher elevations (Environment Canada 1997a).
Dry deposition has been found to be especially important for nitrate deposition
(Environment Canada 1997a). Because of a number of factors (location and height of
release of the precursor chemicals, rate of chemical reaction, etc.) acid deposition
effects can be measured many thousands of kilometers from the source region, making
this pollutant a transboundary issue both in Europe and in North America. The

pathways by which these acidic species are formed, transported and deposited are
shown in Figure 5.
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Figure 4. Sulfur dioxide emissions in North America in 1980 and precipitation-

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weighted mean pH in 1980 (adapted from Seinfeld 1986).

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4.3. Investigative Methods

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(i) Monitoring
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Acid deposition and airborne concentration of species is monitored by well established

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networks of samplers. In Canada, the national network is called CAPMoN (Canadian

Air and Precipitation Monitoring Network). This network is operated by the
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Meteorological Service of Canada in order to study the regional patterns and trends of
acid rain, air and precipitation chemistry. CAPMoN measures wet deposition (rain or
snow) and (inferential) dry deposition, as well as the ambient concentrations of acid
forming gases and particles. Inferential dry deposition estimates are obtained by
modeling vd and using that estimate, together with measured concentrations, to
estimate fluxes to the earth’s surface (e.g., Brooks et al. 1997a). The network began
operating in mid-1983. Currently, there are 10 air and precipitation CAPMoN sites
across Canada.
In the USA, the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP) and the Clean Air
Status and Trends Network (CASTNet) were developed to monitor wet and dry acid
deposition, respectively. CASTNet was established in 1991 to measure various air

pollutants including those involved in acid deposition. CASTNet estimates dry

deposition inferentially using the Multi-Layer Model (Myers et al. 1998). In 1998
CASTNet included measurements of precipitation chemistry, ozone concentrations,
aerosols and visibility-related parameters at 79 primarily rural sites.
In Europe, the EMEP program includes measurement of ambient and precipitated

acidifying species.
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Figure 5. Atmospheric paths leading to acid deposition (adapted from Seinfeld 1986).
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(ii) Modeling
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Numerous models have been developed over the years to investigate acidic deposition.
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Models have been developed that include both the physical transport of the precursor
species as well as including effects of dry and wet deposition in order to determine
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source-receptor relationships. In Canada, two different long-range transport and

transformation models have been used by the federal government to investigate acid
deposition issues. The first is the LRTAP model (Environment Canada 1997a) which
is a one-and-a-half layer Lagrangian model with linear chemistry and month-
dependent process parameterization coefficients. This model has been used in the
investigation of acid rain issues in several studies, including (i) transboundary flux of
acidifying species in Alberta, Canada (Environment Canada 1997a), (ii) to help locate
monitoring stations for the CAPMoN program in appropriate locations, and also, (iii)
to estimate the effects of control legislation in Canada and the USA (Environment
Canada 1997b). In addition, the Canadian government has also developed the
Integrated Assessment Model (Environment Canada 1997a), which links transport

models, such as LRTAP, with emissions and effects models to assess control and
damage costs (Environment Canada 1997a).
The second model is the Acid Deposition and Oxidant Model (ADOM, Venkatram et
al. 1988) which was also developed, in part, by the Canadian government, and is an
Eulerian model with (more realistic) non-linear chemical transformation modeling. A
similar Eulerian model has also been developed by USA agencies; the Regional Acid
Deposition Model (RADM, Chang et al. 1987). These two models have been
compared during validation field tests (Environment Canada 1997a).
Transboundary fluxes in Europe and import/export budgets for oxidized sulfur (SOx),
NOx and reduced nitrogen (NHx) are computed with the EMEP Eulerian Acid
Deposition Model. Transboundary fluxes are also available for years from 1985
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through 1996 computed with the EMEP Lagrangian Acid Deposition Model (see
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EMEP web-site, www.emep.int and Tsyro 1998a, b).
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In Canada new regulations were initiated in 1985 as part of the Eastern Canada Acid
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Rain Program which committed Canada to cap SO2 emissions in the seven provinces
from Manitoba eastward at 2.3 million tonnes by 1994, a 40% reduction from 1980
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levels. By 1994, all seven provinces had achieved or exceeded their targets. In 1997,
emissions in eastern Canada totalled just 1.75 million tonnes — 24% below the 2.3-
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million tonne cap and a 54% reduction from 1980 levels (Environment Canada 1998).
The Federal government has signed the Canada-Wide Acid Rain Strategy for Post-
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2000, and is currently working in collaboration with the provinces and territories on its
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implementation. The Strategy calls for new emission reduction targets in eastern
Canada, pursuing emission reduction commitments from the USA, ensuring the
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adequacy of acid rain science and monitoring, and minimizing growth in emissions.
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In addition, the government of Canada is reducing sulfur in gasoline through

