Vol. 27, No.

5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6757

Underwater distance measurement using

frequency comb laser
XIAOYU ZHAI,1,2 ZHAOPENG MENG,1 HAOYUN ZHANG,3 XINYANG XU,3
ZHIWEN QIAN,3 BIN XUE,3,4 AND HANZHONG WU3,5
1
School of Computer Software, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
2
National Ocean Technology Center, Tianjin 300112, China
3
School of Marine Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
4
xuebin@tju.edu.cn
5
wuhz@tju.edu.cn

Abstract: In this paper, we theoretically and experimentally analyze the frequency-comb

interferometry at 518 nm in the underwater environment, which we use to measure the
underwater distance with high accuracy and precision. In the time domain, we analyze the
principle of pulse cross correlation. The interferograms can be obtained in the vicinity of
N·lpp, where N is an integer and lpp is the pulse-to-pulse length. Due to the strong dispersion of
water, the pulse can be broadened as the distance increases. The distance can be measured via
the peak position of the interferograms. The experimental results show a difference within
100 μm at 8 m range, compared with the reference values. In the frequency domain, we
analyze the principle of dispersive interferometry. The spectrograms can be observed near the
location of N·lpp, due to the low resolution of the optical spectrum analyzer. Because of the
strong dispersion of water, the modulation frequency of the spectrogram is not constant. A
balanced wavelength will exist with the widest fringe, at which the group optical path
difference between the reference and measurement arm is equal to N·lpp. The position of the
widest fringe can be used to measure the distance. Compared with the reference values, the
experimental results indicate a difference within 100 μm at 8 m range.

© 2019 Optical Society of America under the terms of the OSA Open Access Publishing Agreement

1. Introduction
Frequency combs, which are honored by Nobel Prize in 2005, have advanced a wealth of
scientific fields since their invention [1,2]. In the time domain, frequency comb emits an
ultra-short pulse train with a uniform and stable time spacing. In the optical domain,
frequency comb is composed of several hundred thousand equally spaced modes with narrow
linewidth over a broad spectral band. These coherent spectral lines can be simply expressed
as m × frep + fceo, where m is an integer, frep is the repetition frequency, and fceo is the carrier-
envelope-offset frequency. If the two degrees of freedom, repetition frequency and carrier-
envelope-offset frequency, are stabilized to an external RF reference, the huge gap between
the optical frequency and the RF frequency is bridged in a single step, and all the optical
frequency markers will share the same frequency stability as the external reference [3]. This
inherent advantage has promoted great progress in many applications, such as precision
spectroscopy [4], absolute frequency measurement [5], time/frequency transfer [6], and
absolute distance measurement [7], etc.
Technique of absolute distance measurement is of significant importance in both science
and technology. During the past two decades, scientists all over the world have proposed
various methods based on frequency comb, which can measure the distance with high
precision and accuracy [8]. In the time domain, optical sampling has been investigated in
great depth, where the time delay between two pulses is continuously tuned, so that the
interferograms can be generated. Meanwhile, the optical frequency can be down converted
into the RF region. Consequently, many schemes of data processing can be carried out to

#352210 https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.27.006757
Journal © 2019 Received 19 Nov 2018; revised 16 Jan 2019; accepted 16 Jan 2019; published 22 Feb 2019
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6758

