‘The present CXC {CSEC) Biology syllabus makes clear that School-Ba Assessment (SBA) is an integral part of a student’s course, The syllabus points « that this aspect of the course gives the chance to personalise part of the curricul, 10 meet students’ particular needs. It suggests that assessment in a minimum of, exercises spread across 13 specified topics is needed for the development proper evaluation of skills in the course This chapter includes outlines of 29 investigations, all of which are suitable development into full SBA practical exercises. There are both quantitative ¢ qualitative investigations. The chapter contains at least one practical exert associated with each of the 13 topics. Sufficient detail is included to make clear imtentions of each practical, and each one can be used either directly to ilustr ‘material in the text, or developed in whatever way is best for an individ student or group of students. Each exercise gives students the opportunity develop not only their experimental and reasoning skills but also their ability present results in a clear, appropriate and workman-like way. School-based assessment will test skills in the profiles “Experimental Skills’ < “Use of Knowledge (Analysis and Interpretation only’. These are never founc isolation and the investigations can be developed to emphasise these, or ot skill as desired, The pages of this section may be freely photocopied.School-Based Assessment contents 5.1 To observe diffusion in a solution 5.2 To observe some effects of osmosis 6.1 To investigate the presence of starch in a green leat 6.2 To see if light is needed for photosynthesis 63 To see if chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis 64 Tosseeif carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis 6.5 To see whether oxygen is produced during photosynthesis 7.1 Tp investigate the action of an enzyme 7.2. To investigate which food groups are present in a food sample 8.1 To discover whether carbon dioxide is produced during respiration 8.2 To observe whether heat is produced during respiration 8.3 To observe whether oxygen is used up during respiration 11.1 To investigate the rate of transpiration using a potometer 13.1 To discover how gravity can affect plant growth 13.2 To investigate the growth of a radicle 13.3. To discover how light can affect plant growth 13.4 To compare the movement of four avimals 14,1 To find whether the skin of the back of the hand, the palm, or the back of the neck contains the most touch receptors 14.2 To investigate two reflex reactions 16.1 To investigate heat flow from a warm object 18.1 Sexual and asexual reproduction 19.1 Seed dispersal and food storage 22.1 To investigate continuous variation 22.2 To investigate how the sex of an offspring can be determined 23.1 To investigate natural selection 25.1 To compare the water-holding capacity of three types of soil 25.2. To estimate the percentage of water in a soil sample 25.3 To estimate the percentage of air in a soil sample 26.1 A simple ecological study 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 342 343 344 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 354 355 356 327: 5.1 To observe diffusion in a solution Data Potassium manganate(VIl) is soluble in water giving an intensely purple solution. Procedure 1 Ona sheet of white paper draw four circles all with the same centre. Make their radii 1, 2, 3, 4 and and Sem. 2. Place a large beaker over the circles and fill it to three-quarters with water. Put the beaker aside, out of direct sunlight, for five minutes so that the water can become quite still. 3 Choose a single crystal of potassium manganate(VII) (potassium permanganate) and drop it through the water so that it lands near the centre of the rings you have drawn. 4 Time how long it takes for the pool of dark purple solution to spread out through each of the rings. Put your results in a table. Questions ‘Why was it important to keep the beaker of water out of the sunlight? Why did the colour move through the water? What is the mean speed of diffusion of the purple coloration through the water? Ina vacuum the coloured particles would move very quickly. Why did they move so much more slowly in your solution? awe Extension 11 Is not easy to get the potassium manganate(VIl) crystal to fall where you want it. Can you devise a better way of placing it in the water in the beaker? Remember that the water must remain still. © Linda Atwaroo-All 2003. Design and ilustration @ Macmillan Publishers 2003, sass eer5.2 To observe some effects of osmosis Procedure Cut two potato strips roughly 1 om square and 3.cm long. ‘Measure the length of each as accurately as you can. Rub the potato strips between your fingers to assess their texture, Put each potato strip into a petri dish. Cover one with clean water and the other with a strong solution of sodium chloride (common salt). water sat et water sn potato sp Leave the potato strips in their dishes for 15 minutes. Remove the potato strips, dry