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regulations that require reductions across Canada to 150 parts per million (ppm) by
2002 and 30 ppm starting in 2005 (Environment Canada 1998). Moreover, the
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Canadian government has announced its intention to further reduce sulfur in diesel to
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15 ppm by 2006 in line with similar requirements for diesel sold in the United States.
So far, Canadian NOX emissions have declined slightly, from 2.1 million tonnes in
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1990 to 2.0 million tonnes in 1995. This is largely a result of industrial process
changes, retrofitting of fossil-fuelled power plants, and provincial and federal
programs targeting mobile sources (Environment Canada 1998).
Internationally, under Article V of the Canada-U.S. Air Quality Agreement, Canada

and the USA are obligated to notify the each other of any proposed actions, activities
or projects which, if carried out, would be likely to cause significant transboundary air
pollution.
The US EPA's Acid Rain Program limits, or "caps," SO2 emissions from power plants
at 8.95 million tons annually and allows those plants to trade SO2 allowances.
Interested readers are directed to the US EPA web-site for the most up-to-date
information.

5. Particulate Matter
5.1. Introduction
Issues of particulate matter (PM) as an air pollutant are also mentioned as part of the
discussion on Arctic haze and smog issues. However, it can also constitute a health
issue by itself.
Airborne particles cover a range of sizes, from the sub-micron to sizes of the order of
100 μm (1/10th of a millimeter). However, from a human health point of view, the
particles of greatest concern are those inhaled. Because of the physics of particle flow
and deposition, only those particles with an aerodynamic diameter (Reist 1984) less
than 10 μm (PM10), or “fine” PM, enter the respiratory system and those less than 2.5
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micrometers in size (PM2.5, a “sub-set” of PM10) are responsible for causing the
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greatest harm to human health. PM10 particles generally affect the upper respiratory
system and PM2.5 can be inhaled deep into the lungs reaching areas where the lung
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cells replenish the blood with oxygen. Breathing problems, respiratory symptoms,
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irritation, inflammation and damage to the lungs and premature deaths have been
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attributed to fine PM. However, many of these attributions are based on population-
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based statistical (epidemiological) studies and there are some disputations over the
linkages between outdoor ambient fine PM and health effects (Vedal 1997).
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Nonetheless, governments in north America have proceeded with establishing air
quality standards for PM10 and PM2.5.
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5.2. Emission and Transport

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Some PM2.5 are released directly to the atmosphere from industrial smokestacks and
automobile tailpipes, but a large percentage are formed in the atmosphere from other
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pollutants such as SO2, NOx and VOCs producing secondary particulates. Sources of
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these other pollutants have been mentioned in other sections. These compounds tend
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to combine to form particles under particular atmospheric conditions (Seinfeld 1986).

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While some of the PM10 are generated naturally by sea salt spray, wind and wave
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erosion, volcanic dust, windblown soil and micro-organisms, they are also produced
by human activities, such as construction, demolition, mining, road dust, tire wear and
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grinding processes of soil, rocks, or metals. Many of the sources, especially the
natural sources of fine PM, are not well characterized (Ontario Ministry of the
Environment 1999). In particular, primary bioaerosols (micro-organisms, e.g., pollen
and fungal spores) have been recognized as health threat for a number of years (see
journals Grana and Aerobiologia), but linkages to the PM issue were not made until
recently (e.g., Stieb et al. 2000).
Because secondary aerosols can be produced over a period of several days, and
because fine PM in general has low dry deposition velocities, dispersal must be
considered over regional scales, and to a lesser degree, over continental scales making
transport of this pollutant a transboundary issue. Locally, high concentrations can
occur over urban areas due to primary particulate and precursor gas emissions over the
area.