extract the distance information, e.g., peak finding [9], peak shift [10], intensity evaluation
[11], the phase slope of the unwrapped phase [12], and stationary phase point [13,14], etc. In
general, a mechanical moving stage is required to shift one pulse with respect to the other.
Therefore, the system involves the moving device with lower measurement speed, and the
beam alignment is not very easy in the case of long-stroke stage. In the configuration of
optical sampling by cavity tuning [15], the mechanical stage is not needed. The pulses can be
temporally shifted by continuously changing the repetition frequency. Although the moving
part still exists, the small length change of the laser cavity can be greatly enlarged with
excellent mechanical stability and high measurement speed. However, large tuning range of
the repetition frequency and large path difference between the reference and measurement
beam are needed to realize the arbitrary distance measurement [16]. Asynchronous optical
sampling is one powerful method [17], which relies on two mode-locked lasers with slightly
different repetition frequencies. The pulses can automatically scan each other to generate the
interferograms with ultra-high measurement speed, and there is no dead zone in the total
measurement path. The limitation could be that two mode-locked lasers are required, making
the system expensive and bulky. Please note that, the method of triple-comb interferometry
has found applications recently [18–20]. In addition, some incoherent strategies are also well
performed, e.g., time-of-flight [21], pulse-to-pulse alignment [22]. In the frequency domain,
the distance can be determined based on dispersive interferometry via the slope of the
unwrapped phase [23]. When using a low-resolution optical spectrum analyzer, the
measurable distance is limited to only several millimeters [24]. The mode-resolved technique,
e.g., VIPA based spectrometer [25], and Vernier spectrometer [26], can realize arbitrary
distance measurement. It is necessary to mention that the fringe of the dispersive
interferometry will be different if the pulse propagates through the strongly dispersive media.
In this case, the so-called dispersive reference interferometry [27], or chirped pulse
interferometry [28], will turn out. One widest fringe will appear, corresponding to a balanced
wavelength (i.e., stationary phase wavelength), where the group optical path difference
between the reference and measurement beams is equal to the integer multiple of the pulse-to-
pulse length (N·lpp). The measured distance is related to the position of the balanced
wavelength. Additionally, frequency comb can also work as the calibrating source to measure
the distance [29]. To date, frequency comb based absolute distance measurement has been
used in a wide variety of applications, such as the mission of multi targets [30], angle
measurement [31], and refractive index measurement [32], etc. However, there is few report
about the underwater distance measurement of frequency comb. We try to use this powerful
laser source of frequency comb to carry out underwater distance measurement.
Traditionally, the underwater distance measurement mostly relies on the single-beam or
multi-beam echo sounder since the lower attenuation of the sound. The single-beam echo
sounder emits an acoustic pulse train, and the distance can be measured by the flight time of
the acoustic pulse [33]. However, due to the large beam size the measurement resolution is
lower, and the measurement speed is also lower because each single measurement can only
get one distance. The multi-beam echo sounder can simultaneously output the acoustic pulse
train at a wide angle range [34]. Therefore, the detected area has been updated to a line, and
the measurement speed can be greatly enhanced. The measurement resolution can be also
improved with the adjustment of the sound footprint. Despite these advantages, the
measurement accuracy and precision (generally ± 0.3% of the measured distance) are not very
high if we directly read out the distance through the flight time of the pulsed sound, and the
measurement resolution is limited by the beam size and the width of the sound pulse. On the
other hand, considerable noises will be involved into the returned signal due to the multi-path
effect. Photogrammetry can be also used to measure the distance underwater [35], but an
auxiliary light source with high power is required, and the working distance (about 10 m) is
not very long. The airborne laser radar can map a sea area with high efficiency and low cost
[36], but the incoherent scheme of time-of-flight measurement cannot satisfy the requirement
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6759

of the high prrecision (e.g., micrometer

m lev
vel). It is neceessary to mentiion that the inccremental
measurement is not applicaable in the un nderwater enviironment any more. It is diifficult to
fabricate a loong rail underw water. Additio
onally, the conntinuous moveement of the taarget can
cause wave to t make the liight scattered strongly. Theerefore, the ulttrafast measurrement of
frequency com mb will play immportant role in
n the underwatter environmennt. In this papeer, we, for
the first time, carry out undderwater distance measuremennt using the laaser of frequenncy comb.
We perform the underwatter distance measurement
m inn the time annd frequency domains,
respectively. The measurem ment principlees are analyzedd. The distancces up to 8 m can be
measured, an nd the measurement uncertaainty can achiieve well beloow 100 μm inn the lab
environment.
2. Underwatter propagattion of freque
ency comb
Figure 1 showws the experimental setup. Th he frequency coomb (Menlosyystem Orange, 100 MHz
repetition freq
quency, 300 mW
m maximum output o power, 518 nm centerr wavelength),, which is
locked to the Rb clock (Miccrosemi 8040), emits a pulse train into a Miichelson interfe ferometer,
and split at a beam splitter. One part is reeflected by the reference mirrror, which is ffixed on a
scanning platform (PI M521, 200 mm traavel range). Thhe other part is guided into tthe water
container afteer the beam sizze is expanded d to 15 mm byy a pair of lenns, and reflecteed by the
measurement mirror underw water. The two parts are coombined, and finally detecteed by the
photodetectorr (Thorlabs PD DA10) and thee optical specttrum analyzer (Thorlabs OS SA201C),
respectively. The oscillosco ope is the LeC Croy 640zi. Thhe environmenntal sensors arre placed
along the opttical path undeerwater, and th he temperaturee of the water is well controolled with
below 20 mK K stability. We fabricate an op ptical board, w
where a series oof positioning holes are
designed. Thee length intervval between thee positioning hholes are meassured and calibbrated by
the coordinatte measuremeent machine (HAXAGON
( TORO Advanntage 120.16.21) with
precision of better
b than 48 μm when meaasuring large-sscale workpiecce, which we uuse as the
reference valuues.