them, and measure the length of each as accurately as you can. Note the texture of the potato strips. Record your observations in a table like the one below. First Final First Final texture | texture length length water salt solution Questions In terms of the cells forming the potato strips, why have the lengths of the strips, changed in way they have? Do the changes in texture of the strips fit in with your explanation? Explain. The cells of the potato contained water to start with. Why did more water move one way than the other across each cell wall? Extension Design an experiment to investigate the effect of using different concentrations of sodium chloride to surround the potato strips. What result would you expect to find in your experiment?6.1 To investigate the presence of starch in a green leaf Data Starch reacts with iodine to give a blue-black coloration. Procedure Take a small fresh green leaf from a suitable dicotyledonous plant. Dip the leaf into boiling water for about 10 seconds. Put the leaf into a test-tube no more than one-third full of ethanol (alcohol). Place the test-tube into the beaker of boiling water. Caution: ethanol is flammable. A Do not heat the tube directly with a Bunsen flame. When the leaf appears colourless, remove the leaf and rinse it in water. Lay the leaf in a petri dish and pour a little iodine solution over it. Leave the leaf for several minutes. Pour the iodine solution back into the beaker provided. Rinse the leaf in water. Observe the colour of the leaf, Questions 1 What effect did the boiling water have on the leaf? What happened when the leaf was boiled in alcohol? What did the alcohol remove from the leaf? Why was the leaf then rinsed in water? What was the colour of the leaf at the end of the experiment? What do you conclude about the original green leaf? “The lal dipped in baling water fer apout 10 saccnds eakee ‘The'oatis placed in a test tube of alcohol that isin.boing water, NB alcofolis very infammable ‘and must rot be neato rect over a bunsen fame. The leis diopadin water vm pe devend coered utr odne souten ide tunsbue. (< |0 1 2 3 4 5 6 [seed 1 seed 2 seed 3 A possible way of arranging your sketches (after King. Soper and Tyrell Smith ; Macmillan, 2nd ed 1991 page 213) (© Linda Atwaroo-All 2003. Design and ilustration © Macmillan Publishers 2003Procedure Place three kidney beans or red beans in a small container lined with wet tissue paper. Leave them for one day. Cut a small hole in the short side of a box such as a shoe box. Put the germinating beans, in their container, in the box as far away from the hole as possible, Keep the tissue paper wet. Leave the experiment for two days in sunlight. After this time make drawings of the seedlings and measure the length of each. Replace the box lid and leave the seedlings for a further two days. Again, keep the tissue paper moist Draw up a table showing the lengths of the seedlings and their mean lengths after two days and after four days. Write a general statement describing the appearance of the seedlings at each stage. seectings shoe box length of seeing Questions ‘Why is it important that the tissue paper is kept moist? Did the seedlings grow more in the first two days or the second two days? Why? What external factor made the seedlings grow in the way they have? What part does the plant hormone auxin play in this growth? Explain carefully how the effect is important to the plant. ‘What is etiolation? Extension Use six beans. Allow the shoots (coleoptiles) to reach a length of about 2cm. Cover the tips of two shoots with a small piece of aluminium foil. Cut off the top of two of the shoots. Do nothing to the remaining two shoots. Place all six beans in the growth box, making sure that the tissue is damp. Alter two days examine the shoots and explain why they are different from each other, © Linda Atwaroo-Ali 2003. Design and ilustration © Macmillan Publishers 200313.4 To compare the movements of four animals In this investigation you will observe the movements of an earthworm, a fish, a frog and a human. Record your observations in your notebook as you work. Where explanations are asked for, write them afterwards, giving as much detail as you can. (You may have to look up material in your library.) Finally, answer the questions set at the end of this set of experiments. Earthworm Place the earthworm (alive) on a sheet of white tile. Use your index finger to touch the outside of the earthworms body. Is the skin hard or soft? The skin should feel moist. How does this moisture on the skin of the worm help it to move? Js the body of the worm segmented or unsegmented? Does the external structures of the worm suits its ability to burrow in the soil? Explain your answer, Allow the earthworm to crawl on the sheet of paper. Listen carefully as it moves, Do you hear a scratching noise? What causes it? ‘Tum over the earthworm and, with the aid of a hand lens, observe each segment. What do you observe? What are these stiff bristles used for? Describe