(i) Monitoring
Networks of samplers for PM10 are relatively well established in North America. In
Canada, the NAPS network, mentioned in an earlier section, provides data on PM10
and PM2.5 (e.g., Brook et al. 1997b). Within the Province of Ontario, the provincial
Ministry of the Environment has installed 23 TEOM (Tapered Element Oscillating
Microbalance) samplers to provide continuous, hourly measurements of PM10. In the
U.S., the EPA monitors progress of the individual States in meeting air quality
standards by measuring concentrations of criteria pollutants. The U.S. Clean Air Act
requires every State to establish a network of air monitoring stations for these
pollutants (including PM10), using criteria set by the EPA for their location and
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operation (previously mentioned SLAMS network). Each State must provide the US
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EPA with an annual summary of monitoring results at each SLAMS monitor. This
information is summarized in the Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS)
available at the EPA web-site. In addition, PM data is collected by the US IMPROVE
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network (Beveridge 1999) established primarily to investigate haze issues.
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In Europe, The EMEP network was expanded to include PM measurements as a result
of international assessments of health risks imposed by transboundary PM dispersal
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(ii) Modeling
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Primary PM can, and has, been modeled using many of the mesoscale dispersal
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models currently in use, since it requires only considerations of passive dispersal. On

the other hand, secondary PM requires the use of chemistry “modules” that simulate
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the reactions required for PM formation. A number of models with chemistry modules
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are under development, among those being the Canadian Meteorological Service’s
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Chemical Tracer Model (CTM; Environment Canada 1997a). Other efforts in Canada
are based on incorporating aerosol modules and modifying acid deposition/oxidant
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models (Ontario Ministry of the Environment 1999).

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In the U.S., a number of models are used to simulate pollution episodes, especially for
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the California situation (references in Ontario Ministry of the Environment 1999,

p.II.4-5). It is possible to estimate annual averages by running episodic models for a
number of representative meteorological conditions and uses climatology to
extrapolate to longer term averages. The Community Multiscale model within Models
3 (www.epa.gov) treats aerosol transport and formation, and the U.S. EPA is funding
an upgrade of the Urban Airshed Model (UAM) to include an aerosol module.
In Europe, the EMEP Program has utilized both Eulerian and Lagrangian models to
investigate PM.

In May of 2000, based on scientific recommendations, Canada's Minister of

Environment and Minister of Health announced their intention to declare PM10 toxic
under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA, Government of Canada
1999). Under CEPA, key industrial sectors in Canada are required to set emission
reduction targets and timetables to meet those targets. In addition, a Canada-wide
Standard for PM2.5 of 30 µg m-3 (24 hour averaging time), to be achieved by year
2010, was ratified by the Federal and Provincial governments. A wide range of
actions to reduce emissions from vehicles, products and industry will have to be
implemented to meet the Standard. Some of these, like vehicles and fuels, will be
carried out by the federal government of Canada. Others, such as emission reductions
from certain existing industrial sources, will be undertaken by provinces and
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territories. Emission reductions from a limited number of major industrial sectors that
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are of interest nationally will be achieved through joint efforts by the
provinces/territories and the Government of Canada (www.ccme.ca).
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In 1997, the U.S. EPA added two new PM2.5 standards, set at 15 μg m-3 and 65 µg m-
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, for the annual and 24-hour standards, respectively. The US EPA is beginning to
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collect data on PM2.5 concentrations, and beginning in 2002 based on 3 years of
monitor data, EPA will designate areas that do not meet the new PM2.5 standards as
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6. Mercury
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6.1. Introduction
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Mercury is a naturally occurring element that is present throughout the environment

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and in plants and animals. Human activities have increased the amount of mercury
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that is currently cycling in the atmosphere, in soils, and in lakes, streams and the
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oceans. Mercury concentrations in air are usually low and of little direct concern, but
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when mercury enters water, biological processes transform it to a very toxic and
bioaccumulative form, known as methylmercury that builds up in fish and animals that
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eat fish. People are exposed to mercury primarily by eating fish

