THE

DORLING KINDERSLEY f

Over 50,000 essential

facts, figures, and dates
DUofcuii i uuauLi
 THE DORLING KINDERSLEY

VISUAL
Encyclopedia
 Jb,

HRlfc

THE DORLING KINDERSLEY

I
VISUAL
Encyclopedia

DORLING KINDERSLEY
London • Ni w YORK • Sun rGARI
HP BR
J
AG5
.D72
1995x
A DORLING KlNDERSLEY Book

Senior Editor Anna Kruger Senior Art Editor Gillian Shaw

Section Editors
Sue Copsey, Marie Greenwood, Fran K. Jones, James Pickford

Editors
Huvv Clough, Carey Denton, Deborah Murrell

US Editor
Jill Hamilton

Art Editors
Shirley Gwillym, Rebecca Johns, Floyd Savers, Dominic Zwemmer

Designers
Wayne Holder, Marcus James, Joanna I'ocock, Wilfrid Wood

DTP Designers
Mathew Birch, Carol Titchener, Noel Barnes

Picture Manager
Lorna Ainger

Research and Editorial Assistance

Alex Tinley, Leo Vita-Finzi, Tim Hetherington, Giles Portman, Deslie Lawrence

Production
Catherine Semark, Samantha Larmour

Deputy Editorial Director Sophie Mitchell Deputy Art Director Miranda Kennedy

Models in Unman Body section arc original SOMSO models

is)

£°7?oN

First American Edition, 1995

2468 10 97S 3 1

tf?£
'
S)
Published in the United States by
Dorling Kindersley Publishing,
95 Madison Avenue
New York, \c« York 10016
Inc.,

Copyright© 1995
Dorling Kindersley Limited, London

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.

No may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
part of this publication
transmitted any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
in
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
Published in Great Britain by Dorling kindersley Limited.
Distributed by Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston

!.ibr.ir\ of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication n.ita

The Dorling Kindersley visual encyclopedia
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN l-56458-985^»
1 . ( Ihildrcn's encyclopedias and dictionaries,
VG5.D72 1994
031--dc20 94-45785
CM'

Reproduced b\ Colourscan, Singapore

Printed ami bound in ItaK In New Intcrlitho
 Consultants

Universe Matthew Robertson Science

Professor Heather Gouper Professional entomologist. Former Head Peter Bailes
Television and radio broadcaster. Past Keeper, Invertebrate House, Collections information manager
president of the British Astronomical London Zoo. ScienceMuseum, London.
Assooeiation. International author. Ray Rogers Marina Benjamin
Nigel Henbest Horticulturist and gardening editor. Science writer and journalist.
International writer and science Jack Challoner
broadcaster. Past consultant. Royal Human Body Formerly with the Education I nit.

Greenwich Observatory and the Science Dr. Sarah Brewer ScienceMuseum, London. Science author.
and Engineering Research Coucil. General practitioner and medical author. Eryl Davies
Doug Millard Dr. Thaddeus M. Yablonsky Science and technology writer and
Associate curator. Space Technology, Physician and medical consultant. consultant.
Science Museum, London. Kimi Hosoume
Beliefs, Customs, and Society Mathematics and science educator,
Earth W. Owen Cole Lawrence Hall, University of California
Maurice Crewe Lecturer and writer in religious studies. at Berkeley.
Fellow, Royal Meteorological Society. John Gray Carole Stott
Cally Hall Fellow in Politics, Jesus College, Former curator of Astronomy, Greenwich
Museum geologist. Mineralogy University of Oxford. Royal Observatory, London. Science
Department, Natural History John Keyworth author.
Museum, London. Curator, Museum of the Bank
Donna Rispoli of England. TRANSPORTATION,
Ecology and energy consultant. James Nicholson Communications, vnd
Bob Symes Financial journalist. Guardian Industry
Associate keeper. Department of newspaper. Christine Heap
Mineralogy, Natural History Helen Watson Curator, National Railway Museum,
Museum, London. Lecturer in Anthropology; Fellow St. York, England.
Barbara Taylor John's College, University of Cambridge. Eric Kentley
Internationally acclaimed science and Curator, National Maritime Museum.
natural history writer. Arts and the Media London.
Warren Yasso Christopher Cook Bob MeWilliam
Professor of Natural Sciences, Teachers Documentary film maker and arts Senior curator. Civil Engineering,
College, Columbia University. presenter for BBC Radio. Film advisor. Science Museum. London.
Textbook author. National Gallery, London. Andrew Nahum
Alistair Niven Senior curator. Aeronautics. Science
Living World Literature Director, Arts Council of Museum, London.
Keith Banister England Lynda Springate, Aniee Collette,
Government consultant on fisheries, Brigid Pepin Marie Tieche
broadcaster, writer. Lecturer Art History and Architecture. Curators. National \Iotoi Museum.
David Burnie University of North London. Beaulieu, England.
Zoologist, biologist, and internationally Penelope Vita-Finzi
acclaimed writer of science and nature Former lecturer, English Literature and International World
books. Theatre, Thames Valley University, Dorling kinderslcN Cartography m
Barry Clarke England. conjunction with leading cartographic
Curator, Amphibians, Natural History Rodney Wilson consultants, embassies, and consulates
Museum, London. Film, Video, and Broadcasting Director.
Joseph DiCostanzo Arts Council of England. History
Researcher, Great Cull Island Project, Ann Wingate Brian I)oole\
American Museum of Natural History. Independent film producer, including Political journalist Formei Senate aide
Past president, Linnacan Society of Howards End toEdward Kenned)
New York. Margaret Mulvihill
Theresa Greenaway Sports I listorian and writer.

Botanist and natural history author. Norman Barrett Philip Wilkinson

Miranda Macquitty Sports writei and consultant. I listorian and u uu'i
Zoologist and best-selling natural David Heidenstam Charles S.Wills
history author. Sports writer and editor. US I listory consultant.
now ro i se this book

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

EACH PAGE OR DOUBLE-PAGE spread The Visual Encyclopedia in

is a self-contained unit, to present the maximum

carefully designed
number of facts about its subject in the most accessible manner.
Information on each page follows a clear, logical order, beginning with Main feature
Focuses on the subject
the main feature and most important factual topics, then moving on to and provides the most
records, strange comparisons, and fascinating, collectible facts. important facts.

Running head - thematic

Tells readers which thematic LIVlNCi WORLD
section they are in.

Portrait of a dinosaur
Dinosaurs Like reptiles, dinosaurs hail a scaly
skin. Dinosaurs, however, were more
Dinosaurs dominated the advanced than today's reptiles. They
walked with their limbs directly under
Introduction Earth for more than 150 million
their body like mammals and birds,
A brief text introduction defines years.They included the largest whereas reptiles crawl, or walk with
the subject and provides a number animals ever to have lived on their limbs out CO their sides.
of ke\ facts.
some were
land, as well as that
Tough,
smaller than a eoyotc. Dinosaurs scaly skin

died out 65 million years ago

Nobody knows why.
Topic headings
Easy-to-find topic headings draw Types of dinos Dinosaur facts
There are two orrJetMscc p. 72) • Dinosaur fossils discovered to
the reader to subfeatures within the
of dinosauoTfiey arc classified date probably represent less
main subject. Each page contains an than 0.0001% of the individuals
accyrtHfiKto the arrangement of
average of 10 subject-related topics. rfieir hipbones. that once lived.
Bipedal (two-tooled)
dinosaurs could
• The name Tyrannosaurm walk upright
means "tyrant lizard."

• The most intelligent

dinosaurs were probably about Dinosaur-like reptiles
Detailed artwork as intelligent as chickens. While dinosaurs roamed the land, huge reptiles flew in the air and
Stunning, full-color cutaway swam m the oceans. These marine and flying reptiles were closely
• More than .i5(> species of
artwork stimulates learning and dinosaur have so far been related to the dinosaurs.
provides maximum information. identified - probably only a RhamphorhyncJi

tiny percentage of those

that existed.

• Struthiomimus could sprint at

speeds of up to SOmph (80km/h)
as fast as an ostrich.

FLYING REPTILES MARINE REPTIL

Kfij facts Ancient flying reptiles, These were some of the fiercest

Bulieted key facts and figures Bird-hipped din saurs called pterosaurs, reached largest animals in the sea. They
(Ornichischians) huge sizes. Their wings were breathed uir, so thej had tocoi
give the reader the most I tips similar to birds, Ml of the covered with skin, and their body che surface regularly to fill the
essential facts at a glance. bird-hipped dinosaur species was usually furry. The} had light, These reptiles hunted fish am
were herbivorous. delicate hones tor flying, sea creatures.

MAJOR
DINOSAUR
GROUPS
Boxed types Within the
CW0 orders,
To provide maximum

rrr^r
dinosaurs are
information, an example ofeverj divided incofn
subgroups. Tlu
major type of plant, animal, or
arc three
object is illustrated. subgroups of
Thyreophorans Theropods (Saurischians) Marginocephalians < Irnithopods Sauropodomorphs
ornithischians,
(Ornithischians) Armored Mostly bipedal carnivores (Ornithischians) (Ornithischians) (Saurischians). lerbivores;
1

and two
herbivores; rows of protective with an S-shaped neck Herbivores; many ^ ith Herbivores: hon \ beak small head, long neck.
subgroups of"
scuds, plates, or spikes dow n and clawed, four-toed bonv frill at hack ol and birdlike feet e.g. Inilk\ body, and long tail,
saurischians.
the back, c.g, Slegosaurus, feet, eg. Tyrannosauna skull, e.g. Styracosaurus. Corythosaurus. c.g. Saltasaurus.

Triassic Period: 248-213mya (million years ago) Jurassic Period: 213-H4m\a

Clear labels and annotation
Land joined the supcrcontincnt ofPangaea Pangaea breaks apart: Atlantic Ocean begins to
Identify types and special in
i
see p 40). First dinosaurs evolve and, toward the end form Africa splits from South America. In late
features and clarify complex of the period, spin into two Jurassic times, huge herbivorous dinosaurs
information. groups lizard- and dominate life on land.
bird-hipped

70
 n

HOW TO I SE MIIS BOOK

MEASUREMENTS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Some words and measurements C = degrees ( lelsius ft = foot K ( ,
= before Christ
arc abbreviated, or shortened, in °F = degrees Fahrenheit vd = yard VI- \iino k>mini, alter
) 1

'ilw Visual Encylopedia. The following

mm = millimeter s(|mile = square mile the birth of Christ
cm = centimeter niph = miles per hour b. = born
list explains w hat the abbreviations m = meter g = f^im r. = reigned
stand tor: km - kilometer kg = kilogram d. - died
sq km = square kilometer ounce ( :IS - ( lommonwealch of
km/li = kilometers per hour "Hind Independent States
in = inch C. before a date = about (formerly Russia)

Running head - b> subject

l)l\OS\l KS I lelps s^ i j 1 11 <_-
readers to the
subject they want to find
out about.
80"?""* 1820 fguanodon teeth 1834 I-irsi glimpse ol what IMI The term
Dinosaur discovery j
footprints discovered in Tilgatc l*"orcsr, dinosaurs looked like dinosaur, from
Pre-19th century: around the world. Found in Sussi England by doctoi provided !>. find ol i
i
the Gtc* I

dinosaur believed wb«

fossils arc Massachusci and fossil huntei < !idi on skeleton ncai Maidstone, for *'i rriblc' mil
\ us things, including dragon bones |
],, ;, j, Mantcll(1790 I852)andhis Kngland, known as the "lizard."
in China, and giant human bones in claimsth. i wife He suspects thc> arc the ,-. Maidston Timelines
o(K made by the remains ol ancient reptiles, Present and illustrate kc\
raven from but his theory dismissed
is .is
historical dates, people, events,
Noah's Vrk. i
I (ami religious).
and developments forever)
1820 subject.
/ i
ISSl First reconstruct 1877 One of the greatest 1987 Evidence to support theor <Uvriinpol
[gfianodou and Hylarosau dinosaur collections i
warm-blooded dinosaurs found
Greai Kxhib iat ii ( ..in.. Bluff. W) i, pal tologists I ..mi Rich and Pati
i rysial Palace I ondon byO.C Marsh i
II Vickcrs Rich ol the Museum ol Vii Topic headings
I tig tcsilltsin ol \ ili \n. he) -I I

Each main topic has its ow n

huge publii enthusiasm mi .. part ..I South \u.stralia that wo
foi .I vims Before thi 1947 I .argcsl number of have been inside the Vncarctii Qrcli
ip heading. I here arc I -

Iguanottoii is completed, dinosaurs ever found when these dinosaurs lived, Ik me I separate topit s on this spread.
the si ulpioi lllll.ls ,l togcthci e ili. in Urn annual temperature in Hm region wi
dinner |>.in\ inside it.
(
'ofhpttysh skeletons. have been near freezing " thai time

1947

Exciting visual comparisons

DlNOSAl'R RECORDS Extinction Bring facts to life and make them
SM\I IS DIN0SA1 U
Earth shaker theories
I l

The name Seismosaunts means "earth-shaking lizard." This memorable l>\ placing them into
w.is probably Wantia/iosaurtts, a Mi. .in i.s million years afld the
ci hi is plant-eating dinosam was 131 fi i
K)m) interesting and uihixu.iI contexts.
bipedal carnivore that measured dinosaurs, togeibc1 w ithman)
in length: longer than an Virbus \320,
2fi hi 1
1. mi long. It ».is about other .mini.il species, became
the size of a chicken. exttnt i ( )ther animal groups,
MUM PRIMITIVE including turtles, frogs, Im.ls.
k\o\\\ DINOSAI U and mammals, survived. There
in Korapfor, a -2x million-year- arc main theories for this mass
old bipedal carnivore thai ".is cxtint in>n belou are two of the
Records
about the si/c lit". i large dog. must w uleh accepted^ the reader with all the
I'rox idc

record-breaking features: smallest,

SMALLES1 DINOSAI UK \l\ R
is believed t" have been that ol
tiRADI VI EXTINCTION largest, fastest, slowest, earliest, and
CJrjdual changes
the Sa zosaurus. It was less than
ii
'

latest of c\ er\ subject,

ill) I Sein) limit iARGESTCAR.MNOKHS icgetal
10) Ii .1
iscd
to ili.
l)\

i
...iilinenl.,1 ,lnll

iaurs' slow

Dinosaur Estimated length cxtincl w i

iboul iO.lXM) years
MIL I XI 1)1 NO-s VI It S
m
I

ft Warm, tropical conditions were

were- probably those <>l
replaced L\ couler. more se is

hes measurei Acrocanll" 12 39 es.and

Hypselostiurus. I

about l-iii i SOt mi long and fyrannos lurus

in. hum. if. Data tables
sl.mh replaced
contained an estimated 7 pint 11 .1 ..Ml,
(me the reader essential data in
i V ! liters) ol fluid: roughly th. ihedi.n.in.nn .''>*• an immediate!*, accessible form
isaurus 11 6
same as the fluid in till hens' e
\)i,
nal I'

l.U \XIUilflll x

Largest herbivores he pi when run wen dyin

WlDkR GLIDER I I i

..in cided with mam ralcanii

I he largest flying animal cvei Dinosaur Estimated length eruptions in India. \i the same nine.

have existed was Quetzakoatlu

m ft in-, in, ti lni the Earth. Dust
thrown into tin n mosphi re blocked Detailed captions
11% ing reptile. Irs w ingspan Seismosnnnr 10
mil rln.
measured about 39fi 12m)
Expand on the subject and reinforce
(
iuf US ''
w nlcr the image,
.It Hiss [ll.lll ills. W ingSpS ,

MUM.,
nil 1,1 llnl

Ill,
f
ufa hang glider.

.X™ | |j
1

climate tli. in -
,^—~~' — -*

( Cretaceous Period: I M-65myti I.XIIIX H

Amazing facts
\\ ..ids and pit tines combine to
animal
s|iecics preseni little-known 01 amazing and
unusual facts,

Page xi/e
The Dinosaurs spread is shown
slight!) smallci than actual size.
CON IIA IS

Contents
17 Universe and Space 37 Earth
18 Universe 38 Earth
20 Stars 40 Continents
ZZ Night Skies 42 Volcanoes
24 Sun and Solar System 44 Earthquakes Earth 's tectonic plain

26 Planets 46 Rocks and Minerals

28 Moon 48 Ocean Floor
30 Comets, Meteors, 50 Oceans and Islands
and Asteroids 52 Mountains
32 Astronomy 53 Valleys and Caves
34 Space Exploration 54 Glaciation
36 Rockets 56 Rivers and Lakes
58 Weather
60 Climates
62 Deserts
63 Forests
64 Earth's Biosphere
65 Earth in Danger
66 Saving the Earth

/ii/hIi-i

\'
Vostoh Satan/
119.5ft (36 ton)
963ft (110.6m)
 CONTENTS

67 Living World 94 Reptiles

68 Evolution 96 Fish

69 Fossils 98 Birds

70 Dinosaurs 101 Domestic Birds

72 Classifying Living Things 102 Mammals

74 Plants 105 Domestic Mammals
76 Flowers 106 Animal Senses and Behavior

77 Leaves 107 Migration and Homes

78 Trees 108 Food Chains and Webs
80 Food Plants 109 Endangered Species

82 Fungi and Lichens 1 10 Animal Records and

Comparisons
83 Microorganisms

84 Animals
85 Invertebrates

86 Mollusks ( lommon lobster (female)

(Homarut gammarus

88 Insects
90 Arachnids
91 Crustaceans

92 Amphibians
CON rENTS

Frontalis

113 Human Body Muscle system

114 Humankind
115 Human Body
116 The Brain

117 Nervous System

118 Eyes
119 Ears

120 Skin, Hair, and Nails

121 Smell, Taste, and Throat

122 Skeleton and Teeth

123 Muscles

124 Heart
125 Circulation and Blood

126 Respiratory System

127 Digestion

128 Urinary System Bodv systems

129 Endocrine System

130 Reproduction and Growth
132 Medicine

134 Nutrition
135 Traditional Medicine

136 First Aid

 CONTENTS

155 Arts and the

Media
156 Architecture
160 Fine Arts

162 Artists and Materials

164 Photography

166 Theater

Wr/'.li guard Nun Bolivian dancer

169 Dance
170 Ballet and Modern Dance
171 Traditional World Dance
137 Beliefs, Customs, 172 Music
and Society 174 Classical Music
138 Myths and Legends 175 Popular Music
139 Faith Systems 176 Musical Instruments
143 Other Faiths 178 Writing
144 Great Thinkers 180 Printing
146 Patterns of Family and Society 181 Radio

148 Customs and Rituals 182 Television

149 Celebration and Decoration 184 Movies

150 Money 186 Animation

152 Politics 187 Video

154 Law and Order 188 Newspapers

I'hnmkistmrolM 1 '
i ONTENTS

Two-prrson dinghy

189 Sports
190 Sports
191 Olympic Games
192 Track Events
194 Field Events
196 Weight lifting

197 Gymnastics

198 Combat Sports

200 Court Games

202 Basketball
203 Rugby
204 Football
206 Cricket

*g 207 Baseball
208 Stick Games
209 Golf
210 Water Sports
Pole vault 212 Swimming
213 Equestrian
214 Winter Sports
216 Wheeled Sports
218 Target Sports

12
 CONTENTS

219 Science and 25 1 Transportation,

Technology Communications,
220 Matter
r\i\LJ ii^uuaiiM
222 Atoms 252 Cars

224 Periodic Table 256 Bicycles

226 Energy 257 Motorcycles

227 Forces and Machines 258 Trains

228 Electricity and Magnetism 260 Boats

230 Light and Color 262 Warships and Submarines

232 Sound 263 Aircraft

234 Electronics 267 Airline Insignia

236 Computers 268 Communications

238 Mathematics 270 Language

240 Weights and Measures 271 Alphabets and Scripts

242 Time 272 Energy

244 Engines 274 Major Industries

246 Space and Time 277 Roads

247 Natural Science 278 Construction

248 Physical Science

250 Weapons
Isotopes
^^^^ Fluorine— 18

Nuclear-powered

^<J>
Fluorine— 19
nucleus
submarine ?

1 B^B .it ! i < ^^^^^^

13
CON MATS

281 International 304 Southern South America

World 306 Europe

282 The Physical World 308 Scandinavia

284 The Political World 310 United Kingdom

286 How To Use This Section 311 Iberia

288 North and Central America 312 Netherlands, Belgium, and

Luxembourg
290 Northern North America
313 France
292 United States of America
294 States of the Union 314 Germany

296 Central America 315 Alpine States

298 The Caribbean 316 Italy

300 South America 317 Finland and the Baltic States

302 Northern South America 318 Eastern Europe

Decorative
Islamic faceveil

Bulgarians West African

wil'li rose petals children

Smith America

14
 CONTENTS

1
M**HWt*fi^

320 Southeast Europe

ifrican elephants I

347 Mainland Southeast Asia

H
Mountain gorilla

322 Former Yugoslavia 348 Fast Asia

323 Caucasus Republics 350 Japan
324 Russian Federation 351 Maritime Southeast Asia

326 Africa 352 Australasia and Oceania

328 Northeast Africa 354 New Zealand and Melanesia
330 Northwest Africa 356 Australia
332 West Africa 357 Antarctica
334 Central Africa 358 Flags
336 Southern Africa 360 Mapping
338 Asia 361 Raw Materials

340 Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and 362 Farming and Fisheries

Jordan 364 Population
341 Arabian Peninsula 366 Living Standards
342 Central Asia 368 Debt and Wealth
344 Indian Subcontinent
346 SriLanka and the Indian
Ocean Islands

15
CON

396 Europe in Turmoil and the

369 History
British Empire 1830-1860
370 The Toolmakers and
First Artists
398 US Civil War and the Scramble
40,000 B.C. -10,000 B.C.
for Africa 1860-1900
372 The Farmers and Towns
First
400 World War I and the Russian
10,000 B.C. -4000 B.C.
Revolution 1900-1918
374 Egypt and Mesopotamia
402 The Interwar Years and
4000 B.C. -1500 B.C.
Revolution in China
376 Expanding Empires and 1919-1938
Mediterranean Trade
404 World War II 1939-1945
1500 B.C. -600 B.C.
406 Cold War and the Middle East
378 Ancient Greece and the Rise
1946-1959
of Rome 600 B.C. - 1 B.C.
408 African Independence and
380 Imperial Rome and the Coming
Social Revolution 1960-1975
of Christianity A.D. 1-A.D. 600
410 Middle East and the End of
382 Islam and the Vikings
the Cold War 1976-1994
600-1100
412 Great Civilizations
384 Mongols and Crusaders
1110-1250 414 Rulers and Leaders

386 Marco Polo and the Black Death 418 Explorers

1250-1450 420 Battles and Wars
388 Renaissance and the Americas 422 Revolutions and Rights
1450-1550
424 Archaeology and History
390 Religion in Europe and Akbar
the Great 1550-1640

392 Manchu China, Supreme Rulers, 425 Index

and Slavery 1640-1750
394 The Enlightenment, Revolution,
and Napoleon 1750-1830 453 Credits

16
 Universe
and Space
Starting with the formation and scale of the known Universe,
and including the latest theories about how it might end, this

section provides facts and figures about every aspect of outer

space. Vital statistics are given for planets, stars, the Moon,
comets, meteors, and asteroids, as well as key dates in space
exploration and great discoveries in astronomy.

Universe • Stars • Night Skies • Sun and Solar System

Planets • Moon • Comets, Meteors, and Asteroids • Astronomy
Spaee Exploration • Rockets

o
I"
{ \I\KRS!'. Wl) SPACK

Future of the universe Eternal Expansion

Universe The empty
full
spaces of the Universe
of dark marrer, whose nature is not yet
may be The Universe
could expand
forever. Without
The known UNIVERSE contains known. The strong gravitational pull of such dark matter,
vast amounts of matter may eventually galaxiesbecome
an estimated 100 billion galaxies. enormous
reverse the expansion of the
They are grouped in massive Universe and compress all
black holes.
These
superclusters and separated by of it in a Big Crunch. eventually

vast empty spaces. Turning point

evaporate as
subatomic
Dark matter begins to
particles.
AFTER BIG BANG drag in all the galaxies.
Evolution of the known The Universe could
universe follow different courses. Big Crunch
All matter contracted
The Universe is thought to have exploded is

into a single point of

into existence 15 billion years ago at the Big Bang infinite density.
Big Bang. 300,000 years later ripples of A huge
explosion
matter began to form, followed 11.2 billion
creates a
years later by the first known life forms. existing
matter.
15 billion years ago
At the time of the Big
Bang, all matter and Evolution
energy is concentrated Starsand
into a single, tiny point. galaxies form. Expansion
or Contraction?
The Universe may
3 minutes later grow forever or reach
Atomic
centers of atoms, begin
to form out of the soup
of subatomic particles.
nuclei, the

N Present day
The Universe
a maximum size.

expands.

300,000 years after The next Universe?

Big Bang After Big Crunch the COBE
The first tipples of Universe may end or In 1992, data from COBE (Cosmic
matter emerge. it may be reborn in an Background Explorer satellite) found
entirely new form. evidence for the first ripples of matter
in the Universe. This suggests
that the Universe is heading
14 billion years ago toward a Big Crunch.
One billion years after
Big Bang, the first

galaxies c\ olve.
from their stars
I .ight
begins
Famous cosmologists
its journey across space. Cosmologists study the origin and structure of the Universe.

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Max Planck (1858-1947) Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
13 billion years ago laid the foundations published his explained with
The stars of the Milky modern
of quantum theory his theories of
\\ 'ay form from the
astronomy w ith concerning the relativ itv that
breakup of a vast cloud
his theory of nature of energy light was the
of helium ami hydrogen.
1 niv ersal Gravity. in 1900. It fastest thing in
He stated that it explained that the Universe, and
was gravity that could take
light and
that matter
4.6 billion years ago
held the planets in the form of wav es energy were the
he S::lar Sv.tcm is
I

their orbits. or particles. same thing.

born out of a w hiding
cloud nt l;js studded Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) Arno Penzias (born 1933) Stephen Hawking (born 1942)
u i tli ice and rock. provided the first Robert Wilson (born \'>M,) made major

3.S billion years ago

I,ife ev oh es on Earth,

the only planet known

in the I nivcrsc to
« [^t strong evidence
^B
I,

Mf
k
W

^^
that the Universe
was expanding.
jm* In 1924 he
discovi
galaxies bevond
discovered a constant level of

3 /M
ackground
radiation in
the Universe,
said to be
left over from
discov cries about
the nature of
black holes and
contributed
greatly to our
understanding
support lis ing things. I
the Milkv Wax. the Big Bang. of grav ity.

Universe scale
The Universe spans
more than 30 billion
light-vcars. A light-year.
the distance light travels
inone year, is equal to
5.879 billion miles
(9,461 billion km).
Ground level Plying at Orbiting at Earth from space Earth and Moon
low altitude high altitude 62,000 miles 620,000 miles
0.6 mile (lkm) 02(1 miles (1.000km) (1 00,000km) (1 million km)

18
 .

UNIVERSE

Galaxy types Major nearbi galaxies

Galaxies are huge families of
stars held together by their own Galaxy Type Mass (billion Distance
solar masses) (light-years)
gravity. They take different
forms. The Milky Way is a Andromeda (M 31) Spiral 300 2.200.000
spiral galaxy. Other types Milky Way galaxy
SPIRAL Spiral 150
include elliptical, barred spiral,
Spiral galaxies
Galaxy in Triangulum (M 33) Spiral 10 2.400.000
and irregular galaxies. Lire shaped like-

disks. They have two or more curved Large Magellanic Cloud Irregular
arms of densely packed stars thai
rotate around a central bulge.
NGC 205 Elliptical 0.000

NGC Elliptical 3 j 000

Small Magellanic Cloud Irregular 2 JOO

NGC 185 Elliptical

NGC 147 Elliptical i

0.000

BARRED Cosmic dust and the zonk of avoidance

SPIRAI A cosmic dust grain is about ten billionths of an inch in diameter.
Barred spiral galaxies have a rigid ELLIPTICAL smaller than a particle of smoke. ( !louds of these grains dim our
central bar with spiral arms beginning All the stars in elliptical
view of the Universe l>\ scattering the light from stars. Until the
at the bar's ends. The central bar. galaxies formed ar the same time.
made up of millions of stars, rotates. Elliptical galaxies range from the invention of radio astronomy, parts of our galaxv were hidden.
smallest to the largest galaxies ol all

CANNIBAL
Cannibal galaxies are a type of IRREGULAR The Zone of Avoidance Exposing the Zone
elliptical galaxy. The} are so massive Irregular galaxies have no definite Before the 1950s, astronomers were New instruments were able to peci
and exert such powerful ^ra\ itationa
a shape and are small in size. New stars puzzled that a dark, emprj /one Thcv revealed
igh the veil of dust.
pull that thc\ swallow up continue to form inside them and new stars and gas clouds at the gala< tic
appeared to stretch around the sk\.
smaller galaxies. they are rich in gas and dust avoided b\ stars ami distant galaxies. center, and man) distant galaxies.

Milky way data Quasar eacts Amazing journeys

• Quasars are exploding centers of remote.
Age About 1 3 billion years A journey b\ jumbo jet to
ancient galaxies.
Number of stars 200 billion
the nearest star, Proxima
• They are hundreds of times brighter than Centauri, would take
Diameter 100,000 light-years
an average galaxy, yet fraction of the size. 5 million \ears.
Maximum thickness 20,000 light-years
• Remotest object in known Universe is The (light time
Thickness at Sun 700 light-years
quasar PC 1247 + 3406, 13.2 billion light- of jumbo jet
a
Distance of Sun 25,000 light-years years awav bound for the
from galactic center
• In 1989, quasar PKS
0558-504 threw out Sun would be
Time taken for Sun to 240 million years
much energy minutes as the Sun
in 3
20 \cars.
as
orbit galactic center
throws out in 340,000 vears.
• First discovered
Galactic center \ car driven .it a stcad\
and nearest quasar is
This radio picture- speed of 55mph
3C-273, 2 billion
shows the center of (88km/h) would reach
light-years away. It
the Milks Way spue in 2-.^> hours.
is 200
us bright as
galaxy. It is a hot
galaxies combined.
region of stars,

possibly containing X-ray photograph

a black hole. n/ i/IIIISIII JC-273

The Solar System Interstellar space Nearest stars Milkv Waj * ialax) 1 ocal ( iiimp I sum of the
0.2 billion miles 62(1 billion miles loo light-years ion nun lighi years of galaxies know n I niv i i si

(10 billion km) (1 trillion km) lo million lighi years 20 billion lighi ve.us
UNIVERSE WD SPACE

Birth and life of a massive star

Stars All starsbegin life as enormous clouds of dust and gas.
This cloud collapses in on itself and the star begins to
Main sequence
stars
A STAR is an immense globe of shine. Death comes in two ways: average-sized stars such The main sequence is the
as the Sun simply swell and go out in a puff of smoke, central period of a star's
fiery hydrogen gas powered by
leaving a small, fading lifetime. A star's brightness,
nuclear reactions at its core. Only core; massive stars color, temperature, size, and
gravity holds it together and end in a supernova. lifespan depend on its mass.
keeps it from exploding. In the Our Sun is a yellow star, a
typical star of average size
first stage of its life, a star and temperature.
generates energy by fusing Brown dwarf
1,800°F
hydrogen atoms to form helium. (1,000"C)

Star types Rid dwarf

Most stars are part of a system composed of 5. 100°F

two or more stars. Mintaka (in Orion) (2,800 < I

consists of three stars, while Castor (in

Gemini) has six. Stars form in close-knit A dark cloud of
Yellow \Iiii
groups from a nebula. About 60% stay in gas and dust -
9,900°F
known as a molecular
groups, held together by one another's (5,500°C)
cloud - collapses under
gravity. Our Sun is unusual in being a gravity and becomes more
solitary star. and more dense.
White stai
BINARY STARS 18,000°F
(lO.OOO'C)

o o
These stars of similar
mass and si/,e orbit a
of the cloud
common center of gravity, 2 contract
Parts
clumps
into
or central balance point.
called protostars. These
Blue/mill- star
heat up, shrink, and
28,800°F
become denser. Each (16,000°C)
protostar begins to spin
ECLIPSING BINARY and flattens into a disk.

One star in a pair regularly

moves in front of the
other. First see a we
reduction, then a recovery
in the star's light.

Nuclear reactions
VARIABLE STAR 3 begin. The
These stars vary in remaining dust is Blue star
either blown away by 43,200°F
brightness. In some cases,
(24,000°i
explosions on the star's a violent stellar wind
surface make it appear or forms planets
brighter than usual. orbiting the star.

Star records
FAINTEST KNOWN STAR
is

with
brown star RG
a visual brightness less
0058.8-2807,

than one-millionth of the Sun's.

Star facts
• Red giant diameter:
to 100 times that of Sun.
supergiant diameter: up to 1,000
times that of Sun.
up
Red 4 On the main
sequence, the
settles down
star
into the
n
major period of its life span.

Itshines steadily and radiates energy.

BRIGHTEST KNOWN • Energy released by a
Bigger and brighter stars burn hydrogen
SIPERNOVA supernova in one minute is more quickly. They have shorter lifetimes.
was SN 1006, which flared in equivalent to total radiated by
April 1006. It was easily visible Sun in nine billion years.
during the day. Nearest stars
• Average galaxy has 100 billion
Star Star type Distance (light-years)
FASTEST KNOWN PULSAR stars - it would take 1,000 years
Sun Yellow main sequence
isPSR 1937+214, which spins to count them all at rate of
642 times a second. 3 per second. Proxima Centauri Red dwarf 4.2

Alpha Centauri A Yellow main sequence 4.3

Featherweight Alpha Centauri B Orange main sequence 4.3

On Earth, the average bird's Barnard's star Red dwarf 5.9

feather weighs very little. On
Wolf 359 Red dwarf 7.6
the surface of a neutron star,
however, the intense gravity Lalande21185 Red dwarf 8.1

would cause a medium-sized Sirius A White main sequence 8.6

feather to weigh as much as
Sirius B White dwarf 8.6
two Apollo lunar landing
modules weigh on earth. UV Ceti A Red dwarf 8.9

20
 STARS

Supernova remains
One famous supernova was seen
by Chinese astronomers in 1054.
Its remains, a cloud of gas and

dost particles called a nebula,

can now be seen as the Crab
nebula. This nebula is now
expanding at a speed of
930 miles/sec (l,500km/scc):
130 times the top speed of the
Saturn V Moon rocket.
( nth ttrlndn

Collapsed stars
A star's life on the main sequence ends either in a supernova

'he cure's explosion or a planetary nebula. Depending on its size, the

7contraction remaining corpse collapses into one of three forms: white dwarf,
lends to a massive
neutron star, or black hole.
explosion called ii

Supcrno\ a. The star shines

.is bright as a billion Suns us it WHITh DWARF Solid
core
blows apart. The core collapses in When the planetary nebula of a typical
just one second. star disperses into space, all that
remains is a superdense core known as
a white dwarf. Star corpses of less than
1.4 times the Sun's mass (i.e. typical
star corpses) become w hire dwarfs.
39m (1cm)
thick
atmosphere
NEUTRON STAR
Neutron stars form when supernova
corpses between 1.4 and 3 times the
mass of our Sun collapse into the
most solid state of matter possible.
These neutron srars are so dense that
a pinhead of their matter would

weigh a million tons.