the movement of the earthworm over the paper. Explain how the earthworm brings about the changes in its shape in order to move. Place the earthworm on a white tile. Does the earthworm move as quickly on the tile as it did on the paper? Explain your answer. Fish Watch a fish swim in an aquarium. Describe the motion of the body, fins and tail as the fish moves from one place to the next, Which structure moves the fish in a forward motion? Explain how this occurs, How does a fish turn around in the water to change direction of motion, whether to the left or right? Did you notice the fish stopping in the water (not swimming around)? Explain, how the fish is able 10 do this. Use your hand to disturb the water by swaying it side to side. Did the fish sway with the water currents created? If not, explain how it was able to remain steady in the water. Observe the shape of the fish’s body. Explain how the shape of the fish is suited for its movement in the water. © Linga Atwaroo-Al 2003, Design and ilustration © Macmilan Publishers 2003Hold the frog firmly in your hand and observe the length of the front and back legs. Which set of Jegs are longer and more muscular? Place the frog in a cardboard box (keep the top open) and watch how it moves. Describe the hopping or jumping motion of the frog, Which set of legs (front or hind) played the more important role in its hopping movement? Explain your answer. Observe the structure of the feet of the frog. Put the frog in a tank of water and observe it swimming. How did the tog move its legs in order to obtain a forward motion? Explain how the structure of the feet enables the frog to swim in water. The human skeleton and its importance in locomotion For this experiment you will work with a partner. Your teacher will put on display in the front of the class a human skeleton like the one shown here. 1 With you and your partner taking turns, walk up and down a short distance around your work area. 2. Describe the motion of your partner while walking, Did your partner walk upright on two legs? Look at the skeleton and identily the structure that is responsible for supporting the body in the upright posture. ‘How did your partner move their legs while walking? Did they bend the legs or keep them straight? Look at the skeleton and identify the structures used in the motion of the legs which you have described. Make alist of the structures, stating the function of each. Did your partner move their hands while walking? Can you give a reason why? Are bones able to move on their own? If not, state the structures that are responsible for moving bones. Explain how the muscles move the legs while walking, Questions How are the movements of the earthworm different from those of the frog and the fish? How is this difference related to the fact that a frog has a bony skeleton whilst an. earthworm does not? Why can a human perform a wider range of movements than a frog, but cannot jump or swim so well? © Unda Atwaroo-Al 2003, Design and ilustration © Macmillan Pubishers 200314.1 To find whether the skin of the back of the hand, the palm or the back of the neck contains the most touch receptors Procedure 1 Attach two pins to a ruler, 2m apan, as shown in the diagram. Draw up a table like that shown for your results. “Make sure that your partner understands what is ‘going to happen in the experiment. He or she then closes their eyes. ‘Touch your partner gently on the back of the hand with one or both ruler. Ask how many pins they think are touching their hand. Record a tick if they are right and a cross if they are wrong. 6 Repeat siep 4 nine more times making ten in all. 7 Adjust the pins to be 1m apart and repeat steps 3, 4 and 5. 8 Adjust the pins 10 be 0.5m apart and repeat steps 3, 4 and 5. 9 Adjust the pins to be 0.2m apart and repeat steps 3, 4 and 5. 10 Present your results as a histogram like the one shown below. back’ palm neck Questions __ Porro 1 Which of the three pans tested} do you think has the most : El pamottona receptors? Give reasons. [7 back ot neck Why do you think thar this part of the body needs to be so sensitive? Why is it important to have touch receptors in the skin all over the body? What are some sources of error in the experiment? How can the = S experiment be improved? eee nee © Linda Atwaroo-All 2003, Design and liustration © Macmillan Publishers 2003,14.2 To investigate two reflex actions Effects of light on the pupil of the eye 1 Prop up a small mirror in front of your face. Look into the mirror and draw a diagram of one of your eyes. Label the pupil and the iris. Look again into the mirror. Close both your eyes and cover them with the palms of your hands, After 20 seconds remove one hand and at the same moment open that eye. What happens to the pupil immediately after you uncover your eye? How long is it before there is no further change? Look into the mirror once more. Shine a small torchlight into one eve and observe what happens. Draw diagrams showing the appearance of your eye (a) in dim light, and (b) in bright light. Questions 1 Explain what caused the pupil of your eye to change size in 2 and 3. Draw a diagram to show the changes. Did your pupil change size quickly or very slowly? Suggest why this is important to your body. The knee-jerk reflex Sit on the edge of a table with both feet hanging loosely ‘Use your fingertips to locate the base of one knee-cap. Tap the front of your leg firmly, just underneath your knee-cap, with the side of your hand or the edge of a ruler. Describe what happens when you do so. Questions thigh anse-cap 1 How is this reflex different from the [ 1 reflex change in pupil size which you 7 studied? Draw diagrams to illustrate this difference. aad © Linda Atwaroo-Al 2003, Design and ilustration © Macmillan Publishers 2003,16.1 To investigate heat flow from a warm object Procedure 1 Set up three thin plastic cups as shown, in the diagram. + A is wrapped in several layers of tissue paper held in place with elastic bands, _elsstic Band ‘The paper is soaked in cold water. * Bis not wrapped. insulation a © Cis wrapped with corrugated cardboard (from an old box) held in place with elastic bands. Draw up a table with four columns and 18 rows for the measurements. Heat a supply of water in a beaker ora kettle until it is hotter than 70°C. Halt-fill each cup with the hot water. (Take care!) ‘At once take the temperature of the water in each cup. Take the temperature of the water in each cup every 30 seconds for the next 8 minutes. Record your results in the table. late banc nition tre © Results 1 On the same axes, plot three graphs (one for each cup) of temperature against time, Plot temperature vertically and time horizontally. Complete the graphs by drawing smooth curves through the points, Use the graphs to explain which cup lost heat most quickly and which cooled most slowly. Questions 1 Why did wrapping the cups with the wet tissue and the cardboard have these effects? ‘Why is it helpful to humans to sweat in hot weather and put on more clothes, when the weather turns colder? © Unda Atwaroo-All 2003. Design and ilustration © Macmillan Publishers 2003Sexual and asexual reproduction Observing the reproductive cells of a mammal 1 Your teacher will provide you with pre-prepared slides of mature ova and of the sperm of a mammal. 2 Observe the slide of the male gamete under the microscope, first under low power and then high power, Make a note of the magnification at each power. What structure is contained in the head of the sperm? In your laboratory report book make an accurately labelled diagram of the sperm. Write a description of the sperm. ‘Then remove the slide and replace it with the slide of the ova, Which are the mature ova? How can you tell? Locate the cell membrane with a jelly coat, nucleus containing chromosomes and cytoplasm. 9 Make an accurately labelled drawing of one mature ovum, 10 Write a description of the mature ovum in your laboratory report book. Questions 1 Which are larger, sperm or ova? Make an estimate of their relative sizes, 2 State one advantage of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction, Observing the budding of yeast Make a mixture of yeast, water and a little glucose. Place a drop of the yeast mixture on a slide and stain it with methylene blue. Cover with a cover slip, Observe the slide under a microscope, first at low power then at high power. Make a sketch in your notebook of a yeast cell How many budding cells can you see? How long does it take for a bud to form and separate from its parent? Make sketches to illustrate the stages in budding in yeast. Questions 1 Each new cel] must contain a nucleus, What must happen in the parent cell before the bud finally detaches from it? 2 The family of yeasts are the saccharomycetes - meaning the ‘sugar fungi’. How does this relate to one important use of yeast? © Linda Atwaroo-Ali 2003. Design and ilustration © Macmillan Publishers 200319.1 Seed dispersal and food storage Procedure (A) 1 Collect examples of fruit whose seeds are dispersed: (by animals eating the fruit, ii). by animals passing by the plant, iii) by mechanical means, (iv) by water, (w) by the wind, ‘Make a sketch of each and, by each sketch, state which features of the seed are important for that method of dispersal. Examples are: i Tomato fi Sweetheart iit Pride of Barbados Coconut Dandelion Procedure (B) Remove the seeds from an orange. Peel the seeds and crush them. Collect some juice from the fleshy part of the orange. ‘Test the crushed seeds and the orange juice for sugars, starch, protein and lipid (lat) using the tests given on pages 64 and 65. Questions 1 Most plants, in the course of their evolution, have developed an efficient method of seed dispersal. What would be the consequences for a plant which had no dispersal mechanism? Explain your reasoning. Oranges are brightly coloured and have an attractive scent. How do these factors help dispersal of the seeds? List four ways in which animals (including Man) help in the