(http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/mercury_e.shtml). Mercury vapor is chemically relatively
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inert and is therefore transported globally, becoming an international pollution issue

and an ultra-long dispersal phenomenon. This explains it’s inclusion in the UN
Protocol on heavy metals in the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution (CLRTAP).
Approximately 2000 tonnes of mercury are released globally to the air through man’s
activities each year. Based on 1990 estimates, the USA released approximately 300
tonnes while Canada released some 30 tonnes. Through regulations and voluntary
efforts by the major industrial sectors, Canada has reduced mercury emissions in
excess of 50% since 1988 (www.ccme.ca).

In Canada, airborne mercury is emitted mainly from base metal smelting plants and
incinerators (Schroeder and Munthe 1998). In the USA, based on EPA’s National
Toxics Inventory, the highest emitters of mercury to the air include coal-burning
power plants, municipal waste combustors, medical waste incinerators and hazardous
waste combustors (www.epa.gov/mercury/information.htm).
In the atmosphere, mercury is transported by wind either as a vapor or as particles.

Mercury reaches waters either through direct deposition or as run-off from soil after
rain (Environmental Protection Agency 2000). Mercury deposition can occur very
close to the source or, depending on the chemical form in which it is emitted, it can be
transported great distances across international borders (Environmental Protection
Agency 2000). The highest deposition rates in the USA occur in the southern Great
Lakes, the Ohio Valley, the northeast and scattered areas in the southeast.
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Approximately 60 percent of the mercury deposition that occurs in the USA comes
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from domestic man-made sources of pollution. The remaining 40 percent comes from
man-made sources located outside of the USA, re-emitted mercury from historic USA
sources, and natural sources. Approximately two-thirds of USA emissions are
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transported outside their borders (www.epa.gov/mercury/information.htm).
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In Europe, heavy metal (including mercury) dispersion investigations have been
promoted by the CLRTAP Protocol on heavy metals. The Meteorological
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Synthesising Centre – East section of EMEP coordinates investigations into heavy
metals. The organization’s web-site (www.msceast.org) provides a description of
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natural and anthropogenic emissions with further references.

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(i) Monitoring
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In Canada, total ambient mercury is measured on a continuous basis at 11 sites across

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the country (www.msc.ec.gc/arqp/camnet_e.cfm). Precipitation mercury

measurements are taken at a sub-set of these sites (Kellerhals et al. 2000). In the US,
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mercury wet deposition is measured at a sub-set (over 50 in year 2000) of the NADP
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sampling sites, and is called the Mercury Deposition Network (Sweet and Prestbo
1999). In Europe, the EMEP Chemical Coordinating Centre coordinates Mercury
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measurements in ambient air and precipitation.
(ii) Modeling
Long range transport modeling has been undertaken in the USA to estimate the
regional and national impacts of mercury emissions, based on the atmospheric
chemistry of emitted elemental mercury (Petersen et al. 1995). The long range
transport of mercury was modeled using the Regional Lagrangian Model of Air
Pollution (RELMAP) atmospheric model (Environmental Protection Agency 1997)
applied to cumulative mercury emissions from multiple mercury emission sources.
The results of the RELMAP modeling were combined with a local scale atmospheric
model (US EPA’s ISC3) to assess average annual atmospheric mercury concentrations

in air and annual deposition rates from selected, individual sources (Environmental
Protection Agency 1997).
In Europe, efforts have also been recently made in modeling mercury transport and
deposition under the EMEP program (Kallweit et al. 1998, 1999).
Within Canada federal, provincial and territorial governments have agreed (Canadian
Council of Ministers of the Environment, Quebec City, June 2000) to ratify a Canada-
wide Standard on mercury, paralleling similar actions in the USA Additional Canada-
wide Standards were also accepted in principle to reduce emissions of mercury in
fluorescent lamps and dental amalgam wastes. Canada continues its implementation
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of mercury management options under the Canada/United States Great Lakes Bi-
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national Toxics Strategy in order to virtually eliminate mercury from human activities
around the Great Lakes. In addition, Canada has signed and ratified the United
Nations Protocol on heavy metals under CLRTAP, obliging Canada to control
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emissions of mercury, cadmium and lead from major stationary sources and some
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products. Finally, the signing of the Phase II North American Regional Action Plan
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on Mercury by Canada, the USA and Mexico under the North American Commission
for Environmental Co-operation on June 12, 2000, will assist in investigating and
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remediating the effects of this pollutant.
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The USA government has announced that it will regulate mercury emissions from
power plants. The regulations are expected by 2004. The US EPA has also issued
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regulations covering significant emitters that are said to reduce mercury emissions by
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50% compared to 1990 levels (http://www.epa.gov/mercury/index.html). In addition,