PULSAR
Rotating neutron stars are called
pulsars. Their spin creates a massive

magnetic field around them, a trillion

times Earth's field. lake a lighthouse,
Beam of radiation
from pulsar can be
a pulsar sends out beams of
detected as it
radiation from hot spots on or above sweeps past Earth
its surface.
Now a red
supergiant,
the swollen star
sw allow s up its
BLACK HOLE Hot spot
A black hole is a region of powerful nra\ , t\
surrounding planets.
surrounding a point of infinite density called a
Its eore (uses carbon
singularity. Nothing, not even light, can escape after
into iron, but lacks energy
falling past the event horizon (the "edge" of the
tor further contraction.
black hole). Supernova corpses of more than three-
times the Sun's mass collapse into black holes.

5 The
when
star
its
begins to swell
central supply of
hydrogen is exhausted. The core- Through the black hole
fuses helium into carbon. Its outer On approaching the event horizon, an astronaut
layers swell and jjlow red. would experience a pull on the head equal to the
weight of 75 1

Saturn V rockets.
Brightest stars to the naked eye
Star Star type Distance (light-years)

Sun Yellow main sequence

Sirius A White main sequence 8.6

Canopus White supergiant 200

Alpha Centauri Yellow main sequence 4.3

Arcturus Red giant 36

Vega White main sequence 26

Capella Yellow giant 42

Rigel Blue/white supergiant 910

Procyon Yellow main sequence I I

Gravityweakens farther
Achernar Blue/white main sequence 85 away from the hole. From
here you can escape.
UNIVERSE WD SPACE
Skies of the northern hemisphere
Night skies The picture below
an observer would see while standing
shows the constellations In the
Pole position
Northern Hemisphere stars
appear to revolve steadily about the
star at the center: Polaris, the Pole-
Ancient peoples invented at the North Pole and Star. 'Phis star lies directly along
looking up into Earth's axis of rotation.
names for different groups
the night sky.
of stars, ealled eonstellations, Betelgeuse: 400

to help them find their way times bigger than

the Sun
about the skies. Stars in these
constellations form patterns
that have been observed over
thousands of years.

Celestial spheres
The celestial sphere is the huge,
revolving, imaginary ball of stars
enclosing Earth. In fact, it is

Earth that rotates and the stars

arc scattered about in space; but
the idea of a celestial sphere
allows astronomers to plot the
positions of stars and follow
their movements.

Map of northern skies -

flattened "dome" of celestial sphere ,

Vega: it wil
be the Pole Star
hemisphere
in14 ,
000Aa

Monthly stars
Stars that lie on the other side of
the Sun from Earth cannot be
seen at night - nighttime
observers face the other way.
Earth, however, revolves around
Map of southern skies - the Sun once a year. So, the best
flattened "bowl" of celestial sphere
time to see those duringstars is

the months when they

on the lie

Oldest star map opposite side of Earth from

The oldest example of a map of the Sun. This is why different
the heavens was discovered in constellations are visible at
1987 on the ceiling of a tomb in different times of the year.
Jiaotong University, Xian,
China. It was painted in 25 B.C.
Stars of the zodiac
During the course of a
year, the Sun appears
in front of each
constellation of the
zodiac on the dates
shown. These .(„,., Taurus ('•I' in i it) \ 'irgo

»'""" III,- bull the twins the virgin

astronomical dates differ '
/

.. . . A/n/l 21- Max 22- /inn'22- Septembei 23-

trom astrological ones. M 7/ J u ne 21 Julx 22 Oilnhi; 23

H
 NIGHT SKIKS

SklES OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE Milky Way

The Solar System lies in the plane
Night sky facts
In the South, no bright star lies along Earth's axis of >fthe Milks Way Galaxy. So, when • 2.000 sears ago Sinus, the dog star, nuts
rotation, so there is no Pole Star. we look up in the sk\. uc sec .1 have appeared red, and Romans used to
Southern stars, however, bund of bright stars, and
sacrifice red dogs to it.
none of the C.alaw s
are more spectacular.
spiral details. • Some "stars" seem to move \er\ quickly
across the night sks - these are in fact
Orion Nebula
region of star artificial satellites, reflecting the Sun's light
formation at dawn or dusk.

• The Galaxy in Triangulum is

the farthest object visible to the

naked eve - it lies 2.4 million
light-years away.

• The Ancient Chinese had

constellations for even, aspect of
life - a celestial prison, a celestial

stable, and a row of shops.

Aurora borealis
The Northern Lights (Aurora
Australis in the South) arc-

colorful glowing lights that can

be observed when near the
Poles. The\ occur w hen the
solar wind meets the Earth's
heliosphere (see p. 25).

Sinus: the
brightest star
in the sky
Constellation changks
Canopus: used by The constellations seem fixed and eternal.
space probes as a
navigation aid.
Over hundreds of thousands of years,
Spica: 70,000 times
Alpha Centauri: however, stars will change their positions.
a member of the
brighter than the Sun altering the overall shape.
closest star
system to the Sun
1 The Big Dipper
as ancient people-
True star distances saw it 100,000
\e.irs agO
The stars in a constellation appear to
be uniform distance from us. In
a
reality,they may lie at great
2 The Big Dipper
distances from each another as it can he seen
but have a similar today
brightness when seen
from Karth.

3 The Big )ippei I

Earth as i( u ill he seen

in 100.000 \e.lls

Constellation of Orion
seen from Earth light-years 3.000

r
LARGES r CONSTELLATIONS

hJ^r
Constellation Meaning Area (% of
visible sky)

1 lydra The Watersnake

Virgo The Virgin 6.28

1 I, „ 1 M The Great Bear

Scorpius Sagittarius Capricornus iquarius Pisces
the sea-goat
Cetus
the scorpion ilii' archei the watei carrier the fishes
November 23— Decembei 22- January 21- February /" March 7
Hercules Hercules the Hero
December 21 January 20 February 18 March 10 I
 )

I'NIVKRSK \NI) SPACE

Corona

Sun and solar system The corona is a huge,

thin halo of hot gas. It

has a temperature of

THE SUN is THE STAR at the heart of the Solar

1.8 million°F
(1 milliorTC).

Svstem. Its huge gravitational pull anchors the

nine planets, the asteroids, and comets in their
orbits. The nuclear-reactor core at the Sun's
center radiates light and heat throughout
the entire Solar System.

Corona seen at ellipse

Anatomy of the sun
Inside the core, nuclear fusion turns hydrogen
into helium, creating energy that rises out into
Chromosphere
the photosphere, and from there into space. The ehromosphere is a reddish outer
layer ofhydrogen that rises 620 miles
(1,000 km) above the photosphere. It
has a tempetature of 7,2()0-14,400°F
(4,000-8,000°C).
Convective zone
In the convective zone, rising and
Photosphere
outward
falling eurrents earry heat
This is the surface layer of the Sun. Its
toward the photosphere. It has a
white-hot hydrogen has a temperature
temperature of 2.7 million°F
of9,900°F(5,500°C).
(1.5 million °C).

Sun data
Age 5 billion years

Diameter 865,000 miles (1,392,000km)

Mass (Earth = 1) 332,946

Radiative zone
Density (water = 1 1.41
The core's energy
radiates outwatds through Distance from Earth 92.9 million miles (149.6 million km )

this hydrogen layer. It has

a temperature of
Distance from nearest star 24,900 billion miles (40,000 billion km)
2.7 million-25.2 mi!lion°F
Core Temperature 25.2million°F(14million°C)
(1.5 milIion-14 million°C).
Surface Temperature 9,900°F (5,500°Q
Core
Luminosity 390 billion billion megawatts
The hydrogen core works as a massive nuclear
hydrogen
reactor. It fuses to create helium at a Life Expectancy 5 billion years
temperature of 25.2 million°F (14 million°C).
Speed 240 million years to orbit the galaxy

Sun facts Surface features of the sun

• One square yard (0.8sq m) of SPICULES SUNSPOTS
Sun's surface shines as brightly Spicules are straight jets of gas that These areas of darker cooler gas
occur in the chromosphere. They rise appear in pairs at a temperature
as 600,000 100-watt lightbulbs.
as high as 6,200 miles (10,000km) at of 7,200°F (4,000°C). They
• Biggest observed solar speeds of 16 miles/sec (25km/sec). occur when the heat flow
After 5-10 minutes they dissolve into from the core is blocked
prominence reached height of
the surrounding corona. Spicules are by the Sun's magnetic
435,000 miles (700,000km) in thought to be caused by magnetic field. Sunspot activity
one hour in 1946. fields. There are 100,000 on the Sun's runs in 1 1.5-year
surface at any time. cycles. It is due to
• In one second, Sun gives out peak next in 2001.
35 million times average annual
electricity supply for the entire Granules
United States. The Sun's surface is made up
of millions of upsurging
• Solar flares can interrupt radio
granules. A granule is about SOLAR FLARES
communications on Earth, cause
620 miles (1,000km) across: These enormous and unpredictable out into space. These explosions
magnetic storms, and confuse explosions occur the Sun's release an amount of energy that is
an area the size in
birds flying long distances. atmosphere. Solar flares can throw equivalent to a trillion times that of the
of France.
billions of tons of the Sun's material first nuclear bomb.
• Rotation of Sun's surface
varies from 25 days at equator to
SOLAR PROMINENCES
35 days at poles. Radiative /.one Solar prominences are arched plumes of
rotates regularly every 27 days. flaming hydrogen gas that hang in the
lower corona, supported by the force
• If Sun's cooler outer layers of the Sun's magnetic field. Some
were peeled off, dangerous prominences erupt into space
radiation from its core would as great arches at speeds

Ww
of'900mph
destroy life on Earth.
M*i (400m/sec).

24
 SUN AND SOLAR SYSTEM

Evolution of
the sun and solar
SYSTEM
The Solar System began life

5 billion years ago as a massive

cloud of gas with rocky and icy
particles. When the cloud
collapsed under its
the Sun formed, and the
particles clumped together to
form the planets.
IThe Solar System begins as a
2 GravityThe
causes the cloud to Rock
3 form nearest the Sun
grains
spinning cloud of gas that shrink.sun forms and planetesimals (minute
contains particles of rock and begins to shine. Its heat melts planets). Farther awa\. colder
own gravity,
ice, densest at the center. ice in its inner region. planetesimals are icy and rocky.

Solar System to scale: outer planets

4 Rockyone
into
planetesimals crash
another. Icy, rocky
move in large orbits around planetesimals grow in size as
the Sun. they draw in gas and dust.

Neptune

The inner planets are dense

rocky bodies, close to „
the Sun.

Rocky inner planets form

5 gathering up other
first

planetesimals.
by

Farther out, where there is less matter,

outer planets form more slowly.

Heliosphere Largest bodies in

Amazing scales The Sun's magnetic field or heliosphere extends beyond
If the Sun's diameter were
the edge of the Solar System. It is generated by the gale
the solar system
the height of an average Maximum
of hot, charged particles known as the solar wind that Body diameter
adult, then Jupiter would be km miles
streams in spirals off the corona. The Sun also generates
the size of the head. Earth Sun 1.392.000 865.000
a sheet of electrical current, smaller than the heliosphere.
would be slightly bigger than
Cosmic radiation
Jupiter 142,984 88,846
the iris of the eyeball.
Interstellar gases
Sheet of current flows Saturn 120.536 74,898
through the
heliosphere
Uranus 51,118 31,763

Neptune 49,528 30,774

Earth 12,756 7,926

Venus 12,103 7,520

Mars 6,786 4,217

Ganymede 5,262 3,270

(moon of Jupiter)

Titan 5,150 3.200

(moon of Satum)

Death of the sun and

solar system 2 After a further one million 3 The remaining core vt ill finally
1 Five billion years from now, the Sun years, the Sun willhave used become a white dwarf, a super-dense
will swell to 100 times its up all its available hydrogen. st.ir about the size of Earth. It \\ ill

present size, as its fuel Its gaseous outer lasers will slowK cool off and fade to a black

begins to run low. Its outer dissolve into space as a dwarf. The outer planets of the
layers will engulf Mercury, planetary nebula, a thin cloud present Solar System w ill still orbii this

Venus, and possibly Earth. of gas and dust particles. dwarf, but at a much greatei distance
 ) )

I NIVERSE AM) SPACE

Planets
A PLANET is A BODY that orbits

Sun, or any other star. There are ni

known planets and they can be divide
into two groups: the dense, rocky inner
planets, and the gassy or icy outer planets

The inner planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are
known as the inner planets or terrestrials.
They are made up of rocks and metals, are Relative sizes
smaller than the outer planets, and their Pluto is the smallest planet and
atmospheres contain very little of the gases also the most distant. Jupiter is bigger
hydrogen and helium. Earth, as far as we than all the other planets put together
know, is the only planet where there is life.
o
Mercury Venus Mars
MERCURY
It has the fastest Jupiter
orbiting speed around
the Sun. Its huge Relative distances
impaet erater. Caloris The orbits of the four inner planets lie close to
Basin, is 800 miles
(1,300km) aeross.
the Sun. Mercury, the nearest planet to the Sun
is 100 times closer than Pluto.

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter

Sun

Core

VENUS Inner planets

This is the deadliest Mercury Venus Earth Mars
planet. The atmosphere
Distance from Sun 36.0 67.2 93.0 141.6
would crush a tin ean;
million miles (million km) (57.9) (108.2) (149.6) (227.9)
the heat would melt
the acid clouds
it;
Diameter 3,031 12,103 7,926 4,217
would dissolve it. miles (km) (4,878) (7,520) (12,756) (6,786)

Time taken to circle Sun 87.97 days 224.70 days 365.26 days 686.98 days

Crust Orbital speed around Sun 29.76 21.77 18.51 14.99

miles/sec (km/sec) (47.89) (35.03) (29.79) (24.13)

Time taken to 58 days, 243 days, 23 hours, 24 hours,

turn on axis 1 6 hours 14 mins 56 mins 37 mins
Core
Mass (Earth = 1 0.055 0.81 1 0.11

EARTH Density (water = 1 5.43 5.25 5.52 3.95

Earth is the only planet
known have any
to Temperature (on surface) (on surface) (on surface) (on surface)
quantity of water Fahrenheit -292 to +806°F 869°F -94 to +131 °F -184to+77°F
and oxygen, and to (Celsius) (-180to+430°Q (465°C) (-70 to +55°C) (-120to+25°C)
support life. Its
Number of moons - -
1 2
surface is constantly
moving due to plate
tectonics (see p. 40). Olympus Mons

Crust
Mars' giant mountain 16 miles (26km) high
Olympus Mons is the biggest Everest
Mantle volcano (extinct) in the
'

7 1 5.5 miles (8.8km) high

Outer core Solar System. --^
Inner core

MARS
Mars is the red planet:
plains arc covered
its

H ith reddish
Atmospheres GASES FOUND
sediment. Its biggest Scientists have identified IN THE
Sodium Hydrogen Carbon dioxide
canyon, Valies various gases in the atmospheres ATMOSPHERE
Marincris. is ten of the planets. The giant planets
times longer than the
all contain large quantities of
Grand Canyon, Nitrogen Oxygen Methane
Arizona. helium and hydrogen.

Crust

Core Mercury Venus Mars Jupiter Saturn Neptune Pluto

26
 PLANETS

The outer planets

Beyond the orbit of Mars lie
the outer planets: Jupiter.
Saturn. Uranus, Neptune, and
Pluto. These planets, with the
exception of Pluto, are not solid, but
gigantic balls of swirling gases and liquids
held together by gravity. Pluto is extremely
small and made of rock and thick ice.

JUPITBB
Jupiter is the bi^est and
fastest-spinning planet
m the Solar Swem. It
could contain
1,300 Karths.

Atmosphere

Liquid hydrogen
o
Pluto
Metallic hydrogen
Neptune
Core

SATURN
The width of its rings
is 43,500 miles
(70.000 km). It has
the lowest density.
Set on a huge lake
Uranus Neptune
t would float.

XX :©
Atmosphere

Outer planets Liquid hydrogen

Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Metallic hydrogen

Core
483.6 887 1,784 2,794 3,675
(778.3) (1,427) (2,871) (4,497) (5,914)
I RANUS
88,846 74,898 31,763 30,775 1,419 This planet has the
(142,984) (120,536) (51,118) (49,528) (2,284) most tilted axis and
spins on us side. It
1 1 .86 years 29.46 years 84.01 years 164.79 years 248.54 years
has the longest
8.12 5.99 4.23 3.37 2.95 seasons: each pole
(13.06) (9.64) (6.81) (5.43) (4.74) receives 42 \ears ol
sunlight then
9 hours, 10 hours, 1 7 hours, 16 hours, 6 days, -42 \e.irs of darkness.
55 mins 40 mins 14 mins 7 mins 9 hours
Atmosphere
318 95.18 14.5 17.14 0.0022
Water, ammonia, methane
1.33 0.69 1.29 1.64 2.03
Core
(at cloud tops) (atcloud tops) (at cloud tops) (at cloud tops)
-238T -292°F -346T -346°F -364°F
NBPTl NE
-150°C -180°C -210°C -210°C -220°C Neptune's w inds .ue

16 18 15 8 1
the fastest in the Solai
i Swem al 1,243 mpli

~e \ (2,000km/hr). Its
).nk Spot as
Planetary moon facts ( iie.it

wide
I

as Earth's
is

• Saturn has the most • Miranda, Uranus' moon, diameter.

moons of any planet in has canyons ten times
Atmosphere
Solar System: 18. Jupiter deeper than Earth's Grand
comes in second with 16. Canvon. It has an ice cliff
Water, ammonia, methane
3.23 miles (5.2km) high.
• Europa, Jupiter's moon, Core
• ( Jupiter's moon,
lallisto,
has a surface of ice
has more cratered surface
a
60 miles (97km) thick.
than any other body in PI I TO
• Titan, Saturn's moon, is Solar System. Mercury leap I'luio is the smallest,
darkest, and coldest
thought to have cliffs of The record women's high planet Its moon.
solid methane and rivers of jump on Earth is 6ft 10.25in t lharon, is _'o times
close) to I'luio than
liquid methane. (2.09m). On Mercury.
Dill Moon is to l.uih
where gravity is weaker, the
• I'hobos, Mars' moon, is same athlete would be able
being dragged closer to to jump more than tw ice as
Mars. In 30 million years, it
high. She could leap over an
will be destroyed by elephant in one bound,
crashing onto the surface. Core
 1

UNIVERSE AND SPACE

Theory of
Moon moon's origin
Astronomers have put forward
The MOON EARTH'S constant companion
IS several theories to explain the
in space. Held by our planet's gravity, it mystery of the Moon's origin. The
most popular theory holds that a
revolves around Earth in its orbit of the
body the size of Mars collided with
Sun, like a satellite. The Moon, like Earth, Earth The impact
in its early days.
is 4.6 billion years old. Unlike Earth, the Moon is threw vast amounts of matter into
and space, and these fragments of rock
lifeless, waterless, airless.
came together to form the Moon.

Phases of the moon

As the Moon orbits Earth, it receives light from the Sun, and a Moon data
changing portion of its illuminated face is visible from Earth. These
Age 4.6 billion years
portions are the Moon's phases.
Diameter 2,160 miles (3,476km)

Mass (Earth=1) 0.012

Sun's rays Surface gravity (Earth=1) 0.16

Average distance from Earth 238,900 miles (384,400km)

Time taken to orbit Earth 27.3 days

Time taken to rotate on axis 27.3 days

Surface temperature -247°F to 221 °F (-155°C to 105°C)

Crescent First quarter Gibbous Last quarter Crescent

Near side of the moon Ray

Some
craters
craters have bright "rays"
The near side of the Moon
always faces Earth and
extending from their rims. The
isalways at least partially visible in our night rays are fragments of rock
sky, except at a new Moon. splashed from the
^^^ meteoritic impact.
Plato: one of few craters with
a dark floor of solidified lava
Site of Apollo 17
landing: the last
manned Moon
k mission

Maria
The dark areas, called maria, are seas of
solidified lava.They arc thought to have
formed billions of years ago when lava,
or molten rock, seeped out from
beneath the crust to fill the craters,
and then solidified into darker rock.

Copernicus: a ray crater,

about 800 million years old

Craters
The surface of the Moon is littered
f\ I

with craters formed billions of years Iff} :

ago by the impact of meteorites. ;

fj
Meteorite throws

i out smaller
fragments of rock
'-

E^
V
Moon
first
Site of
Apollo 1

landing
people on
Ejected rocks ™ ^ the Moon
make craters Some of

surrounding the Moon

main crater.
^"^ has yet to be
mapped An area Highland areas
around the South The areas between the
MOON LANDINGS Pole still remains unseen. maria are higher, rougher,
ind brighter than the maria.
- Vpollo landings (I'S) .una landings (former USSR)

28
Moon and earth:
€ Earth

Neap
The
tide
position of the Sun
o
Sun

Near and far side

MOON

gravity and tides affects the strength () f

also
the
The Moon spins on its axis in exactly
/ Near side
The Moon is so close to Earth Here the Sun's gravity
tides.
the same time that it takes to
,

always
that it exerts a strong pull on weakens the effect of the complete an orbit of Earth. The f / faces Earth

Earth's waters. This

M € Moon's gravity, and Earth
has weak or neap tides.
same side always faces us
gravitational pull produces a and the far side remains invisible )
The Moon wobbles on
bulge on the side of Earth
facing the Moon, and a
€
Moon
o
Sun
and at some places on its
its axis,
orbit it

corresponding bulge on the surges forward or slows down. As a

Spring tide
opposite side. So, the oceans result, we can actually see 59% of its
Here the Sun's gravity adds to the
have two daily high tides. Moon's, and Earth has strong spring tides. surface from Earth.

Lunar and solar eclipses

Moon Inner shadow Lasting
LUNAR ECLIPSE SOLAR ECLIPSE _ impression
When the Moon By chance, the Sun Sunlight
moves into the
Sunlight
and Moon appear
With no air, water, or volcanic
Earth's shadow, no the same size in activity toetode them, the
sunlight is reflected the sky. When, at a full Moon, the footprints and tracks left by
off the Moon and it disappears from Moon lines up directly between Sun and the Moon's astronauts could
Earth's view. Normally the Moon passes above or below the Earth, its inner shadow creates a total eclipse. People in its
shadow because its orbit is tilted at 5° from Earth's path. outer shadow see a partial eclipse.
remain as thev are for more
than 100
million
Total lunar eclipses Total solar eclipses years.
Date Visible from Date Visible from

April 3-4, 1996 Europe, South America, Africa Mar 8-9, 1997 Japan, Philippines, Northwestern America

Sept 27, 1996 Europe, Americas, West Africa Feb 26, 1998 North America, Hawaii, Western Africa

Sept 16, 1997 Europe, Africa, Australasia Aug 11, 1999 Europe, North Africa, Arabia, Greenland

Jan 21, 2000 Europe, Americas, Asia June 21, 2001 South Atlantic, Southern Africa

July 16, 2000 Pacific, Australasia, Southwestern Asia Dec 4, 2002

***

Far side of the moon Maria mystery

The far side always faces away from The far side has very few
maria, Though uc know
Earth, and is more cratered and
th.it the crust is
rugged than the near side. ^^k thicker on the far
*A , side (which made
Mare Moscoviense it more difficult
one of the few
far side maria H^^^^^^^ for to

J£ out), no one
^^K knows
Clearer view ^T"VkS win.
For astronomers, who need a clear view
of space, the far side would be an
excellent place to build an observatory.
It is totally shielded from the
reflective glare and stray electrical Moscoviense
signals of Earth, and it has no
atmosphere to dim the stars' images.

Tsiolovsky: a crater with

terraced walls and a huge
central mountain structure

Moon facts
• Moon's first astronauts,
Americans Neil Armstrong
and Buzz Aldrin, landed in
1969 in Apollo XI.
• In 1970 Russian probe
Luna 16 was the first unmanned
spacecraft to bring back soil samples
from the surface of the Moon.
• In 1950 the Moon appeared to
turn blue after a forest fire in British
Columbia, threw up clouds of
Mi, 'I, 'I'll!,

smoke particles.

• A mistake of only mph (1.6km/h) 1

in Apollo \Ts top speed would have Schrddinger

led to it missing the Moon by a large rill or Monies Coidillera and Monies
ridge, Rima Planck, Honk nngs ol mountains thrown
1,000 miles (1,600km). extends from this crater up around Mare One

29
I NIVERSE AM) SPACE

Definitions
Comets, meteors, Comet An
orbiting the Sun.
icy object
It

and asteroids Gas tail

produces steam when
nears the Sun and
develops a tail of dust
it

and
Chunks of rock and metal, gas.

Meteor The streak of

lumps of ice, and clouds of dust light seen the sky
in

- when a particle of rock

float far and wide in the Solar Dus,tail
burns up in Earth's
System. Scientists upper atmosphere.

classify these wandering Comets Asteroid A small rocky

object in the Solar
Comets chunks of ice and
are
objects as comets, System. Asteroids range
rock left over from the birth of in size from 578 miles
meteors, and asteroids. the Solar System. Astronomers (930km) across down to

Rocky asteroids believe that these icy rocks are dust particles.

located in a zone called the Oort cloud, Meteorite A piece of

sometimes crash into rock that has survived
named after the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort
planets or their moons, (1900-92), that lies beyond the farthest
passage through Earth's
atmosphere: thought to
causing massive craters. planet in the Solar System. be a fragment of an
asteroid, not of a comet.

Most frequently
seen comets Nucleus
Name Period
(years)

Encke 3.3 Comet nucleus Gas and

dust jets
Grigg-Skjellerup 4.9 The nucleus is a chunk
of rock and ice that
Honda-Mrkos-Pajdusakova 5.2
lies at the comet's
Tempel 2 5.3 Halley 's comet photographed by
^Schmmtelescopein 1986 core. As the comet
Neujmin 2 5.4 HALLEY'S COMET nears the Sun, the

Tuttle-Giacobini-Kresak 5.5
Every 76 years Halley's comet returns to the center of heat melts the ice.
the Solar System. In 1705, English astronomer Edmund Gas jets spring
Tempel-Swift 5.7
Halley (1658-1742) correctly predicted its return in the from the side facing
Tempel 1 6.0 year 1758. On the last return in 1986, the space probe the Sun. Fragments
Pons-Winnecke 6.3
Giotto penetrated to within 370 miles (600km) of the of rock break off to
comet's nucleus. form the dust tail. Rock
De Vico Swift 6.3

Gas tail

electrically
forced back by
charged SO LONG
Comet records
wind
LONGEST KNOWN PERIOD
particles of the solar
The comet with the longest known tail was the Great of a comet is 24 million years.
Comet tail Comet of 1843, which trailed for 205 million miles This comet, Delavan's comet,
Dust tail follows
Each comet has a dust curve of (330 million km). The tail could have wrapped
was last seen in 1914.
tailand a gas tail. These
comet's path around Earth 7,000 times. It will not return to the

are blown back by the

center of the Solar System until 2356. MOST FREQUENT COMET
is Encke's comet, which returns
solar wind, which forces
every 3.3 years.
the dust and gas away
from the Sun. BRIGHTEST COMET
this century was the Daylight
Comet recedes Comet of 1910. It was as bright
from Sun, but tail

always points as the planet Venus.

away from Sun

Meteors Meteor showers

Meteors, or shooting stars, are streaks of Main showers Date Maximum
light that appear briefly in the night sky. (annual) number
per hour
They occur when particles of rock or
dust, left by comets, burn up in Quadrantids Jan 3-4 50
Eatth's atmosphere at speeds of Lyrids April 22 10
up to 44 miles/sec (70km/sec).
Delta Aquarids July 31 25

Mf.TEOR SHOWER fy Perseids Aug 12 50

Comets leave trails of dust
Orionids Oct 21 20
and debris along their orbits
around the Sun. When _.'
\ Taurids Nov 8 10
Shooting star
-

Earth crosses one of these \

the dust burns Leonids Nov 17 10

trails, Dust trail This long-exposure photograph
up in the atmosphere
shows a meteor from the Ursid Geminids Dec 14 50
and wc see a meteor
shower in the skv. meteot shower that occurs each Ursids Dec 22 15
__ Comet year in December.

30
 COMETS, METEORS, AND ASTEROIDS

Asteroids < ,'crcs Vesta Psyche

Asteroids are pieees of Ceres, discovered Vesta is smaller Psyche is

rock smaller than planets in 1801, is the than ( leres, but irregularly Psyche
that orbit the Sun. More biggest known its highly shaped,
than 4,000 have been asteroid; it is reflective surface- made of
found. Theyrange in 57X miles (930km) makes it the and
iron,
si/.e from tiny fragments wide. If Ceres were brightest asteroid. about 160 miles
of rock to bodies hundreds placed on Karth it would 260km) long- the
1

of miles across. cover France. si/.e of Jamaica.

Asteroid belts Asteroid facts

Most asteroids lie in the Asteroid Belts between the orbits of Mars • An estimated 2,000 collisions
and Jupiter. The Trojan asteroids, though, follow Jupiter's orbit in have occurred between
two groups. Others orbit the Sun alone. asteroids and Earth in the last
600 million years.
• If an asteroid of average si/.e

collided with Earth, it could

destroy an entire country.
• In January 1991, an asteroid Captainjama T. K»k and Mr. Sfxxk

measuring about 33ft (10m) • Asteroid2309 is called Mr.

across passed between the Spock, after the character in the
Moon and Karth. television scries Star Tret.
• In the future, asteroids could • Ceres, the largest asteroid,
be mined for metals as resources contains a quarter of all the rock
Jupiter
Trojan
on Karth grow scarce. in the Asteroid Belts.

Largest asteroids Meteor grater

On Karth, the best example of an asteroid impact crater
Name First Diameter
is Arizona's Meteor Crater which is 0.7 miles (1.2km) in
seen km miles
diameter, 590ft (180m) deep, and 50,000 years old.
Ceres 1801 930 578

Pallas 1802 607 377

Vesta 1807 519 322

Hygeia 1849 450 280

Euphrosyne 1854 370 230

Interamnia 1910 349 217 TUNGUSKA EVENT

In June 1908 a huge explosion occurred in
Davida 1903 322 200
Walking on the Moon the forested Tunguska region of Siberia,
Cybele 1861 308 191 In order to prepare for their work on the surface of the Moon, devastating an area of 1,500 sq miles
the Apollo astronauts trained on the slopes of the Meteor
Europa 1858 288 179 erater. Dressed in their spacesuits, they tested the Moon
(3,900 sq km).The shock wave was heard
buggy and other equipment. 600 miles (1,000km) away. The explosion is
Patienta 1899 275 171
thought to have been caused In an asteroid.

Meteorites Stony Iron Stony-iron

A meteorite is a piece of rock Stony meteorites Iron meteorites Stony-iron
are the most come from meteorites
from space that does not
common type. mall asteroids contain both
completely vaporize in Karth's They consist that broke up in rock and metal
"
atmosphere, and is able to reach mainly of the space. They arc 'he picture

the ground. There are three minerals olivine arer than stonv shows bright
and pyroxene. neteorites. metal enclosing
kinds of meteorites: stony, iron,
the mineral oh\ inc.
and stony-iron.

Meteorite records Dust collector

OLDEST METEORITES
Rock particles picked up from space
called carbonaceous chondrites, are
add lo.ooo tons to Earth's weight each
4.55 billion years old.
year, litis would
LARGEST METEORITE be enough dusi
lies at Grootfontein, Namibia. It is called to give everyone I

Hoba, is 9ft (2.75m) long, made of iron, and on Earth

weighs 59 tons: as much as eight elephants. 0.07.,/ (2g)

ONLY PERSON INJURED pei year.

was Mrs. A. Hodges of Alabama. From the hand of god
A 91b (4kg) meteorite crashed through her The Black Stone of Mecca, housed in a
roof in November 1954 and injured her arm.
shrine in Saudi Arabia, is the sacred Stone of

ONLY FATAL METEORITE Islam. It is believed to be meteorite that i

killed a dog in Nakhla, Kgypt in 191 1. fell to Karth hundreds of years ago. *s_

31
 '

UNIVERSE AND SPACE

335-323 B.C. Aristotle A.D. 137-145 Ptolemy

Astronomy (384-322 B.C.), Greek

physicist and philosopher,
puts Earth at the center of
(c.120-180), Greek astronomer,
records the positions of 1,080
stars and divides them into 48
Astronomy is the study of the the Universe. This central constellations in his book,
A/mages/. His system uses
belief dominates until the
nature and movement of the 15th century. Aristotle's beliefs as its basis
and stands for 1,400 years.
heavenly objects in the Universe: Aristotle's Universe Ptolemy
planets, moons, comets, 137

asteroids, stars, and galaxies.

