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Quantification of Clay Mineral and Log Response Toward Reservoir Rock

Properties

Chapter · January 2015

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-287-368-2_20

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 Quantification of Clay Mineral and Log Response
Towards Reservoir Rock Properties
1
Nur Asyraf Md Akhir, 2Gamal Ragab Gaafar, 1Ismail Mohd Saaid,
1
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
2
PETRONAS Carigali Sdn. Bhd.
Clay minerals are fine-grained which compose of complex
aluminium silicate with definite crystalline structure. They are
divided into four major important groups which are kaolinite, illite,
montmorillonite (smectite) and chlorite. The effect of clay minerals
on formation evaluation and reservoir performance depends on its
morphology, cation exchange capacity and swelling properties. The
occurrence of clay minerals leads to inaccurate values of porosity,
water saturation and permeability. In addition, the impacts of clay
minerals during drilling, water injection and acid stimulation are
investigated as it leads to formation damage near wellbore or deep
into formation. The current study aims at investigating the effect of
clay minerals on logs response and reservoir characteristics, and to
compare its impact on reservoir performance against reported
works. Methodology used in the present research involves log
interpretation, clay minerals characterization and to analyze the
effect of clay on water relative permeability, water saturation and
capillary pressure curve. Results were discussed and benchmarked
against selected literatures. Based on the effects of clay minerals,
there are reduction in water relative permeability due to fine
migration and swelling of clays. In addition, it was found that
accurate value of water saturation can be obtained by using
Waxman-Smits model. Moreover, it is shown that capillary pressure
curve is reflected by the heterogeneity and bimodality of the
reservoir. In this project, it is shown that the effect of clay minerals
on reservoir can lead to the inaccuracy of determining reservoir
characterization and its effect on reservoir productivity.
Keywords — clay minerals, logging tools, water relative
permeability and water saturation
I. INTRODUCTION
Clay minerals are known as phyllosilicates due to its
plasticity property. They have a very high surface area and
fine-grained structure. Clay minerals can be classified into
allogenic (detrital) and authigenic clays based on its occurrence
during deposition [1]. In addition, clay minerals can be
distinguished into three modes of distribution which are
laminar, structural and dispersed. Laminar and structural clay
distribution are affecting the overall average effective porosity
of the formation, meanwhile dispersed clay distribution can
reduce permeability and porosity of the formation. The mode
of occurrence of dispersed clay mineral can be subdivided into
discrete, lining and bridging. Based on the study on porosity
and permeability relationship for dispersed clay mineral, pore
bridging gives the lowest permeability and porosity
relationship compared to discrete clays distribution and pore-
lining [2].
The main properties of clay minerals are its cation
exchange capacity (CEC) and swelling properties. The
presence of clay minerals in the formation will leave negative
charge on clay surface. This negative charge tends to balance
the charge with positively charge cations in soil such as
magnesium and potassium [3]. Meanwhile, swelling of clays
happen when the exchangeable cations are hydrated and water
molecules enter the space between clay structural layers and
expands the volume of clay. There are several effects of clay
minerals in the shaly reservoir which are further reduction in
permeability due to migration of loose and fines clay minerals,
water sensitivity, acid sensitivity and influence logging tools
responses [4].
The mixing of incompatible drilling fluid with clay
minerals in drilling operation leads to swell of clays hence the
stuck pipe problem. In addition, mud viscosity can affect the
dispersion and swelling of shales and decreases the diffusion
velocity in porous media [5]. Meanwhile, during water
injection, the effect of clay minerals can be due to the
incompatible mixing fluids and difference in pH between