USA’s industrial demand for mercury dropped 75 percent from 1988 to 1997. The
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drop can be attributed to a number of actions including: federal bans on mercury

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additives in paint and pesticides; industry efforts to reduce mercury in batteries;

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increasing state regulation of mercury emissions and mercury in products; state-

mandated recycling programs; and, voluntary actions by industry.
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7. Haze
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7.1. Introduction
Haze is the phenomenon of reduced visibility; in this section we concentrate in haze

issues on the Arctic, but issues of haze formation also occur in many major cities and
regions worldwide as a result of either local or imported transboundary pollution
emissions. The US National Parks Service has identified visibility impairment related
to haze formation as a major issue and has devoted considerable resources to its
measurement and control.
Arctic haze has been found to consist largely of a collection of acidic sulfur
compounds, black carbon, metals and some organics. The major problem associated
with this haze is the associated health and ecosystem effects, rather than the loss of

visibility per se (compared to the US National Parks haze issue). A sub-set of

associated pollutants, the persistent organic pollutants (POPs), have a sufficiently
different transport mechanism and source region to warrant separate discussion.
However, this section will describe the general transport mechanisms for haze and
most air pollutants into the Arctic.
Most contaminants are transported to the Arctic by air currents from parts of Asia,
Europe and North America. Transport by air currents is the most important pollutant
pathway into the Arctic (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program 1998). Long-
range transport of soot and sulfates into the Arctic occurs predominantly during the
winter and spring period. This is caused by an intense high-pressure system which
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develops over Siberia pushing the Arctic air mass far to the south, so that areas of
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Eurasia, with high pollutant emissions, are within the Arctic air mass. Once released
into the Arctic air mass, they disperse towards the pole (Figure 6).
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Figure 6. The mean circulation of the lower atmosphere during January and July as
depicted by mean streamlines of the resultant winds (from Arctic Monitoring and
Assessment Program 1998).
The transport of contaminants during the Arctic winter is aided by low rates of
precipitation scavenging in the relative absence of clouds over the areas dominated by
high-pressure systems. In addition, low wind speeds and temperature inversions,
caused by the cold winter weather, allow contaminants to accumulate in the
atmosphere. Added to this, dry deposition rates tend to be low for air pollutant routes
to the Arctic due to sparse vegetation and the general occurrence of surfaces of low
pollutant absorbance. Finally, the relatively low amounts of sunlight, which would
otherwise provide energy for the chemical transformation of these pollutants, provides

conditions highly conducive to long-range pollutant transport. In contrast the haze

issue in US National Parks is caused primarily from secondary PM formation (Wark et
al 1998) and carbonaceous primary particles.
Sources in North America and East Asia are not thought to provide major
contributions to air pollution into the Arctic due the path of the air trajectories (Arctic
Monitoring and Assessment Program 1998 and Figure 6). From these regions, air
usually passes over large stretches of ocean where rain and snow cause marked
precipitation scavenging. However, occasional “bursts” of pollution are thought to
originate from these areas (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program 1998).
The heavy metals that occur in Arctic haze, such as mercury, cadmium and lead, are
present naturally in rocks and soil. Generally, human activities, such as mining,
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smelting and coal-burning power generation, release these metals to the environment
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(Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program 1998). Smelter emissions from non-
ferrous metal production from sulfur-bearing ores cause the largest emissions of
acidifying substances within the Arctic (Figure 7).
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Most smelter emissions come from the Nikel, Zapolyarnyy, and Monchegorsk
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complexes on the Kola Peninsula and from Norilsk in northwestern Siberia. In
addition, these complexes tend to have lower levels of pollution control causing
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emissions to be extremely high (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program 1998).
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7.3. Investigative Methods