1543 Nicolas Copernicus 1596 Tycho 1608 First telescope

(1473-1543), Polish Brahe (1546-1601 isthought to have been
monk, establishes the Danish nobleman, invented for military use
position of the Sun at publishes his great star by Dutch scientist Hans
the center of the catalog,compiled from Lippershey (1570-1619). 1609 Elliptical motion
Universe in his book, 1575 to 1595. His study of planets is established
De Revolutionibus fixes accurate positions for by German astronomer
Orbium Caelestium. about 770 stars. Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630), overturning
the theory of circular
Nicolas Copernicus Tycho Brahe motion around the Sun.
1543 1596 1608 1609

1610 Galileo (1564-1642), 1667 Isaac Newton 1705 Edmund

Italian scientist and the first (1642-1727), English scientist, Halley
systematic user of the telescope lays down the laws of gravitation (1658-1742),
discovers the moons of Jupiter governing celestial bodies, English
and identifies sunspots and marking the beginning of astronomer,
craters on the Moon. He shows modern astronomy. In 1668 he correctly
that Venus has phases like the invents and builds the first predicts the
Moon, adding support to the reflecting telescope. return of
idea that the Sun is the center Halley's comet
of the Universe. in 1758.
Isaac Newton

1610 1667 1705

Edmund Halley

nth-century telescope

1781 Uranus is discovered 1846 Neptune Deuterium \ positron gamma ray 1907 Albert Einstein
Hydrogen /}
bv German-born musician isdiscovered by German J (1879-1955), German-born
William Herschel (1738-1822). astronomers Johann Galle
fa""" physicist, discovers mass
Six years later, he finds four
of its moons. He discovers
(1812-1910) and Heinrich
D'Arrest (1822-1875).
proton
f can turn into energy. This
leads to the theory of how
binary stars, catalogs the Sun shines - by fusing
thousands of clusters and &-~^_ Helium-3 m \.
hydrogen atoms to make
nebulae, and reasons the 1849 First star o helium (see p. 223).
existence of other galaxies. photographs are taken at
Harvard Observatory,
William Herschel Cambridge, Massachusetts. Q Fusion of hydrogen nuclei

1781 1846 1849 1907

1919 Expanding 1924-30 Big Bang theory 1929 Edwin Hubble 1932 Radio signals
Universe is (see p. 18) independently
is (1889-1953), American from outside Earth are
suggested by formulated by Belgian astronomer, finds strong discovered by American
American scientist Abbe Lemaitre evidence for an engineer Karl Jansky
astronomer Vesto (1894-1966) and Russian expanding Universe. (1905-50). His
Slipher scientist A. Freidmann improvised aerial
(1875-1969), who (1888-1925). 1930 Pluto is discovered accidentally picks up
proves that most by American astronomer radio waves from the
galaxies are red- Clyde Tombaugh -1 Milky Way.
shifted (see p. 33). (born 1906).
Edwin Hubble — Karl Jansky

1919 1929 1932

1965 3K cosmic 1967 First pulsar 1986 Giotto space probe 1990 Hubble Space Telescope
background radiation (CP 1919) is identified sends back the first pictures islaunched, the first large optical
(believed to be the by Belfast-born of a comet's nucleus telescope to be placed above
remains of Big Bang's astronomer Jocelyn (Halley's Earth's atmosphere, where it has
radiation) is discovered Bell (born 1943). comet). the clearest view of the Universe.
by Americans Arno
Penzias (born 1933)
and Robert Wilson
(born 1936). Giotto space
1992 COBE (Cosmic Background
probe Explorer, see p. 18) transmits
I Jocelyn Bell (Europe) evidence of a dense Universe.
1965 1967 1992 7

32
 ~
ASTRONOMY

Development of the optical telescope Astronomical measurement

Karly telescopes produced images that were blurred, suffered
and showed only a small region of the sky. Better
color distortions,
designs have produced more powerful telescopes. LIGHT-YBAR
A light-year is the distance traveled In light in one vcar.
REFRACTING TELESCOPE It used as a measurement for \ast distances and is
is

The main glass lens focuses the equal to 5,879 billion miles (9,461 billion km). The light
starlight,while the eyepiece, a smaller that we see toda\ from the galaxy IC 42% left its source
lens, magnifies the image. It is called 1 17 million years ago, when dinosaurs roamed Earth.

a retracting telescope because its main

lens bends, or refracts, the light that
enters. It can, however, introduce
false colors and shows only a
Parallax shift
small region of the sky.
Ji (I— PARALLAX
Refractor sees single bright galaxy
A star appears to shift its position against
SCHMIDT CAMERA the background of more distant stars if
Estonian optical worker seen from opposite sides of Earth's
Bcrnhard Schmidt (1879-1935) orbit. Thus an astronomer can
made a telescope with a specially calculate the distance of a star
shaped lens at its front. This directs from Earth from the size of
ight onto a spherical mirror. The this parallax shift, together
image can then be photographed with the diameter of
on a cursed plate, providing a Earth's orbit.
much wider view of the sky The smaller
than is usually possible. the shift, the
Earth in
farther the star
January

REFLECTING Earth in July

TELESCOPE
A reflecting telescope uses a
curved mirror to focus light at the RED SHIFT
bottom of the tube. A second small The speed at which a star moves can be calculated by analyzing its light. If a star
mirror directs the light to the side of moving away from Earth, its light waves are stretched out. and this makes its
is

the tube or behind the main mirror. analyzed spectrum of colors or wavelengths appear to be shifted to the red end of
The largest and most powerful the spectrum. The size of this "red shift" gives the speed of the star.
telescopes are reflectors, and
they reveal the most distant
objects in the Universe.
Stationary star
If the star

its
is not moving away
from or toward Earth, an observer
sees light at its true
O AAAAA^
Astronomy records wavelength.

LOWEST OBSERVATORY
This observatory lies in the
Retreating star
Homestake Mine, 0.9 miles (1.5km) If the star is

below ground level in South Dakota. moving away from Earth, its
It detects minute particles from light waves are stretched and
appear more red.
space, called neutrinos, that can pass
straight through the Earth. An
underground tank containing a
special fluid shows when a neutrino
Major world observatories
passes through. Observatories Height
meters feet
LARGEST SINGLE RADIO DISH
Keck Observatory, Mauna Kea, Hawaii 4,205 13.796
(l,000ft/305m diameter) is the
Arecibo radio telescope. It is built Hale Observatory, Palomar, California 1,706 5.597

into a natural valley in the hills of Whipple Observatory, Mt. Hopkins 2,600 8,530
Puerto Rico.
Kitt Peak Observatory, Arizona 2,064 6.772
OLDEST STANDING OBSERVATORY
V.L.A., Socorro, New Mexico 2.124 6.969
is the Chomsung-Dae observatory,

Kyongju, South Korea. It was built Anglo-Australian Telescope,

Siding Spring, Australia 1,165 3.822
in ad. 632. Lowest observatory (r

Instruments of
observation
Telescopes that observe visible
waves can study only
light
some of the wavelengths that
come from space. Telescopes
that detect other wavelengths
from the electromagnetic
spectrum (see p. 231), such
as radio waves, give
astronomers a fuller r Compton
...
j. . (,nmmii ray
picture of the Universe. Observatory
Component </i»A
'/
l.U.1 Ihlhl, o) I <

33
 .

I NIVERSE AND SPACE

1926 Liquid fuel 1942 German

Space exploration rocket launched bv IKS
pioneer Robert Goddatd.
V2 rocket,
designed and
built by Von
1934 Liquid oxygen
1\ OCTOBER 1957, THE USSR put c.1200 Chinese use
•and alcohol rocket
Braun, used
gunpowder launched by German
against Britain in
Sputnik I around the
into orbit rockets in battle,
pioneer rocket scientist
World War II.

with handheld
Earth; the great achievements of launching baskets.
Wernher Von Braun
191 2-77).
V2 rocket
the Space Age had begun.
1926 1934
1965 US Mars probe
Mariner 4 finds no
water or life on Mars.
1966 USSR's Luna 9 1968 Space observatory
irst spacewalk In
probe lands on Moon launched ro study UV rays.
I

Sm cosmonaut
iet
First panoramic photos Three US astronauts orbit
Leonov in VoskhodZ. Moon
of Moon surface by US in Apollo 8.
I S manned craft
I . iimir Orbiter 1
Gemini 6 meets Gemini 7 1969 First people on
US manned craft
in space. Moon. US Apollo 11
Gemini 8 docks with
astronauts take rock samples.
Agena rocket stage.

I.iinn 'J
Edwin M. Aldrin steps
Leonov's spacewalk
onto Moon 's surface

1969

1974 Images of surface of 1976 US Viking 1 lands on

Mercury sent by IS MarinerI 10. Mars. Surface tests confirm n<
life on Mars. Daily weather
1975 Images of
reports sent until Spring 1983.
surface of Venus sent
In USSR's Venera

m^m
9.
1977 US Voyager; /
US and USSR craft.
and 2 launched to outer
Apollo AY and .W; 19,
planers and beyond.
meet in space.
Venera 9 sss; Voyage
j^rJft*.- Surface of Mai probe

1984 Manned maneuvering 1986 Voyager 2 finds

unit used by US astronaut Bruce tenmoons and a ring
McCandless to float nntethered system around Uranus.
alongside Shuttle Challenger. Shuttle Challenger
First retrieval and repair of a explodes, killing crew -

satellite.Solar Maximum satellite, of seven.

in space, using Canadian- I [alley, 's comet
designed Canadarm. returns, observed by
1982 Surface of Venus Sill /me nl Villus
four probes.
photographed in color b\
I SSR's Venera 13. Bruce McCandlei Uranus

1982 1984 1986

Space facts
• Rivalry between the two great • Inside a manned spacecraft, air
powers after World War II, the is constantly being removed and
US and USSR, resulted in the purified. In a space station, this
"Space Race." Each side tried process has to continue for
to show its superiority in space months or years at a time.
and roeket technology.
• The building in which
• One-third of the world's Saturn V rockets were assembled
population watched the Apollo was so large that small clouds
Undersuit contains pipes Suit layers of
II Moon landing on television. sometimes formed in its roof. I

for cool, flowingwater to

protect against Sun's heat.
ny on> dacron
|
Space records
ancj kevlar
• More than 300 people in total • Cosmonauts aboard Salyut 4 LONGEST CONTINUOUS
have traveled into space. were not allowed to return to PERIOD IN SPACE

• Everything becomes
Earth when their air purifying Astronaut suit was achieved by the Russian
system broke down, even when Spacesuits have to be tough to cosmonaut Musa Manarov (born
weightless when spacecraft
1951), who spent 365 days,
mold grew up the walls. protect the astronaut from small
leave Earth, so nntethered
meteorites. Most have internal 39 minutes, and 47 seconds on
objects float in midair. Liquid
cooling systems to absorb the the space station Mir.
and food is stored in and eaten
from sealed bags.
Stin's heat, and a dark, mirrored FIRST MARRIED COUPLE IN
visor to shield the astronaut SPACE
•Some spacesuits may have as from the Sun's glare. Spacesuits were Americans Mark Lee and
many as 15 layers of different are very heavy on Earth, but arc- Judy Davis, on shuttle
materials to protect and insulate. Salyut 4 weightless when in space. Endeavour'm September 1992.

34
 3
SPACE EXPLOI

1957 First artificial satellite 1961 First man in space, Soviet 1963 First noma
launched, 'SSR's Sputnik I.
I
*~F/ cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin space, Soviet cosmdj
First living creature in space, (1934-68) in Vostot I. \ alentina crcshkoj I

the dog Laika in Sputnik J. ostok 0.

1962 IS Manner J
I

19.59 Far side of Moon approaches another 1964 Detailed images

photographed by USSR's planet, \ enus. (ilMoon taken l«\ I S
1. nun .!. probe Ranger 7.

Laika m Sputnik 2 Yuri Gagarin

\ ali-ntt nil I nritikwa

1957 1959 1962 1963 1964

1970 USSR's 1971 USSR's Mars 1972 Last manned

Venera 7 is first lands on Mars. mission to Moon
probe to land on I S Mariner ° begins (Apollo 17).
another planet orbiting Mars and
sends images of its
1973 First images
(Venus).
of Jupiter taken by
Moon samples volcanoes.
USPioneei 10.
brought back by First orbiting space
station launched,
First I S manned
automatic probe,
space -siat ion, Skylab.
USSR's Luna 16. USSR's Sahut 1.
Venus fupUe,

1971 1972 1973

1979 US Pioneer 11 visits 1980 Voyager I 19S1 Voyager 2

Saturn, six years alter launch, passes Saturn, new
finds four
finding new ring and moons. takes first detailed moons around
Voyagers I and 2 pass Jupiter, images of ring Saturn,
finding active volcanoes on systems, and finds first reusable
one moon, lo, and discovering six new moons, craftlaunched,
three new moons, bringing bringing total to 18. 1 space shuttle
IS

total to 16. Columbia.

Sulfur volcano on la Sat tut Launch «/< lolumbia

1979 1981

1988 I IS shuttle launches resume with Columbia. 1990 Hubble space 1992 COHI-: finds
first Soviet shuttle, Buran, launched. telescope launched cv idence for eventual
(with faulty mirror). i ontraction of universe
Voyager '_'

USMagellan probe into a "Big ( .runch."

1989 Voyager 2 finds six new
radar-maps Venus.
moons round Neptune and 1994 Hubble space
Triton's nitrogen volcanoes.
LDEF (Long Duration telescope mirror fault
Exposure Facility i

k US COBE (Cosmic Background

atcllitc retrieved by
corrected by space
Explorer) satellite shuttle astronauts.
space shuttle.
jfcj launched to study big
Bang's radiation.
Hubble telescope '
( OBI taUUiL
1989 -fil 9 ! 1994 7

Air treatment system

Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU)
and water for cooling
allows astronaut independent Weightlessness
movement in space Movement
controlled by bursts of nitrogen
gas from 24 small thrusters.

Small rockets on the

side of Mir adjust its

Seams and seals must

position to keep its

be airtight to withstand orbit constant Astronauts m Mir \/ian slattern

the vacuum of space. floating i" weightless conditions.

I ,ong periods of weightlessness

Space station affect the human bod} in m.m\
A space station enables astronauts vvaxs: muscles weaken and
to live and work in space for long w.isie away, so astronauts have

periods. Scientific experiments in to exercise regularly; blood .mil

low gravity that are impossible on Kristall, a module

other Hinds have no sense of
Earth can be carried out over used for experiments "dow n," s<> circulation must
in materials for
months or years. Space stations are be regular!) checked;
electronic circuits

too large to put into space all at bacteria multiply at tour times
Handrail aids
the normal rate; loss o\ balance
I

once so are assembled in pieces on astronauts when

separate journeys. Mil space station working outside can cause "space sickness

,V>
 UNV1 KSK AND SPACE
Launch escape lower .

Space mission facts

Rockets Apollo Command Module • Rockets are designed
so that when all
in separate stages,
the fuel from a stage has
In ORDKR TO ESCAPE Earth's gravity, a rocket must been used up, that stage drops away, and
the next takes over.
reach 24,900mph (40,000km/h). Rockets burn fuel
and liquid oxygen, ignited under pressure. • The first US unmanned missions to the
1 1

Moon were unsuccessful: Rangers 4 and 6 hit

the Moon but failed to transmit any data.

What a blast! The rest missed the Moon, Ranger 3

The Fl engine of the Saturn Y rocket overshooting by 37,000 miles (59,500km).
(which carried the astronauts to the • On January 28, 1986, the US space shuttle
Moon) is the most powerful engine Challenger exploded 73 seconds after launch.
ever built. Each of its five nozzles is The crew of seven was killed in the world's
12.5ft(3.81m) in diameter and 19ft worst space disaster.
(5.79m) high, as tall as a giraffe. At
• A hyphen instead of a minus sign keyed
launch, each engine burns three
into a computer caused Mariner /'s launch
tons of fuel every second.
vehicle to crash into the Atlantic in 1962.

• Each shuttle launch releases 75 tons of

External fuel tank (liquid
oxygen and liquid
Solid fuel rocket booste
hydrogen chloride into the atmosphere, as
hydrogen)
well as tons of pollutant waste from the solid
fuel burned during liftoff.

• The Moon's astronauts left behind them

O-ring (joint between
booster sections) the remains of six lunar landers, three moon
\ mtok -
buggies, and more than 50 tons of litter.
119.5ft
(3b. 41m)
Payload container
(Vostok manned
capsule) Junk alert
One great danger facing astronauts and
Orbital stage satellites is fragments of
old rockets and
Central rocket
satellites. This
Payload bay crater in the Solar
60ft (18.3m) long
Max satellite was
Orbiter
made by a paint
fleck traveling at
high speed.
Spare shuttle -
191.6ft < 58.4m

Shuttle reaches 81 miles (130km) at Orbiter remains in orbit for between 5 and 30
Solid fuel booster rockets, Mach 15. External tank released; days. Mission can be carried out - new
designed to be used 10 times, burns up in Earth's satellites put into orbit, old ones
parachute back to Earth, and atmosphere. mended, experiments performed.
are later recovered from sea.
Cargo bay doors
Solid fuel rocket boosters close.Engines
jettisoned 2 mins 5 sees /CI rotate orbiter into
after liftoff, at an reentry position.
altitude of 28 miles
(45km). Shuttle
now traveling at
SATELLITE REPAIR JOB
In 1984, the shuttle Challenger retrieved Orbiter manoeuvers into precise angle
4.5 times the a
speed of sound and repaired the US
Solar Max solar for reentry. Begins 30-minute descent
(Mach 4.5). observatory while in spaee. One of the into atmosphere at Mach 22.4.

satellite's control systems had failed

and it was falling toward Earth. The
Liquid hydrogen from Parts of nose and wings
shuttle's robotic arm brought it into the
external fuel tank flows into reach 2,660°F
cargo bay, where repairs were made. (1,460°C) during
orbiter engines at 820gal/sec
(3,100 liters/sec).
The satellite was then put back in orbit. reentry. They are
covered with 32,000
carbon or silica
Solid fuel (polybutadiene)
burns for 2 mins. Each Space centers insulating tiles, each
glued on by hand
solid fuel rocket produces
Launch site Launches Type of launch
the thrust of 1 1 Boeing
Orbiter makes four
747s at takeoff. Pletsetsk cosmodrome, USSR 1,056 Secret military satellites "S-shaped"
break
circuits to
Baikonur cosmodrome, USSR 693 Manned craft, probes, and satellites
its speed of Mach
Rupture in O-rings (joints)
2.5, before making
of left solid fuel booster Cape Canaveral (USAF), US 1,045 Manned craft, probes, and satellites
caused 1 986 Challenger a gliding landing.
shuttle explosion. Kennedy Space Center, US 66 Apollo missions and space shuttle

External fuel tank

Orbiter Space shuttle missions

Solid fuel rocket boosters The US Space Shuttle is the first reusable spacecraft. Orbiter lands at a
speed of 214mph
Main engines on During its missions, which usually week, the
last a (345km/h). It is
orbiter take fuel from shuttle can put satellites into orbit, conduct experiments, towed, or flown on
external tank. Two the back of a
solid fuel boosters
and repair satellites in space. Thousands of heat-resistant Boeing 747 jet, to
fire for takeoff. tiles protect it on its reentry into Earth's atmosphere. next launch site.

36
 tetf

-\

Earth
From Earth's formation to the strongest earthquakes and the
biggest volcanic eruptions, this section provides every essential
fact and figure about our wonderful planet.

Earth • Continents • Volcanoes • Earthquakes • Rocks and Minerals

Ocean Floor • Oceans and Islands • Mountains • Valleys and Caves • Glaciation

Rivers and Lakes • Weather • Climates • Deserts • Forests • Earth's Biosphere

Earth in Danger • Saving the Earth

;arth

Earth
THE EARTH IS ONE OF THE NINE planets in the Solar System. It is

the fifth largest in size and is the only planet with plentiful
oxygen and water: the necessary ingredients for life.

Theory of formation
1 About 4.6 billion years ago a
dense cloud of gas and dust
Radioactivity in the rocks
caused the newborn Earth
3 About 4 billion years
ago, the Earth's crust
4 Over millions of years the
crust thickened and volcanoes
contracted to form the Sun. Other to melt. Iron and nickel sank began to form. At first there erupted. Gases pouring out of the
matter in the cloud formed solid to form the Earth's core, while may have been many small volcanoes began to form the
lumps of ice and rock, and these oceans of molten rock floated protocontinents floating on atmosphere, and water vapor
joined together to form the planets. on the surface. the molten rock beneath. condensed to fill the oceans.

Anatomy of the earth Deepest drilling into earth's crust

The Earth is made up of several layers of rock The deepest mine in the world reaches 2.34 miles (3.7km) down into
around a core of iron and nickel. The deeper the Earth. A geological exploration has drilled more than 7.5 miles
the layer, the higher the temperature. Depth (km) (12km) below the Earth's surface. Yet
Atmosphere neither of these is anywhere near as deep
Depth: approx.
as the bottom of the Earth's crust.
400 miles (640km)

Mount Evetest:
5.5 miles (8.85km)
Depth
(miles)

Sea level
A deep coal mine

Deepest mine: 2.34 miles (3.7km)

Crust
Depth: 4-44 miles
Deepest drilled hole: 7.4 miles (12.1km)
(6-70km)
Composition: rocks
~ similar to those on Deepest hole projected to reach 9.3 miles (15km) >-i

the surface
16

^^ Lithosphere
18
(Crust and upper mantle)
Depth: approx. 124 miles The Earth's crust is much thicker

(200km) beneath land than beneath the ocean.

22
^r\ Mantle
Depth: approx. 1,800 miles (2,900km) 24
Composition: mostly solid rock;

V probably parrly melted 50-93 miles

(80-150km)down
26

28
CRUST

~~
— — Outer core 30 MANTLE
Depth: approx. 1,240 miles (2,000km)
Composition: mostly liquid iron, 32
nickel, and oxygen
34
22

^_^ Inner core 36

Depth: 1,700 miles (2,740km) across
Composition: solid iron and nickel 38
The temperature of Earth's inner core is thought to be
about 8, 00 1(4,500 C).
]•"

38
 EARTH

Earth's
ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is the film
of gases that surrounds the
Earth. It is divided into four
main layers - the troposphere.
stratosphere, mesosphere.
and thermosphere. The
composition of the
troposphere is 78$ nitrogen.
21% oxygen, and 198 water
\ apor and other gases. The
atmosphere is held in place-
by gra\it\. It stops the Earth
from becoming too hot or too
cold, and shields the planet
from the Sun's harmful
ultraviolet ra\s.

mm ^m m
<o
2

5 ofAbout
the
3.5 billion years ago most
Earth's crust had formed,
6 Today the Earth is still changing. The
lithosphere - the crust and upper mantle -
o>
but the shapes of the continents is made up of huge plates that arc constantly ro
o
looked very different from today. being created and destroyed at their edges. 3
•
The oldest rocks on Earth date from The plates are always on the move, powered
just before this time. by forces deep inside the Earth (see pp.40—H ).
"o
o
o
£
Earth data Earth facts
• Proportion of land and sea:
Age 4.6 billion years Area of land: 29.2%
Mass 5,854 billion billion tons Areaof sea: 70.8%
Volume 259,877, 796,843cu miles Ol
o
(1,083,21 8,91 5,000cu km) 3
5
0)
Diameter at equator 7,926 miles (12,756km)
m
o
3r
Diameter at Poles 7,899 miles (12,713km)
_3

Circumference at equator 24,901 miles (40,075km)

Circumference at Poles 24,819 miles (39,942km)

Distance from the Sun 93 million miles (150 million km)

• If a car could travel nonstop
Time for one spin 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds
around the equator at 62mph
Time to orbit Sun 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9.5 seconds
(lOOkm/h), it would take
16 days, 16 hrs, 45 mins. A car
_

Earth's magnetic field driving from the N. Pole to the u

Molten iron flowing in the Earth's outer core generates electric S. Pole and back would finish ^
SO mins earlier, because Earth is *
s
currents. These currents create the Earth's magnetic Held. This 171

field- the magnetosphere - stretches more than 37,000 miles not a perfect sphere. ^B 1^1 O
*
4
(60,000km) into space. Sometimes Earth's magnetic field flips:
north becomes south and vice versa. No one knows why this
•
at
An excavator digging
39in (Im) per min through
a hole
II Weather balloon
happens. The last pole reversal occurred about 700,000 years ago. the Earth would take 24 years
to reach the other side.
(Jeographical poles
The geographical North and
Ozone layer
South Poles lie on the Just a pinprick
Earth's axis (the imaginary
If the Earth were the size of
ine around « hich the
Earth spins). an egg, the deepest hole ever

Magnetic poles drilled by humans would not

The magnetic north even pierce
and SOUth pules are a its shell.
short distance a\\a\ from
geographical north
and south.
OS
•

Pattern of magnetic field 3

These lines show the 1
pattern of the Earth's
magnetic field. The field is ?
strongest where the lines are "^
eiose together,

39
i:\rti i

Earth's tectonic plates

Continents The Earth's lithosphere
into slabs of crust
is fragmented

and upper mantle,

THE CONTINENTS ARK THE seven huge land masses called tectonic plates. These slabs fit

huge jigsaw puzzle.

together like a
that make up most of the Earth's land surface.
Where the plates rise above sea level,
They are always on the move, shifted around by they form continents and islands.
forces deep inside the Earth. The concept of The Earth's crust is only

moving continents is known as continental drift. 44 miles (70km)

greatest depths.
thick at its

Continental drift
By 135
ISome 250 million
years ago the
2 years ago
million

continents were Pangaea had split

joined together into two main

in the giant and masses,

supercontinent Gondwanaland
of Pangaea and Laurasia.
(from the Greek North America
word meaning and Europe split
"all lands"). About apart, and about

200 million years ago 120 million years

Pangaea slowly began ago India began to
to break up. drift north toward Asia

3 Over
120
the next
million years
4 This is how
might look 150
the Earth

the continents million years from

drifted into their now. Africa has
present-day split in two, and

positions. The the larger

Americas section has
moved away drifted north to
from Europe and join Europe.
Africa; India Antarctica has
joined onto Asia; joined Australia,
Australia and and California has been
Antarctica split apart crumpled against Alaska.

The plates and

their boundaries
The Earth's crust is made up of about 15
major plates. Plates that form the ocean floor
are oceanic plates, and plates that form land
are continental plates. Most plates are partly
oceanic and partly continental. Scientists
locate the boundaries by monitoring
earthquakes and volcanoes.
Kkv I
::r*i
.« Pulling
aPa
Subduction zone Uncertain boundary

^4 Colliding

Mid-ocean ridge Transform fault Rift valley

Section through the earth's lithosphere

This illustration shows a cross-section of the Earth's lithosphere along the equator.

Mt Kenya Indiw Oci \s Sumatra I'vcn K Ocf \n

Sao Tome
Principe
Halmahera
Borneo Sulawesi
Java trench

Y" African
'"
Rift Indian Caroline I'

African Plate Valley Indian Plate Plate Plate i

Pacific Plate

40
 CONTINENTS

Continent sizes Continent and plate facts Proportion of land

• Europe and Africa would
Continent Area
fit into Asia with PER CONTINENT
room to spare.
sq km sq miles
• Europe and the Americas drift about 1.6in
Asia 44,485,900 17,176,090 (4cm) further apart every year.
Africa 30,269,680 11,687,180 • The African Rift Valley grows about

North America
0.04in (1mm) wider every year.
24,235,280 9,357,290
• Eossils of tropical plants are found as far
South America 17,820,770 6,880,630
north as Alaska, because North American
Antarctica 13,209,000 5,100,020 land mass was once situated in tropics.
• Continental plates are up to 43 miles
Europe 10,530,750 4,065,940
(70km) thick, but oceanic plates are only
Australasia 8,924,100 3,445,610
about 4 miles (6km) thick.

Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is the theory of how and why types of motion build mountains, cause
the Earth's plates move. At their boundaries, earthquakes and volcanoes, and create deep-
the plates may be colliding, pulling apart, or sea trenches.
Antarctica 9°
sliding past each other. These different North America 16%
South America
Chains ofvolcanoes often
form at subduction zones
TRANSFORM FAULT
Transform faults are boundaries where
two plates are sliding past each other.
Earthquakes often occur at this t\ pe
of boundary, as the plates grind past
each other (see p. 4-4 The San
1.

Andreas Fault in California is a

transform fault.

CONVERGENCE
Transform fault When two continental plates collide,
the Earth's crust often buckles and
folds as they push against each other,
forcing up great mountain ranges. The
Convergence
Himalayas and the Appalachians were
formed b\ colliding plates.

SUBDUCTION ZONE PULLING APART

When two plates one plate sometimes rides
collide, Where two plates arc pulling apart, molten rock
over the other, forcing it down into the mantle. This from the mantle rises tofill the gap. creating new

Rock melts
type of boundary, called a subduction zone, often crust. When this type of boundary occurs beneath
when it is forced occurs at the edges of oceans where the thicker the sea. ridges of mountains called mid-ocean ridges
down into the mantle continental plate rides over the thinner oceanic plate. form. On land, these boundaries create steep-
at a subduction zone. Deep ocean trenches form at these boundaries. sided rift valleys.

DENSITY OF ROCK
Theories of movement
Scientists have not yet identified exactly
Hot rock rising at mid-
ocean ridges cools dow n
AS FAST AS A
what makes the Earth's tectonic plates shift as it moves farther away FINGERNAIL GROWS
around, but there are several theories to from the ridge. As it The tectonic plates move at
cools it becomes denser different rates along their
explain their movements. The three main
and sinks, pulling the
theories involve convection, gravity, and the rest of the plate down
margins, and some plates
different weights of hot and cold rock. with it.
move faster than others. The
average rate of
movement is
CONVECTION GRAVITY approximately
Heat generated deep The plates arc about
1 inch (2.5cm)
inside the Karth 1-2 miles (2-3km)
creates convection higher at mid-ocean every year:
currents in the ridges than at ocean about as fast
mantle. These rims, so thc\ could
as a finger-
currents slowly simply be sliding slow K
nail grows.
push the overlying downhill under the force
plates around. of gra\ it\

No land rises above

the Pacific Ocean for
Amazon Basin
thousands of miles.

Pacific Ocean Soi i n Ami hk \ Atlantic Ockw

Peru-Chile trench Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Pacific Plate Nazca Plate American Plate African Plata

41
I \KTII

Volcanic areas
Volcanoes There are around 1,300
ictive volcanoes in the
VOLCANOES OCCUR where magma world. Some of the
major volcanoes are
(molten rock) from deep inside the
marked on this
Earth forces its way to the surface. map. Most
The magma may erupt as red- volcanoes are
hot lava, or may explode into located on or
close to the
clouds of ash and volcanic bombs.
boundaries of the
Volcanic activity also produces plates that make up
strange landscapes of gushing geysers, the Karth's lithosphere
(seepp.40-41).
steaming lakes, and bubbling mudpools
Many of the Earth'svolcanoes
ie beneath the oceans.

Major eruptions
Major active volcanoes Eruption sizes
'The amount of ash
The number of volcanoes active in historic times is
thrown out is a
shown in parentheses after each region.
good indicator of
Name Height Latest
the size of
meters feet eruption
an eruption.
Africa and Indian Ocean (14)
Mt. Cameroon, Cameroon 4,070 13,353 1982
Nyamuragira, Zaire 3,053 10,016 1989

Antarctica (9)
Erebus, Ross Island 3,794 12,448 1989
The eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington
Asia (210)
MOUNT ST. HELENS Kliuchevskoi, Siberia 4,850 15,912 1990
erupted in May 1980. The explosion was Kerinci, Indonesia 3,805 12,484 1970

heard more than 217 miles (350km) away. SW Pacific (54)

Ilot ash and gas rushed down the Ruapehu, New Zealand 2,796 9,173 1989
mountainside; 62 people died. Europe and Middle East (20)

GREATEST VOLCANIC EXPLOSION Stromboli, Italy 926 3,038 1990

Etna, Sicily, Italy 3,350 10,991 1992
occurred when Krakatoa, Indonesia, blew up
in 1883, hurling rocks 34 miles (55km) North America and Hawaii (56)
Mount St. Helens, Washington 2,549 8,363 1988
high. The
explosion was heard in Australia,
Mauna Loa, Hawaii 4,170 13,681 1984
and generated a 131ft (40m) high seismic-
sea wave (see 36,000 people died. Iceland and Atlantic (54)
p. 45);
Pico de Teide, Canary Islands 3,713 12,182 1909
GREATEST VOLCANIC ERUPTION Mount Sl. Helens
Central and South America (100) Washington
was Tambora on Sumbawa, Indonesia, in
Sangay, Ecuador 5,230 17,159 1989 1980
1815, which threw up more than 24cu miles
Llullaillaco, Chile 6,723 22,057 1877
lOOcu km) of ash. The island was lowered Popocatepetl, Mexico 5,465 1 7,930 1943
by 4,100ft (1,250m); 92,000 people died.

Volcano types and shapes

A volcano's shape depends mainly on the type
of lava that comes out of it. Thick, sticky lava forms
tall, steep-sided cones; thin, runny lava forms

gently sloping lava shields and plateaus.

Clouds of ash
and dust

CINDER VOLCANO FISSURE VOLCANO SHIELD VOLCANO

\ under volcano is made
up of layers of volcanic
ash, and lias a steep,
conical shape. Each time
the volcano erupts, another
laser of ash is added.
Not all volcanoes form over When the lava that erupts
a single hole. Sometimes a from a volcano is runny, it
crack opens up in the forms a gentle slope rat
Earth's erust, ami runny than a cone. These shield
lava (lows out along its volcanoes often have
length, forming a plateau. many side vents.

42
 i

VOLCANOES

Types of lava PAHOEHOE

The type of lava that erupts from a volcano LAVA Tallest geyser
Pahoehoe lac a
In 1904. the WaimanKti
depends on several factors, such as the is runnc ami
amount of gas it contains, and whether Geyser in New
moves last.

it is erupting onto land or into the sea. The When it tools, Zealand erupted to a
it resembles height of around
two main types of lava flow, aa and
coils of rope.
pahoehoe, take their names from 1,500ft (457m). This

I lawaiian words. is higher than the

world's tallest
PILLOW AA LAVA building, the Sears
LAVA Aa lava is Tower in Chicago,
Lava erupting thicker and
into the sea
US, which is 1,460ft
stickier than
cools quick]} pahoehoe (44Sm) high. The
in the water, lac a. [| COolS Waimangu (>e\scr
forming pillow to form sharp, no longer Waimangu
is active.
lava - round chunks rock.
trf"l«7

lumps of rock.

Volcanic products VOLCANIC BOMB

Volcanic records
The PI MICE
solid products of
Blobs of molten lava Pumice forms from
LARGEST ACTIVE VOLCANO
volcanic eruptions erupting high into containing
lac a is Mauna Loa, lawaii, which I has a diameter
'Ji
and explosions are the air may tail as bubbles of gas. It is of 62 miles (100km).
called pyroclasts. volcanic bombs. often so light that it

can float on water. HIGHEST ACTIVE VOLCANO

These include cinders,
is Guallatirir, Chile, which is ]
(
>,ss2ft
volcanic ash, and large LAPILI.I VOLCANIC DUST
These cinder Dust thrown high (6,060m) high.
chunks of solidified
Fragments are called into the atmosphere
lava. Cinders and ash
lapilli, from the
TALLEST ACTIVE GEYSER
during an erupi ion
may blanket a huge area Latin for "little may fall hundreds of is Steamboat Geyser, Wyoming. It erupts to
after an eruption. stones." miles away. a height of 195-380ft (60-1 15m).