Fig. 1.
1 Experimental sccheme. BS: beam
m splitter; PD: phootodetector; OSA:: optical spectrum
m
analyzzer.

2.1 Pulse cro

oss correlatio
on
omain, frequency comb can be
In the time do b expressed ass:
+∞
Etrain ( t ) = E ( t ) exp ( −iωc t + i(ϕ0 + Δϕce t ) ) ⊗  δ ( t − mT ),
m =−∞
R (1)
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6760

where E(t) is the electric field of the pulse, ωc is the center frequency, φ0 is an initial phase of
the carrier pulse, ∆φce is carrier phase slip rate due to the difference between the group and
phase velocities, m is an integer, and TR is the time interval between two pulses. TR = 1/frep,
where frep is the repetition frequency of the comb. fceo = ∆φcefrep/2π, where fceo is the carrier-
envelope-offset frequency.
In the Michelson interferometer, the reference pulse reflected by the reference mirror can
be expressed as:
Eref ( t ) = E ( t ) exp ( −iωc t + iϕ0 + iN Δϕce ) , (2)

where N = floor (2L/lpp), floor rounds the element of 2L/lpp to the nearest integer, less than or
equal to 2L/lpp.
The measurement pulse reflected by the measurement mirror underwater can be expressed
as:
 2nL   2nL 
Emeas ( t ) = E  t −  exp(−2CL) exp  −iωc (t − ) + iϕ0  , (3)
 c   c 
where n is the water refractive index, C is the corresponding attenuation coefficient. L is the
distance to be determined.
When the reference pulse and the measurement pulse overlap temporally and are detected
by the photodetector, the detected intensity I can be expressed as:
1
  E ( t ) + E ( t )
2
I= ref meas dt
Td Td
(4)
1 2
=   Eref ( t ) + Emeas ( t ) dt + T  Re  Eref ( t ) + Emeas ( t ) dt,
2 2 *

Td Td d Td

where Td is the integration time of the photodetector. Therefore, in Eq. (4), the term of cross
correlation (i.e., the second term) can be expressed as:
 2L 
Γ ∝ exp ( −2CL ) cos  n ⋅ ωc ⋅ + N × Δϕce   E 2 ( t ) dt , (5)
 c  Td
We rewrite Eq. (5) as:
 2L 
Γ ∝ Pm ⋅ exp ( −2CL ) ⋅ cos  n ⋅ ωc ⋅ + N × Δϕce  , (6)
 c 
where Pm is the power spectral density. From Eq. (6), we find that, the intensity amplitude
exponentially decreases with increasing the distance. Please note that, in the underwater case,
the water dispersion is much stronger than that in air. Therefore, the pulse can be obviously
broadened when travelling underwater, and further the width of the cross-correlation pattern
will increase when the distance becomes larger.
2.2 Dispersive interferometry
In the frequency domain, frequency comb consists of many single modes with fixed
frequency interval. Assume that the spectrum of the reference pulse can be expressed as:
Eref (ω ) = E (ω ) , (7)
The spectrum of the measurement pulse can be expressed as:
Emeas (ω ) = E (ω ) exp ( −iτω ) , (8)
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6761

where τ is the time delay between the reference pulse and the measurement pulse. The
interference spectrum can be calculated as:

I (ω ) = ( Eref (ω ) + Emeas (ω ) ) = ( E ( ω ) + E (ω ) ) ( E ( ω ) + E (ω ) )
2 ∗
ref meas ref meas

= Eref (ω ) + Emeas (ω ) + 2 Re  Eref (ω ) Emeas ∗ (ω ) 