injection and formation water, and difference in salinity and
shear by moving pore water [6, 7]. In addition, clay minerals,
siderite and ankerite can release iron that will precipitate in the
form of ferric hydroxide gel that will block the pore throats
when it dissolved into acid [8].
In formation evaluation and log interpretation, the existence
of clay minerals in the formation leads to inaccurate values of
porosity, water saturation and permeability. The presence of
clay bound water affects porosity and electrical properties of
the formation by overestimating the porosity value due to
significant amount of hydrogen and underestimating the
resistivity value due to presence of excess of conductivity in
the formation. Inaccuracy in reservoir properties leads to wrong
interpretation of reservoir volume and hydrocarbon-in-place.
II. METHODOLOGY
Research methodology is divided into log interpretation,
clay minerals characterization, and analysis the effect of clay
mineral on water relative permeability, water saturation and
capillary pressure curves. In log interpretation, the volumes of
shale are calculated and the types of clay minerals are
identified. Next, the characteristics of clay mineral samples
taken from Balingian Sub-basin, Mukah, Sarawak, have been
identified by using thin section, polarize microscope and Field-
Emission Scanning Electron Microscope/Energy Dispersive X-
Ray (FESEM/EDX). Some of the field data such as Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM) data for clay minerals
characterization and the data on water relative permeability,
water saturation, capillary pressure, logs response and
formation damage are used for the investigation of the effects
of clay minerals [9].
A. Log Interpretation
The volume of shale is calculated based on gamma ray,
density, neutron and resistivity logs reading taken from the
case study done on the shaly reservoir in Palouge-Fal Oilfield,
Sudan [10].
 Gamma Ray Log
The volume of shale is calculated by using the
following equation [10]:
Vsh = (GRlog – GRmin) / (GRmax – GRmin) (1)
Where, GRlog = gamma ray log reading (zone of
interest), GRmin = minimum value of gamma ray log,
GRmax = maximum value of gamma ray log. Next, the
types of clay minerals are identified using the plot of
Thorium (ppm) versus potassium (%) – these data are
taken from spectral gamma ray reading. Then this plot
will be compared with Thorium versus Potassium
Cross-Plot.
 Neutron-Density Log
The volume of shale is determined based on the
equation below [11]:
Vsh = (ØN – ØD) / (ØNSH – ØDSH) (2)
Where, ØN = neutron porosity in the sand, ØD = density
porosity in the sand, ØNSH = neutron porosity in adjacent
shale, ØN = density porosity in adjacent shale.
 Resistivity Log
The calculation of volume of clay minerals is based on
the following equation [11]:
Vsh = [log (RESD) – log (RESD_CLN)] (3)
[log (RESD_SHL) – log (RESD_CLN)]
Where, RESD = resistivity log reading from zone of
interest, RESD_CLN = resistivity log reading from
clean sand, RESD_SHL = resistivity log reading from
shale.
B. Clay Minerals Characterisation
Clay mineral characterizations are analyzed by using thin
section, polarized microscope, SEM and FESEM/EDX. The
purposes of thin section analysis are to study of texture, sorting
and porosity of clay minerals. Then, the thin section is
analyzed under polarized microscope in order to detect the
amorphous substance and distinguish crystalline structure in
the samples. In addition, SEM is used to analyze the
morphology, structure and crystal size of the clay minerals.
Next, FESEM/EDX is used in determining the surface structure
and chemical elemental analysis of the clay minerals.
C. Effect Clay Minerals
In this part, the effect of clay minerals on water relative
permeability, water saturation, capillary pressure curve, log
responses and formation damage are analyzed based on the
field data [9]. The purposes of these analyses are to examine
the effects of clay minerals toward these parameters and how to
identify its impact and to eliminate the problem associated with
the clay minerals.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Log Interpretation
Natural gamma ray reading shows overestimate value of
gamma ray, hence the volume of shale. It is because natural
gamma ray can only measure the total radioactive in the
formation regardless the sources of radioactive. The volume of