Volcano phases Largest volcanic explosions

Most volcanoes have three Volcanoes on other
Scientists measure the size of a volcanic explosion
phases: an active volcano has
according to the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI).
planets and moons
erupted in recent historic times Olympus Mons on Mars, which is the
This grades explosions on a scale of() (a non-explosive
or is still erupting; a dormant highest mountain in the Solar System, is
eruption) to 7 or H for the largest eruptions. There
volcano has been quiet for a an extinct volcano. The Moon also has
have so far been no known eruptions with a VEI of 8.
long time but may erupt again; extinct volcanoes, and there ina\ be
Volcano and location Date VEI active volcanoes on \ enus. In. one of
an extinct volcano has stopped
erupting and is not expected to Crater Lake, Oregon C4895 B.C. 7 Jupiter's 16 moons, has active volcanoes
erupt again. that throve out plumes ofgases up to
Kikai, Ryukyu Island, Japan C4350 B.C. 7
100 miles (160km) high.
Santorini (Thira), Greece d 390 B.C. 6

Taupo, New Zealand c130 7

llopango, El Salvador C260 6

Oraefajokull, Iceland 1362 6

Long Island, New Guinea C1660 6

Tambora, Indonesia 1815 7

Krakatoa, Indonesia 1883 6

Santa Maria, Guatemala 1902 6

Castle Bock, Edinburgh, Scotland: the Katmai (Novarupta). Alaska 1912 6 ml hug plumes <»/ sulfuww
remains <>/ mi extinct volcano

Volcanic landscape
Volcanic activity beneath the surface heats up water above
and below the ground. This can create spectacular volcanic
landscapes, called hydrothermal areas, where hot water, mud,
and gases gush, bubble, and steam from vents in the ground. u,
V

HOT SPRING BUBBLING MUD POOL FUM VROLE GEYSI R SINTER II RUM I

A steaming hot spring forms A pool bubbling mud m,i\

ill' hot, A fumarolc is a cent thai releases SCI is a tall let >! cc.uei Minerals deposited b> » hoi
when underground watei is form where hoi cc.uei mixes ccith lets of steam and Inn voli mil thai i rupts vc hen cc.uei spring as it emerges onto
heated by c\ arm rocks. \s n mineral particles. \c uln volcanic gasis 1 lies-. ^ iv. s dt'. n iM. > t)fl napped in underground the surface mac build up
gets hotter, the water uses t gases corrode these particles from a smell ol en eggs hei nisi chambers is heated to the into a beautiful, strangelv
the surl.u c. the surrounding rocks. thee contain sulfur. boiling point l>\ hoi nx ks I sintci tei

43
EARTH

Earthquake belts
Earthquakes Most earthquakes occur
on or near the edges
Earthquakes are caused by of the Earth's
movements of the massive plates tectonic plates (see
pp.40-41). The
that make up the Earth's
ten earthquakes
lithosphere. Each year scientists with the highest
detect about 500,000 earthquakes known death tolls
are marked on
and tremors (small earthquakes).
this map.
Most are so small that they can
hardly befelt, but about 1,000 cause Earthquake belts usually
follow the edges of the
damage. Severe earthquakes can Earth's tectonic plates.

reduce whole cities to rubble.

FOCUS AND EPICENTER The earthquake is

Close-up on an earthquake The plates slip and lurch past each
other, causing an earthquake.
The exact point at which an strongest at the Many earthquakes occur at
epicenter.
earthquake occurs is the transform faults (see pp.40-41)
focus. The point on where the jagged edges of
the Earth's surface two moving plates may
directly above the occasionally lock
focus is the together. Stress
epicenter. builds up within
the plates, until
The focus
usually
is

deep
/ they suddenly
inside the Earth. slip, making the
ground shake
violently.
Shock waves can This fault line /
travel right through marks the boundary
the Earth to the other side of two plates.

Measuring earthquakes THE MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE

The study of earthquakes is called
The Mercalli scale runs from I to XII. It grades earthquakes according to their effects,
seismology. Scientists measure and
such as damage to buildings. The original scale was devised by Italian Giuseppe Mercalli
record earthquakes using seismometers.
(1850-1914) in 1902. It was later updated to create the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.
The size of an earthquake is measured
either according to its magnitude (the
size of the shock waves and energy it
produces) or according to its effects.
Magnitude is usually measured by the

Richter scale; effects are graded on the

Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.
I Not felt by people, but II May be felt by a few Ill Felt indoors by several IV Felt indoors by many,
recorded by instruments. people indoors, as a rapid vibration. outdoors by a few.
THE RICHTER SCALE Animals may be uneasy. particularly those on Hanging objects may Standing cars rock. Dishes
The Richter scale was devised by Doors may swing slowly. upper floors. swing slightly. and windows rattle.

American Charles F. Richter in the 1930s.

'

• -•#.';

Charles F. Richter
(1900-1985)

V Felt outdoors by most. VI Felt by all; people VII General alarm. Hard VIII Difficult to drive.

Emag\;\ Buildings tremble. Small afraid. Trees shake. Small for people to stand,
objects are knocked over, bells ring. Dishes break.
Doors swing. Pictures and books fall.
Chimneys crack. Plaster
falls. Windows break.
Considerable damage to
buildings.
Tree branches break.
Chimneys fall.

Magnitude Probable effects

1 Detectable only by instruments

2-3 Can just about be felt by people

4-5 Detectable within 20 miles (32km)

of the epicenter. Possible slight
damage within a small area
/ 'Hi
«flfl I
>'

6 Fairly destructive IX General panic. Large X Water slops out of XI Few buildings remain XII Almost all

cracks appear in the rivers. Underground standing. Bridges constructions destroyed.

7 A major earthquake ground. Some pipes torn apart. Most collapse. Railroad tracks Waves seen on ground.
8 A very destructive earthquake
buildings collapse. buildings destroyed. buckle. Large landslides. Rivers change course.

44
 .

EARTHQUAKES

Earthquake side-effects
Karthquakes on land FIRE LANDSLIDE ShIS MIC SEA WANK
may flatten cities and If an earthquake An earthquake may A seismic sea wave can
b reak mains cause a huge ch cause terrible
towns, cause landslides .

the slightest
?
f '
'

of mountainside devastation $f^Z '

and avalanches, and start spark can cause to break away when it hits
fires. Earthquakes huge fires burying all in the coast.
r
beneath the sea may cause path. f
its /*v/'// <

giant waves called seismic

sea waves or tsunamis.
These can travel many
miles across the ocean,
building into a huge wall
of water as they approach
the coast.

-<&:_

Worst earthquake Seismic sea wave

damage on record (tsunami) records
The most destructive HIGHEST SEISMIC SEA WAVE
earthquake happened in was estimated at 279ft (85m) high, almost
Kwanto, Japan in 1923. In as high as New York's Statue of Libert)
nearby Tokyo, where many of It appeared on April 24, 1971, off Ishigaki
the houses were built of wood Island, Japan.
and paper, the shaking ground
overturned stoves, setting the FASTEST SEISMIC SEA WAVES
houses on fire. A fire-storm then have been recorded traveling at
engulfed the city. Almost approximately 560mph (900km/h), more
144,000 people were killed, and than 186mph (300km/h) faster than the
575,000 homes were destroyed. world water speed record of 345mph
Tokyo was devastated fry the 1 923 eatl/u/mike (556km/h), achieved by a hydroplane.

SAN ANDREAS FAULT Worst earthquake death tolls Earthquake-proof

At the San Andreas Fault in
Location Date Estimated deaths
buildings
California, two plates are In earthquake-prone areas, specially
sliding past each other at a rate Shansi, China 1556 830,000 designed buildings can lessen the effects of
of about 2in (5cm) every year. a serious earthquake. For example, a
Calcutta, India 1737 300,000
Earthquakes and tremors pyramidal or cone-shaped building is less
happen frequently and are Tangshan, China 1976 255,000
likely to topple over than a
sometimes severe. San Aleppo. Syria 1138 230,000 building with vertical walls.
column of this
Francisco is very close to the
Damghan, Iran 856 200,000 Japanese
San Andreas Fault. - pagoda helps
Gansu, China 1920 200,000 toabsorb
earthquake
Nr. Xining, China 1927 200,000 shocks

Ardabil, Iran 893 150,000

Kwanto, Japan 1923 144,000

Messina, Italy 1908 70-100,000

Strongest known earthquakes

Location Date Magnitude
Richter scale

Colombia 1906 8.9

Morioka, Japan 1933 8.9

Lisbon, Portugal 1755 8.75

Assam, India 1897 8.7

San Andreas Fault, California

Earthquake facts MOONQUAKES

• Most earthquakes last less than a minute. • Earthquake shock waves travel through Most moonquakes
• Longest recorded earthquake lasted rock at approx 16,000mph (25,000km/h): are caused by
four minutes. Occurred on March 27, 1964, more than 20 times the speed of sound. meteorites smashing
in Alaska. It was one of the strongest They slow down in sand and mud. into the Moon's
known earthquakes, but killed only 1 15 • Some scientists believe animals can surface, Moonquakes
people due to low population density. sense an earthquake's approach. Strange aremonitored by
• First instrument for recording behavior includes: dogs how ling; chickens seismometers left In
earthquakes was the seismoscope, invented fleeing roosts; rats and mice leaving holes; American astronauts,
in China in ,\.n. 132. and fish thrashing about in ponds.

45
I \RTH

Rocks and minerals Geological time chart

Rocks are dated according to a geological
timescale that divides the Earth's history
At any point on the earth's surface, if you dig
into eras, periods, and epochs.
down far enough, you will come to rock. Rocks Era Period Million

are the building blocks of the Earth's crust. years ago

There are many different types of rock, and they Cenozoic Quaternary

are all composed of one or more minerals. Holocene (epoch) 0.01

Limestone is Pleistocene (epoch) 2

Rocks rock (see below).
a sedimentary
About 75 % Tertiary
The study of rocks is called petrology. All types of rock fall into one of land is covered with
of three categories: igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. sedimentary rochs. Pliocene (epoch) 5

Miocene (epoch) 25
IGNEOUS ROCK Extrusive and intrusive
Igneous rock starts off igneous rock Oligocene (epoch) 38
deep \\ thin the Earth as
i Igneous rock that r^j Eocene (epoch) 55
magma (molten rock). erupts from a
The magma rises toward volcano onto the Palaeocene (epoch) 65
the surface, where it may Earth's surface is
Mesozoic Cretaceous 144
erupt from a volcano, or extrusive. Igneous
cool and solidify within the rock that solidifies Jurassic 213
Earth's crust. before it reaches the
Basalt is an surface is intrusive. Triassic 248
igneous rock.
Paleozoic Permian 286

Pennsylvanian 320

Mississippian 360

Devonian 408

Silurian 438

Ordovician 505

Cambrian 590

The Giant's Causeway in Northei Precambrian 4,600

basalt, an extrusive igneous rock.

SEDIMENTARY ROCK
Rocks are weathered into
The rock cycle
fragments that are carried All rocks are constantly passing through
away by water, wind, a recycling process.
and ice. These
Igneous rocks are
sediments are laid
weathered away and
down in lakes, rivers,
washed into the ocean.
sand dunes, and on the
sea floor. Over millions
of years they are Sandstone is a
compressed, forming layers sedimentary rock. Ayers Rock (Uluru) in central Australia is composed
of sedimentary rocks. of sandstone.

METAMORPHIC ROCK
Metamorphic rock is igneous or
sedimentary rock that has been
changed by heat and/or pressure.
Heat may come from rising
'7' '<'.

m '.2

magma, and pressure may Mineral particles Heat from molten rock Rock may melt
occur when rock is squeezed
during mountain building. mm i/
sink to the
where they are
compacted into
sea floor changes surrounding
sedimentary and
igneous rock into
and rise to the
surface where
cools to form
it

Gneiss is a metamorphic rock. This landscape in northwest Scotland is formed [rum gneis. sedimentary rock. metamorphic rock. igneous rock.

Minerals ORE MINERALS Lead Copper

A mineral is a natural, non-living Ore minerals contain metals, and about 80 The softest A good conductor,

substance. Examples include

types of pure metal are extracted from them common metal, widely used in the
used in batteries electricity industry.
gold, silver, gypsum, quartz, Titanium and engineering.
and sulfur. \ light, strongmetal
used in aircraft
manufacture.
ROCK-FORMING MINERALS
Different combinations of minerals
form different types of rock. Chalcopyrite
Jet a nil net Batten copper ore Copper pipe
Quartz
Granite is composed /
// the mtneials

quartz, feldspar.
Aluminum Iron Mercury
and moo. Used in construction, I Ised in construction, Used in scientific
and the manufacture and in the instruments, and in
of consumer manufacture of steel. the manufacture of
Feldspar
goods, e.g. drugs and pesticides.
.. saucepans.

aluminum ore Aluminum tan Stainless steel fork Cinnabar - Meirnn

Mica men my ore thermometer

46
 ROCKS AND MINKR ALS

Crystals Mineral
Crystals grow from hardness
molten minerals, or The hardness of
minerals that are turtle
forms in
a mineral is
dissolved in liquids, tibialis <>l forms bright graded on a scale
such as water. Kighty- copper deposits. yellow crystals.
of 1 to 10,
five percent of the Quartz A /.u rite Sulfur Pyrite
devised by
Earth's rocks and I lardness: 7 Hardness: 3.5 Hardness: 1.5-2.5 Hardness: 6.5
System: hexagonal/trigonal System: monoclinic System: orthorhombic System: cubic
German
minerals are formed mineralogist
One of the most common Bright blue mineral Forms around volcano Sometimes mistaken tor
from crystalline minerals. Most popular once used as a craters. Referred to in the gold, hence its popular Priedrich Mohs
materials. material for crystal balls. pigment (coloring). Bible as "brimstone." name "tool's gold."
(1773-1839).

CRYSTAL MOHS' SCALE

SYSTEMS
The
shape
geometrical
in which a
(P 1

<£5>
mineral crystallizes
Cubic Tetragonal Hexagonal/ Orthorhombic Monoclinic Triclinic
is called its crystal
Examples: Examples: trigonal Examples: Examples: Examples:
system. There
diamond, galena, zircon, rutile, Examples: sulfur, olivine, malachite, rhodonite.
are six main systems.
garnet vcsuviinitt corundum, beryl topaz gypsum kyanite, turquoise

Gemstones Diamond Ruby ORGANIC GEMSTONES

Organic gemstones are
Gemstones are those that have a plant or
minerals valued for animal origin. They include
their beauty, rarity, pearls, shell, jet. and amber.
J
and durability. Ambei is iiu 2: Gypsum
There are about 100 ^_^^
/^"^
fossilized
Emerald ^^*fc»- resin oj
types of gemstone. trees.

The most valuable Diamond Ruby""" Emerald

include diamonds, Hardness: 10 Hardness: 9 Hardness: 7-8
System: cubic System: trigonal System: hexagonal
emeralds, rubies,
Sources include: S. Africa, Sources include: India, Sources include: Russia
and sapphires. Australia, Brazil. Russia Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka US, Zambia, Colombia 3: Calcile

BIRTHSTONES
Some gemstones
associated with
different
the year. The
months of
arc-

• January ^M ^^ February
Amethyst
M March
Aquamarine Diamond
May
Emerald
jinn
I 'em I
I
custom of wearing N&
birthstones
became popular
in the 18th century.
• July
Ruby
<\ August
Peridot
|
September
Sapphire
Octobei
Opal ZJf
I November
Yo! rember
Topaz
/"/"''- ^M
I Decembei
Turquoise

5 Apame

Giant gems Mineral structure Rock and

A mineral's hardness depends on the arrangement of mineral facts
The largest diamond was the
its atoms. Diamond and graphite are different forms of
Cullinan, found in South • More than half the
the same element - carbon - but their hardness varies
Africa in 1905. It weighed the gold mined returns to
because of their different internal structures.
same as an average pineapple. Earth: it is buried in
Diamond bank vaults.
Diamonds are
• The word crystal
the hardest of all
minerals. Each atom comes from the Greek
is strongly bonded to kyros, meaning icy cold.
four others, forming a was once thought
It
compact, rigid structure
The Cullinan diamond that rock crystal w as ice
weighed 3.106 carats A pineapple
(1lb6oz/0.6kg).
that had frozen so haul
Graphite Graphite is
In graphite, used
it would never thaw.
The largest pearl is the Pearl the atoms are pencil • About one in every
of Lao-tze, found in the arranged in layers
thousand oysters and 8 Topaz
Philippines in 1934 in the that casih slip o\ cr
each other. This one in every three
shell of a giant clam. It
gives graphite its
Arrangement of thousand mussels
weighs about the same as a weak structure. graphite atoms contains a pearl.
four-month-old baby.
The Pearl of
Lao-tze. weighs
Carats and beans Carob The
also
purity ol gold is
measured in
ruby
141b 1oz The weight of a gemstone is the purest gold
v>,
(6.37kg) measured in carats: one carat = is 24 carat This gold 9 Corundum
A four-month- bar is 23 5 carats
old baby 0.006oz (0.2g). The term carat
conies from the Greek word
for carob seed. These seeds
were once used as weights.

4"
 .

KARTI1

OpPTAM
V^/ VJ l\l J_i \l
T7T
r L/vyvV-TV DOR Major ridges and trenches
The major tcaturesot the ocean tloor
featuresof tne floor torm
form at the
boundaries of the plates that make up the Earth's crust
THE OCEAN FLOOR the largest is (see pp. 40-41). Mid-ocean ridges form where two plates
Vast undersea
mountain ranges form
are pulling apart, and trenches form at subduction
landscape on Earth. Beneath the where two tectonic
zones, where one plate is plunging beneath another. plates are pulling apart.
oceans are mountains as high as
the Himalayas, a rugged
mountain range that circles the
Earth, vast plains, deep canyons,
and trenches plunging thousands
of yards into the lithosphere.
Most of this fascinating
landscape is still unexplored.

Smokers
Smokers are tall, chimneylike vents on
the ocean floor that belch out clouds of
super-heated water. They occur at
volcanically active spots on mid-
ocean ridges.

e
j>r Heated water
erupts in tall jets
^J
Temperature of Life around
heated water smokers
Deepest trenches
may be up to
Smokers support The depth of deep-sea trenches is measured from sea level.
662°F (350°C)
strange forms
life
Depth
"Chimneys" up to that derive energy
Trench Ocean meters feet
164ft (50m) high not from the Sun,
build up from like other life forms
Smokers were Mariana Trench West Pacific 10,920 35,827
minerals deposited
discovered in 1977 on Earth, but from
by the hot water.
by the American volcanic activity. Tonga Trench South Pacific 10,800 35,433
submersible "Alvin.

Tube worms Water seeps deep Philippine Trench West Pacific 10,057 32,995
Heated water down into the sea
rises back to the floor where is
it
Kermadec Trench South Pacific 10,047 32,963
surface of the heated by
ocean floor. volcanic activity.
Izu-Ogasawara Trench West Pacific 9,780 32,087

Clams ,
Kuril Trench West Pacific 9,550 31 ,332

North New Hebrides Trench South Pacific 9,175 30,102

>« New Britain

Puerto Rico Trench

Trench South

West
Pacific

Atlantic
8,940

8,605
29,331

28,232

Yap Trench West Pacific 8,527 27,976

Features of the ocean floor SUBMARINE CANYON ABYSSAL PLAIN SEAMOUNT

The ocean floor is where the lithosphere is Sediments deposited by a Vast plains formed from a A seamount is an

river flowing into the sea deep layer of sediment lie underwater volcano that
created and destroyed. Volcanic activity associated
form a current that helps approximately 1 1,480-1 8,040ft rises 3,280ft (1,000m) or
with mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones to erode a canyon in the (3,500-5,500m) below more above the
(see pp. 40—11) creates many ocean floor features. ocean floor. sea level. surrounding plain.

. Oil rig

Mid-ocean ridges As two tectonic plates

Submarine canyon are about 620 miles pull apart, magma rises

Abyssal plain Seamount (1,000km) wide. to fill the gap, forming

new ocean floor.

Continental shelf .

Continental slope

Continental rise

CONTINENTAL SHELF CONTINENTAL SLOPE CONTINENTAL RISE MID-OCEAN RIDGE

The continental shelf is The continental slope- Beyond the steep A lung, undersea mountain
the gently sloping rim descends steeply from the continental slope there may range runs along the mid-oce
of a continent. continental shelf to the be a gentler slope called the ridge, where two tectonic
abyssal plain. continental rise. plates are pulling apart.

48
 OCK.W I LOOR

Ocean floor sediment Found on the ocean floor

Close to the coast, sediment consists mainly of mud, sand, Many useful products arc found on or under the ocean floor.
and silt washed off the land by rivers. The deep ocean floor is They include diamonds, oil, gas. coal, sand, and metals from
blanketed with ooze, the remains of dead marine plants and manganese nodules.
animals. The amount of sediment and ooze can help scientists
calculate the age of the ocean floor. DIAMONDS SAND, GRAVEL,
These are found AND LIMESTONE
in shallow These are found in
waters oft the coastal waters.
coasts of Vfrica
and Indonesia.

COAL OIL AND GAS

Coal is mined \bout 208 of oil
beneath the comes from the
sea as well as ocean floor.
on land. Natural gas is
Newly formed rock 5 million years later 10 million years later found with oil
At the mid-ocean ridge, The rock has moved The roek has moved deposits.
the new volcanic rock of 311 miles (500km) from the 620 miles (1,000km)
the ocean floor is almost ridge. Sediment has starred from the ridge. It is
tree of sediment. to gather in hollows. covered with a thick Formation of oil and gas
blanket of sediment. Under certain conditions, oil and gas form from the remains of dead
plants and animals that accumulate on the floor of shallow seas.
Mapping the Remains of
ocean floor dead marine
organisms ...
Early explorations of the ocean
•

The ship sends

floor were made from ships down a signal from

using a lead and line to estimate

depth. Scientists today use
echo-sounding techniques
its transmitter.

The time taken

for the signal to
1 Dead
remains sink
'— Sea

plant and animal

down
floor

to the
2 Sediments of sand
and mud washed
^i
3 Increased pressure
from further lavcrs of
^~ Water

and special submarines - bounce back to

the ship indicates
submersibles - that can descend the depth of
to the very depths of the ocean. the ocean
off
flooi of the continental the land b\ rivers sandstone and other
shelf. Bacteria break the form layers of sedimentary rock turns
remains down into sandstone, covering the organic remains
organic material. the organic remains. into oil and gas.

Ocean floor facts Highest On land Beneath the sea

• A ooze sinks
particle of • The Mariana trench could Mt. Everest Highest seamount

1— 10ft (0.3-3m) per day. At this hold 28 Empire State Buildings seamount 29,028ft
(8,848m)
28.560ft
(8,705m)
rate, it would take standing on top of each other. and deepest
25 years for the
• Oldest parts of the ocean submarine
remains of a dead
shrimp to sink
floor areabout 200 million years CANYON
old. Oldest rocks on land are The highest
from the ocean
about 3.5 billion years old. seamount is near
surface to the floor
the Tonga Trench
of a deep-sea trench. • At a growth rate of about
between Samoa and
O.OHin (2mm) every New Zealand. The
• The tube worm Alvinella million years, it
deepest submarine
pompejana can live on smoker takes 10 million
canyon is 25 miles
walls where the temperature is years for a
(40km) south of Grand Canyon Deepest submarine
Z21°F (105°C) - higher than any manganese nodule to
Esperance, Australia. 5,499fl (1,676m) canyon 5.906ft (1 .800m)
land animal can tolerate. reach the size of a grape.

Guyot Oil tanker Deep-sea trenches are about Island arc

—
,

62 miles (100km) wide. They may

be thousands of kilometers long. Depth m(ft)

Sea level

/ •'•'
1 .000 (3,280)

2,000 (6.560)

3,000 (9.840)

4,000(13.120)

5.000(16.400)

One plate is plunging 6.000(19.690)

beneath the other,
forming a 7.000 (22.970)
GUYOT TRENCH ISLAND ARC deep i

A guyot is a flat-topped A deep trough may form at a A curved of volcanic

line
8.000 (26.250)
seamount that once rose above siibdiictiou /one u here one plate islands, called -m island arc,
the surface of the ocean as a plunges beneath another. Ocean floor often forms close to a
9.000 (29.530)
Mik, inn island. is destroyed at subduction /ones. subduction /one.

l
4 )
I \RTH
Ellesmere

Major oceans,
Oceans and Victoria
Island
islands, and

islands Qx CURRENTS
H>nshu\ This map shows the
ocation of the
More than two- thirds of world's major
the Earth's surface lies beneath oceans, islands,
and ocean
the oceans. Where the land rises
currents. Currents
above sea level it forms are caused by
continents and islands. An island winds blowing
across the surface of
is a piece of land, smaller than a
The currents
the sea.
continent, that is surrounded by water. may be warm or cold.
warm current cold current
Water vapor and
Formation of carbon dioxide

the oceans
The oceans began to form many
millions of years ago when the
Earth was still cooling and
solidifying following its early
molten state. Water vapor was
1 As the young Earth tooled, 2 When the atmosphere was saturated 3 The Earth cooled and volcanic
thrown into the atmosphere volcanoes erupted, throwing out a with water vapor, the vapor condensed, eruptions became fewer. For the last
by volcanoes. mixture of gases that formed the falling as rain. Rainwater began to 100 million years the water volume in
early atmosphere. collect in vast hollows. the oceans has stayed about the same.

The water in a
Wave sequence wave appears to
Waves are caused by wind blowing across the surface be moving Ocean data
forward, but in
of the sea. The height and power of waves depends fact it moves Total surface area 139.8 million sq miles (362 million sq km)
on the strength of the wind. in a circle.
Total volume 324 million cu miles .35 billion cu km)
(1

Mean depth 2.2 miles (3.5km)

The base of Weight of water 1.32 x10 18 tons

the wave is held back
by the shore. The crest of the % of Earth's water 94%
wave moves faster, toppling
over when it reaches land. Temperature range 29°Fto97°F(-1.9°Cto36°C)

Freezing temp, of sea water 29°F(-1.9°C)

Water reaches the - Water reaches ,

base of the circle in the top of the circle Deepest known point 35,827ft (10,920m)
the trough of a wave. at the crest of the wave.

Force of the waves Ocean facts

When waves break on the • More than 60% of the Earth's • The Gulf Stream ocean
shore, they exert a surface covered by water
is current contains about 100
tremendous force. The deeper than 1 mile (1.6km). times as much
weight of the sea hitting water as the
• Average depth of Pacific
land can create pressures combined
Ocean: 2.4 miles (3.94km);
of more than 25 tons per volume of
average depth of Atlantic Ocean:
square yard. This is all the
2.2 miles (3.57km).
30 times as great as the rivers in
pressure exerted on land • There is more gold dissolved the world.
by a human foot. in seawater than there is on
The PacificOcean
land. The concentration is
covers more than a
0.000004 parts per million. third nf the Earth

Ocean and sea areas

Pacific Ocean
63,855,000sq miles (165,384,000sq km)
45.7% of sea area
Indian Ocean
Atlantic Ocean 28,371 ,000sq miles (73,481 ,000sq km)
31 ,744,000sq miles 20.3% of sea area
(82,21 7,000sq km)
Whirlpools 22.7% of sea area
Arctic Ocean
Whirlpools are caused by a clash 5,108,000sq miles
of tidal flows in places where (13,230,000sqkm)
3.65% of sea area
the sea floor is uneven. Currents
Other seas
rush toward each other, and, 1 0,690, OOOsq miles
if they rocky shelf on the
hit a (27.687,000sq km)
7.65 %
of sea area
sea floor, water surges upward,
turning the surface into a
seething mass.

50
 OCEANS AM) ISLANDS

Ocean zones Minerals in the sea

Minerals dissolved from rocks Heaps of salt
Depth Bathal zone
b\ rivers arewashed into the The total amount of salt in
m(ft) surface - 6,560f1 (2,000m)
the world's oceans and seas
Light disappears about
oceans. The most abundant are
330ft (100m) down sodium and chlorine, which would cover Europe to a
2,000 Temperature declines together form salt. The average
depth of
(6,560) rapidly about 3 miles \

980ft (300m) down salinity of the oceans is 33 to 38

parts salt per 1,000 parts water.
(5km).
Abyssal zone Potassium: . Calcium: 1.19%

6,000
6,560-1 9.690ft
(2,000-6.000m)
1.13% —^ -
Magnesium:
Sulfate _ 3 66%
(19,690) 7.94%
Salt (sodium
Hadal zone Sodium: \ chloride)

below 19,690ft 30.79% \ molecule

(6,000m)

Chlorine: 55.27%
The temperature of
the deep ocean is Over half of
close to freezing. deep sea fish species
produce their own light.
Madagascar Honshu
Islands World's largest islands Indian Ocean
NW Pacific
Area: 226,645sq
Islands are found in seas, Area: 87,800sq miles
(587.009sq km)
(227,401sqkm)
rivers,and lakes. They range
New Guinea
in size from small mud and Western Pacific
sand islands measuring only Area: 305.983sq miles Baffin Island
(792,493sq km) Ocean
a few square yards, to Arctic M Victoria Island
Area:
the largest, Greenland, which Borneo Arctic Ocean
195,917 sq miles
Area:
measures more than Indian Ocean (507,423sq km)
Area: 280,085sq miles
83.891 sq miles
three quarters of a million (725,416sq I
(217,278sqkm)

square miles.
Great Britain Ellesmere Island
North Atlantic Arctic Ocean
Sumatra Area: 84,195sq miles Area
Indian Ocean (218,065sqkm) 75,763sq miles
Greenland Area: 164,991sq miles (196,225sq km)
Types of island Arctic Ocean (427,325sq km)
Area: 839,856sq miles
There are four main types
(2,175,219sqkm)
of island.
CORAL ISLAND ISLAM) FORMED in \
A forms when corals (tiny
coral island CHANGE IN SKA I I \ I I

marine organisms) grow up toward the A rise in sea level, for example at the
surface of the ocean from a shallow end of an ice age, ma\ cut off an area
underwater platform, such as the peak of land from a continent, forming an
of a seamount (see p.4X). The coral island. Great Britain was formed in this
skeletons build up over many years way. Some pieces of land become
until they reach the surface. islands at high tide.

The Maldives in thelndian Ocean Mtmi Sr Michel m

Franci becomes un island
are until islands. each lime the tide comes in.

VOLCANIC ISLAND ISLAND ARC

Volcanoes that erupt beneath the An island arc is a chain of volcanic-
ocean mas eventually grow to reach islands that usii.ilK forms landward of
the surface, where they emerge as ;i subduction zone (see pp.40—11).
islands. Volcanic islands often form Sciinc island arcs contain main
close to plate boundaries thousands of islands. he Japanese I

(see pp.40-41). islands were formed in this way.

The vul< nun island ul Surtsey Indonesia, photographed from

appeared south of Iceland m the the Space Shuttle in 1983. Indonesia is the
Atlantii (hum m 1963. world's longest island art.

Coral atolls Ocean and island records

An atoll is a ring-shaped coral island with GRIiATHST OCEAN CURRENT REMOTEST 1 SI WD
a lagoon in its center. Atolls form is the Antarctic Circumpolar is Bouvet Island, about
A coral reef builds up,
when a coral reef builds up Current (also know n as the West 1.056 miles (1.700km) from the
fringing the volcanic island. around a volcanic island, ami Wind Drift Current), which nearest land (Queen Maud
the island subsequently flows at a rate of 4.6 billion en ft I ,and, eastern Antarctica).
sinks below sea level. As (130,000,000cu m) per second.
As the island starts the island sinks, the LARGEST CORA! UOll
continues
to sink, coral
to grow upward.
coral continues HIGHEST RECORDED w W E is Kwajalein in the Marshall
to grow. (excluding seismic sea waves) Islands, central Pacific Ocean
Lagoon was 12ft (.Mm) from trough to
1 Its reef miles (283km)
is 1 7(>

The island has disappeared, crest,recorded in 1933 en route long, and encloses a lagoon of
leaving a coral atoll.
from the Philippines to the S. I l.lOOsq miles (2,850sq km).

51
 1

EARTH

Major mountain
Mountains Aleutian Range
1,650 miles (2,650km
RANGES
This map shows the
As THE EARTH'S tectonic world's longest
plates jostle and grind against mountain ranges.
Usually these
each other, the crust may
follow the edges
buckle and fold, throwing up of the Earth's
lofty mountain ranges. tectonic plates
(see pp.40-41).
Volcanoes also erupt at plate
boundaries, and may build up Central New Guinea Range
1,240 miles (2,000km)
into high mountains.
Trans-Antarctic
Mountains
2,200 miles (3,500km) Great Dividing Range

Types of mountain 2,240 miles (3,600km)

There are four main types of

mountain. Fold mountains
form when the World's highest mountains
FOLD MOUNTAINS Earth's crust The ten highest mountains in the world are all in the Himalayas.
When two of the Earth's tectonic bends and
buckles. Height
plates collide, the crust at the plate
edges may crumple and fold under
Name Location meters feet

the strain, pushing up ranges of Everest Nepal/China 8,848 29,029

fold mountains.
jfe^~ K2 Kashmir/China 8,611 28,251
VOLCANOES Layers of lava
Kanchenjunga Nepal/Sikkim 8,598 28,209
A volcano forms when magma buildup into PSnjF
(molten rock) from deep inside the a mountain. Lhotse NepalAibet 8,511 27,923
Earth erupts onto the surface, i

building into a tall cone. Some of Makalu Nepal/Tibet 8,480 27,822

the highest mountains in the world
are volcanoes.
/ nP Cho Oyu Nepal 8,201 26,906

Dhaulagiri Nepal 8,172 26,81

FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAINS Manaslu Nepal 8,156 26,759
Fault-block
Plate movements may squeeze
mountains form
layers of rock until they crack and where one slab Nanga Parbat Kashmir 8,126 26,660
snap. These cracks are faults. or rock is thrust
Mountains form when a slab or above another.
Annapurna Nepal 8,078 26,503
block of rock is squeezed upward.