dispersal of fruits and seeds.22.1 To investigate continuous variation Procedure 1 Measure the height of each member of your class. Record the results as a list. 2° From the list, draw up a frequency table like that shown in the diagram. Make sure that you have enough groups to take in all the measurements. (It is quite possible that there may be a group with no individual results init.) Height group (am) | No. of individuals 150-152 1534155 156-158, 159-161 etc. Use the frequency table to draw a histogram showing how height varies amongst your classmates, Number ofindiviais eign (om) (in 2.0m groupe) Questions What is the height range (i.e. shortest to tallest) in your class? Describe the overall shape of your histogram. Imagine that you had measured the height of a very large number of people, but grouped those heights in 0.5.cm groups. Make a sketch of what you think that the histogram would look like. ‘What kind of variation is seen in the height of humans? State three other examples of this type of variation in humans. Name, and give one example of, a different type of variation. © Unda Atwaroo-Ali 2008. Design an ilustration © Macmillan Publishers 200822.2 To discover how the sex of an offspring can be determined Procedure 1 Fifty black beads are placed in a container, In another container, 25 black beads and 25 white beads are mixed thoroughly together. The beakers are placed side by side with two empty beakers clearly labelled A and B. LJ Selection | Both | Black and | number | black | white 2. Close your eyes. Pick one bead from each of the first two beakers. If both beads are black, put them into beaker A. If one is black and the other white, put ther into beaker B. I Record the result in a table like the one shown, by putting a tick to show the a combination of beads produced each time. i 3. Do this nine more times, making ten in all. 4 : Questions : . 1 What does each black bead represen? 3 2 What does each white bead represent? 3 What does the beaker represent? 7 4 Why did you have to close your eyes when a taking beads? | 5 Use a genetic diagram to predict the [9 expected ratio of male to female offspring in humans. How does this relate to the [ee experiment you have just done? How many pairs of black beads did you select? How many pairs containing both black and white beads did you select? What ratio of ‘boys’ to ‘girls’ did you find in the ten offspring of this experiment?” Relate your obtained ratio to the prediction you made in 5 emis In what ways does the experiment differ from what really happens? © Linds Atwaroo-Al 2003. Design and ilustration © Macmilian Publishers 200323.1 To investigate natural selection Procedure 1 You need 240 matchsticks (or toothpicks) and some coloured marker pens, 2 Colour 60 matchsticks blue, 60 brown, 60 yellow and 60 green. 3 Scatter a mixture of 30 matchsticks of each colour onto a large surface such as the floor, a lab table or a lawn. These are the prey, 4 One student, the predator, has 10 seconds to ‘catch’ as many prey as possible by picking up one matchstick at a time and putting it into a beaker. The remaining matchsticks are the ‘survivors’, The number of survivors of each colour is counted. 5 Fach survivor is given one offspring of the same colour. 6 Repeat steps 4 and 5. 7 Record the results in a table like the one below. Prey Number of | Number of __ | New prey population population | prey caught | survivors {after each survivor is given one offspring) 30 blue 15 15 30 | 30 brown \ 5 25 50 | 30 yellow 20 10 20 30 green i 29 38 4 3o bine lemon io 7 50 brown, | ee 86 20 yellow 3 | 5 10 58 green | 8s 116 Sample results from a background of lawn grass Questions ‘What does each matchstick represent? What does each colour represent? How did the number of sticks of each colour change over time? ‘Which colour survived best? Why? Which colour survived worst? Why? How do these results relate to the process of natural selection? Explain what is meant by camouflage. In this experiment, which characteristic is being pressured and selected? Predict what would have happened in your experiment if the survivors had been given two offspring instead of one. 10 Describe some sources of error in the experiment, eeyaweune © Linda Atwaroo-Ai 2003. Design and ilustration © Macmillan Publishers 200325.1 To compare the water-holding capacity of three types of soil Procedure You need samples of a sandy soil, a clay soil, and a loamy soil surres 1 Set up three sets of apparatus as shown in the diagram. Use 100g samples of soils A, B and C. Draw up a table like the one shown below. Pour 100 cm’ of tap water through each sample Wait until no more water is passing through the samples. (This may take some time!) Record the volume of water which has passed through each. fer paper Soil sample A | Soil sample B | Soil sample C ‘Amount of | water dane | \ thrower) notte | Questions 1 Through which soil did the water flow (i) most quickly, (ii) most slowly? Which soil retained (i) least water, (ii) most water? 