2 2

(9)
= 2 E 2 (ω ) 1 + cos (τω ) 
  2L 
= 2 E 2 (ω ) 1 + cos  n (ω ) ⋅ ω ⋅  ,
  c  
Considering the strong dispersion of water, the phase of the interference spectrum can be
expressed as:
2L 2L 2L
φ (ω ) = n (ω ) ⋅ ω ⋅ =  n (ω0 ) + α (ω − ω0 )  ⋅ ω ⋅ = αω 2 + ( n (ω0 ) − αω0 ) ω  ⋅ ,
c c c
(10)
where ω0 is the center angular frequency, and α is the dispersion parameter. Please note that,
we consider the refractive index of water is linearly correlated with the optical frequency
based on the Harvey formula [37], i.e., n(ω) = n(ω0) + α(ω-ω0). Based on Eq. (10), we find
that the spectral phase is a quadratic function of ω, and thus the modulation frequency of the
interference fringe is not stable any more. In other words, the second-order dispersion will
make great contribution to the shape of the fringe. In this case, a widest fringe will appear,
corresponding to a balanced wavelength at which the group optical path difference between
the reference and measurement beams is exactly equal to the multiple of the pulse-to-pulse
length. This is the so-called dispersive reference interferometry, i.e., chirped pulse
interferometry. Therefore, the balanced wavelength will be shifted if the optical path
difference between the reference and measurement beams changes. If we shift the reference
mirror with a known length l, we assume that the widest fringe is shifted from f1 to f2. For
convenience of explanation, we neglect the dispersion of glass elements, including the beam
expander and the wall of the water container. The ‘phase’ optical path differences
corresponding to f1 and f2 can be respectively expressed as:
D1 = 2n1 L; D2 = 2n2 L , (11)

where n1 and n2 are the phase refractive index of water, corresponding to f1 and f2. n1 = n(ω0)
+ α(ω1-ω0), n2 = n(ω0) + α(ω2-ω0). Therefore, l can be calculated as:
l = D1 − D2 = 2α (ω1 − ω2 ) L = 4πα ( f1 − f 2 ) L, (12)
We define the linear coefficient 4παL as χ, and consequently Eq. (12) can be rewritten as:
l = χ ⋅ ( f1 − f 2 ) , (13)
Therefore, the measured distance L can be calculated as:

1  1 c χ ⋅ f shift 
L= ⋅  N ⋅ ⋅ +  , (14)
2  f rep ng ng 
where fshift is the shifted frequency of the widest fringe. Based on Eq. (14), we can determine
the distance underwater.
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6762

3. Underwatter distance measuremen

nt based on the pulse crross correlation
Figure 2 showws the photogrraph of the praactical experim ments. Figure 3 shows the speectrum of
the laser sourrce. We find that
t the spectrrum is centeredd at about 5188 nm with aboout 5 nm
width. The water
w condition ns are 21.1°CC temperature and 998.02 kkg/m3 density. We use
Harvey formu ula to evaluate the water refraactive index, annd the phase reefractive indexx of water
corresponding g to different wavelengths
w iss shown in Figg. 4. We find the water disppersion is
much strongeer than air. Wh hen the waveleength is tunedd from 513 nm m to 523 nm, tthe phase
refractive ind
dex of water caan change from m 1.342394 to 1.341942, witth more than 44.5 × 10−4
variation. Thee group refracttive index of water
w can be caalculated to be 1.3655989. Pllease note
that, Harvey formula
f is usedd in the case of
o distilled watter, while we uuse the tap watter in our
experiments. However, the slight differen nce between diistilled water aand tap water can only
cause the uncertainty of lesss than 1 × 10−6, which can be neglected.

Fig. 2. The pho

otograph of the expperiments.

Fig. 3. Spectrum of the laser ssource.

 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6763

Fig. 4. Phase refractive index of water corresponding to different wavelengths.

3.1 Pulse cross correlation at different distances

Figure 5 shows the patterns of pulse cross correlation at different distances. We find that the
width of the cross-correlation patterns obviously increases when the distance increases, since
the pulse width is strongly broadened due to the water dispersion. Please note that, the
intensity in Fig. 5 has been normalized, for convenience of displaying the width of the cross-
correlation patterns. In fact, the intensity decreases following the exponential law. This
indicates that, the laser power should be sufficiently high, so that the measurable distance can
be long up to hundreds of meters.

Fig. 5. Cross-correlation patterns at different distances. (a): initial position; (b): 1.1 m distance;
(c): 2.2 m distance; (d): 7.7 m distance.