DOME MOUNTAINS Close-up of a mountain / Nothing \

A upwelling of molten rock
large High mountains have several zones of can survive
y.
(an igneous intrusion) beneath the Rising molten vegetation, due to the drop in
Earth's surface may force up the rock forces up Specially adapted

overlying layers of rock into a

huge hump. Mountains formed in
overlying layers
of rock into
mountains.
temperature at higher altitudes. alpine species
JM
this way are dome mountains. Pine forest

Mt. Everest
Nepal/China
Asia Broadleaf forest

Life of a mountain Mt. Everest was first

29,029ft
(8,848m)
climbed on May 29, 1953 by
YOUNG Wide range of vegetation
Mountains that formed
New Zealander Edmund
1919) and
Hillary (born
during the last few
Sherpa Tensing Norgay
million years, or that are
growing,
still e.g. the
(1914-86) of Nepal. Aconcagua
Argentina
Highest mountain
Himalayas. South America per continent
Mt, McKinley 22,835ft
MATURE This illustration shows the
Alaska, US (6,960m)
Mountains several North America comparative size of the
20,322ft
hundred million years old highest mountain on
(6,194m)
that have been eroded to each continent.
a fraction of their former
El'brus
size, e.g. the Urals.
Russia
Europe
ANCIENT Kilimanjaro
18,510ft
Mountains that have Tanzania
(5,642m)
been eroded away Africa
. Vinson Massif 19,341ft
until there are
Antarctica (5,895m)
just a few hills 16,864ft
Ancient on a low-lying Mt. Wilhelm (5,140m)
peneplain. Papua New Guinea
Australasia
16,024ft
The Eiffel Tower in (4,884m)
Paris, France, is
984ft (300m) high.

_1
52
 VALLEYS AND CAVES

Valleys and caves fcte-- The

IB
00L
in
river valley begins high
the mountains as a
narrow gully

THE FORGES OF EROSION are constantly

attacking the land, changing its
In the river's upper
appearance. Rain flows into rivers that cut course, the valley
is a characteristic
valleys into the landscape. In limestone V-shape
areas, rainwater may seep into the rock,
eating it away to form caves.
valley \ uppei course

Features of a valley As the river

Types of valley
A river valley usually begins in the mountains reaches the
as a steep-sided gully cut by a fast-flowing gentler slopes of
middle course,
stream. As it flows down toward lower v^-^*,-
its

its rate of flow

<^
ground, the river slows down and the ^^^ _^*-^* "*C>
r
slows down.
valley widens. As it nears the
The river meanders
sea the river flows across a back and forth,

wide, level flood plain. widening the valley

Some rivers fan

out into a Milfin'l Sound, Vcto Zealand
delta at their FJORD
estuary (see In glaciated areas of the world, deep
valleys arc scoured out b\ glaciers.
pp.56-57). The valley floor covered in a
is Delta
thick carpet of sand and mud. see p. 56) valley's Iowa course
When a glacier melts, for example at
the end of an ice age, the sea level may
rise, flooding the valley to form a fjord.

Caves Cross-section of a limestone cave

Caves are large,
naturally occurring
hollows in the ground,
in cliffs, or in ice.

LIMESTONE CAVE
Most caves occur in
limestone areas, because
this tvpe ::f rock is soluble
(dissolves) in rainwater. [Jrkan Iti/t Valley

SEA CAVE RIFT VALLEY

Waves crashing Rift valleys form when a long, narrow
against cliffs
erode away the rocks, block of land sinks between i\w faults,
forming sea caves. at places where two tectonic plates are
pulling apart (sec pp.411—11 ).

ICE CAVE
A stream of meltwater
running beneath a glacier
may carve out an ice cave.
LAVA CAVE
When the crust of a lava
flow hardens, the molten
Stalagmites build up A stalactite and stalagmite
lava beneath may flow out,
on the cave floor. have joined, forming a column."
leaving a lava cave.

Limestone cave features Valley and cave RECORDS (•taitft Canyon, Arizona
Water dripping in limestone caves leaves LONGEST FJORD LONGEST CAVE GORGE AND CANYON
behind tiny amounts of calcite. These Nordvest Fjord,
is SYSTEM A gorge is a deep ravine with walls that
mineral deposits build up to form distinctive Greenland, which extends is the Mammoth Cave arc almost vertical. \ cumin isa gorge,

system, Kentucky, usually w ith water flow ing through it.

limestone cave features. It can take from 194 miles (313km) inland.
found in the desert. The source of us
four to four thousand years for a stalactite or which is 348 miles
LARGEST GORGE river is often outside the desert.
stalagmite to grow one inch (2.5cm). (560km) long.
is the Grand Canyon in
Curtain stalactite Arizona, at 217 miles LONGEST
STALACTITE
(349km) long and up to
is 20ft 4in (6.2m) long.
5,499ft (1,676m) deep.
?_==/ || Slnhilili It is in the Poll an
LARGEST GAVE CHAMBER Ionana, a cave in
Column is the Sarawak Chamber in ( !o. Clare, Ireland.
Sarawak, Malaysia, which
TALLEST
has an area of 1,751, 3()()s(] STALAGMITE
Fircone »
ft(162,7()()s(| m). The cave
\ stiiliifrimir rW-.-s^ is 105ft (32m) tall, in
slalagmtti '/*,
8 X'.wZTSI chamber is 2,300ft (700m) the Krasnohorska WAD1
long,and has an average A wadi narrow, steep-sided desert
is a
cave in the ( Izech \ .ilk \ uMialK di\ \ wadi's
thai is
width of 980ft (300m). The Republic. *h.u.K teristic shape is carved out b\
lowest part of the root' is
Size of tallest stalagmite A the Hash floods thai occui iftei
Plate stack stalagmite 230ft (70m) high. compared to an adult IJ_: torrential desert rainfall.

53
K ART II

Glaciated regions
Glaciation This map shows the areas
of the world with
More than a tenth of the permanent snow
Earth's surface is covered with ice cover. The total
area of snow and
throughout the year. Ice sheets ice is about
and sea ice blanket the polar 6,02(),000sq miles
areas, and glaciers flow down the (15,6()(),000sq
km): one-and-a-
slopes of high mountain ranges.
half times the
Glaciers are found even on size of Europe.
mountains at the equator.
The Antarctic
ce sheet contains
Formation of of the world's ice.

an ICE CAP
2 The temperature rises in 3 Eventually the firn forms
1 Heavy winter snowfall summer, but on high ground an ice cap. Gravity causes
it is not warm enough to ^y it to flow down from
blankets the land. Fresh
layers compress the melt the ice. Over colder or higher
older snow beneath, successive winters, ground. Tongues of
turning it into an the blanket of firn ice fill the valleys,

ic\ mass called firn,

becomes thicker. forming glaciers.

Features of A pyramidal peak forms when Freshwater

a mountain attacked by
a glacier Firn field
is

glaciers from several sides. reservoir

Glaciers usually More than 75% of the world's
begin high in the The crack A sharp an
ridge called freshwater is frozen in ice
between the arete forms between
mountains. Most headwall and the two glaciers. sheets, ice caps, and glaciers.
flow at a rate of up firn field is the
Bergschrund
to 7ft (2m) per day,
although glaciers
on steeper slopes
may flow much
more quickly. It

may take thousands

of years for ice to Water

reach the end of a

slow-moving glacier.
The end of
Proportion of ice
the glacier is
About 12% of sea and 10% of
the snout. , land is permanently covered
A stream of with ice.
melrwater flows out
from the snout.

The glacier
scours out rocks.
forming debris
called moraine.

Medial moraine is

carried in the center,

where two glaciers
have joined.

moraine is

dumped at fhe snout.

Longest glaciers
The glaciers listed below are the longest in each of the major
glaciated regions of the world.
Ice-sculpted landscapes
When example at the end of an
glaciers retreat, for Glacier Region Length
km miles
ice age, they leave behind U-shaped valleys, fjords
(see p. 53), and deep lakes. Piles of moraine form Hanging valleys Lambert- Fisher Ice Passage Antarctica 515 320
open high on
drumlins (small hills) and moraine ridges. the sides of the Petermanns Glacier Greenland 200 124
main valley.

o- Hubbard Glacier Alaska-Yukon, N.America 128 80

Siachen Glacier Karakoram, Asia 75 47

Skeidararjokull Iceland 48 30

Tasman Glacier New Zealand 29 18

Aletsch Gletscher European Alps 24 15

Before glaciation: a V-shaped After glaciation: a U-shaped
river valley river valley
Gyabrag Glacier Himalayas 21 13

54
 GLACIATION

Snowline Ice ages

The snowline is the level that divides year- Ice ages occur when the
round snow from snow that melts during Earth's average temperature
warmer weather. The closer a mountain area becomes slightly cooler and
is to the equator, the higher the snowline. theamount of ice increases.
Scientists believe that four
major ice ages and many
smaller ice advances
occurred during the last
200 000
two million years.

Most recent ice age

Mt. Vinson. The last ice age began about 72.000 vears ago. Huge ice sheets
Antarctica, covered much of
is
and ended about 10,000 years ago. This map North America.
covered in snow
and icefrom shows the areas of the world that Europe, and
summit. Asia
foot to were covered with ice. The
sea level was about 490ft
(150m) lower than
today, because so
Mt. Kenya, x - ,. much water was
which is close
locked Lip in ice.
to the equator, has
glaciers on its summit.
The land where
New York now stands
On the equator In the European Alps In polar regions was covered with ice.
the snow line lies about the snowline lies about the snowline lies at
16,000ft (4,900m) high. 9,000ft (2,700m) high. sea evel. New Zealand
Southern Argentina
was covered by Up to 30% of the was covered
an ice sheet.
Earth's surface by an ice cap
Avalanches was glaciated

An avalanche is a mass of snow

and suddenly crashes

ice that The extra weight of Avalanche facts
snow, combined
down a mountainside. It may be • An avalanche can generate winds of up to
with a sudden rise
up to 0.6 miles (1km) across, in temperature. 186mph(300km/h).
and can move at up to 200m ph triggers an
avalanche. • About 18,000 Austrian and Italian soldiers
(320km/h). If a town or village
are thought to havebeen killed in a single
lies in the path of an avalanche,
day in 1916 by more than 100 avalanches in
houses may be flattened and
the Dolomites, northern Italy. Many of
people killed.
Heavy snowfall adds
these avalanches were started by gunfire.
extra weight to the
snow cover on this
• The biggest avalanches usually occur on
mountain slope. slopes with an angle of 30 or more.

Sea ice
The sea freezes over when its Icebergs
temperature falls below 29°F
Tallest iceberg Icebergs are large chunks of ice-

(-1.9°C). Sea ice is never more

The tallest iceberg ever
that break off the end of ice-
reported was 550ft (167m)
than about 16ft (5m) thick. sheets, ice caps, and glaciers,
high - taller than St. Paul's and float out to sea. The
Cathedral, London. It was
process of icebergs
sighted off Greenland body
breaking off a
in 1958.
of ice is called
calving.

The rising and falling

tide, together with
buffeting from the
waves, breaks the
iceberg off the
end of the
glacier. ^^r~~ Once
^^T an iceberg
^r has broken
Sea iceqff the western Sntarctii coast away, its
/' movements are
controlled by ocean
Icy records LARGEST ICEBERG currents and the wind
FASTEST-MOVING GLACIER The largest iceberg ever Only a small proportion —
is the Quarayaq, Cireenland, recorded was more than of an iceberg - about Iceberg facts
which can flow 66-79ft 208 miles (535km) long and 12% -is visible • \boti( lo.ooo icebergs a year
above the
(2()-24m) per day. 60 miles (97km) wide - an area surface of the
break awa\ from the glaciers of
THICKEST ICE about the size of Maryland. ocean. The western ( ireenland.
remainder
ever recorded is 3 miles (5km) GREATEST NUMBER OF is hidden
• Scientists estimate thai the
deep, in Wilkes /and, 1 DEATHS FROM AN AVALANCHE beneath the Ige age of the ice in
water
Antarctica.This would reach was 5,000 at I luaras, Peru, on icebergs is 5,000 ve.us.
over halfway up Mt. Everest. December 15 1941.

;;
KARTH

Great
Major rivers
Rivers Bear Lake
Mackenzie R
Lake
and lakes
Lake"\^ This map shows the
and lakes Superior
world's major rivers
and lakes. The
MOST OF THE freshwater on largest lake (the
Caspian Sea)
Earth is frozen in ice, or is held
covers an area
in rocks below the surface as almost as large as
groundwater. Less than 1% is Japan, while the
longest river (the
contained in rivers and lakes, yet
Nile) could stretch
these features have a significant from New York
effecton the landscape. Antarctica
has no rivers
to Berlin.
or lakes: all of its

freshwater is frozen
Types of river
PERENNIAL RIVER Many rivers

Perennial rivers flow all

Features of a river begin in

year round. They are A river is a body of water that flows mountain Rainfall runs off
ranges. the mountain
usually found in downhill in a channel, usually slopes into the
temperate and tropical toward the ocean. Rivers have three river system.
areas (see pp. 60-61),
sections: the upper course, middle
\\ here rain falls
throughout the year. course, and lower course.
The Nile: a perennial river _. Tributary
streams
Upper course feed the
SEASONAL RIVER The young, fast-flowing The river plunges
main river.
Seasonal rivers flow only over a shelf of
river rushes down a
hard rock, forming
during wet seasons. steep gradient, cutting a a waterfall.
California and V-shaped gully.
Mediterranean countries
have seasonal rivers that
The waterfallwears away
flow in the winter season,
but are drv in summer.
the rock and moves
slowly upstream, cutting
River water sources
Seasonal river in Crete during suniniei a deep gorge. All rivers receive their water,
either directly or indirectly, from
EPHEMERAL RIVER precipitation (see pp. 60-61).
Where the river flows
Ephemeral rivers are
down a steep slope of
usually dry. Many desert
ephemeral; for
rivers are
hard rock, it forms OVERLAND FLOW
swirling rapids. Rainfall runs down slopes into
example, the Todd River
small streams. These
in central Australia hardly
. In its upper tributaries eventually flow
ever has water in it.
course, the into the main river.
river flows over
The Todd River in central Australia. obstacles.

SPRING
River records The river cuts farther Rain soaks into the ground and
LONGEST EUROPEAN RIVER bank,
into the isabsorbed into the aquifer - a
widening the layer of rock that can hold
is the Volga, Russia, which is meander
water. Where the water table
(loop)
2,194 miles (3,531km) long. (the upper surface of the
Middle course groundwater) meets the ground
LONGEST k> The mature surface, a spring may occur.
AUSTRALASIAN RIVER Jty^ river's
is the Murray, Australia, which is ;"a| gradient is
MELTWATER A
1,609 miles (2,589km) long. more gentle,
!'
I
Many rivers rise (begin) in
and its rate
glaciated regions of the world,
LARGEST DELTA of flow
where they are fed by melting
slower. It snakes
is the Ganges and Brahmaputra snow and ice.
over the floodplain,
delta, which covers about forming meanders.
30,000sq miles (75,000sq km).
South Carolina would fit into it Lower course
Longest rivers
n old age segment, with almost River Location Length
with room to spare. its

no gradient, the river flows km miles

sluggishly and drops its
Nile Africa 6,695 4,160
*^>. sediment load.
Highest 10"-
The river
\\ frequently floods and
It

Amazon South America 6,439 4,001

estuary where
WATERFALL a! is

fresh river water

changes course.
Yangtze Asia 6,379 3,964
The Angel Falls meets salty
seawater. Ob-lrtysh Asia 5,410 3,362
in Venezuela '>'.
i
The wide, flat

have a total drop 1 ji;-'

floodplain is
Yellow Asia 4,672 2,903
of 3,2 12ft
1 y submerged
\ when the Amur Asia 4,464 2,774
(979m): almost \\ I river floods.

three times as Lena Asia 4,400 2,734

high as the Congo Africa 4,374 2,718

Empire State *9 Mackenzie North America 4,270 2,653
Building.
The river may block its own route with sediment, forcing it to split Mekong Asia 4,184 2,600
into separate streams. These fan out, forming a delta.

56
 RIVKRS AND LAKES

Types of lake EARTH MOVEMENT A / /' VOLCANIC

sj Bf
When the Earth's crust i'/
(J"t ACTIVITY
A lake is an inland body of water that is uplifted (see p. 52), a Rainwater often collects
collects in a large depression. Most lakes body of water may be " y involcano crater.
raters.
cut off from the sea, forming lakes such as
are fed by rivers (plus a small amount of Lake formed by crustal uplift Crater Inki
forming a lake. Similarly, Oater Lake in Oregon.
rainfall),and most lose water into an when forms
a rift valley Some lakes, such as the
outlet river. Some lakes, however, have (sec p. .5.}), water collects Sea of Galilee in Israel,
no outlet and only lose water by in the trough forming form u hen a river is
evaporation. These lakes, such as lon^, narrow lakes, e.g. dammed by a lava flow
Lake Nyasa, Africa. (see p. 42).
.Australia's Lake Eyre, or Utah's Cireat
Salt Lake, are often salty.
lii/i valley luk? I In n lava dam

EROSION DEPOSITION EROSION AND

Lakes hollows
till

scoured out by glaciers

<",< An oxbow
w hen a
lake forms
meander is cut
DEPOSITION
Glaciers carve out
during ice ages, c.r. the off from a river by the I -shaped \ alleys and
lakeland plateau of deposition of sediment. comes (see p. 54) that I

Kuopio, Finland. When Deposition lakes also may be dammed by

Lakes "i ice-worn hollows Oxbow lake Ribbon lake
desert winds erode a form when a landslide- moraine deposited
deflation hollow (see dams a river, and when w hen the ice retreats.
p. 62) to below the water sandbars and dunes cut Long, narrow ribbon
table, groundwater may off coastal waters from lakes fill the valleys,
All the depression, the sea. and small, circular tarns
forming a lake. fill the cirques.

Lake in a deflation hollow Wide l„,

Largest lakes Lake records

Deepest LARGEST EUROPEAN LAKE
lake Lake Location Area
is Lake Ladoga. Russia, which
sq km sq miles
Lake Baikal in has an area of 6,835sq miles
Siberia has a Caspian Sea Asia 370,980 143,236
(17,702sq km).
maximum depth of Lake Superior North America 82,098 31 ,698
5,315ft (1,620m). Its
LARGEST
deepest point could
Lake Victoria Africa 69,480 26,826 AUSTRALASIAN LAKE
swallow five Eiffel Lake Huron North America 59,566 22,999 is Lake Eyre, Australia, which
has an area of3,600sq miles
Towers standing on Lake Michigan North America 57,754 22,299
top of each other. (9,323sq km). This salt lake is
Aral Sea Asia 37,056 14,307 usually dry.
Lake Tanganyika Africa 32,891 12,699
LARGEST SOUTH
Lake Baikal Russia 31,498 12,161 AMERICAN LAKE
Uses of rivers and lakes Great Bear Lake Canada 31,327 12,095 is Lake Titicaca in Peru and

Bolivia, which has an area of

Lake Nyasa Africa 28,877 11.149
SOURCE OF FRESHWATE 3,200sq miles (8,288sq km).
Lakes and rivers supply water
for factoriesand industry.
They also provide freshwater Vanishing lakes
for towns and cities. yj) Most lakes are geologically
short-lived, lasting less than a
TRANSPORTATION million years. Most are filled in
Lakes and rivers have
been used for centuries
by sediment dumped by rivers;
to transport goods,
others disappear when rainfall 1 The river dumps us load of mud and gravel
animals, and people. dwindles. The remnants of when it reaches the lake.

lakes form swamps, marshes, I

ELECTRICITY and bogs.

Hydroelectric power is

produced at dammed
risersby water flowing River and
through turbines. lake facts
• About 6.4 million cu ft 2 The sediment builds up. forming a sediment
FISHING fan at one end of the lake.
Some of the world's
(180,000cu m) of water flows out
larger lakes and ri\ crs of the Amazon into the ocean
support important every second: it would take just
fishing industries. over a second to fill London's
St. Paul's ( lathedral.
SPORT
Sports such as sailing and
• Each year rivers dump about 3 Additional sediment extends the fan out into
windsurfing arc enjoyed
the lake which shrinks, forming a shallow swamp
on lakes. Canoeing and 20 billion tons of sediment in
rafting are popular the sea, removing an average of "** *L,-T
on rivers.
1.23in (3.13cm) of soil from the
land every thousand years.
IRRIGATION
Ri\crs are an important
• Lake Geneva will be filled in
source of water for
irrigating crops in main
iiiiiiiliiiiimnilii'i'iiM"
by the River Rhone within 4 The lake is completely filled in with sediment
Plants eventually covci the old lake sue.
arid regions. approximately 40.000 years.

57
E VR'I'II

Weather Cirrostratus
I0-40.000fi
(5,000- 13,000m)
Types of cloud
Clouds arc classified according to their shape
So mi transparent layer; and their height above the ground.
The weather changes that auses halo around the Sun.
affect us directly- sunshine, Cirrocumulus
clouds, rain, snow, and storms - 16,000-40,000ft
(5,000-13,001
occur in the bottom layer of the Made of icy particles;
resemble fish stales.
( arms
Earth's atmosphere. This Altostratus .
16,000-40,000ft

churning layer of gas is being

Ofren called
"mackerel sk\."
6,500-23,000ft\^
(2,000-7,000m)
Thin, watery layer; forms
^ (5,000-13,000m)
Highest clouds;
heated and cooled constantly by colored ring (corona)
wispy

wind, water, and the Sun. around Sun and Moon.

* Cumulonimbus Altocumulus
Water cycle Massive, flat-topped storm 6,500-23,000ft
(2,000-7,OQOm)
Water moves never-ending cycle. The
in a clouds that may stretch up
co 49,000ft(15,000m) above Lumpy globules of
Sun's heat evaporates water from seas, white and gray cloud.
the ground. Can bring heavy
lakes, and rivers. As it rises into the showers, thunderstorms,
atmosphere, the vapor cools and condenses hail, or tornadoes.
into clouds. Eventually the droplets fall
back to Earth as rain. *'-'•"- *
'
Stratocumulus -^ r
Precipitation

Plants release .^—-v, falls on high

0-6,50()ft (0-2,000m) Cumulus —
Low sheet of gray or 0-6,500ft (0-2,000m)
water vapor into rf^Z,r 7i 9 round
,
white,lumpy clouds. Puffy clouds; gray at
the atmosphere.

H the bottom, brilliant

white at the top.

Water vapor
cools to form

Nimbostratus __
()-6,500ft (0-2,000m)
River Stratus Thick multilaycred clouds
carries water <0-2,0()0m)
()-6,5()0ft covering the sky; bring
downstream. Lowest clouds; hide hills in fog. continuous rain or snow.
Water seeps
below ground and
flows to the sea. Weather facts • In 1888, 246 people died
• The first thermometer because of a hailstorm in
Formation of was made in about 1600 by Moredabad, India.
clouds Italian scientist Galileo
• Over a 30-year period in
Clouds form when Galilei (1564-1642).
the US, there was an
warm air rises, cools,
• There is enough water in average of 730 tornadoes a
and its water vapor
the troposphere (see p. 39) year, causing more than
condenses. The
to flood the world to a 100 deaths annually.
highest clouds usually
depth of 3.3ft (lm).
consist of tiny ice • During a tornado, one
1 Warm air 2 As water vapor 3 Cloud goes on • On
any one day there house can be destroyed,
crystals;lower clouds
containing tn\ isiblc cools it condenses forming as long as
are made up mostly of water vapor rises into droplets, warm, moist air may be 44,000 storms over but another 66ft (20m)
water droplets. from the ground. forming a cloud. continues to rise. the Earth. away can remain intact.

The world's winds Air pressure Air sinks to the

Anticyclone
Wind is air moving from one place to another. Winds always Cold air sinks, creating areas ground and
An anticylone has
spreads,
blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. of high pressure called descending air and
absorbing \ /
winds, and
Prevailing winds are winds
anticyclones, or highs. Warm moisture
light
brings clear skies.
that blow almost all the time in
At the equator the Sun creating areas of low
air rises,
the same parts of the world.
is almost directly
overhead Its
pressure called depressions,
Over the equator is a region concentrated heal lows, or cyclones.
of calm winds and sudden causes air to expand,
storms, called the doldrums. rise, and billow out at
high altitudes Air rises,

Earth's rotation deflects the forming clouds

prevailing winds, causing As it cools, the air sinks
them to blow from back to the surface just
Inthe Southern
northeast north of the beyond the tropics,
Hemisphere, air in
equator, and southeast ^- creating regions of high Depression
south of the equator. ^^ pressure. Winds blow
highs and lows
circulates in the
from there back into the A depression often has
opposite direction.
low-pressure zone rising air, strong winds,
Trade winds ^
around the equator. and may bring clouds,
Westerlies rain, or snow.

58
 -

WHVIIIhk

Air masses Cold front Warm front Occluded front

( !old air moves m Warm, moist Long spells of rain An occluded front
Cold mass
and fronts air
under warm air.
air mass
occur as warm air forms when a cold
hcav v above cold Cold air mass front overtakes a
Air masses arc huge bodies of air brinjiiiiji. rises
rain followed air. before the warm front, lifting
that form over continents and
l>\ showers. front arrives on warm air above it.
oceans. They can be warm, cold, the ground. Cold air
moist, or dry, depending on ~ k ma
Warm air ™
where they form. The boundary
between two air masses is a
front. As a front sweeps across
the land, it usually brings a
change in the weather.

Weather words Lightning Tornado

Blizzard A severe snowstorm with
Lightning is the visible flash A tornado is a violently whirling

strong \\ inds,
that occurs when electric energy column of wind averaging 300ft
is released from a cloud. It is (100m) across. It forms a funnel
Dew Tiny drops of water that
condense on cold objects near to
often accompanied by thunder of cloud that can suck up
the ground. aloud bang caused by rapidly objects lying in its

Fog Ground-level cloud: visibility expanding air. path. Tornadoes

less than 0.6 miles (1km). Positive lastfrom a few
charge
Frost lee crystals or fro/en
minutes to
partieles of moisture that form on two hours. Shocking facts
cold surfaces. • Twenty-one people died when
Hail Pellets of ice that fall a single bolt of lightning hit a
during storms. hut near Umtali, Zimbabwe, on
Mist Thin fog: \ isibility December 23, 1975.
0.6-1.25 miles (l-2km).
•The CN Tower is struck
Precipitation Rain, drizzle, hail,
about 10 times during each
or snow.
thunderstorm in Toronto, Ontario.
Rainbow A seven-colored are that
forms in the skv when sunlight
Negative charges
are attracted
Unlucky strikes • Every minute, there are about
shines through raindrops. to positive Ex-l "S park ranger
6,000 flashes of lightning around
charges in
Roy Sullivan
the world.
Squall A sudden increase in wind, the ground

accompanied by rain. below. was struck by

• The longest lightning flashes
lightning
Waterspout A tornado that measure up to 20 miles (32km).
forms over an ocean or lake. seven times
Sucking up water. in 35 years. They occur in flat areas w ith
very high clouds.

1 Light air. Smoke- Beaufort scale Hurricane

drifts gently. Wind In 1805, British Admiral A hurricane is a violent tropical storm with winds of at least 73mph
speed 2m ph Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) 17km/h) spiraling inward toward the eye: a center of low pressure.
(1
(3km/h).
devised a scale of 12 \\ ind Some hurricanes remain over the ocean and last only a few days;
forces for use in sailing. For others last from three to five weeks and devastate islands and coastal
2 Light breeze.
Leaves rustle.
many
years this scale has been regions with high winds, torrential rain, and huge waves.
Wind speed used on land as well as at sea,
Hurricanes range in size from 200 miles A young storm may cross 1 .200 miles
6m ph l>km/h>.
( although winds of (300km) to 2,000 miles (3.000km) across. (2.000km) of ocean on its way to

force 10, 11, and becoming a hurricane

Air spreads out from the
3 Gentle breeze, flags flutter 12 rarely occur top of the storm, forming Air spirals
Wind speed <>mph Skm/h). ( 1
over land. a huge circle of cloud.
counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere,
4 Moderate wind. Small branches and clockwise in the
Many Southern Hemisphere
move. Wind speed lomph (2Skm/h). hurricanes
move
5 Fresh wind. Small trees sway. westward at

Wind speed 22mph (35km/h). 12-18mph Deep cumulus

(19-28km/h). clouds

6 Strong wind. Difficult to

control umbrellas. Wind The eye may be 31 miles Winds of more than
speed 2Kmph (50km) across, with light winds / 73mph (1 17km/h) whirl around
(45km/h). and little cloud and rain. the eye. gusting to 220mph (360krtvti)
7 Near-gale.
Large trees sway. l
Severe
Wind speed 35mph (56km/h)
)

Slates and
gale.
Weather records HIGHEST RBCORDED
WETTEST DAY ON RECORD II MI'I K VII Kl
chimney pots
8 Gale. Twigs break off trees. 136 (58 C), at A/i/ta. Libya,
blow off Wind occurred when 73.63in is I

Wind speed 43mph (68km/h). speetl .Slmph l

(1,870mm) fell at Cilaos, in l '22. (Temperature readings
(Slkm/h).
Reunion Islam), m March 1952. are always taken in the sh.ui.
10 Storm. louses damaged;
I

trees blow down. Wind speed

59mph (94km/h), 12 I liuiicanc. WIND SPEED RECORD I OWES! RECORDBD
W idespread
is 231mph (371km/h), recorded II \ll'l U \ll Kl
11 Severe storm. Serious damage. W ind
damage to buildings. Win speed 73mph on Mt. Washington. New is 128 I I 89 C), ai Vostok,
speed 69m ph (HOkm/h). (117km/h). I lampshire, in 1934. Antarctica, in 198 5

59
KARTII

Climatic zones Climate map

Climates The world's climates run in broad zones
each side of the equator. There are many
This map shows the major climatic zones
of the world. Also marked are places
A REGION'S CLIMATE is its ways to classify climate: most use a featured on the page opposite: those

characteristic weather over a long combination of temperature and rainfall. A holding climate records; cities featured in
region's climate, together with the the city climate graphs; and the locations
period of time. The climate type physical landscape, determines its of some of the places listed in the
isdetermined by its latitude, characteristic vegetation. temperature variations table.

topography, and distance from Most climatic regions show

seasonal variation: the
large bodies of water. farther away from the
equator, the greater
the variation.

\ Physical features,
\ such as oceans
\ and mountains,
have an
important
influence on
climate.

DRV GRASSLAND
In general, it is
Vast expanses of dry grassland oceur in
colder toward the
the middle of some continents, where
poles and warmer
temperatures are extreme and there is toward the equator.
not enough rainfall for forests to grow.
These areas have very hot summers
and \erv cold winters.

DESERT POLAR AND TUNDRA REGIONS TAIGA MOUNTAIN REGIONS

Deserts are the hottest and driest
climates in the world, receiving less
than lOin (250mm) of rain per year.
They are often found in areas of
continents that are far from the sea, or
in rainshadow areas (see p. 62). Only a
few specially adapted plants can
survive in the harsh desert climate.
In polar regions freshwater is frozen
all
solid, so land plants cannot grow. The
sea's surface is frozen, but underneath
is a rich diversity of life. The land
bordering the ice caps is the tundra.
The temperature in this treeless land
rises above freezing for at least one
month each year.
Taiga Russian word meaning "cold
is a On mountain ranges, temperature
forest." The taiga is a huge area of decreases with altitude. Although
coniferous forest that lies south of the mountain climates vary according to
tundra, stretching across northern how close a region is to the equator,
Canada, Scandinavia, and the Russian most have distinct vegetation zones
Federation. Four to six months of the that change with altitude. At the
year are dark, with the temperature highest points, temperatures are often
falling well below 32°F (0°C). too low for vegetation to survive.

TROPICAL GRASSLANDS MEDITERRANEAN MOIST TEMPERATE FOREST MOIST TROPICAL RAINFOREST

Tropical grasslands, such as the African
savanna, occur between the equatorial
forests and the hot, dry desetts. The
climate is always hot, but the year is
divided into a dry and a wet season.
Vegetation consists of grasses that
grow up to 6ft (2m) tall during the wet
season, and low trees and bushes.
The type of climate around the
Mediterranean Sea is found in
several other parts of the world,
including California. Summers are hot
and dry, and winters are cool and wet.
Plants in these regions, such as olive
trees, have adapted to the dry
summer conditions.
Temperate climates are rarely very hot
or very cold: the average temperature
isusually 50°F (1()°C) or more for four
months of the year, and below 41°F
(5°C) for at least one month. In
temperate regions, many types of
plant, e.g. deciduous trees (see p. 78),
are dormant during winter.
In equatorial regions the climate is hot
and wet throughout the year. The
average monthly temperature is about
80-82°F (27-28°C), and it rains almost
every day. This climate results in the
most abundant plant and animal
growth in the world: equatorial forests
contain 40% of all species.

Microclimates
Pink peaks Climate proportions Microclimates are
Winds sometimes pick up This table shows the percentage of the Karth that has small areas that have
dust and sand that may each basic climate type. their own climate.
eventually fall as colored rain Climate Continent Ocean Total Earth They include cities,
or snow. Pinksnow has fallen % % % where the air
on the European Alps,
Polar 17 19.5 18.8 temperature may be
caused by seasonal winds
Taiga 21.3 1.7 7.3
11°F(6°C) higher
from the Sahara desert
than the surrounding
picking up red Moist temperate 15.5 31.9 27.2
area. On this special
sand.
Moist tropical 19.9 42.7 36.1 satellite photograph of
Dry 26.3 4.2 10.6 Paris, the hottest areas
are blue, and the coolest areas are green.

Climate facts • In India, during the summer • In the tropics, the difference
• In parts of the Atacama monsoon (see opposite page), between the highest annual noon
Desert, Chile, it has not rained up to 75% of annual rainfall may temperature and the lowest may
for 400 vears. fall in just three months. beonlv3.6°F(2°C).