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(i) Monitoring
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The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP) is an international

organization established to implement components of the Arctic Environmental
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Protection Strategy (AEPS) and is now a program group of the Arctic Council. The
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monitoring work within AMAP is based on existing national and international

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monitoring and research programs. Monitoring projects are carried out within each of
the eight Arctic countries, and across borders under bilateral and multilateral
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agreements. In Canada, the Northern Contaminants Program co-ordinates air

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sampling at the three Canadian sites (Alert and Cape Dorset, both in the Territory of
Nunavut, and Tagish in the Yukon Territory). In Russia, monitoring is, or has been,
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conducted at Dunai, in eastern Siberia, and Amderma, in the European Arctic region.
Norway has also conducted monitoring near Spitzbergen.
(ii) Modeling
Most pollutants making-up Arctic haze are described as one-hop compounds; that is,
once deposited, or incorporated into the ecosystem they are not re-entrained into the
atmosphere. For these compounds, three-dimensional numerical models have been
applied and are described in Gregor et al. (1998)

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Figure 7. An illustration of the interplay between a) contaminant emissions

distribution for sulfur dioxide and b) frequency of atmospheric south-to-north

transport, yielding c) a net annual input of sulfur to the Arctic as a function of
longitude that favors Eurasian sources in the winter half of the year. This contaminant
has a one-hop pathway in contrast to more volatile persistent organochlorines, PAHs,
and mercury. (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program 1998)
Signatory countries to the CLRTAP have committed to reductions in emissions and

transboundary fluxes of many of the pollutants resulting in arctic haze under a number
of Convention Protocols. The need for further protocols on heavy metals and POPs
has been encouraged by Arctic countries and led to the conclusion of negotiations on
these two sets of pollutants in February of 1998 (www.unep.org).
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Many of the Arctic countries have reduced emissions for various pollutants included
in Arctic haze, sometimes driven by other issues (e.g., acid precipitation) at local or
international levels, thus deriving “co-benefits” from respective reduction programs.
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In addition, organizations such as the Canadian International Development Agency
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have funded projects in the Russian Arctic to aid emissions reductions.
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8. Persistent Organic Pollutants
8.1. Introduction
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Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are highly toxic chemicals that are not easily
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broken down or converted in the environment. Outside of the Arctic, sources exist for
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a number of POPs; the main contaminants of concern include eight pesticides (aldrin,
chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, and toxaphene), two industrial
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chemicals (PCBs and hexachlorobenzene, which is also a pesticide), and two

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unwanted by-products of combustion and industrial processes (dioxins and furans).

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Once deposited and incorporated into living tissues, these pollutants bioaccumulate,
having long-term toxic effects (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program 1998).
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Generally, POPs are emitted from sources outside of the Arctic region and follow the
same pathways into Arctic as for Arctic haze. However, their travels are interrupted
by a number of step-wise occurrences of deposition, followed by re-entrainment into
the atmosphere. Deposition can occur by condensation, adsorption or adherence into
or on various substances. This multi-hop pathway, the so-called “Grasshopper” effect,
together with their relative chemical inertness, causes these substances to be
distributed globally. At some point in their journey, the winds are likely to carry them
into the Arctic, where the cold climate and low evaporation rates trap POPs within the
Arctic region. POP compounds have, until recently, been widely used as pesticides in
poorer countries, but have been banned from use in richer countries.
There are local sources of contaminants in the Arctic, such as mines and former
military sites. However, these sources cannot account for all the types of

contaminants or the wide geographic distribution of contaminants found there. Within