shale calculated is 0.75. The reading from spectral gamma ray
gives lower gamma ray compare to natural gamma ray. The
plot of thorium versus potassium reading shows that the
formation is mainly consists of mixed layer clay, follows by
glauconite and potassium feldspar. Meanwhile, the volumes of
shale calculated from neutron-density and resistivity logs are
0.45 and 0.50 respectively. The lower gamma ray volumes
show that the use of combination logging tools and resistivity
logs can give better indication of volumes of shale. However,
with the presence of clay minerals in the formation, these tools
will give inaccurate values of porosity and water saturation.
B. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis
Fig. 1A shows pseudo-hexagonal plates or booklet
structure of kaolinite stack above each other. Next is illite
group of clay minerals as shown in Fig. 1B. Illite has fibrous
structure growing and coating the grain. Furthermore, the
structure of chlorite group is shown in Fig. 1C. Chlorite group
has platelets and honeycomb structure and it is coating on
sandstone grains. Based on the result, the structure of kaolinite
and chlorite can easily break and lead to the potential of fine
migration. Fig. 1D shows the structure of honeycomb and
cornflake of smectite group. Smectite group has the swelling
properties and its expansion during swells can lead to fine
migration. In addition, clay minerals can also occur as mixed
layer, for example mixed layer of illite-smectite as shown Fig.
1E; coating of smectite and bridging of illite on the rock
grains.
C. Combination of Thin Section and Field-Emission Scanning
Electron Microscope/Energy Dispersive X-Ray
(FESEM/EDX)
Fig. 2 shows the result from thin section and FESEM/EDX
analysis for five different samples. Fig. 2A shows
microporosity of the clay minerals structure and FESEM
analysis shows dissolution of potassium feldspar and
flocculation of kaolinite clays; its plates are arranged in edge-
to-face towards each other. This indicates the separation of the of greater water relative permeability value from others
charges at surface and edge of clay particles. Meanwhile, Fig. presenting a restricted flow. Moreover, the reduction in water
2B shows lamination of shale and sand formation. Clay relative permeability drops substantially at maximum water
minerals thin beds show microporosity distribution, while saturation because of the reduction of residual oil saturation
sandstone laminations show bigger porosity with due to the effects of viscosity reduction.
interconnected pore space. The FESEM image for this sample
shows flocculation of kaolinite. Fig. 2C shows sandstone
lamination located next to clay minerals. The thin section A
shows the grain sizes are located close to each other.
Meanwhile, FESEM image shows the platelets structure of
kaolinite. This can be the reason of poor porosity and
permeability of the sample as the kaolinite lead to fine
migration and block the pore space. Furthermore, Fig. 2D
shows the invasion of clay minerals next to sandstone
lamination, with the area near to clay minerals formation has
poorer porosity. In addition, the images from thin section and
FESEM show the dissolution of chlorite clays. Finally, Fig. 2E
shows the result from sandstone sample. The thin section
shows greater grain size with good porosity and permeability. B
Meanwhile, the quartz overgrowth and precipitation of pyrite
(cementation) are found in FESEM analysis.
The result from EDX shows atomic percentage of chemical
elements in these samples. Based on the result, Fig. 2A-D has
high percentage of aluminium, silicon and oxygen. This
confirms the presence of clay minerals in these samples. In
addition, the traces of magnesium and iron indicate the
presence of chlorite groups especially from the result in Fig.
2A and D. Meanwhile, traces of potassium can be due to the
occurrence of illite group and potassium feldspar mineral in the C
formation. Moreover, the present of carbon element is due to
the traces of hydrocarbon in the formation as it can also be seen
as a black spot in the thin section. In addition, there are also
small percentages of sulphur and titanium elements, in which
the traces of titanium indicate heavy metal component. Finally,
the result from Figure E shows high percentage of silicon and
oxygen, this is due to the composition of quartz mineral in the
sandstone.