60
 i

CLIMATES

The poles have only

Seasons two seasons: six Temperature Climate records
months of winter and Most of the climate records
Summer occurs because one
six months of summer variations
hemisphere receives more direct This table illustrates how a listedbelow are based on
rays of sunlight and has more region's temperatures depend annual averages.
daylight hours. Winter in the Northern
on its closeness to the equator.
Hemisphere MOST THUNDER
In the tropics there These North American locations isexperienced in
are often just two are situated at similar
seasons a year: and
parts of Java,
wet and dry Seasons in the
longitudes; some are marked on around Africa's
Northern Hemisphere the map opposite. Lake Victoria: thunderstorms
SUN'S RAYS are opposite to those
in the Southern occur 200—250 days per year.
Hemisphere.
Location/ Minimum
Maximum Temp. Temp. DRIEST PLACE
The hemisphere tilted
ArcticBay is the Atacama
toward the Sun
receives more 52°F(11°C) -50°F (-28°C) Desert, Lhile,
sunlight and
Churchill vv ith an average
heat,
bringing
64°F(18°C) •11°F(-24°C) of only 0.02in ((LSI mm) of rain
Winnipeg per year.
79°F (26°C) 7°F(-14°C)
SUN'S
RAYS Minneapolis SI NNIEST PLACE
Regions between the poles
82°F (28°C) 22°F (-6°C) is the Kastern
and the tropics have four
seasons. They change slowly Kansas City Sahara, which has
from spring to summer to
92°F(33 C) 37°F (3°C)
autumn to winter.
sunshine for
Dallas more than 90% of daylight hours.
In midwinter, when the Southern 95°F (35°C) 56°F(13°C)
Hemisphere is at its farthest from Winter in the
the Sun, the South Pole is in Southern Eagle Pass HOTTEST PLACE
darkness all day Hemisphere 100°F(38°C) 66°F(19°C) is Daliol,
Ethiopia, where
the average
Monsoons Areas of the world Himalayas<^<iji^
temperature over a si\-\car
that experience
Monsoons are seasonal winds rt"ajn(
monsoons are period was 94 T (34.4 C).
that affect large areas of the marked in pink.
tropics and
subtropics.
COLDBST PLACE
Moist,, is Pol us
southern r
souttf
monsootj Nedostupnost,
Asia,
brings Antarctica, which
monsoons
has an annual average
blow from Southwest monsoon Northeast monsoon
temperature of -72 F (-57.8 (
In early summer, the hot
I

southwest in In winter, cold dry air

dry lands of Asia draw in spreads out from
summer, and
warm, moisture-laden air central Asia, bringing WINDIEST I'LACI
northeast in winter chilK weather.
from the Indian Ocean. is Port Martin,
Large volca/nit Antarctica, which
Climate eruptions throw du\t Climate facts had a mean wind
change and mlfw
gas high into the
dioxide • At the equator, the
speed of 65mph 10Skm/h) over
(

factors that influence atmosphere, where

temperature is about 77—86°F
ii
a one-month period.
the world's climate forms a Inn haze, (25-30°C) every day.
bloching some oj the
include changes in the Sun 's heat • The average temperature MOST RAIN'S
Earth's orbit, volcanic- close to the South Pole is -58° F DAYS ' 's'
dust, ocean heat, polar Human activities (-50°C). This is much colder are experienced
ice caps, plants of the \inli m deforestation,
than a deep freeze, which is
b\ Mount
large-scale changes
biosphere (sec p. 64), and Wai-'ale-'ale
in land use, and the about 0°F (-18 C).
human activity. A change release of various
(altitude 5,148ft/

in one of these factors chemicals into the • Tundra regions are sometimes 1,569m) on the Hawaiian island
an uin affect the of Kauai, w Inch has up to 350
may affect the others.
described as cold deserts,
world's climate
because their climate is so dry. days of rain per year.
Temp (C)
Bombay. India
30
City climates Tokyo, Japan
.l.ip.in .

^ 2b
Soggiest spot These graphs show the 20
Hawaii's Mt. Wai-'ale-'ale receives an 15
average temperature 10
average of about 460.6in (1 1,700mm) of 5
and arious

_
rainfall tor v

rain a year, making it the rainiest place in

around the world.
cities -5
the world. If it did not drain away, this
Locations are market! -11
volume of rain would almost submerge a
on the map opposite.
JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND
Temp ( C)
two-story house.
300
250

JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND

hi
I- \RTI1

Existing deserts
Major deserts
Deserts Areas at risk of desertification About 12% of land is covered with desert,

and another third is thought

DESERTS are areas of land that to be at risk of

receive less than lOin (250mm) desertification

ee p. 65).
of rain per year. They are barren
regions of rugged hills, clifflike
canyons, and pebble or dune-
covered plains. Low rainfall and
Cold
high temperatures make life in deserts,
such as
the desert hard: only a few plant the Gobi,

and animal species can survive. have hot

summers and
cold winters.
Hot
Desert features deserts, such
Weathering caused by fierce winds, huge temperature as the Namib, have nearly
hot days and cold nights Australia.
variations between day and night, and occasional fast-
flowing water forms distinctive desert features.

Mesas are steep-sided, tablelike hills Deep canyons are usually fed by rain
Sand dunes
that formwhere layers of resistant that falls outside the desert area. Dunes develop in flat areas. They range
rock protect softer rock beneath
from a few feet to 700ft (200m) high, and
Desert water courses, called arroyos, are steep-
sided with a flat floor. They are usually dry.
can be 3,000ft (900m) wide. There are many
types of sand dune, including the four
Buttes are isolated, flat-topped hills. shown below.
They are similar to mesas, but smaller.

Mushroom-shaped pedestal rocks

BARCANS
form where sand, blown by the wind, These crescent-
cuts into the rock close to the ground. shaped dunes max
grow up to 100ft
Zeugen (30m) high. Barcans
are
Hamada, or reg (gravel
covered surface) move in the direction
parallel, flat-
topped ridges
of the horns.
with caps of hard, Barcans
resistant rock perched SEIFS Parallel dunes up to
on softer rock below. These sand ridges 700ft (215m) high.

Alluvial fans form where water occur where there is

flowing down wadis meets the little sand and

desert plain and dumps its sediment powerful winds

blowing through
Dry salt lake (playa)
mountain passes.
Most oases form at deflation
hollows where the water table
(see p. 56) is near the surface.
TRANSVERSE Wind Dune at right

DUNES direction angles to wind

A shallow depression, called a These long ridges of
deflation hollow, has been Transverse sand are separated by
scooped out by the wind. dunes
deep troughs.
Transverse dunes
Types of desert form at right angles to

CONTINENTAL DESERTS Dead hot the wind direction.

Continental deserts, sueh as the If a person spent a day in the Wind direction
STAR DUNES
Sahara (right), form because they Sahara with no shade, food, water, These dunes form
are too far from the sea for winds to
or clothes, their temperature where several ridges
bring them much rain. Winds travel
would be about 1 15°F (46°C) by of sand meet, and the
over thousands of miles of land
sunset, and they would have lost wind comes from
before they reach these deserts,
different directions.
losing moisture as they do so. 15-19 pints (7-9 liters) of water.
By nightfall they would be dead.
RAIN-SHADOW DESERTS Largest deserts
Rain-shadow deserts, such as the
Desert Area
Atacama desert in Chile (right).
form next to mountain ranges. As
sq km sq miles
winds rise up over the mountains, Sahara 8,600,000 3,320,000
the moisture they carry falls as rain,
so the winds are dry as they flow Arabian 2,330,000 900,000
down the other side.
Gobi 1 ,200,000 463,000

Mirages Light rays travel straight

through cool air. Observer,
Patagonian 673,000 260,000

Mirages are often seen in hot Great Victoria 647,000 250,000

Cool air
deserts. They occur when a layer Great Basin 492,000 190,000
of warm air next to the ground is
Chihuahuan 450,000 1 74,000
trapped by cooler air above. Light Warm air

bends toward the horizontal line Kara Kum 350,000 135,000

of vision, and eventually travels Light rays traveling Sonoran 310,000 120,000
through cool and
upward: the mirage is an upside Virtual image seen
down by observer — warm air are bent. Great Sandy 258,000 92,000
"virtual" image.

62
 FORESTS

Emergent layer .
Gross-section of
Forests The crowns of giant, scattered,
emergent trees spread out above
the canop) to form tins layer.
,

a forest
forests consist of
A THIRD OF THE Earth's land
Canopy layer se\eral layers of
surface covered by forest: areas
is The canopy layer vegetation. This
forms the dense llustration shows the
of land with dense tree cover. forest root about
la>ers of a rainforest.
Forests range from the vast, cold 1 00-1 30ft (30-40m)
Rainforests grow in parts
al)o\ e the ground.
taiga of the Northern of the world that receive
Hemisphere, to the steamy more than 80in
Most rainforest animals
(2,000mm) of rainfall per
tropical rainforest of the Amazon live in
there
the canopy,
is plenty of
where
light, \ear. They consist of
which contains half of all
Basin, warmth, rainfall, and food
broadleaved evergreen trees
known plant and animal species. (see p. 78). and cover about
Rainforest trees have Wi of the Earth's land surface.
long, slim trunks

Rainforest
diversity
About 750 species of tree
grow in a single 25-acre
patch of rainforest in
Malavsia. There
species of tree in the whole
of North America.
I Inderstory
In the understory. lianas
and other climbing plants
The understory layer of twine around the trees
the rainforest consists of
plants that thrive in shad)
places, such .is palm trees, Forest floor
and young trees grow ing The shady rainforest floor
are only 700 toward the canopy. has poor soil covered by
a thin blanket of
leaves. \l.m\ of the
On the forest floor, dead
organisms and leaf litter are plants are fungi or
quickly broken down in the parasites, which do not need
warm, humid climate. light to make food

Destruction Northwest America has lost much of its Trees originally covered about 95% of
forest 60% of the Canadian part and western and central Europe By the
of earth's 90% of the US part has been felled. late Middle Ages, only 20% of the
was
FORESTS forest left

Ten thousand years ago, 90% of Central

I I
IMU'l.
about half of the world's America's
rainforest is Since 1 950. at
land surface was covered 40%
Forest facts with trees. Today about
gone. Nor
Ami
i

kii
ii

'
least
Himalayan
of the

• An area of rainforest the size forest has been

33% of those forests The Amazon \i HI! \ cut down
of a soccer field disappears
have been destroyed, rainforest
every second, and more than 50 originally covered an
and about 65% of what area nearly two-thirds
The Ethiopian
species of rainforest plants
taiiLs highlands have
remains has been greatly US An
and animals become ext
xtinct V changed. Half of the
the size of the
area of the size of
lost 90%
trees
of their

every ds
lay.
^ world's tropical
Europe has been felled.
,\l SI in this
century

ftAmazonia
• A single
may be
tree in rainforests have
felled this century.
been Present-day
forestcover

home to 45 species of ant -

about the same number found Rattan FORFST RECORDS
in the whole of the British Isles.
Rainforest Rattan, a woody,
products climbing rainforest
• Forest destruction contributes plant, is used to make
to the loss of about 55 billion Perfumes furniture.

* tons of topsoil every year.

• During the monsoon

Rainforest plants
are used in the
manufacture of
Drugs
One in four types of
perfumes and incense di ml i ontains chemicals
(see p. 61 ), deforested de\ eloped I

areas ofNepal may Rubber rainforest spec ies.

Rubber was originally VRGEST FOREST
experience up to Insects
1

used by South
20,000 landslides A wee\ from (he
is the taiga (sec p.60), w Inch
American Indians to il

make toys. Rubber lamer l forests stretches in a wide band across

in a single day. (

tapping is now an is used to pollinate the north of Europe, \si.i. .uul

• One in five of all important forest oil palms in Malaysia: a hug North America
Scarlet task that uas once done hand.
birds lives in the indnstr\ around the wor l>\
rnritiiw
Amazon rainforest. i \i.i macao)
Natural, uncut forest After 60 years, typical forest More than 100 years
species become dominant. the forest has
later,

Rainforest Forest
down and
is cut

Alter 5 years,
returned to its

1 natural state.
regeneration burned
enrich the
to
soil
more typical forest
,

When large gaps occur in a forest, species appear

through natural causes or human Two years after farming

stopped, specialized
activity, it takes at least 100 years pioneer species are
to return to its natural state. If the established. I \KU si R UNFOREST
thin topsoil is lost, the forest may is the Amazon rainforest, which
be replaced by scrubby covers an area of 2.7 million
vegetation only. lliM Ami I si| miles (7 million sq km),

63
KARTII

Niche
Earth's cycles
Earth's The position
plant or animal
within an
of a
Everything in nature is constantly being recycled.
Living things take in water, carbon, nitrogen, and

biosphere ecosystem (see

below), including
how it relates to
oxygen, and use them to live and grow. When they
die, they decompose (break down), and the
substances they are made of are recycled back into
The biosphere is the other species.
the biosphere and used again for new life. (See p. 58
area of the Earth's for the water cycle.)
surface and its
Habitat
immediate atmosphere The nature
CARBON CYCLE
All living things are based on the element carbon, which
home of a
that supports life. It
plant or
originates from carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere. Green
plants and some bacteria take in carbon dioxide and use it to
stretches from the anima
make food. When animals eat plants they take in some of this
A habitat
depths of the oceans to carbon. Carbon dioxide returns to the atmosphere when animals
often
breathe out, produce waste, and finally die and decompose.
contains
about 9 miles (15km) up number of
a Carbon dioxide in
Green plants take
into the atmosphere. niches. in
the atmosphere
carbon dioxide
during photo-
synthesis
Biosphere units (see p.74).
Green plants give out
carbon dioxide during
Ecologists (scientists who study the respiration (see p.74).

relationship between living things

and their environment) break Animals exhale
Ecosystem
down the biosphere into The combination carbon dioxide.
progressively smaller units, to of a plant and
make it simpler to study. animal community
and its nonliving
environment.
Earth
The only planet in
the Universe Decomposers '
Biosphere :

known to
The living part of
in the soil,

such as worms,
the Earth, including bacteria, and
the atmosphere close to fungi, give out
the ground. It contains carbon dioxide as they
Bodies of dead
many different ecosystems. feed and breathe.
plants and
animals decay.

OXYGEN CYCLE
Living things take in oxygen from the air and use it to obtain
NITROGEN CYCLE
need nitrogen, but most cannot use
All living things
energy from the food they eat. Plants and animals take in
nitrogen the atmosphere directly: it has to be fixed
in
oxygen during respiration, and green plants release oxygen back
(combined with other elements) by bacteria, algae, and
into the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
some lichens, to form
Oxygen in the atmosphere
In the daytime, plants nitrates. Plants can Nitrogen in the
take in carbon take in nitrates, and atmosphere
dioxide and give animals obtain
out oxygen during
Decaying animal
Ozone layer photosynthesis.
nitrogen by
eating plants.
waste and dead
organisms
The ozone layer encircles the
release nitrogen
Animals inhale
Earth at a height of 9-30 miles / oxygen and
Animals eat compounds into
plants containing the
(15-50km). Ozone is the only / exhale carbon
nitrates.
soil.

/
dioxide.
gas in the atmosphere that can Bacteria in

Other types of / roots and soil

screen out ultraviolet rays from
bacteria take in convert nitrogen
Day
the Sun. Without this protective nitrates and release compounds to
nitrogen back into the atmosphere. nitrates.
layer, all life on Earth would die.

Most of the
ozone layer is Sun's harmful Bodies of water Gaia theory
contained in the ultraviolet rays
Water circulates through the biosphere in a
stratosphere The Gaia theory was developed
continuous cycle, in oceans, rivers, clouds,
in 1979 by British scientist
and as rain and snow. Living things also
James Lovelock (born 1919)
form part of this water cycle: the
OzoneTaTBNSfeens ultraviolet
(below) and American biologist
composition of almost all plants and animals
rays, preventin^te|l_pf them Lynn Margulis (born 1938). The
from reaching Earth. including humans, is nearly 75% water.
basis of the theory is

that the Earth

Stratosphere
acts as a single
Biosphere facts • Humans are the first and only living, self-
• Ozone is spread so finely that, species to produce things that sustaining
collected together, it would cannot be reabsorbed into the organism that
form around the Earth no
a ring Earth's natural systems can regulate
Troposphere
thicker than the sole of a shoe. (nonbiodegradable products). and organize
Most plastics are itself. The
• Without life, the composition nonbiodegradable. hypothesis was
Earth of the Earth's atmosphere would • If life disappeared from Earth, named after
probably be very similar to that oxygen would escape from the Gaia, the Greek
of the planet Mars. atmosphere and not be replaced. goddess of the Earth.

64
 i

EARTH IN DWGKR
OZONE HOLE ACID K\I\
Earth in A hole the ozone layer opens over Antarctica ever}
in
spring. The main cause of the hole is the release of
chemicals that destroy the ozone laser, such as
Acid ram is caused mainh b\ sulfur and nitrogen
oxides given off h\ power stations, industry, and
vehicle engines. When these pollutants combine

DANGER chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), into the atmosphere.

The thinning of the ozone layer means that more of
the Sun's ultraviolet rays can reach Earth,
with water vapor, sunlight, and oxygen in the
atmosphere, they create weak sulfuric and nitric
acids. This mixture falls as rain, increasing the
THE ACTIVITIES OF the rapidly leading to an increase
and damage
in skin cancers acidity of lakesand rivers. These unfavorable
to conditions often cause a decline in the
expanding human population crops. numbers of animals and plants.
create environmental problems
UPSETTING Till- BALANCE
that can upset the balance of the The use of chemicals, such as those in
pesticides and fertilizers, can interfere
biosphere. Pollution and the
with Earth's natural cycles. Tor example,
destruction of the rainforests, for the large amount of nitrogen used in
farming can lead to pollution of the
example, seriously threaten the water supply.
future of life on Earth.
DEFORESTATION
arc being
i
i

GLOBAL WARMING felled for timber and

to create land for
Greenhouse effect
agriculture. This
Carbon dioxide and Chemicals /
reduces biodiversity
certain other gases in the
atmosphere act like glass
released by \ (range and number
factories
of species), leads to
m agreenhouse. They pollute the air, rivers,
soil erosion, upsets
let the Sun's rays lakes, and oceans.
and
through, but trap sonic
of the heat which would
More than a
tons of oil a year
million *QB cy< les.
contributes to
global warming.
otherwise be reflected are deliberately
back into space. The discharged from
greenhouse effect tankers 'Toxic algae
has alw ays existed. <me of the most serious effects of
URBAN AIR marine pollution is toxic (poisonous
Sun's heat POLLUTION algae. Chemicals from sewage
In many large discharges, fertilizers, .md industrial
Out oj Raising the temperature cities, air pollution wastes nourish algae, causing a huge
balam ' Litter is unsightly increase in their numbers and,
Burning fossil fuels caused by vehicles
(see p. 272) increases the
1 2% marine
of and unhygienic, and
consequendy, the death of
and industry has
pollution is caused can harm animals
amount of carbon become a serious by shipping. thai eat it
marine animals.
dioxide in the problem, causes It

t-K atmosphere, which traps human health

extra heat. If we continue problems such as
MARINE POLLUTION
to release heat-trapping
The sc.i has always been a dumping
eye irritation,
grotind for human
wastes, but in the last
Extra ZN Less gases, the Earth's coughs, and asthma,
centurs the amount of pollutants being
heat ^ heat temperature will rise. and damages plants
&—
'

discharged into the oceans increased

reflected '
- escapes Creating many problems. and buildings.
dramatically. This pollution causes
problems such as toxic algae, health risks
Pollution facts Polluted cities to bathers, and danger to aquatic life. Toxu algae
• Some scientists believe that The table below shows the
global warming will cause the average number of days
average world temperature to recent years that the suspended
in
A FOREST A WEEK
Ittakes an entire forest - more than
rise by 1.8°F (1°C) by the vear particulate matter (soot and
half a million trees - to supply
2030, and by 7.2°F (4°C) by the smoke) for some of the world's
end of the 2 1st century. most polluted cities was above North Americans with their Sunday
newspapers every week.
the World Health Organization's
• In January 1989,
City's smog (urban
Mexico
pollution)
recommended standard. ^J
was so bad that schoolchildren About
were given the whole month off. City Number of days Population 250.000

• About 50 outbreaks of toxic-

above standard
growth World 3IS
babies
are born
New Delhi. India 294 Population grow th every day
algae occur in Japanese waters I;
Beijing, China 272 creates huge pressure
every year.
on the Earth's Asia Europe
• 2,200 Swedish lakes are nearly- Tehran, Iran 174
resources. This graph
lifeless because of acid rain, and Bangkok, Thailand 97 shows population
80% of Norway's lakes are
Madrid, Spain 60 grow th <>\er the last
Africa Dceania
biologically dead or threatened. 1,000 years. I

Wasting earth's resources

The world's industrialized nations use a far
greater proportion of the Earth's resources than
the developing nations, even though their
combined population is small. The richest 2095
of the world's population consumes 70% of the
world's energy, 75% of its metals, 85% of its

wood, and 60% of its food.Many resources arc

unnecessarily wasted: much of what people
consume ends up on garbage dumps.

65
EARTH

REDUCING URBAN POLLUTION

Saving ( lar pooling, using public
transportation, bicycling, and walking
Public transportation

the earth all

areas.
reduce vehicle use
( latalytic
reduce pollution from
in urban
converters can help
cars.
Jjlkjiii
111
Working home using computer !
PEOPLE ARK beginning at
technology ("telecommuting"),
to accept responsibility instead of traveling to an office,
also reduces the number of
for Karth's future. The vehicles on the roads.

main environmental
HALTING DESERTIFICATION USING RENEWABLE ENERGY Hydroelei t > it

problems have been Farming methods Fossil fuels (see p. 272) will eventually power (right) is

such as terracing run out. Meanwhile, their use creates a elean. ytrjffiSB&iMfe-
recognized, and ways (right) can reduce pollution and contributes to global renewable
energy source.
of reducing their desertification and warming. Cleaner, renewable
the loss of topsoil. methods of generating energy
impact are being Wind turbines
In China, a "great are being developed,
green wall" of such as wind, wave,
explored. Positive trees (the San Bei Forest Belt) has been solar, and tidal

steps toward the long- planted to hold back the advancing power. Some
desert. Somalia has begun a major anti- countries, including
term survival of our desertification program that includes a Norway and Brazil,

planet are shown here, ban on cutting trees for fuel. already obtain more
than half their
but there is still much energy from Solar collectors trap
''v renewable sources. sunlight to generate power.
work to be done.
LIMITING POPULATION REDUCING FIREWOOD USE
GROWTH Tree cover is being lost

Slowing down population w here large amounts of

growth is one of the wood arechopped for fire.
most important factors Alternative, more efficient
in saving the Earth's cooking methods are being
diminishing resources. introduced in some countries affected
Trees planted to hold bark the desert
Ways include family by this deforestation. In Kenya, where
planning and wood energy accounts for more than 75% of
improving standards CONSERVING HABITATS energy consumption, 180,000 jikos (charcoal-
of living. (In many AND SPECIES burning stoves) have been distributed (right).
countries, a large Projects have been
up worldwide
set

family is seen as a to conscrv e habitats and the species

secure source of they contain. These include the
income.) Family establishment of national parks and SAVING THE RAIN FORESTS
planning other conservation areas - more than Many initiatives have been introduced to

measures that 5% of the world's total land area is try and save the remaining areas of rain
now protected. The Convention on forest. Debt-swap deals, in which a
were
introduced in International Trade in Endangered country protects an area of forest in

Species (CITES) is an international return for a reduction in their

Kerala. India, led to a 66%
decline in
the birthrate between 1983 and 1993. treaty signed by 122 countries. It foreign debt, have been negotiated.
aims to prevent Practices that do not
damage
the forest, such BrazU ""' s
trade in
PROMOTING ECOTOURISM endangered plant rubber tapping, are
as
Tourism that benefits the
environment is known as ecotourism.
and animal
species and in
being encouraged, together
with trade in forest products
•*
For example, money earned from such as spices, rattan, nuts, and
products such .is
tourism can be spent on the
animal skins medicinal plants. These products
creation and
and ivory. The tiger is endangered. Rnhhei tapping may be worth as much as timber.
management of national
parks. A report by the
REDUCING POLLUTION
I IS forest Service
Many countries are reducing sulfur Protected areas of
showed that the
dioxide emissions to prevent acid rain
potential earnings
from forest
and global warming. The EC has the world
power
ruled that large fossil-fuel This table shows the percentage of
recreational
plants must cut emissions of sulfur
activities land area on each continent (except
\iioxide by 60% by 2003. Ways of
such as improving toxic waste treatment Antarctica) that is protected in
camping and disposal are also being national parks or other conservation
and explored. International treaties
canoeing arc-
areas. It also shows the country with
have been developed to regulate
twice what the most protected land.
the dumping of waste at sea and to
could be made by Continent % land Country with most
control the discharge of other
selling the timber.
pollutants into the the oceans. protected protected land (%)

North & 10.4 Panama 17.2

Ways to help the • Walk, bicycle, or use • Start a compost
Central
public transportation heap for vegetable
environment instead of the car peels and garden
America

• l sc recycled paper ^.g Europe 7.5 Austria 19

whenever possible. waste, such as
and cardboard. Ecuador 37.7
• leaves and grass cuttings. South 5.7
Turn off lights and other
• Recycle plastics, America
appliances when not in use. • When ordinary lightbulbs
glass, metal, and wastepaper. Oceania 5.7 New Zealand 10.5
• When getting rid of an old are spent, replace them
• Avoid buying refrigerator, make sure with energy-efficient, Africa 3.9 Bostwana 17.2

&
66
tropicalhardwoods,
such as mahogany.
that
safely
its CFCs
removed.
are compact fluorescent
lightbulbs.
it
Asia 2.1 Bhutan 19.7
Living World
In this fascinating survey of the natural world, all living
things are classified, and every major plant and animal group
is illustrated. Stunning cutaway artworks show anatomical
details, and there is a wealth of factual information about
attack and defense, movement, and reproduction. Tables list

record breakers from the heaviest to the most deadly.

Evolution • Fossils • Dinosaurs • Classifying Living Things

Plants • Flowers • Leaves • Trees • Food Plants • Fungi and Lichens
Microorganisms • Animals • Invertebrates • Mollusks • Insects

Arachnids • Crustaceans • Amphibians • Reptiles • Fish

Birds • Domestic Birds • Mammals • Domestic Mammals

Animal Senses and Behavior • Migration and Homes
Food Chains and Webs • Endangered Species
Animal Records and Comparisons
LIVING WORLD

Woolly mammoth
Evolution of the elephant
Evolution Platybelodon lived
from 12 to 7 million
years ago
lived about 2 million
years ago. Fossils reveal that several elephant-like
species have existed and become
LIFE ON EARTH probably originated Tnlophodon lived extinct over the last
from 26 to 3 million
from chemicals dissolved in the oceans. 40 million years. It
years ago.
is likely that they
From these simple beginnings, life has were related,
gradually developed into many and that
different forms. All living things ^ today's
elephants
change as one generation
evolved
succeeds another. This from
process is called evolution. them.

Evolution terms African

elephant
Variation Almost all living things vary
in size, shape, color, and strength from
Moenitherium
others in the same species. lived about
38 million
Adaptations These are certain
years ago.
features, such as color, that may give
one individual or species a better
chance of survival than another. ADAPTATION EXAMPLE Evolution facts
The 28 species of honeycreeper in the • Ninety-five percent of all
Inheritance Characteristics are passed Hawaiian islands probably all evolved
on, or inherited, when living things animals and plants that have
from one species. Each has a beak
reproduce. Most living things have a adapted for a particular way of feeding. ever existed on Earth have
unique combination of characteristics. Some are now extinct. become extinct.
Natural selection Through natural The beak and
iiwi's
•
tongue are adapted for
Between 35 and 20 million
selection, inherited characteristics that
sipping nectar. years ago, giant rhinoceroses,
help a living thing survive are passed
on; those that do not gradually die out. such as Paraceatherium, roamed
The Kona grosbeak (now
had a strong America. This animal measured
Competition/survival of the fittest
More individuals are born than can
extinct)
for crushing seeds.
bill

*3P" up to 26ft (8m) long and was as

survive. Strong, well-adapted The Kauai tall as a giraffe.
individuals are more likely to survive
akialoa
uses its long beak
CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1882)
to
than weak, poorly adapted individuals. probe for insects.
• Moas - the giant, flightless The theory of natural selection was
birds of New
Zealand (now developed by English naturalist
Charles Darwin, and published in
- show what could have
extinct)
1859 in his book The Origin of
Sloth growth happened in a world without Spa its. Darwin developed his
During the Tertiary Period, mammals: birds would have theory after studying the animals
South America was cut off become dominant. (New of the Galapagos Islands, which
were unique, but similar to those
from other landmasses, and Zealand has no native mammals on the South American mainland.
there were few predators. except for a few bats.)
Several types of mammal • The earliest horse,
became example
gigantic; for
• Australia's largest ever
Hyracotherium,
Megatherium, the giant ground
was about the marsupial was Diprotodoii
sloth, grew to more than 20ft
size of a optatum, which was as big as a
(6m) long.
modern fox rhinoceros and weighed up to
terrier. 3,3001b (1,500kg).

4,600-590mya 590-505mya 505-438mya 438-408mya 408-360 mya 360-286mya 286-248mya 248-2 13mya
(million years ago) Invertebrates first crustaceans first fish with "Age of fish." (Mississippian and Earth cooler. Climate begin
Earth forms and gradually cools; (see p.84) evolve, first jaws evolve. fish dominate Pennsylvanian) Amphibians to warm again;
atmosphere has no oxygen. First become fishlike Coral reefs life in the seas, Warm, damp decline; conifers and
bacteria appear. Blue-green widespread in the vertebrates flourish in the first insects climate; huge reptiles diversify. ferns form
algae evolve and produce oceans. Trilobites (see p.84) appear oceans. Huge sea evolve, first forests lay down ferns and forests.
oxygen-rich atmosphere. Protists arc common, they have no scorpions hunt. amphibians remains that will conifers first dinosaur;
(single-celled organisms) first mollusks fins or On land, the first appear on land. turn into coal, widespread. evolve, first
develop. Nonflowering plants evolve. jaws. small plants first reptiles Many species mammals
evolve and become abundant, appear. evolve from vanish in greatest evolve.
first animals, including worms amphibians. mass extinction
and jellyfish, appear. Insects abundant. known.

68
 FOSSILS

Fossils Types of fossil

Any organism can be
Fossils PROVIDE a history book mineralized, provided it is

buried by mud or sand

of life on Earth. They are the before rots away. Most

c
it

remains of dead animals and fossilsform on the seabed, Ammonites Archaeopteryx

plants that have been preserved
naturally for thousands or
millions of years. The study of
fossils is called
so the most common arc
those of sea creatures.
Fossils of land animals
plants are much
paleontology.
Ammonites were marine
dwelling) mollusks that
became extinct about
and
rarer.
65 million years ago. Their
shells were often fossilized.
(sea- Prehistoric (lying animal
believed to be the evolutionary
link between reptiles and birds
Seven fossilized Arduuopteryx
have been found.

Forms of fossilization
Fossils arc preserved in several different
ways. Most are found in rocks, but fossils
also occur in ice, tar, peat, and amber. L^ T..\

Trilobites Soft-bodied unimals Coprolites Plant fossils

MINERALIZATION Marine arthropods (sec \Iosr fossils arc the These arc fossilized 'This fossilized poplar leaf
This is the most common form p.85) distantly related remains of bones or animal droppings. is about 25 million \ears

%&
of preservation.It occurs when
to thesowbug. They shells. Fossils of soft- Dinosaur coprolites old. Modern poplar leaves
the organic matter of a fossil is died our about 2iS<> bodied animals, such as can measure more are almost identical: these
replaced by durable (long- million years ago. this dragonfly, arc rare. than 2ft (60cm) long. trees have hardK changed.
lasting) minerals. Petrified
wood is formed by
mineralization.
wood Fossil facts Fossil records
FREEZING
Petrified
• fossils are found Mammoth mistake EARLIEST FOSSILS
Low temperatures can preserve only in sedimentary For centuries, fossils were associated are prokaryotes (cells
animal and plant remains. Well- rocks (see p. 46). with myths and without nuclei) found in
preserved mammoths have been legends. Fossilized Western Australia, which
Marine limestones,
found in Siberian permafrost
(permanently frozen ground). shales, and some mammoth tusks are an estimated

Flesh and skin, as well as bones, sandstones contain discovered in 3.5 billion years old.
are preserved by freezing. mammoth the most fossils. about 1600 were
Fossilized LARGEST FOSSIL
believed at the is a Brachiosaurus

AMBER • Some ammonites time to be the skeleton (see p. 71 ),

Tree resin (sap) can trap and measured up to 6.6ft horns of unicorns.
which is 72ft
I

F
surround small animals such
(2m) in diameter. (22m) long.
as insects and spiders. The
resin, with the animal still
Dead 2 'The lower
intact inside, is fossilized, Spidei Formation 1

such as
animals,
fish, layers of
.

turning into amber.

of fossils sink to the <C^<! sediment turn to
This sequence seabed. 'Their rock, and the -I
PEAT AND TAR rem. mis are animal remains
Animals and plants can be shows how the
slowly buried by lasers of sediment. are mineralized, becoming fi
preserved in peat and tar. remains of sea
Human bodies more than 2,000 3 man\ he lock
creatures may be ( )\cr 4 I is

years old have been found in years the rock is eroded further, anc
peat bogs, and animal remains fossilized and
folded, and the the fossils are
up to 20,000 years old havi brought to the upper layers are c\ciuualK exposec
been found in tar. Human preserved »i peat land surface. eroded. on the surface.

!13-144mya 144-65mya 65-55mya 55-38mya 38-25mya 25-5mya 5-2m\ a 2m- 10.000 10.000 vc.us
Climate much T'irsr flowering ( llimate warm Mammals First humanlike Climate cools; ( llimate cold and years ago ago lodav
raimer than plants c\ olve. and damp, continue to primates appear. forests begin to drj Mammals Time of ice ages I lum.ins
oday. Dinosaurs Dinosaurs flowering plains diversify, Many early del lease reach peak of Man) mammal develop
lominate life on tlourish. Period continue to becoming larger mammals woildw ulc. their diversity. species, including agriculture and
and. T'irsr cuds w ith mass cvoh c and, and more become extinct. Hoofed Many land mammoths and technology;
.now n bird, extinction: together w ith numerous. Giam flightless mammals, such creatures similai saber-toothed population
[rvAaeopteryx, sweeps away insect Primates (apes, hunting buds as deer, flourish. to today's. Bon} tigers, become expands
svolves from many species pollinators, monkeys, and flourish. Toward the end fish dominate life extinct Homo
eptiles. including all become le i) evolve of the epoch, the in the sea sapiens evolves
dinosaurs and u idc- into many, first hominids
ammonites. spread. forms. evolve.
LIVING WORLD

Dinosaur's brains
Portrait of a dinosaur
Dinosaurs were small
body size.
for their
Like reptiles, dinosaurs
skin. Dinosaurs,
had a scaly
however, were more
Dinosaurs dominated the advanced than today's reptiles. They
walked with their limbs directly under
Earth for more than 150 million
their body like mammals and birds,
years.They ineluded the largest whereas reptiles crawl, or walk with
animals ever to have lived on their limbs out to their sides.

land, as well as some that were

smaller than a coyote. Dinosaurs
died out 65 million years ago. Claw

Nobody knows why.