the Canadian Arctic, PCBs from decommissioned DEW (Distant Early Warning) Line
sites are thought to be sources, and dioxins/furans from smelters in Norway are
examples of identified sources of POPs within the Arctic; other such sources probably
exist but are presently unknown.
(i) Monitoring
Measurements of airborne POPs are carried out at the same measurement stations as
for Arctic haze, and were described under that section.
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(ii) Modeling
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Models for multi-hop compounds are much more complex than for single-hop
compounds. In addition to the meteorology, multi-hop models also need to simulate
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how the contaminant moves between different environmental media, such as the
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atmosphere, the land, and the ocean. The dispersal domain is compartmentalized in
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order to simulate varying meteorological and climactic conditions encountered by the
moving pollutant, with each compartment including atmospheric, land and water
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layers. Two models have been applied to orgnao-chlorines; the Bergen and Toronto
models, which have also been combined (Gregor et al. 1998).
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In November 1996, the Executive Body for the CLRTAP moved negotiations forward
on a protocol for POPs. The final draft text was signed on December 10, 2000 by
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Canada and 122 other countries. In its Federal budget for 2000, Canada committed
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$20 million over the next five years to projects that will help developing countries,
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and countries with economies in transition, to reduce or eliminate the release of POPs.
The final text of the POPs Convention will go forward for formal approval, signature
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and ratification in Stockholm, Sweden, in May 2001.

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As part of that accord, most of the 12 POPs are subject to an immediate ban.
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However, a health-related exemption has been granted for DDT, which is still needed
in many countries to control malarial mosquitoes (www.unep.org). Also in the case of
PCBs, which have been widely used in electrical transformers and other equipment,
governments may maintain existing equipment in a way that prevents leaks until 2025
to give them time to arrange for PCB-free replacements. In addition, a number of
country-specific and time-limited exemptions have been agreed for other chemicals.
Governments agree to reduce releases of furans and dioxins, which are accidental by-
products and thus more difficult to control, "with the goal of their continuing
minimization and, where feasible, ultimate elimination."
Glossary
AEPS: Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy

Allowances: in reference to pollutant emissions, the (positive) differences

between a facility’s emissions and their allowable caps
AMAP: Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program
Anthropogenic: of human origin
Atmospheric the preponderance of the atmosphere to enhance or suppress
stability: turbulence and vertical motions
Bioacummulative: to accumulate in a biological system. However, it is commonly
taken to measure the uptake over time of toxic substances that
can stay in a biological system
CAPMoN: Canadian Air and Precipitation Monitoring Network (Canada)
CASTNet: Clean Air Status and Trends Network (USA)
CLRTAP: (UN) Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
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CMAQ: Community Multiscale Air Quality modeling system for urban
to regional scale air quality simulation of tropospheric ozone
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Coriolis (force): imaginary force required to divert the movement of air parcels
over a flat surface to correctly simulate the effect of the
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Cyclogenesis: the formation of low pressure zones (cyclones)
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DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane is an organochlorine
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insecticide used to control mosquitoes and other insects
EMEP: AP Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the
Long-Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe
European Union
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EU:
Eulerian: a fixed frame of reference to track the movement of pollutants
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Free radicals: pollutant molecules or atoms with unpaired electrons, thus

highly reactive
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Lagrangian: a moving frame of reference to track the movement of

pollutants
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NAMS: National Air Monitoring Stations (USA)

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NADP: National Atmospheric Deposition Program (US)

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NAPS: National Air Pollution Surveillance Network (Canada)

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Non-attainment State in the USA deemed not to have yet attained national air
area: quality objectives
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PAHs: polyaromatic hydrocarbons

PAMS: Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (USA)
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ppm (Parts per concentration unit based upon dimensionless volume fraction
million): of pollutant
PCBs: Polychlorinated Biphenyls
Photochemical atmospheric pollutants that involved in smog reactions
oxidants: (formation and so forth)
POPs: persistent organic pollutants
Primary pollutants: pollutants released directly from humanmade or natural sources
SLAMS: State and Local Air Monitoring Stations (USA)

SPMS: Special Purpose Monitoring Stations (USA)
(US) EPA: (USA) Environmental Protection Agency