D. Effect of Clay Minerals on Water Relative Permeability

The effect of clay minerals on water relative permeability D
can be due to fine migration and clay swelling. From the study,
water relative permeability decreases as water saturation
increases. The point before the reduction of water relative
permeability is known as the point of interstitial velocity.
When the interstitial velocity is reached, the fines minerals will
start to lose its bonding and migrate through the formation until
its particles are supersaturated. Then, it will strand at the pore
space and block the pore throats hence reduce the permeability
of the formation. In addition, the presence of clay minerals can
also lead to the increases in irreducible water saturation. It is
due to the increase of capillary trapping by the invasion of E
drilling fluid near the wellbore, as a result, the relative
permeability will reduced substantially.
In addition, the effect of clays swelling on water relative
permeability is more severe as it can reduce the pore volume
and permeability. High absorption of water by clay minerals
lead to smaller mobility ratio of water adjacent to mineral
surface therefore reduces relative permeability of water.
Furthermore, pseudo immobile water content separates zones
Fig. 1: Images of A) Kaolinite, B) Illite, C) Chlorite,
D) Smectite and D) Mixed Layer (Illite-Smectite)
under SEM Analysis [9]
A
)

Fig. 2: Images of Clay Minerals Samples under Thin Section and FESEM/EDX
E. Effect of Clay Minerals on Water Saturation
In this study the effect of clay minerals on water saturation
are investigated by using three different approaches; Archie
equation (clean sand), laboratory data and Waxman-Smits. The
basic calculations for water saturation are based on different
value of constant value (a), cementation factor (m) and
saturation exponent (n). Based on the results, the values of
water saturation calculated using Archie equation are higher
compare to other methods. Even the result from laboratory data
also gives overestimate values of water saturation. It is because
the values are not corrected to the effect of excess water
conductivity due to clay bound water. Moreover, the
calculation of water saturation using Waxman-Smits method is
more accurate as it uses the corrected values of laboratory data;
adjusted with CEC values of clay minerals. In this method, the
extra conductivity is assumed to be independently in pore
spaces of reservoir rock [12].
F. Effect of Clay Minerals Distribution on Capillary Pressure
The effects of clay minerals on capillary pressure are
examined base on the distribution of clay minerals in thin
section and its bimodal distribution behavior. The permeability
of the formation can be specified based on its distribution in the
thin section. From the result, the good porosity is indicated by
the coarser grain size; bigger space between the grains.
Meanwhile, smaller grain size indicates poor porosity and it is
deteriorate by the filling of fine particles in the void space.
Moreover, the changes of pore geometry under the thin section
indicate high heterogeneity of the reservoir rock. In addition,
the effects of clay minerals can be investigated base on the
relationship between capillary pressures versus water
saturation. From the result, the graph of capillary pressure is
shifted to the right (upward) for the poorer permeability; this
will give higher irreducible water saturation. Higher capillary
pressure is also shown in this zone as it is needed to invade the
fluid into smaller pores. Furthermore, discontinuity of the
capillary curve can be an indication of bimodal distribution
effect, in which it is associated with the decreases in reservoir
quality due to smaller grain size.
G. Effect of Clay Mineralogy on Log Response
Gamma ray log response is affected by radioactive minerals
such as k-feldspar and pore-filling of kaolinite. The presence of
k-feldspar gives overestimate value of gamma ray. Thus, the
use of spectral log is more feasible in determining the volume
of shale as it can break natural radioactive reading into
thorium, potassium and uranium elements. Meanwhile,
kaolinite will give a slightly under-estimated volume of shale
as it has lower gamma ray response compare to other clay
minerals and cemented kaolinite is not detected by the gamma
ray response. Next is the effect of resistivity log towards
laminar and structural clays, and glaucony. In the presence of
clay minerals, the net matrix of resistivity decreases and give
over-optimistic value on neutron porosity due to high value of
hydrogen atom in clay bound water. In addition,
undistinguishable dispersed clay in the formation leads to
underestimation of porosity and permeability values as it coats
and fills intergranular space of grains. Moreover, the presence
of siderite in the formation can also affect the log response as it
has higher than normal grain density; hence it will give under
estimation value of total porosity.
H. Potential Formation Damage from Diagenetic Components
In this section, the type of clay minerals associated with
formation damage and its treatments are investigated. Smectite
is the most sensitive mineral due to its swelling properties.
Hence, the use of fresh water should be avoided. As a solution,
potassium chloride solutions can be used as shale swelling
inhibitors in drilling fluids as potassium ion shows lower
tendency to swell compare to sodium ion [13]. However, if the
formation damage has occurred, the acid stimulation
(hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids) with correct pre- and
post-flushes is needed in order to prevent water blockage and
improve flow back performance after the stimulation job. The
second highest magnitudes of sensitive minerals are siderite,
chlorite and pyrite. These minerals lead to iron hydroxide
precipitation with the presence of oxygen-rich system. Hence,
oxygen scavenger is needed in order to lower the dissolved
oxygen content in the solution. Acid system, stimulation work
and chelating agents can be used in order to eliminate the
formation damage.
Moreover, kaolinite and illite groups can also lead to
formation damage even though its magnitude is low. The
problem is severe when high transient pressure and high flow
rate of hydrocarbon production is used as this will lead to
additional reason of fine migration. Hence, low transient
pressure and flow rate, and clay stabilizer are needed. In
addition, illite group has the ability to “mush” microporosity in
the formation with the presence of fresh water. Hence,
potassium chloride solutions and acid stimulation are more
feasible to be used in eliminating formation damage.
IV. CONCLUSION
The presence of clay minerals has a great impact on
reservoir characterization and performance. The effects of clay
minerals on logs response need to be corrected using various
types of models and methods in order to obtain more accurate
value of porosity, water saturation and permeability. Based on
calculated volumes of shale in log interpretation, natural
gamma ray log gives overestimated volume of shale compared
to neutron-density and resistivity logs. Furthermore, based on
the analysis of the effects of clay minerals in the reservoir, it is
shown that there are reduction in water relative permeability
due to fine migration and swelling of clays. In addition, more
accurate value of water saturation can be obtained by using
Waxman-Smit model. Moreover, in the analysis of capillary
pressure curve, there is a reflection of capillary pressure curve
due to heterogeneity and bimodality of the reservoir. Next by
examine the potential problem of formation damage, its
mitigation plan and treatment has been introduced.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the Petroleum Engineering
Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS and
PETRONAS Carigali Sdn. Bhd. for their cooperation in
providing the data and support.
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