2 3. From this data, which do you think is the sandy soil? Explain your reasoning. 4 From this data, which do you think is the clay soil? Explain your reasoning. 25.2 To estimate the percentage of water in a soil sample Share the samples A, B and C from Investigation 25.1 amongst class members, Procedure Weigh a suitably sized sample of soil Heat the sample of soil in a dish until it seems dry. Do not heat the soil strongly enough to decompose organic matter ~ a temperature of about 90°C is ideal. Let the soil cool and reweigh it Reheat the soil for several minutes, Repeat steps 3 and 4 until there is no further loss in weight. Calculate the percentage of water in the soil from the formula mass of wet soil ~ mass of dry soil % = x 100 mass of wet soil Questions 1 Which type of soil contained the highest percentage of water? (Your answer may be different from season to season!) 2. Explain the necessity for step 3 in the experiment. © Linca Atwaroo-All 2003. Design and ilustration © Macmilan Publishers 200325.3 To estimate the percentage of air in a soil sample Procedure 1 Choose a small tin with a volume of about 200 cm’. Punch several holes in the base. 2 Press the tin down into the soil which you are going to test. (Take care! Some tins have very sharp edges.) Ate 7 tn of so coletod. in pressed into _the hotest the bovtom the soll ate plugged wih lasicine U Pull out the tin without losing any of the soil inside it. Add 300 cm’ of water to a large (1000 cm or larger) measuring cylinder, Plug the holes in the base of the tin with plasticine. Pour the soil from the tin into the water in the cylinder, swirl or stir the mixture and allow it to settle, Note the new volume. Call this X cm’. volume of so valu tthe ta and Som! | |S [ootume ot sot Fill the tin with water to the brim and pour the A=" ar¢ "" x= an 00 ai waiter into the cylinder. Again note the new of water volume. Call this ¥ cm’. Calculation Volume of tin = ¥- Xam’, This is the volume of (soil + air). X = 300 + total volume of the tin - volume of air in the soil (the air is lost as bubbles) X = 300 + (¥ =X) ~ volume of air. Therefore volume of air = 300 + ¥ ~ 2X. 300 + (¥- 2X) % of aie = x 100 Question What is the importance of air in the soil? © Linda Atwaroo-Ali 2008. Design and ilustration ® Macmilan Publishers 2003Asimple ecological study ‘The area to be studied should be small, such as a tree, a small pond, a small area in the foothills, a small area in a cocoa estate or a small garden. The aim is to study the biotic and abiotic factors of the area. The area being studied can be marked by running string and the area calculated, The biotic factors A list of all the animals and plants seen in the area should be made. This can be done by walking quietly and slowly through the area (if it is on land) and observing the organisms. Organisms may be found in and on the soil, under leaf litter and stones, on the stems and leaves of small plants, flying in the area, on and under the bark of a tree, on the branches of a tree or just visiting the area for a short time. Food chains and a simple food web can then be constructed using the organisms (plants and animals) on the list. Interrclationships between the organisms may be noted as examples of parasitism, commensalism and mutualism. Other interrelationships like competition (for light, space etc.), camouflage, pollination and protection should also noted. A reader of the study should have a good idea of the organisms seen there and what they are doing ‘An ecological study may also involve collecting data about the abundance and distribution of organisms. The population size of an organism in the area may be Gifficult to obtain since it means counting every individual in the area. However, the population density may be calculated from a smaller area, as the number of organisms present per square metre (m’). Then the population size of the whole area can be calculated if the area is known. To do this, representative samples of the area must be taken. These are usually chosen at random to avoid bias. Sampling methods include line transects, belt transects and the use of quadrats and sweeping nets. The most appropriate sampling method for a particular study depends on the area being studied. Figure 29.1 representative sample ‘ol any study area can be taken. Sampling methods Quadrats Quadrat ‘These can be used if the area is fairly uniform and flat. A quadrat is a square frame (metal, plastic or wooden) of a known area, usually 0.25 m’ or I m?. It is placed randomly at several places within the study area and the number of individuals counted. This method is sutitabie for plants and slow-moving animals like millipedes and some insects. The results can be tabulated as shown, ‘number of individuals of one population, e.g. millipedes or nutgrass, © Linda Atwaroo-Ali 2003. Design and illustration © Macmillan Publishers 2003,‘The mean number of individuals per quadrat is then calculated and used to find the population density or population size