We measure the distances based on the method of peak finding. As shown in Fig. 5(a), the
black line represents the absolute value of Hilbert transform (the amplitude of the absolute
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6764

value of Hilbert transform has been normalized), and the peak position can be easily picked
up. The distance can be calculated as:

1  1 c 
L= ⋅  N ⋅ ⋅ + d , (15)
2  f rep ng 

where N is an integer, frep is the repetition frequency, ng is the group refractive index of water,
and d is a small displacement. Based on the results shown in Fig. 5, the small displacement d
can be measured via the method of peak finding. Therefore, the distances can be measured
underwater based on the principle of pulse cross correlation.
3.2 Results of distance measurement based on pulse cross correlation
The experimental results of the distance measurement are shown in Fig. 6, compared with the
reference values provided by the coordinate measurement machine. Due to the limited
dimensional of the water tank, we measure the distances up to about 8 m. At each distance,
we fast measure the distance for five times. We find that, the measurement uncertainty can be
well within 100 μm.

Fig. 6. Distance measurement results of pulse cross correlation. The black solid points indicate
the average value of five measurements, and the red x markers show the scatters of five single
measurements. The error bars represent the standard deviation of five measurements. The pink
dashed line indicates the uncertainty limit.

Based on Eq. (13), the measurement uncertainty of L can be evaluated as:

2  
2 2
 1    1 c    1 c   2
u L =     N ⋅
2
⋅  u  +   N ⋅ ⋅  u  + u d , (16)
 2    f rep 2 ng  rep   f rep ng 2  g 
f n

 

The first term of Eq. (16) is related to the repetition frequency of the light source. In our
experiments, the repetition frequency is locked to the Rb clock with 3 × 10−11 stability at 1 s
averaging time. This part can be estimated as 10−10·L. The second term is due to the group
refractive index of water. In our experiments, the water temperature is well controlled. The
temperature uncertainty is 20 mK, and the density uncertainty is 4 g/m3, corresponding to 2 ×
10−6 and 1.6 × 10−6 uncertainty of water refractive index. The uncertainty of the empirical
formula itself is about 1.5 × 10−5. Therefore, this part can be expressed as 1.5 × 10−5·L. The
third term is related to the fractional part d, and the uncertainty of d is less than 2 μm caused
by the moving stage and the program of peak finding. Please note that, based on Harvey
formula, the dispersion of water is not strictly linear. This means that the cross-correlation
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6765

patterns will be not only broadened, but also chirped because of the group velocity dispersion,
which could affect the exact peak position. The chirp is potentially related to the water
dispersion, i.e., the water refractive index, and thus distance dependent. Based on our
calculations, the uncertainty due to the chirp can be estimated to be less than 0.57 × 10−5·L.
Finally, the combined uncertainty can be calculated as [2μm2 + (1.6 × 10−5·L)2]1/2. We find a
good agreement with the results shown in Fig. 6. Based on the uncertainty evaluation, we find
that the uncertainty source is mainly from the correction of the water refractive index.
Therefore, it is important to precisely measure the water refractive index.
4. Underwater distance measurement based on dispersive interferometry
4.1 Dispersive interferometry at different distances
Figure 7 shows the fringes of dispersive interferometry at the initial position with about 67
cm water path. We find that, there is a widest fringe in the spectral interferogram, where the
modulation frequency is the lowest. This actually corresponds to the balanced wavelength.
Figures 7(a) and 7(b) are the raw data, and we use a high-pass filter to isolate the DC
component to make the widest fringe easy to measure, as shown in Figs. 7(c) and 7(d). When
we precisely move the reference mirror by 100 μm, the widest fringe will be shifted as shown
in Fig. 7. As shown in Fig. 7(d), the position of the widest fringe, i.e., the exact value of the
balanced frequency, can be easily measured as (fleft + fright)/2. Please note that, this step of 100
μm movement is actually the calibration process. In fact, we have tried to use various
methods to carry out the time-frequency analysis of the non-stationary signals, i.e., the
oscillation frequency is not constant. The results of different methods are almost the same
[38]. The widest fringe is shifted from 580.217 THz (516.69 nm) to 578.393 THz (518.32
nm). Consequently, the linear parameter χ can be calculated as:
100μ m
χ= = 5.48 × 10−5 m , (17)
( 580.217THz − 578.393THz ) THz
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6766

Fig. 7. Fringe of dispersive interferometry at the initial position. (a): Fringe of dispersive
interferometry before shifting 100 μm; (b): fringe of dispersive interferometry after shifting
100 μm; (c): High-pass signal of the fringe in (a); (d): High-pass signal of the fringe in (b);

Fig. 8. Fringe of dispersive interferometry at 2.2 m distance. (a): Fringe of dispersive

interferometry before shifting 1200 μm; (b): fringe of dispersive interferometry after shifting
1200 μm.