Bibliography
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program 1998. AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues.
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Biographical Sketches
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Philip Fellin
With 29 years in the environmental field, Mr. Fellin has specific expertise in:
-- measuring air pollutants
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-- indoor air quality and occupational hygiene measurements
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-- developing analytical methods, instrumentation and methods for sampling airborne compounds
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-- designing studies to investigate chemical and physical processes in the atmosphere such as the long
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range transport of airborne pollutants (acid rain), urban air pollution (smog), fugitive emissions from
industrial facilities, and
-- measuring personal exposures in occupational, indoor and transportation environments
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In addition, he has been involved in the measurement of airborne toxic compounds in both populated
and remote areas such as the Arctic, executed environmental impact assessments for new industrial
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facilities and delivered training programs on air pollution measurement and assessment in Canada and
internationally.
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Franco DiGiovanni has had 10 years dispersal modeling experience and is presently Air Quality and
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Dispersal Modeler for Airzone One Ltd. He has particular expertise in particulate matter dispersal
modeling and measurement. He is also experienced in field program execution aimed at model
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verification. In addition, he has responsibilities in the bioaerosol (ambient and indoor) and indoor air
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quality sectors, and in emissions estimation and regulatory compliance.

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To cite this chapter

Franco DiGiovanni and Philip Fellin, (2006) ,TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION, in
M
Environmental Monitoring , [Eds.Hilary I. Inyang, John L. Daniels], in Encyclopedia of Life Support

Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK,
SA
[http://www.eolss.net]

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ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING – Transboundary Air Pollution - Franco DiGiovanni and Philip Fellin

TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION

Franco DiGiovanni and Philip Fellin

haze constituents or fine particulate matter (PM)), or an extended period of time is

or are chemically inert (mercury) or go through a multi-hop pathway as in the case of

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

impinging directly upon receptors in other jurisdictions. For example, a smelter in

problems of this type.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

Appropriate reduction strategies require knowledge of the emissions, dispersal and

To effectively manage a transboundary pollution issue, the source-receptor

2. Background on the Atmosphere and Dynamics

deposition processes. Therefore, it is essential to understand the atmospheric structure

issues relevant to long-range transport.

2.1. Vertical Structure of the Earth’s Atmosphere

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

2.2. Horizontal Structure of the Earth’s Atmosphere

transboundary pollution, are influenced by motions covering virtually the entire

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

Figure 1. A schematic representation of Rossby’s three-cell meridional scheme

(adapted from Lutgens and Tarbuck 1986)

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

2.3. Pollutant Deposition

During transport, pollutants may undergo chemical transformation, or depletion from

(i) Precipitation Scavenging

Gases: The capture of particles is assumed to be irreversible; however, gas capture by

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

the capture rate of a reversibly absorbed gas is determined by the aqueous

(ii) Dry Deposition

Dry deposition of gases or particles is a complex process which is normally

1. the aerodynamic component, wherein substances are transferred from the

process. The strength of dry deposition is represented by the deposition velocity, vd

resistance. These components are often derived theoretically or experimentally and

1986) for further description.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

Ground-level (as opposed to Stratospheric) ozone is a colorless and highly irritating

Smog tends to be a regional pollutant, as opposed to a global problem. An example of

source. Long-range transport of peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN, another smog constituent)

and North America.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

3.3. Investigation Methods

(SLAMS), National Air Monitoring Stations (NAMS), and Special Purpose

the Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS), which measure ozone

precursors (approximately 60 volatile hydrocarbons and carbonyls) have been

In Europe, the EMEP program (Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and

Evaluation of the Long-Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe, e.g., United

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

mechanism for urban atmospheres. The UAM is designed for computing O3

Models-3 is an environmental modeling system developed by the US EPA to simulate

Figure 3. Locations of Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Network in the USA

3.4. Reduction Actions

Within Canada, as with other airborne pollutants, provincial environment ministries

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

vehicle inspection programs in Ontario (“Drive Clean”) and British Columbia,

major sources of smog in selected regions such as ozone non-attainment areas to

poorly enforced and environmental conditions are conducive to the production of

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SO2+NOx+H2O+ O2 + oxidants → acidic compounds

4.2. Emissions and Transport

transportation sector and industrial combustion sources. In Canada, the transportation

to contribute approximately 5-8% to ambient excess SO42-, but may be significant

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

Figure 4. Sulfur dioxide emissions in North America in 1980 and precipitation-