of the species counted in the whole study area. For example: T+1943+23+5 | 52 gy 3 5 There are on average 10.4 individuals in every quadrat. Ifthe 1m? quadrat was used then: population density = 10.4 individuals/m? Ifthe size of the area being studied is known, for example 25.6m, then the population size can be calculated: fin 1m there are 10.4 individuals, then in 25.6m? there are: 104 x 25.6 = 266.24 individuals So the population size for the area studied is 266 individuals (millipedes or nutgrass or whatever was being estimaied). Line transects A line transect is a better sampling method if one type of habitat changes into another or the area is sloping, such as a rocky or swampy shore. A string is pulled in a straight line across the atea being studied. All the animals (slow-moving) and plants actually touching the line are considered to be a representative sample of the animals and plants there. Measuring the height of the line at regular points can describe the slope of the area. E cial Postion | Distance between [Descration ef sol | Pants and aongine | sol ana'sting | water eresent) | anwnale observes 5 e ‘Worksheet for he transact ne Figure 29.2 Transect line across the edge of a pond, and a recording sheet. © Linda Atwaroo-Ali 2003. Design and ilustration © Macmilan Publishers 2003These are used for sampling insects, especially flying insects, At randomly set places within the area a net is swept through the plants (like grass) a fixed number of times and the individuals caught are counted. The mean represents a sample of the insects found there. Sweep nets can be used with quadrats or line transects Figure 29.3 Using various sampling techniques in an ecological study: (a) pond dipping, (b) collecting insects in a net The abiotic factors The distribution and abundance of organisms relate to abiotic factors. Commonly measured and described factors are temperature, pH, light intensity and wind. The soil is a very important abiotic factor since it directly influences the distribution of plants and therefore the animals that feed on them. Temperature ‘Temperature can be measured using a thermometer. The temperature range over a period of time like a'day may be more important than a reading at any particular moment. Standard maximum/minimum thermometers can be used, pH on s_ ws 1" rae pHisa measure ofthe, = a aiatiniy or addin. 7)” Cl determine the pH of the soil, about 1 cm* of soil can be mixed with 10cm? of distilled water. After shaking, the mixture is allowed to settle and the pH determined with the “ELE use of universal indicator (_#) or pH paper. This ore. Figure 29.44 pH strip is placed into the solution being tested, then compared to these standards in order to determine the pH of the solution, © Linda Atwaroo-Ali 2003. Design and illustration @ Macmillan Publishers 2003,iN, 29,- Practical wor Ei = Light intensity Light can be measured at any time using light meters (like those used by photographers}. However, it is the light received over a long period of time that affects plant growth. Wind ®) ‘ams spn ound at a é Wind speed and direction affect those animals and plants exposed to the elements of nature. Wind speed is, measured by an instrument called an anemometer and a simple wind vane can measure the direction. Simple, but effective gauges can be improvised which may not give the exact speed values but give comparative readings. Water flow Water speed,can be determined by measuring the time taken by a floating object to travel a measured distance of) the stream or river. The speed per hour can then be _~—— pin pen which determined. 4 vane is pivoted Wh oe oe VEN cara vane Factors of the soil which affect plant growth include the pet pH, water content, air content, humus content, water- ” holding capacity and soil type (composition and “ced distribution of inorganic soil particles). Investigations to rection measure the water content, air content and water-holding capacity (chapter 25) and the pH (abiotic factor) have Figure 29.5 Two simple types of already been discussed wind gauges Humus content A sample of soil is heated at 100°C (to remove all the water) and weighed to give weight X. The dry sample is then heated again until red hot; this means that the humus is bumt off. Itis then reweighed to give weight ¥. Xx-¥ ‘The percentage of humus in the soil = 100% Soil type The distribution and composition of the rock particles can be determined using the sedimentation test. A sample of the soil is taken and mixed with excess ‘water in a measuring cylinder. The mixture is shaken vigorously and left t0 settle, The largest and heaviest particles will settle first, the smallest last, the particles will settle in layers. The thickness of each layer can be recorded to indicate soil type. f-—— bis of ig, leaves ote | very smat partis (ty) | —— smatipartices lt) {———— ergo partes (sand — stones end gravel Figure 29.6 Results of a sedimentation test. © Linda Atwaroo-A\l 2003, Design and illustration © Macmillan Publishers 2003,