Types of dinosaur Dinosaur facts
There are two orders (see p. 72) • Dinosaur fossils discovered to
of dinosaur. They are classified date probably represent less
according to the arrangement of than 0.0001% of the individuals
Legs extended
their hipbones. that once lived.
below
directly Bipedal (two-footed)
the body, dinosaurs could
• The name Tyrannosaurus
the dinosaur
lifting

walk upright.
means "tyrant lizard." off the ground.

• The most intelligent

dinosaurs were probably about Dinosaur-like reptiles
as intelligent as chickens. While dinosaurs roamed the land, huge reptiles flew in the air and
• More than 350 species of swam in the oceans. These marine and flying reptiles were closely
dinosaur have so far been related to the dinosaurs.
Ichthyosaurus Elasmosaurus
Lizard-hipped dinosaurs identified: probably only a Rhamphorhynchm
(Saurischians)
tiny percentage of those
Hips similar to lizards. Includes both
herbivorous (plant-eating) and that existed.
carnivorous (meat-eating) species. • Struthiomimus could sprint at
speeds of up to 50mph
(80km/h): as fast as an ostrich.

FLYING REPTILES MARINE REPTILES

Ancient flying reptiles, These were some of the fiercest and
Bird-hipped dinosaurs called pterosaurs, reached largest animals in the sea. They
(Ornithisehians) huge sizes. Their wings were breathed air, so they had to come to
I the
lips similar to birds. All of made of skin, and their body was the surface regularly to fill their lungs.
bird-hipped dinosaur species usually furry. They had light, delicate These reptiles hunted fish and other
were herbivorous. bones for flying. sea creatures.

MAJOR
DINOSAUR
GROUPS
Within the
t\w> orders,
dinosaurs are
divided into five
subgroups. There
are three
subgroups of
Thyreophorans Theropods (Saurischians) Marginocephalians Ornithopods Sauropodomorphs
ornithisehians,
(Ornithisehians) Armored Mostly bipedal carnivores (Ornithisehians) (Ornithisehians) (Saurischians). Herbivores;
and two
herbivores; rows of protective with an S-shaped neck Herbivores; many with Herbivores; horny beak small head, long neck,
subgroups of
studs, plates, or spikes down and clawed, four-toed bony frill at back of and birdlike feet, e.g. bulky body, and long tail,
saurischians.
the back, e.g. Stegosaurus. feet, e.g. Tyrannosaurus. skull, e.g. Styracosaurus. Corythosaurus. e.g. Saltasaurus.

Triassic Period: 248-213 mya (million years ago) Jurassic Period: 213-144 mya

Land joined in the supercontinent of Pangaea Pangaea breaks apart: Atlantic Ocean begins to
(see p.40). First dinosaurs evolve and. toward the end Melanorosaurus form; Africa splits from South America. In late
of the period, split into two Jurassic times, huge herbivorous dinosaurs
groups: lizard- and dominate life on land.
bird-hipped.
 i

nivrsAi rs

1800 Dinosaur 1820 Iguanodon teeth 1834 First glimpse of what 84 The term
Dinosaur discovery footprints discovered in Tilgate Forest, dinosaur's looked like
1

dinosaur, from
Pre- 19th century: around the world, found in Susses, England, l>\ doctor prov uled In find of a partial the Greek words
dinosaur fossils arc believed to be Massachusetts. Mid fossil hunter Gideon skeleton neal Maidstone, for "terrible" and
various things, including dragon hones Their discoverer Mantell (1790-1852) and Ins England, known as the "lizard," is

in China, and giant human hones in claims the\ were \\ il'e. le suspects the\ are the
I Maidstone coined In
parts of Europe. made In the remains of ancient reptiles. leuanodoi. English anatomist
raxen front but his theory is dismissed as Richard Owen
Noah's Ark. heretical (antireligious). 180-1- !*<>_'

1800
w 1820

1877 One of the greatest

1834

1987 Evidence to support theory of LauUynasauro Uved

1841

1851 First reconstruction of dinosaurs: in poLtt

Iguanodon and Hylaeosaurus models are made for the dinosaur collections found warm-blooded dinosaurs found In
(ireat Exhibition at at ( lomo Bluff, Wyoming, paleontologists Tom Rich ami Patricia
( irsstal Palace, London, byO.C. Marsh (1831-99) Vickers-Rich of the Museum of Victoria,
England. Results in of Yale. Australia. They discover dinosaur fossils
huge public enthusiasm in a part of South Australia that would
for dinosaurs. Before the 1947 Largest number of have been inside the Antarctic Circle
Iguanodon is completed, dinosaurs ever found when these dinosaurs lived. The mean
the sculptor holds a together: more than 1(10 annual temperature in this region would
dinner parts inside it. I)lnlln „„ n ,

,„ „ „„„,,./ ,,,„„ Coeiophysis skeletons. have been near freezing at that time.
/

w 1851 1877 1947 1987

Dinosaur records Extinction

SMALLEST DINOSAUR Earth shaker theories
was probably Wannanosaurus, a
The name Seismosaurus means "earth-shaking lizard." This
About f)5 million \cars ago the
enormous plant-eating dinosaur was L31ft (40m) in
bipedal carnivore that measured dinosaurs, together with man\
length: longer than an Airbus A320.
2ft (60cm) long. It was about other animal species, became
the size of a chicken. extinct. Other animal groups,
MOST PRIMITIVE including turtles, frogs, birds,
KNOWN DINOSAUR and mammals, survived. There
is Eoraptor, a 228 million-year- are many theories for this mass
old bipedal carnivore that was extinction: below are two of the
about the size of a large dog. most widely accepted.
SMALLEST DINOSAUR BRAIN
is believed to have been that of GRADUAL EXTINCTION
Gradual changes in climate ami
the Stegosaurus. It was less than
vegetation caused In continental
2in (5cm) long.
Largest carnivores (see p. 40) led to the dinosaurs' slow
drift

Dinosaur Estimated length extinction over about 50,000 years.

LARGEST DINOSAUR EGGS
m ft Warm, tropical conditions were
were probably those of replaced by cooler, more seasonal
Hypselosaurus. They measured
Acrocanthosaurus 12 39 climates, and

about 12in (30cm) long and Tyrannosaurus 12 39 mammals

slow K replaced
contained an estimated 7 pints
Aliwalia 11 36 dinosaurs .is
(?•>.?> liters) of fluid: roughly the
the dominant
Allosaurus 11 36
same as the fluid in 60 hens' eggs animal group.

CATASTROPHES
Wider glider Largest herb YORES I
The period " hen dinosaurs were d\ ing
out coincided with main \olcanic
The largest flying animal ever t< Dinosaur Estimate ;d length eruptions in India, At the same tune, a
have existed was Quetzalcoatlus, m ft
huge meteorite hh the Earth. Dust
thrown into the atmosphere blocked
flying reptile. Its wingspan Seismosaurus 40 131
out sunlight,
measured about 39ft (12m) Barosaurus 27 89 and dinosaurs
across: wider than the wingspan could not
Diplodocus 27 89 sui\ the
of a hang glider. i\ c-

Brachiosaurus 25 82 resulting
climate changes, -—*-'"'

Cretaceous Period: 144-65mya 65 mya

( Continents spin farthei apart, eventually drifting int Dinosaurs become extinct,
Diplodocus their present-day positions. I >inosaurs continue to togethei with
flourish; those on different continents c\ olve mans othei
separately, leading to animal
Stegosaurus -
greai diversity. _ ir^n''-'-~^i x ,

Deinonychus

71
LIVING WORLD

Classifying r~
Classifying a TIGER Sponges
(Porifera) 9,000 species
^c-v
(f
This illustration shows how a

living things biologist

a tiger.
would classify
Sea anemones, hydras, /y i y
yO\
corals, jellyfish •.»«•> '».•*•; > V\
Living THINGS ARK classified in groups according (Cnidaria) 9,500 species KiT^
Kingdom Animal (Animalia)
to the features they have in common. The largest Many-celled organisms with no Comb jellies
groups are the five kingdoms: animals, plants, cell walls; cannot make their (Ctenophora) 90 species
own food.
fungi, protists, and monerans. Each kingdom is f«MNMMHMMHBMBMWMMMMIMia^MMH|
Phylum Chordate (Chordata) Flatworms, flukes,
then subdivided into smaller and smaller groups. Animals that have a single nerve tapeworms
SCIENTIFIC NAMES cord at some time in their life. (Platyhelminthes) 15,000 species
Key Many living things have different
These colors show the classification
common names around the world. To Class Mammal (Mammalia) Roundworms
groupings used in the chart. All numbers
avoid confusion, every species also has Animals that suckle their young (Nematoda) 20,000 species
of species are approximate. A division is
a two-part scientific name which is the on milk and have fur or hair.
the plant equivalent of a phylum.
same worldwide. The first part of the
1
1 name gives the genus; the second part Order Carnivores (Carnivora) Horsehair worms
Kingdom Class the species. This system was devised (Nematomorpha) 250 species
Land mammals specialized
by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus for hunting.
(1707-1778). Larger groups, such as
Phylum Order
orders, also have a scientific name. Family Cats (Felidae) Spiny-headed worms
Throughout the Living World section, Carnivores with sharp front claws (Acanthocephala)
;
Sub-
that can be retracted (drawn in).
:

scientific names are given wherever 1,150 species

1 1 phylum Division
possible for genera and species.
Genus Big cats (JPanthera)
The five species of big cats: lion, Rotifers
tiger, leopard, snow leopard, (Rotifera) 2,000 species
and jaguar.

MONERANS Waterbears
(Tardigrada) 600 species
(Monera)

Species Tiger
(Pan thera tigris) Worms and leeches
Blue-green algae Baeteria (Annelida) 18,600 species
(Gyanonta) 1,700 species (Schizonta) 4,000 species

Mollusks (Mollusca)

Sea squirts Jawless fish

(Ascidiacea) (Agnatha)
2,500 species 75 species

Sharks and rays

(Chondrichthyes
800 species

Golden algae Amoebas, flagellates, opalinids

(Chrysophyta) (Sarcomas tigophora Sharks, dogfish
650 species 27,000 species Skates, rays

Bony fish
(Osteichthyes)
21,000 species

More than 20 orders

including:
Eels
Herrings, anchovies
Salmon, trout
Carp
Catfish
Rusts and mildews Molds Sac fungi Club fungi Fungi imperfecti Slime molds Perch, marlins,
(Oomycetes) (Zygomycetes) (Ascomycetes) (Basidiomycetes) (Deuteromycer.es) (Acrasiomycota) swordfish, tunas
600 species 765 species 29,000 species 16,000 species 17,000 species 6 species Flying fish

PLANTS
(Plantae)

Green algae
(Chlorophvta)
14,000 species
Red algae
(Rhodophyta)
5,000 species
Brown algae
(Phaeophyta)
1,500 species
Mosses and liverworts
(Bryophyta)
14,000 species
^T
Ferns
(Ptcridophyta)
12,000 species
1
Clubmosses
(Lycopodophyta)
1 ,000 species
Horsetails
(Sphenophyta)
40 species

72
 CLASSIFICATION

ANIMALS (Animalia)

Velvetworms Echinoderms
(Onychophora) Arthropod •
i Echinodermata)
100 species 6,000 species in 5 orders including:
(Arth

Lampshells
(Brachiopoda) I lorseshoe crabs Millipedes
I
(Merostomata) (Diplopoda)
Starfish Brittle stars Sea urchins Sea cucumbers
300 species
(Astcroidca) (C)phiuroidca) (Echinoidea) (I lolothuroidea)
4 species 10,000 species
1 ,500 spec ies 2,000 species 950 species 900 species
Mtloss animals
Bryozoa) 4,000 species
Sea spiders Centipedes Crustaceans

w&
(

(PyenoKonida) (( Ihilopoda) (Crustacea) 55,400 species

c.13 other small phyla 1,000 species 2,500 species
e. 2,000 species
Sand shrimps \I\staeocarideans
Arachnids K lephalocarida) (Mystacocarida)
(Arachnid;!) 9 species 10 species
Chitons |73,000 species
(Polyplacophora) 500 species
Branchiopods Spiny sand shrimps
orpions
(Branchiopoda) (Branchiura)
Solenogasters ick spiders
1,000 species 125 species
(Aplacophora) 5,540 species Mierowhip scorpions
whip scorpions
Tailless
Whip scorpions Mussel shrimps Barnacles
Camel spiders Clcs
(Ostracoda) 10,000 species (Cirripedi.n 1.220 species
Deep-sea limpets <

(Monoplacophora) 10 species Pseudoscorpions

Harvestmen Cope pods Crabs, lobsters, and shrimps
Mites and ticks (Copepoda) 13,000 species (Malacostraca) 30,000 species
Tusk shells Spiders
(Scaphopoda) 350 species

Castropods
(Gastropoda) 35,000 spec ies
Springtails
Telson-
<¥ k*r
>

Webspinners
Dragonfiies
Insects
(Insecta) 1,000,000

Grylloblattids
Earwigs
s pec ies

Sucking lice
Thrips
^L
JTt-
KA

Ants, bees, wasps

Stylopids
Caddisflics
tails Grasshoppers Cockroaches Booklice Dobson and alderflies Butterflies and
Bivalves
Diplurans crickets Fraying manlids Zorapterans Snakeflies moths
(Bivalvia) 8,000 species
Silverfish Stick and leaf Termites Bugs Lace wings and antlions Flies
Mayflies insects Biting lice Beetles Scorpionflies Fleas
( Cephalopods Stoneflies
(( Cephalopoda) (>(10 species

Amphibians
(Amphibia)
4,200 species

Frogs and toads

Newts and salamanders Ostriches Cranes, rails, coots,
Caecilians Rheas bustards
Cassowaries, emus Shorebirds, gulls,
Kiwis terns,auks
Albatrosses, petrels, Sandgrouse Monotremes Whales and dolphins
shearwaters, fulmars Pigeons, doves (egg-laying mammals) Carnix ores
Pelicans, gannets, Parrots Marsupials (pouched Seals, sea lions, walrus
cormorants, frigatebirds Cuckoos, roadrunners, mammals) Elephants
anhingas turacos Insectivores Hyraxes
Penguins Owls Elephant shrews Sea cows
Reptiles
Grebes <*K Nightjars, frogmouths Flying lemurs Odd-toed hoofed
if^k. Loons Swifts, hummingbirds Bats mammals
(Kcptilia)
\ m/ '.

Tinamous *— Trogons Tree shrew s Even-toed hooted

6,550 species V >SSs Herons, storks, Mouscbirds Primates mammals
) jmT ibises, flamingos
iGirV
""
Kingfishers, hee-eaters, Edentates (anteaters, sloths,
Ducks, geese, swans rollers,hoopoes armadillos)
Eagles, hawks, vultures, Woodpeckers, toucans, Pangolins
Lizards and snakes
falcons, kites, huteos harbets, hone) guides, Aardvark
Turtles, tortoises, and terrapi
Pheasant, partridges, puffbirds, jacamars 1 lares, rabbits, pikas
Crocodiles ^^*4^ grouse, turkeys Passerines Rodents
Tuatara ^4£*&ib' /

V
Monocoty ledons

%
80,000 species

Gymnosperms (Conifers Cycads Joint pines Flowering plants IMoot) ledons

i( <\ mnospermae I (( Ion ile Kipsicl.il 500 species (CCycadopsida) 100 spec ies (Cine topsida) 70 species ispermac) 170.000 specie

73
LIVING WORLD

Plants Types of plant

NONFLOWERING
Plants, unlike animals, can
manufacture their own food.
This makes them the starting
point of most food chains, and
almost all other living organisms Algae Seaweeds Mosses and liverworts Ferns
Algae are a large group Seaweeds are marine Mosses and liverworts Ferns have roots, stems,
depend on them for food. of plants with no true algae,and may be red, have stems and leaves, and fronds, and can
roots, stems, or leaves. brown, or green. but no true roots. grow as tall as trees.
Plant FLOWERING
structure
A scarlet runner bean
(Phaseolus coccineus) is a
typical flowering plant.

*^*\ Flowers carry the Grasses Shrubs Herbs Trees

reproductive parts Grasses have jointed Shrubs are short, woody Herbs are flowering Most trees, such as

of the plant. stems, narrow leaves, plants, with a stem that plants that die back in palms (see p. 78), are
and seedlike fruits. divides at ground level. unfavorable conditions. flowering plants.

Life cycle of a poppy

Life cycle Seed
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
t-
SEXUAL Many plants can reproduce
/-^V ° C^x^, without
REPRODUCTION
Many plants
<^ Seed
germinates
pollination or fertilization taking
Leaves get place. This is called asexual
their green reproduce by ova reproduction.
color from being fertilized by
chlorophyll. New plants
pollen, whether
grow from tip

from the same of runner

p|an , sends
flower or plant or / out horizontal
I stems, called
a different one.
Fruits protect the plant's
This sexual
9 runners
seeds. This runner bean's is

fruit is called a pod. reproduction.

Strawberry plant (FragariaJ

Beans are seeds. Photosynthesis Respiration

Each one contains In photosynthesis, the leaf uses Plants, like humans, breathe constantly,
all the nourishment it chlorophyll to trap energy from the sun to taking up oxygen (Oz) and releasing carbon
needs to grow into a
combine carbon dioxide with water. This dioxide (CO2). This process is called
new plant.
produces food in the form of carbohydrates respiration. At twilight, plants produce equal
(sugars and starches) and oxygen. amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide. This
is called the compensation point. Carbon

dioxide is released during both day and night.

Carbon dioxide
from the air
enters through
tiny holes, called
stomata. in the
plant's leaves.

Fine hairs near

the growing tip

take up water.

Vascular system
(see p. 77)

Root cap 2 Twilight 3 Nighttime

Compensation The plant
UNDERGROUND PARTS more oxygen point. Plant releases more
Some plants have both roots than it uses in produces both carbon dioxide
and special storage organs, respiration. gases. than it uses.
such as rubers or bulbs.

Taproot
Chlorophyll Pigmentation
Chlorophyll, pigment, gives most leaves
a Plants are not always
A taproot has a large,
central root and finer their green color. It absorbs light from the green. Chlorophyll is Brown seaweed
side-growing roots. sun, soaking up red and blue light, but present in most plants, (Phaeophyta)

Carrot reflecting green. but some also contain

other pigments that
Tuber Red and blue Green
A tuber is a swollen light waves light waves affect their color. These
stem or root in which
absorbed reflected pigments may help the
the plant stores food.
•: plant to photosynthesize
Red seaweed
Potato in difficult conditions. (Rhodophyta)

74
 PLAN! s

Plant habitats Hormones Weeds

Plants will grow wherever there s enough moisture, light, Plants, like humans, have W eeds are
warmth, and nourishment in the soil. Some plants have developed hormones. These control simplv plants
particular ways of coping with ex treme conditions. whether a plant makes a leaf that grow in
or a flower. They also ensure places where
Aquatic
that its stem grows up toward thc\ are a
Water lilies
(Nymphaea) haw the sun, and its roots grow down nuisance to
English Daisy
a wax) outei toward underground water. (licllis pin nni-ipeople. SUCh
laser, so the
as in gardens or crop
lca\ es float; If a plant is turned on its

stomata are on side, stem and

its fields. Some are as colorful
roots soon change
A the upper and sweet-smelling as

Tropical
> •
surface only.
direction
garden flowers.
Many bromeliads (JSromeliaceae family )

in tropical rainforests live on tall trees PLANT GROWTH RATES

where sunlight can reach their leaves.
Giant bamboo
(Dendrocalamus gigameus)
grows 3ft (90cm)
in a day

Plant facts
• Air plants have no roots. Giant kelp

They grow on tree branches (Macrocyslis

in
pynfera)
tropical and sub-tropical grows
Brackish and salt water Sand and gravel
Americas, absorbing all the 12m (30cm)
Mangroves (Rhizophora) have special Sand couch grass (Elymus farctus) has in a day
pores in their roots to take in oxygen vers long roots that can reach water moisture they need from the air.
from the air. below ground. • Resurrection plants shrivel up
Desert in dry weather. As soon as it
Saguaro cactus rains, they become green and
Bermuda grass
(Carnegiea begin to photosynthesize again. (Cynodon dactylon)
gigantea) lacks
• Ant plants have ants living grows 6in (15cm)
lca\ es, reducing in
in a day
water loss. Its spaces, called domatia, in their
spines protect it stems. The ants protect the
from animals.

Alpine
plants from attacks by
other insects.
Albizzia lalcatoria
grows 1 in (2cm)
I
Alpine anemone (Pulsatilla alplna) ha
white hairs on its leaves to reflect the Eucalyptus regnans in a day n
grows 0.5in (1cm)
heat of the alpine summer sun.
in a day^

This epiphytic bromeliad

Parasites and (Aechmea miniata) grows Carnivorous
epiphytes on the
bark
plants
Some plants cannot of trees. Carnivorous (meat-
photosynthesize. eating) plants feed on
Instead, they live small animals, such as
and feed on the stems insects, as well as
or roots of other plants. These The plant producing their own
plants are called parasites. traps water in food by photosynthesis.
the spaces
Epiphytes also live on other formed by its
Insects provide
plants, but they can overlapping minerals and other
1 The Venus flytrap 2 The mscct touches 3 ( iomblike teeth
leaf bases. (Dionaea muscipula) sensor) hairs, w hich trap the insect, and
photosynthesize, so do not nutrients that help attracts insects w ith its rugger the two halves of the plant slow l\

feed on the host plant. these plants survive. unusual leaf tips. the leaf to snap shut. digests it.

Giant fronds
Common uses of plants Endangered plants
LEAVES
The Pacific giant kelp Scientific name Common name Location
(Macrocystis pyrifera) has t he-
Phragmipedium Chiapas slipper Mexico
longest fronds of any plant. exstaminodium orchid
Kach frond can grow up to
Sarracenia Green pitcher US
394ft (120m), taller than the oreophila plant
Statue of Liberty.
Panama hats, from Skin cream, Ice cream, Marojejya Big -leaf palm Madagascar
the leaves of the including juice thickened with agar dananii
jipijapa tree from the leaves agar from seaweeds
(Carludovica palmata), of Aloe 1 1
iii (Gelidium). Euphorbia (succulent) Canary Islands
handiensis
SAP FIBER
Kerhodoxa (palm) Thailand
elegans

Swainsona (pea) Austi.

recta

Dicliptera (vine) Ecuador

Rubber, from the Rope, from the Ilinen, from the dodsonii
I. ne\ of the fibers of the fibers of the lias
Socofi.in Soool
nililici tree {llixra hemp plant plant (I .ilium
protof, pomecii
brasiliensis). (Cannabis ta/h /) usitarissimum).

-
;
 :

LIVING WORLD

Flower structure
Flowers Stamens arc the male
parts of the flower.
FLOWERS HELP ENSURE that a plant is pollinated, Each one consists of a
filament and an anther
and protect seeds until they are shed. Flowers
its

are often scented, and may be brightly colored.

Pollen is
They consist of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. produced by
the anthers
Lily
Inflorescences
Some plants produce a single
flower on each flower stalk Carpels, the female
parts of the flower,
(pedicel). Many, though, have
consist of an ovary,
flowers arranged in groups on
Stigma one or more ovules, a
a main stalk (peduncle). This style, and a stigma.
is called an inflorescence. Petals attract
Style connects insects and
stigma and ovary. guide them
Single flower
toward anthers
Glory lily
and stigma. Ovary contains
(Gloriosa superba)
one or more ovules
Anther with an ovum (egg
Sepals protect cell) inside each.
Filament,
flower while it

is in bud.

POLLEN GRAIN
A pollen grain
contains male
gametes
Raceme inflorescence Flower examples (reproductive cells).
Orchid family Once pollination has
(Cymbidium) taken place, these male gametes can
\ fertilize an ovum (female gamete).

\t/ Flower facts

Peduncle • Most plants have both male
(inflorescence stalk)
and female reproductive organs
Cockscomb Banksia Yellow calla lily

Rmd's in (Zantedeschia) in each flower. Some, such as

Spike inflorescence (Celosia argentea ( menziesii)

Lobster claws cristata) willows (Salix), have either male

(Heliconia peruviana) or female flowers.
4
'^^ & • The largest flower, giant
rafflesia (Rafflesia arnoldii),
grows up to 3.5ft (105cm)
across and weighs up to
15.41b (7kg).
Cape cowslip LJrn plant Snowball bush
(I .in /nil 11 /in 11 /aides) (Aechmea) ( Viburnum opulus)
Spadix inflorescence
Painter's palette
(An //in mini
tin//ri/i mi in)

Hyacinth Chrysanthemum Stonecrop

(Hytii in tli us {Chrysanthemum (Sedum)
orientalis) morifolium)
Compound umbel Giant rafflesia Child's hand
inflorescence
( lommon elder
(Sambucus nigra) Pollination Fertilization
Pollination is the transfer of pollen Once a flower has been pollinated, fertilization may take place.
from anthers to a stigma. Many This process produces the seed, from which a new plant
plants use insects to help spread will grow.
One male gamete <S
their pollen. An insect feeding on a
fuses with polar fl '

flower's nectar picks nuclei to form

endosperm.
Dichasial cyme up pollen and carries
inflorescence it to the next flower.
European linden
(Ti/ia xeuropaea)
Flower bud

Pollen sticks to
stigma of flower.
1 Each pollen grain 2 Two male gametes 3 The embryo plant
Peduncle
^f^ sends out a tube,
which grows toward
the ovary.
(reproductive cells)
from the pollen grain
enter the ovule.
and the endosperm
(food store) develop
inside the seed.

76
 u . }

LEAVES

Leaf structure Leaf textures

Leaves Smooth, wax) leases
allow water to flow oft.
MOST LEAVES HAVE a stalk, called a so dies do not
petiole, and a blade, or lamina. become waterlogged.

Chlorophyll, a pigment that the Wiodtuii inhmi

Lamina
leaves use in photosynthesis
I lard, spiky leases

(see p. 74), makes them green help prevent the

flower and leaf
VASCULAR SYSTEM Phlox buds from being
The vascular system, made up eaten bs animals.
of phloem and xylem, carries
nutrients around the leaf. Ilnlh

Hairs leaves
Heavy sweater trap a laser of
thes do not burn in
air. so

Trees lose water through their

sun. or freeze in cold
leaves. An average birch weather.
tree with 200,000 leaves
ean lose up to 106 gallons I ii illinium
Petiole
(400 liters) on a hot Needle-shaped
Stoma (pore day - enough to fill leas cs offer little
resistance to wind,
through which gases about 1,200 soft
preventing from

k»
it
Xylem carries flow in and out) drink eans. damaging the plant.
\\ ater mu\ minerals

around the plant.

Cypress

Leaf examples Leaf records

*
LARGEST LEAVES
belong to the raffia palm (Raphia farinifera)
and the Amazonian bamboo palm {Raphia
taedigera)gfov/\ng up to 64ft (20m) long.

s\i auks I LEAVES (flowering plants)

Hornbeam maple Conifer (Taiwania Castor aralia Asparagus are those of a floating duckweed (Wolffia
(Acer carpinifolium) cryptomerioides) (Kiiliipmitix piifiis) (Asparagus) Leases gross to about 0.2in
angusta).

m
(0.6mm) long and 0.1 in (0.3mm) sside.

Poisonous leaves
The leaves of mans plants contain poisons.
Rhubarb leases contain high concentrations
of oxalic acid, which is particularly
dangerous for people suffering
Bur oak Ssviss eheese plant Lily family Lungwort from rheumatism or arthritis.
(Quercus (. Monstera deliciosa) (I .ilium) (Pulmonaria offii inalis Jimson weed and aconite leases

^
macrocarpa) ean also cause sickness in humans.

Blaek locust
(Riil n in xliuliliii)
Jfc
Sassafras
(Sassafras albidum)
A
Blue echeveria
(Echeveria)
Blaek wattle acacia
I .\uii in mearnsil)
Rhubarb (Rheum
rhaponticum)
leaves contain
oxalic acid.
Jimson weed (Datura
stramonium) leaves
contain atropine
Aconite (Aconitum
napellus) leaves
contain aconitme
and ephednne

such as
Leaf mold Plants,
bluebell, thrive in
this

Leaf raft
When dead plants and leases decay and are broken down the fertile topsoil
The leases of the giant watei
they form topsoil, which contains nutrients essential for
lily(Victoria amazonica) can
plant growth.
Centipede Earthworm grow up m sit (2.4m) across,
Thes can support the weight
2 t

of a young child.

1 fallen leaves and dead plants lie on 2 Tins animals, such as earthworms, 3 Valuable nutrients .nc released in
[he surface. They slowly decompose. eat the leaf mold, grinding it. breaking the process, formings rich layei of
forming a laser of leaf mold, it dossn, and mixing it with the soil. topsoil in which new plants grow.

77
LIVING WORLD *<*

Tree structure
Trees Broadleaved trees, like most flowering
plants,have a main stem, or trunk,
Trees are generally tall plants, eaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds.

usually with a single trunk (main

stem). They are all perennial (live for Fruit of the oak tree
a nut, called an acorn.
many years), and most are broadleaved is

Nuts are hard, dry fruits

plants, which bear flowers. with only one seed.

Buds appear in early

Life cycle spring. They will soon Inside the trunk

grow into flowers
Once a tree is mature, it can A tree trunk grows new layers
produce flowers, fruits,
and seeds
each year. Xy V^
Fruit protects
I
^^
i

/
Seed
fertile
%
on
falls

ground
> |
called catkins.

English oak
(Quercus robur)
spring and
in
of cells outside the old layers.
Trees grow quickly in favorable
conditions, and slower in less
favorable ones, forming visible
autumn rings in the trunk. Heartwood
seed.
consists of dead cells, containing
chemicals such as tannins or
Roots --
resins, which produce rich,
Fertilized deep colors. Heartwood
flowers
ROOTS Sapwood
produce fruits
A up water from the soil. The vascular system
tree's roots take

<J=3 (see p. 77) transports the water around the tree. One year's
growth ring

Types of tree
BROADLEAVED TREES NEEDLE-LEAVED TREES PALM TREES
There are many thousands of species The group called needle- The palm family
of broadleaved trees. Most are leaved trees includes contains about
deciduous (shed pines, firs, and yews. 2,800 species
rheir leaves There are over Palms have
seasonally ). 500 species of needle- only one
leaved trees, most growing point,
of which arc called the apical
evergreen. bud. If this is

damaged, the Hardwoods and

tree dies. softwoods
Broadleaved trees are
sometimes referred to as
hardwoods, and conifers as
softwoods. However, some
conifers, such as Douglas fir and
Most broadleaved Many conifers have Palm trees have this yew, produce harder wood than
trees, as their needle-shaped leaves name because the
name suggests, but some are strap- leaves are often
many broadleaved trees. Balsa,

have broad, shaped, or even oval. shaped like a hand. the softest of all, is a broadleaf.
flat leaves.

All the trees in this Most needle-leaved Palm trees, like

group are angiosperms trees bear seeds in broadleaved trees,
(flowering plants) woodv cones. are flowering plants

Pine is a softwood. Walnut is a

Its timber is soft and hardwood with a
open-grained. distinctive color.

Trees around the world

Trees grow wherever there are at least 8in
(200mm) of rain each year, and a
temperature of at least 50°F (10°C) in
summer. These conditions are not met in
the white areas on the map. In the Arctic
tundra, in Antarctica, or on very high
mountaintops, no trees grow.

Map key
Boreal forest Tropical Mangroves

]
Temperate
forest
(conifers)

Limited
forest
rainforest
(broadleaved)

Tropical dry
forest
Limit of
palm trees
(mixed) cover (deciduous)

78
 TRKKS

Bark Trek records Height ft(m)

365(111 .25)
Leaf fall
A bark consists of dead cells, which protect the
tree's TALLEST LIVING TREE In harsh conditions, leaves
li\ ing cells of the sap wood. As the tree grows, the outer is a coast redwood (Sequoia do not photosynthesize properly,
layer of hark splits and is replaced by a new layer. sempervirens) in Redwood and water lost from them cannot
Sometimes many layers are visible at the same time. National Park, California, be replaced if the ground is dry
300 (90)
[t is 365ft (11 1.25m) tall, or fro/en. So a tree withdraws
Younger, pinkish layer shows Lenticels (cell areas)
beneath peeling outer layer. allow the tree to breathe about the same as an the useful substances from its
Apollo space rocket. lea\es. and then sheds them.

OLDEST KNOWN TREE,

a bristlecone pine 200 (60)
(Pi a us longaeva) in
Nevada, was over
5,100 years old.
MOST DROUGHT-
RESISTANT TREE, 100(30)
the baobab (Adansonia
digitata) of Africa,can
The paper birch This cherry tree River birch (Betula store up
35,900 gallons
to
(Betula papyrifera) (Prunus serrula) has nigra) has bark that (136,000 liters) of water in
has a \cr\ pale bark, a dark, glossy bark. peels in llak\ layers.
its swollen trunk. I )n iduous l<ms mi. Neti I

Tree facts Autumn colors

• The Bishop pine (Pin/is • 1.3 cubic yards (1 cubic- • Mangroves are the only Chlorophyll is the first

muricata) can reproduce only meter) of dried ebony weighs trees that can grow in leaf pigment to
after a forest fire. It needs 2,2711b (1,030kg). The same salty water. They have break down when
the heat of the fire to crack volume of balsa weighs only special roots that help autumn arrives.
open its cones. 2341b (160kg). them take in oxygen. Other color
pigments, such as
Growth rates carotenoids,now
Trunk road Trees grow at different rates. Below show through.
Californian redwoods and right are the heights of some Carotenoids darken
(Sequoia sempervirens) grow trees after 15 years. as they age, turning
up to 25ft (7.6m) across.
from yellow through
It is sometimes easier to cut
orange to red. Both
through the trunk than to
carotenoids and
remove the tree.
MHH^I W r'
:
''-
\
anthocyanins, from
sugars in the leaves,
give them their
w iclc range of color.
Many leaves arc

l_t
Adult Juniper Oak Birch Douglas In
brown because
they are dead. I'hcv
human, (Juniperus (Quercus), (Betula), (Pseudotsuga
'Hi/7 25/1 311/1 1 1 >li
I,
may remain on the
6fi
(1.8m) (Tm I (7.5m) i
'im i II2.2,m tree for many
months. A layer of
Common uses of trees cells, called the
WOOD BARK abscission layer,
Cinnamon from the develops as the
bark of the cinnamon
leaf changes color,
(Cinnamomum
zeylanicutn).
forming at the base
of the leafstalk.
Cork from the bark of
the cork oak (Quercui This layer causes the
suber). leaf to fall.
m
I wtapL lull, ii dies,

changes colon dramatically.