Figure 8 shows the fringes of dispersive interferometry at 2.2 m distance relative to the
initial position. In this case, the reference mirror is moved by 1200 μm, and the position of the
widest fringe is shifted from 581.387 THz to 577.434 THz, as shown in Fig. 8. Compared
with the fringes in Fig. 7, we find that the modulation frequency of the fringe becomes higher.
Please note that, this is because the total dispersion is distance dependent. Further, the width
of the widest fringe gets smaller. The same as the calculation in Eq. (17), χ can be calculated
to be 3.03 × 10−4 m/THz. Based on Fig. 7(a) and Fig. 8(a), we find that the widest fringe is
shifted from 580.217 THz to 581.387 THz, when we move the target mirror from the initial
position to the position of about 2.2 m. The distance L can be thus calculated as:
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6767

1  299792458 3.03 × 10 ⋅ ( 581.387 − 580.217 ) 

−4
1
L= ⋅  2 ⋅ ⋅ -  = 2195.188mm (18)
2  100MHz 1.3655989 1.3655989 
Therefore, based on the dispersive interferometry, the distance can be determined
underwater.
4.2 Results of distance measurement based on dispersive interferometry
The experimental results of the distance measurement are shown in Fig. 9, compared with the
reference values. At each distance, we fast measure the distance for five times. We find that,
the measurement uncertainty can be well within 100 μm at 8 m range. Based on Eq. (14), the
measurement uncertainty is related to the repetition frequency frep, the group refractive index
ng, the linear parameter χ, and the frequency shift fshift, and can be calculated as:

 1  

2
 
2


( )
1 2
( )
2 2
uL 2
= 
    N ⋅ ⋅ c  u  +  2 L ⋅ u  + f u + χ u  , (19)
f rep 2  rep  
 2n f ng  shift χ f shift
 g  
 
The same as that in Sec. 3.2, the part due to the repetition frequency can be evaluated as
10−10·L. The part due to the group refractive index can be estimated as 1.5 × 10−5·L. The third
term of Eq. (19) is related to the linear parameter χ. In the case of 1.2 THz frequency shift,
this part can be calculated to be 0.9 μm when the uncertainty of χ is 1 × 10−6 m/THz. The
fourth term of Eq. (19) is related to the measurement of fshift, where the resolution of the
optical spectrum analyzer and the program of the data processing can make contribution. If χ
equals to 3.03 × 10−4 m/THz, this part can be calculated to be 8.8 μm with 0.04 THz
uncertainty of fshift. We use the standard deviation as the uncertainty of fshift. Finally, the
combined uncertainty can be thus expressed as [8.8μm2 + (1.5 × 10−5·L)2]1/2. The dominating
source of the measurement uncertainty is the correction of water refractive index.

Fig. 9. Distance measurement results of dispersive interferometry. The black solid points
indicate the average value of five measurements, and the red x markers show the scatters of
five single measurements. The error bars represent the standard deviation of five
measurements. The green dashed line indicates the uncertainty limit.

5. Conclusion
In this paper, we, for the first time, use frequency comb laser to determine the distance
underwater. In both the time and frequency domains, we comprehensively analyze the
principle of pulse cross correlation and dispersive interferometry, which can be used to
determine the distance. The experimental results show the measurement uncertainty of well
 Vol. 27, No. 5 | 4 Mar 2019 | OPTICS EXPRESS 6768

below 100 μm in both cases of pulse cross correlation and dispersive interferometry, showing
our technique can measure the distance underwater with high accuracy and precision.
Frequency combs have found applications in many fields, and achieved huge success in
both the basic science and technology. It is valuable and deployable to use the state-of-the-art
technique of frequency comb in the underwater occasions. In our field of measurement,
length is a basic physical quantity. This presented work shows that the underwater length can
be precisely determined by using frequency comb, and it also implies that the physical
quantity related to length can be measured, such as angle, speed, surface topography,
thickness, and refractive index [39], etc. The only limitation could be the strong power
attenuation of the light when propagating in water. In spite of this, the high peak power of the
ultra-short pulses from a low repetition frequency pulsed laser could make the returned signal
easy to detect. Our work could open a new opportunity of frequency comb in the marine
science and technology, especially in the application of near field.
Funding
National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (61505140); National Key Research
and Development Plan (2016YFC1401203); Natural Science Foundation of Tianjin
(18JCYBJC17100); Research projects of Tianjin Municipal Education Commission
(JWK1616).
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