( )ak Maple Poplar Ebony
(Quercus) (Acet (Populus) (Diospyros) SAP
carving Maple syrup from
for
furniture,
pseudoplatanus)
lor \ iolins.
tor buildings
(some countries),
for
work. the sap of the sugar Endangered timber trees
maple (Acer Scientific name Common name Location
saccharum).
PULP PRODUCTS Abies (Fir) North and
Paper is made from the pulp of many Chewing gum from guatemalensis Central America
kinds of trees. Pulp is used for paper the sap of the
products Such as paper towels, tissues, sapodilla tree Aniba duckei Bois de rose South America
and books. (. \lti nil km a %apota).
Dalbergia Bahla South Amenca
Turpentine from nigra rosewood
FIBER PRODUCTS
the sap of the
Rayon I'abrie is made from cellulose Hopea (Dipterocarp Southeast India
longleaf pine (Pinus
Using WOOd fibers from mam species erosa family)
palustris),
of trees.
Amber Rousselia Central Amenca
fossilizt d
erratica
SEED PRODUCTS resin f I I onifl i

Kapok Stuffing is made from the hairs trees that are Vatica (Dipterocarp Sumatra
that cover the seeds of the kapok or now extinct. soepadmoi
silk-cotton tree (Ceiba pentandra).

79
 )

I l\l\(i WORLD

Pedicel (flower
Fruit
Food plants The fruit is the part of a
flower that develops to
stalk)

Carpel (section
of fruit

M \\Y TYPES OF PLANT ARK important food sources contain the seed or containing
vesicles)
for humans. They include fruits, vegetables, herbs, seeds. Fruits can be
Seed
succulent or dry.
spices, and cereals.
Succulent fruits, such Endocarp (inner
layer of pericarp)
as lemons, are fleshy
and brightly colored. Exocarp (outer
Fruit examples layer of pericarp)
Fruits form an important part of the human diet. There is a Pericarp (fruit wall)
Mesocarp (middle
huge variety of wild and cultivated fruits, some of which are Vesicle (juice sac; layer of pericarp)
shown below. Lemon (Citrus Union) Remains of style (see p. 76)

TEMPERATE
NUTS Peduncle
Nuts arc a type of dry (inflorescence stalk)

fruit.They have a hard Remains of stigma

wall around their seed. (see p. 76)

Remains of male
inflorescence
(see p. 76)
Apple Strawberry Cherry
(. Mains domestic a ) ( Fragaria) ( Primus avium Spiky cupule
(husk around fruit)

TROPICAL Sweet chestnut

* (Castanea saliva)

SEEDS
Each fruit contains one or more seeds that
germinate and grow into new plants if
will

conditions arc suitable. Some types of fruit,

such as cherries and peaches, contain just one Testa (seed coat)

Papaya Durian Star fruit seed. Other fruits, such as strawberries and
[Carica papaya) (l)nria zibethinus) (Averrhoa carambold) apples, contain several seeds. Lemon seed

Development of a blackberry (Rubus fruticosus)

NUTS Development

Walnut
°*.
(Juglans regia )
%
Brazil nut
n
(Bertholletia excelsa)
Hazelnut
(Con Iks avellana)
of A FRUIT
A
to
plant's fruit begins
form after
fertilization has
place (see

Drupelets ripen
fully. Fruit is

ready to
p. 76)

eat.
taken
Ovaries begin
to swell;
stamens wither.

Grape scott! Fruit records

LARGEST SEED Carpels continue to
One worldwide
year's expand and begin
is the "double coconut" of the Carpels mature into
grape harvest would to change color.
coco de mer palm (Lodokect drupelets: small fleshy fruit

bury Manhattan, with a single seed in each.

maldivicd), which can weigh up
New York, to a
to SSlb (25kg).
depth of 407ft
(124m). 5
LARGEST TREE FRUIT Fruit origins
r This map shows the origins of several now found worldwide.
comes from the jackfruit tree fruits

(Artocarpus heterophyllus): it can ~x Key

weigh up to 1 101b (50kg).
9 Cherries (Egypt) £ Watermelons (Africa)

Food plant * Peaches (China) Strawberries (North and South America)

ancestors -'Lemons (India) Passionfruit (Brazil)

Top five fruit The size, shape, and flavor, of

many food plants have been
Fruit Annual worldwide
consumption altered by selective breeding.
(tons) Wild tomatoes
(Lycopersicon

*2*
Bananas (Musa) 44.750,700 esculentum) are
about the size of
Apples grapes and sweeter -
[Malus domestica) 37.943,874 than cultivated tomatoes

Oranges
(Citrus sinensis) 34,010,585 ititimM
-v-
Watermelons The primitive form
(Citrullus lanatus) 21,308.658 of a com plant (Zea 1

mays) with its cob is t \

Plantains (Musa) 19,985,304 much smaller than
a modern corncob.
J-

80
 ) ) ) ) )

FOOD PLAVls

Vegetable examples Vegetables

The term vegetable
Vegetables can he leaves, stalks, flowers, tubers, or shoots.
describes an edible
LEAVES plant, or part of a plant.

%
Some fruits, such as tomatoes
and eggplants, are also

^9
Cabbage
(Brassica oleracea)
Spinach
(Spinacia oleraced)
Lettuce
(Lactuca saliva)
commonly

Vegetable records
called vegetables.

All of the following records

held by Mr. Bernard Lavery
arc-
Root tuber
(swollen root): the
STALKS (horn 1938)ofLlanharry, Wales. part eaten as a
vegetable
UK. Mr. Lavery also holds three-
other world records for growing
large vegetables. Sweet potato
(Iptimtn-u batatas)
Asparagus Celery Bean sprout LARGEST CABBAGE
(Asparagus officinalis) (Apium graveolens) ( Vigna radiata) weighed 1241b (56.24kg).
FLOWERS
LARGEST SQUASH
[pucurbita pepo) weighed
108.11b (49.05kg).

LONGEST PARSNIP
Know your onions
Onions, chives, garlic, and leeks
Globe artichoke Cauliflower Broccoli (Pastinaca sativa) was 14.3ft
all belong to the lily family.
(Cynara scolymus) (Brassica air rami (Brass 1 a oleracea)
1 (4.36m) long.
Different parts of each plant arc-
ROOTS LONGEST CARROT eaten as vegetables: the bulbs of
was 16.9ft (5.14m) long. onion and garlic, the stems of
leeks, and the leaves of chives.
LARGEST CELERY
weighed 461b (20.89kg).
-.arrot Beet Turnip
(Da u< its ram/a) (Beta vulgaris) (Brassica rapa)
LARGEST BRUSSELS SPROUT
weighed 18.21b (8.25kg).

Fruit and vegetable facts Top five vegetables

• For 2,000 years the Chinese have
Vegetable Annual worldwide Onion ( Ww i

considered lychees (Litc/ii chinensis) to be the (Allium cepa) (Allium u hoenoprasum)

*
consumption (tons)
finest fruits. Relays of horsemen took them
and in some districts,
to court,
demanded them as payment.
tax collectors Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) 63,410,656
/
Cabbages (Brassica oleracea) 37,939,923
• Even the hottest chili pepper (Capsicum Onions (Allium cepa) 28,597,608
ann mini) derives all its heat from no more
Cucumbers/gherkins (Cucumis sativus) 17,473,076
than 0.1% of the fruit.

Carrots (Daucus carota) 12,912,025 (,<nlt, Istks

• There are 6,000 varieties of potato in Peru. (Allium sativum) i Ml nun porrum)

Fruit eaten as vegetables Spice examples Herb examples

Some foods usually regarded as vegetables are in fact fruits. Familiar Spices are strongly flavored 1 Ierbs are used to flavor food,
shown below.

*
examples are plants used in cooking. and in medicine.

• Cinnamon Basil
(Cinnamomum) ( Ocimum basilicum )

Chili peppers (Coriander

i Capsicum annuum (Coriandrum sativum)

Tomato Peppers Eggplant Pumpkin Iloves Spearmint

(Lycopersicon est ulentum (Capsicum) (Sola a a in melongena (Cucurbita pepo)
(

(Syzygium aromaticum) /*- (Mentha spicata)

Fruit and vegetable products

Many products in daily use come from fruits and vegetables.
Colossal cucumber
The largest cucumber evei grown
Vegetable dyes Cooking oil Face powder weighed 201b (9.1kg). This would have
Dyes arc made Cooking oils are Finely ground provided enough slices to make 1,137
from plants such extracted from walnut (Juglans
cucumbei sandwiches.
as indigo se\ eral fruit and regia) shells arc
( Indigofera seeds, including used to make
and henna olives (Olea cosmetic face
(Lawsonia inermis). europaea). powder,

Loofahs ( Chocolate < Coffee

People use dried ( Ihocolate comes ( toffee is

loofahs (I .iifjn from the beans Ss produced from

cylindricd), a of the cacao the ground
tropical fruit, to tree beans of the
wash in the hath. (Theobromd). ( offea tree,

SI
 )

LIVING WORLD

Fungus
Fungi and lichens structure
Mushrooms and toadstools are
Fungi were once classified as plants, the fruiting bodies of fungi. They
but since about 1969 botanists have treated grow up out of the spreadsoil to

their spores (reproductive bodies).

them as a separate kingdom. Most fungi
are immobile, like plants, but cannot make
Lichen structure
their own food. Instead, they feed on living Lichens consist of fungi living
or dead plants or animals, dung, and other n association with algae (simple
plants) or cyanobacteria, the only
organic materials.
organisms apart from plants that
can photosynthesize. soredium may

Fungus examples develop

new
into
lichen
a

There are about 65.000 known species of fungus and

**?* \ I
•

20,000 lichens. Manv more may be discovered.

Hyphae form the mycelium

(main body) and anchor the
Fungal mycelium Hypogymnia physodes
spnmphore (fruiting body).

Life cycle m^ 6
Cap curls
to release
upwards
spores
Orange peel fungus Oak maze-gill Water-measure Fungi reproduce through spores, produces'
I. \leuria aurantia) (Daedaka quercina) Earthstar ( . [straeus which are the equivalent of a plant's spores
hygrometricus)
seeds. The fungal mycelium spreads
» underground until it meets another
mycelium of the same species. They
bond together and, given the right
conditions, produce a fruiting body
that generally grows above ground. Mycelium spreads,
«Jy>
meets another one, and
bonds; forms sporophore
Fly agaric Green wood-cup Clavulinopsis
(Amanita muscaria) (Chlorociboria helvola Symbiotic relationships
aeruginascens) Many fungi live in
close association,
or symbiotic
relationships, with
plants and animals.
The three main
kinds of symbiotic
relationships are
Scarlet hood Chanterelle Common stinkhorn PARASITIC MUTUALISTIC SAPROPHYTIC
parasitic, Some parasitic fungi Many orchids need Some fungi live on
(Hygrocybe coccinea) (Cantharellus cibarius) (Phallus impudicus)
mutualistic, and cause galls and can the presence of a dead wood, animals
saprophytic. even kill the plant fungus for their and other organic
Types of lichen thev live on. seeds to germinate. matter in the soil.
The many species of lichen grow in five distinct ways.
Three of these are shown below. Fungus records
LONGEST LIVING MUSHROOM, BIGGEST FRUITING BODY
Ganoderma applanation, can live is giant puffball
for as long as fifty years. (Lycoperdon
gigantea), which
MOST IMPORTANT FUNGI
can measure up
belong to Penicillium genus.
Squamulose to 6.6ft (2m) in
Fruticose Foliose They are used in blue cheeses,
(Cladonia portentosa) (Hypogymnia physodes) (Cladonia floerkeana) circumference.
and the antibiotic penicillin.

Truffle treat Fungus and Poisonous fungi

Truffles (fungi that produce lichen facts ''v^'SC'-,

• Fungus cells contain a

/•: : 'm>M Name Poison Symptoms
sporophores underground)
light, strong substance Fly agaric muscarine Stomach pain,
are delicious. The white Fairy ring
(Amanita hallucinations, delirium,
truffle Tuber magnatum called chitin. Chitin is also • Fairy rings are formed
( muscaria) convulsions; rarely fatal
from Italy found in the cuticle, or when mycelium spreads
a
Death cap amanitine, Nausea, liver and
costs about outer layer, of some outward. Mushrooms grow (Amanita phalloidine kidney failure, abdominal
$3,308 per animals, such as insects. from the youngest part of phalloides) pain; can be fatal

lb ($1,500 the mycelium.

• Lichen extracts produce False morel gyromitrin Stomach pain, nausea,
per kg). (Gyromitra jaundice; can be fatal
orchil, the dye used for • Lichens are very sensitive
esculenta)
litmus paper, as well as the to air pollution, and several
dyes once used Never eat wild mushrooms unless they have been
to color kinds are used to indicate
identified by an expert as edible.
Scottish tartans. pollution levels.

82
 MICROORGANISMS
Cytoplasm

Protozoa
Microorganisms Protozoa arc neither animals nor plants.
They belong to a separate kingdom
A MICROORGANISM IS a life-form (see p. 72). Protozoa have just

that is usually too small for the one cell, which carries out all the
functions necessary tor them to
human eye to see. The most Food
vacuole live and reproduce. They live in
familiar types are protozoa, water) environments, from
and viruses. Some
bacteria, damp soil and puddles, to lakes
Coll and oceans.
microorganisms are harmful, but
many are vital: without them, life
as we know it could not continue. & Pseudopodia:
extensions that
flow out from the body
wall

Portrait of an
Amoebas
amoeba
arc irregular!)
shaped protozoa chat crawl
about on rlic bottom of ponds.
Feeding
Many protozoa trap their food,
which includes algae and other
protozoa, by engulfing it with
Types of protozoa part of their jellylike body.
There are more than 40,000 species of
proto/.oa, in seven phyla (see p. 72).
Reproduction
A fully grown
Most protozoa protozoa
Two phyla are shown below.
reproduce by splitting
themselves in two.
The nucleus
Bach of the two halves ._

if^
and cytoplasm
then becomes a single split info two

cell. This process is equal halves.

Ciliates Flagellates, amoebae, called binary fission.

(Ciliophora) opalinids Many types of bacteria Two identical
8,000 species (Sarcomastigophora) protozoa The amoeba's Food is trapped,
also reproduce in
result pseudopodia forming a
27,000 species
this way. surround its prey. food vacuole

Bacteria Viruses
Bacteria, together with blue-green algae, belong to A virus is a tiny package of chemicals
the Moneran kingdom. Moncrans arc the simplest, surrounded by a protein coat. The
and probably the most ancient, forms of life on Karth. many virus shapes include rod-shaped,
Bacteria are found everywhere, from the depths of round, and many-sided forms. They
the oceans to the upper atmosphere. are all so small (the largest are about
0.0003mm) that they can be seen only
with an electron microscope.

In /I ii rum vims
particles Ken
through mi
electron
mit roscope.
Viruses cause
many diseases,
Cell from ilir t minium
manufacturing mill in yellow fever
machinery floats
Bacteria do not have a A thin membrane
freely
nucleus: their genetic surrounds the
material floats freely cell contents. HOW A BACTERIOPHAGE
VIRUS MULTIPLIES
BACTERIA SHAPES A \ show s no signs of life until
ii us
Bacteria arc often classified it ades the cell of a lis. ing organism
in\
according to their shape, The bacteriophage is a complex \ irus
which is spherical, rod- that reproduces 1>\ invading bacteria
shaped, or curved. cells. It is replicated at a rate of 300
Coccus Bacillus
even half-hour.

USEFUL BACTERIA
Bacteria are nature's most
.ss^' important recycling agents.
*\\S\\W\VVSWSS^'
-xsxvNSSNS^ They break down dead
plants anil animals, and
return the materials to
Armpit city the ecosystem. Must
There are about bacteria are harmless to
600 million bacteria in humans. Some are vital:

without them we could 1 The \ irus 2 It injects DN \ 3 1'hc bacterium 4 I'he cell bursts
and on a human body. lands on the wall iscc p osi into makes copies of open, releasing
not digest oiu food.
The skin of an armpit
Vinegai
of the bacterium. the bacterium. the muss )\ v
\ I copies of the \ irus.
may be home to up to Bacteria axe important in (he
production <</ many foods.
516,000 per square inch Microorganism facts
(800 bacteria per square • would take (protozoa) • The largesi species of
It a ciliatc

V
millimeter).
about five minutes to swim the protozoa evei to have lived grew
length of this page. coo\ ci s
' m (20cm) in diameter
• One gram of sod in.i\ the width of this page. It has
( heesi Yogurt contain over 150,000 protozoa. now become extinct.

83
r LIVING WORLD

Animals Types of animal

INVERTEBRATES
About 97% of animal species arc
MORE than a million animal invertebrates (have no backbone). Sea anemones, corals,
Worms
At least ten phyla, including
species have been discovered. Some of the most important jellyfish, hydras (Cnidaria) segmented worms (Annelida)
phyla (see p. 72) are shown here. Ring of tentacles armed with and roundworms (Nematoda).
They have adapted to just about stinging cells surrounds the mouth

every habitat: some even spend

their entire life inside the body
of another animal.

Animal characteristics Mollusks (Mollusca) Arthropods Starfish, sea urchins,

Animals, unlike Most have a hard shell to protect (Arthropoda) and sea cucumbers
their soft body. Includes snails Jointed limbs and a tough (Echinodermata)
plants, cannot
and and octopuses,
slugs, squid external skeleton. Includes insects, Marine; body usually made up
manufacture clams, mussels, and scallops. arachnids, and crustaceans. of five identical parts.
their own food, so
they have to cat
VERTEBRATES Gfinte-

other organisms. Only about 3%

of animal
They have many species are vertebrates (animals
cells, can with a backbone). There are
more than 40,000 species, in Amphibians (Amphibia)
reproduce, and Fish (Agnatha, Chondrichthyes,
seven classes (see p.72). Three
can sense and Osteichthycs). Three classes: Can live both on land and in
of these classes are fish.
jawless fish, sharks and rays, and water. Includes frogs, toads,
respond to their
bonv fish. newts, and salamanders.
surroundings.
All animals have
Most animals an excretory
move around at [
system that gets
rid of waste
some stage in products.
their lives.

Reptiles (Reptilia)
Vertebrates Scaly skin; most
have an internal species lay eggs.
bony skeleton to Includes Birds (Aves) Mammals (Mammalia)
support the body. snakes, lizards, Covered with feathers. Have Feed young on milk produced
crocodiles, wings, a beak, and no teeth. Most in female's body. Most have

and turtles. species can fly. fur or hair.

Skin may be covered in

scales, feathers, or
to protect the animal
fur,
Animal reproduction Animal lifespans
and keep it warm. The main function of an animal's life is to Lifespans range from a few days for

continue its species. Some animals reproduce some insects, to more than 200 years for
without mating (asexual reproduction), but a giant clam {Tridacna). Most mammals
Muscles enable
animals to most mate with a partner to produce offspring have about the
move in search (sexual reproduction). l same number
of food.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction of heartbeats
Some organisms. Most animals in their
e.g. hydras, ^1 reproduce
Many animals have lifetime.
Gray crowned crane reproduce by sexually: a cell
legs to help them
(Balearica regulorum) budding: from a male (a
move efficiently
part of the sperm) joins
parent w ith a cell from a
becomes female (an ovum). Elephants and shrews have a similai number of heartbeats
detached and The egg grows int timing their lives, but the shrew's heart beats much faster
forms a new individual. a new individual. during its short life.

Larva's larder
Animal facts Animal groups
• Only about 0.3% of animal • A large locust swarm can eat
The female tarantula wasp
species aremammals, and only 90,000 tons of food in a day: A cast of hawks
(Pepsis) parahv.es a tarantula
about 0.7% are birds. Most equivalent to the amount of A covert of coots
with her sting. She then bites
creatures on Earth are insects food eaten by 35,000 American
off its legs to make it easier A bazaar of guillemots
or worms. families in a year.
to carry, puts it in a burrow, A pride of lions
and lays an egg on it. When Feeding A elowdcr of cats
the larva hatches, it feeds off
Some animals have specialized diets, while others eat almost A leap of leopards
the still-living spider.
anything. Animals have evolved different teeth to suit their diet. A sloth of bears

Mongoose skull Gazelle skull Moonrat skull Monkey skull A skulk of foxes

A labor of moles

*&& »';::' |

A crash of rhinoceroses

Carnivore Herbivore Inseclivore Omnivore

A shrewdness of apes ^
Meat-eater: sharp Plant-eaten Insect-eater: sharp. Meat- and plant-eate A pod of dolphins Jr
canine teeth flat molars pointed teeth sharp and fiat teeth
r<
84
 INVERTEBRATES

Portrait of an
Invertebrates invertebrate
Earthworm

Invertebrates range from simple

THE VAST MAJORITY of creatures are microscopic animals to complex,
invertebrates - animals without a intelligent mollusks, such as octopuses

backbone. They include insects, Invertebrates do not have an internal

skeleton: their body shape is
spiders, crabs, worms, jellyfish, and maintained either by a tough, external
corals. Many invertebrates are tiny, coat, called an exoskeleton, oi by body
but others, such as the giant squid fluid pressing out against the skin.

and the Japanese spider crab, can Prostomium

grow to be larger than humans. Mouth

Types of invertebrate
There are more than a million known
species of invertebrate about 30 phyla
, in Ventral Body shape
nerve cord
(see p.72). Some of the largest and most maintained
by fluid
important phyla are sh own below; the
number of species in each is approximate.
Ventral blood
Coelom (body cavity
vessel
surrounding internal organs)

^* ~\j^ Spermatheca Gonopores

(reproductive organ) Ovary (reproductive organs)

Sponges Sea anemones, corals, Life cycle Life cycle of a jellyfish

(Porifera) jellyfish, hydras There is a huge diversity of invertebrate
9,000 species (Cnidaria)
life cycles. Most species lay eggs, then
9,500 species
many pass through several larval stages

m$$
jgjg^
X f\
za that may look very
stage. Other species hatch
different to the adult
as miniature
^^ Female jellyfish

adults. Some invertebrates, such as // releases fertilized

Flatworms, flukes. >-- Roundworms larvae which settle
houseflics, live for just
and tapeworms (Nematoda) on the sea bed
(Platyhelminthes) 20,000 species a few weeks, but
Ephyrae break free
15,000 species others may

^^
live for
and become free
many years: the giant swimming adults.

4tk clam (Tridacna) can

live to be more than
200 years old.
At the right temperature,
polyps divide into eight-armed
buds called ephyrae
Larvae grow into
small polyps called
scyphistoma

Worms and
Mollusks
(Mollusca) (Annelida)
leeches
Tape measure Worm facts
51,000 species 18,600 species • Roundworms arc probabl
The pork tapeworm (Taenia solium)
the most numerous
can grow to over 23ft (7m) long
animals on Karth. 20,000
inside the human body: as long as
{Sdb jfjk many
species have been

^^$
Arthropods
Starfish, sea urchins.
and sea cucumbers
four adult humans.
as 1,500
80,000 tapeworm embryos.
Tapeworms can cause death if
It

segments, each containing

has as
discovered, but
scientists believe there
are at least 500,000 species.

(Arthropoda) (Echinodermata) • Up to 500 million hookworms

thev enter the bloodstream.
1.092,000 species 6,000 species
ma\ be found in a single human.

ECHINODERMS Arthropods ZOOPLANKTON Invertebrate

Kchinoderms include starfish, 'This huge phylum contains the Plankton is made up of small records
sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. largest variety of creatures in the invertebrates (/ooplankton) ami LARGEST JBLLYFISH
An echinoderm's body is animal kingdom, including plants (phytoplankton) that drift is the giant
divided into five parts radiating insects, crustaceans, spiders, along in water currents, North Atlantic
out from a central point, and it centipedes, millipedes, and /ooplankton includes jellyfish jellyfish (Cyanea
moves using tiny, water-filled horseshoe crabs. All arthropods anil the larvae of sea creatures tilpi Il<i In), which
tube feet. All echinoderms live- have a tough exoskeleton, such as starfish and crabs. grows to more
in the sea. jointed limbs, and a nerve cord
/oufjlankttni
than 6.6fi (2m) m
Starfish <nr among running the length of the both. diameter, and
tlw strongest animals
fin their size: they mn may have tentacles nearly
prize ii/iuii the 121.4ft (37m) long.
shells nj bivalve
mollushs, '•mil
ii\ scallops.
I 0NGEST l UlTHWORM
isthe Minchaetui earthworm
Hi, tigp centipede (Scolopt
from South \fnca. which
hardwickii) is the largest species of centipede,
i) frrovjs to just undei 1 2in (30cm) long. up to I9.7fi (<>m) long.

\ -
LIVING WORLD

Portrait of a mollusk
MOLLUSKS A typical mollusk has
divided into the head, the foot, and
a soft body

MOLLUSKS FORM the second a hump containing the main organs.

largest group of animals on Earth. This hump is covered by a fold of skin
called the mantle. The body is usually
They range from tiny snails to protected by a hard shell.
Ovotestis
(reproductive
the giant squid, which grows as Lung / organ)

long as a sperm whale. Mollusks

. Hermaphrodite
are found all over the world. duct

They live in oceans and seas, in Snails have both

male and female
fresh water, and on land. reproductive organs

Types of Stomach

MOLLUSK Oviduct
There are more than
50,000 species of Giant African
Radula land snail
mollusk. They are Chitons (toothed tongue) Reproductive organs Salivary gland \ Anus \ Excretory gland Sperm duct (Achatina)
divided into seven (Polyplacophora)
Life cycle of an oyster
classes (see p. 72). coat-of-mail
500 species
shell''
Life cycle pFFHTNP
Most mollusks Bivalve mollusks are filter
lay eggs. Many Egg hatches into feeders, sifting tiny organisms
free-swimming
marine (sea- larva, called a
from the water. Most other
Young adult
dwelling) sinks to sea trochophore mollusks have a toothed tongue,
species hatch bed and called a radula, which they use
settles in
Solenogasters Monoplacophorans into tiny suitable place to scratch
(Aplacophora) (Monoplacophora) larvae. Other food into
// Larva grows
wormlike marine deep-sea limpets
mollusks
mollusks, such as k// larger, shell their
10 species
some snails, hatch [ A develops This
mouth.
5,540 species stage called a
into miniature adults. veliger larva

Mollusk facts Close-up of a

sii nil's rail ii In

• The giant clam • The mucus secreted by showing mil's

»/ rasping teeth
Tusk shells Gastropods (Tridacna) is the longest- snails is so effective that
(Scaphopoda) (Gastropoda) lived animal in the world: they can crawl along the
350 species e.g. slug, snail, ,hclk
it can live more than edge of a razor without
35.000 species
200 years. cutting themselves. The giant
clam's gills
• Larger species of • Limpets have such si/I food from
the water.
octopus can measure strong teeth on their The gills mi'

up to 30ft (9m) across radula that they leave n/sn used /">
breathing.
with their tentacles scratch marks on rocks
Bivalves Cephalopods
(Bivah i.i) (Cephalopoda)
spread out. when they browse.
two-shelled mollusks squid, octopuses,
e.g. oyster, clam nautiluses, cuttlefish
8,000 species 600 species
THE CLASS
re intelligent

Mollusk movement have the

Some mollusks, such as mussels, An octopus
learn.

anchor themselves to one place. Most on Zoo in

mollusks, however, move around in search d learned how to

of food and to escape from predators. st the lid off a jar

to reach the crab

BIVALVES nside.
Some bivalves, \Uli,
e.g. scallops, CEPHALOPODS
suck in Cephalopods, such as
water and squid, take in water and Cross-section of a squid's mantle
then expel it then force it out again,
rapidly by pushing themselves rapidly
clapping their two backward. The\ also lux e
shells together. This propels them fins which they use to pu
through the water in a series of icrks. themselves forward.

GASTROPODS
Gastropods create a wave of muscle
contractions that runs from the rear Slugs and snails secrete a
of the foot to the front. slimy mucus that helps
them to slide along.
Expanded Contracted mantle
This wave slowly ^^^^P mantle cavity cavity shoots out jet
drags them along. This Euglandina takes in water of water, propelling
snail is the fastest squid along
mollusk on land.

86
 MOI.I.I SKS

Defense and attack SQUIRTING INK CHANGING COLOR

( )ctopuses, squid, and Squill, octopuses, and cuttlefish can
Mollusks have evolved several cuttlefish squirt cloud
a change color in less than a second to
ii it no ways of protecting
1 1 i of ink at their enemies. blend in v\ith their surroundings. I he\
themselves from enemies. Many This allows them to alsochange color to indicate their
escape behind a dark mood. Male cuttlefish turn black vuth
carnivorous (meat-eating) mollusks
screen. Heteroteuthls, a anger; octopuses turn white with tear.
are also efficient predators. type of deep-sea squid, and blue with rage.
squirts a cloud of
STINGING luminous bacteria ro
Some sea shifts eat dazzleits enemy,
jc \ fish, and can
1 1

swallow the Squid squirting ink

stinging cells /mm ii\ siphon
without being
stung. The cells SAFETY IN SHELLS
are then tarried to Many mollusks,
the slug's back, including gastropods
where they protect and bivalves, retreat
it from enemies. into their shell if
mutlltil broom find
danger threatens. white coioring
POISONOUS
HARPOONS
"V
Cone shells have
MOLLUSK FACTS
Ions, barbed teeth • The ink squirted by
• The Mediterranean
on their radula. cuttlefish was the
They thrust one of fan mussel (Pinna nobilis)
original sepia coloring
these into their prey anchors itself to the sea
like a harpoon,
used by artists.
bed with strong, golden
deliver a venomous
• Several species of cone brown threads. These
sting, then pull the a mi uttlefish hashoned red. It is
human
<

impaled victim hack shell can kill a threads were once used to
probably signaling to anotha cuttlefish
into their mouth. with their sting. make "cloth of gold."

HOW PEARLS FORM

MOLLUSK SHELLS Some mollusks form pearls in

Mollnsk shells are made of their shells. Oyster pearls arc

layers of calcium carbonate highly valued.
secreted from the mantle. They
1 \ tmv piece of grit
form in a huge variety of shapes or a parasite lodges in
sizes, patterns, and colors. West African the ovster's shell,
margin shells causing irritation.

N 1
«
inn;
^ 2 The ovster secretes
mother-of-pearl
(nacre) around the
ause of irritation.
c.

Cockle XTEIXI D I

shells
3 The pearl breaks
free of the shell.
remov ing the source
of irritation.

Marlinspike
Nautilus: the only augei
cephalopod with n true
external shell Limpet

Prize eyes \1,\ MOLLUSK RECORDS

he giant Atlantic \& LONGEST
I
LARGEST MOLLUSK Sllll I

squid has the largest^ was ovei W>.4fi (5m) long.

and largest invertebrate It
eyes of any animal in (sec p. S3), is the giant Atlantic belonged to a prehistoric
the world, each with a squid {Arthteuthis), which can cephalopod.
diameter of more than
16in(40cm). •
grow up to 66ft (20m) long.
I \Kt,l si l WD SNAII
LARGEST BIVALVE MOLLUSK is [he giant African land snail.
is the giant clam, which cm which can grow up to I5.4in
weigh over 6611b (300kg): the (39cm) from snout to tail.
»«> same as three large humans. It has taken |ust over
one minute lor
this Euglandma
s\l M.I.KST MOLLUSK
snail to crawl
is the gastropod Ammonicem, along the bottom of
r> which is only ().()4in (lmm) loin these two p. i

87
JVING WORLD

Insects
There ark more species of
insect than of any other animal
phylum. For every human,
there are about 200 million
insects. They live just abojj
everywhere, includi
rainforests, polar lands, deserts,
and pools of gasoline.

Proportion
of INSECTS
Insects make up Air enters through
holes (spiracles) in the
about 85% of all insect's sidesand
the animal goes directly to
muscles and organs.
species on Earth.

Katydid (female)

Life cycles
Types of insect The series of changes an insect goes through
There are over a million known species of insect, with perhaps
during its life is called its metamorphosis.
30 million still to be discovered. They are grouped into 32 orders
Complete metamorphosis: Incomplete metamorphosis:
(see p. 72), including those illustrated below. butterfly grasshopper
Winged
adult
emerges
from pupa

Mayflies Dragonflies Grasshoppers, crickets

(Ephemeroptera) (Odonata) (Orthoptera)
2,000 species 5,000 species 20,000 species

Molting
Stick and leaf insects Earwigs Cockroaches A young insect's tough exoskeleton
Two hours after leaving the
(Phasmida) (Dermaptcra) (Blattodea) cannot stretch, so the insect has to molt nymph has
water, the
2,500 species 1,500 species 3,700 species
(shed its skin) several times in order to become an adult
damselfly. Its old
grow. The sequence below shows the skin is left behind
final molt of a damselfly, as it changes on the stalk.

from nymph to adult.

Praying mantids Termites Biting lice

(Mantodea) (Isoptera) (Mallogaphaga)
1 ,800 species 2,300 species 2,700 species

Damselfly The skin The young

nymphs live has split adult grips
underwater, along the the plant
but climb back of the stem and
out when and
thorax, pulls itself
Bugs Beetles Ants, bees, and wasps
they are ready to head
the adult up and away
(Hemiptera) (Coleoptera) (Hymenoptera) become adults. has emerged. from its old skin.
82.000 species 300,000 species 110,000 species

\ / Insect facts
• If the animals on Earth were weighed,
all

ants would make up 10% of the total.

• Queentermites can lay one egg per second
formore than 14 years. This gives a total of
Butterflies and moths Flies Fleas
(Lepidoptera) (Diptera) (Siphonaptera)
more than 440,000,000 babies from one queen
136.800 species 98,500 species 1,800 species
• A bee must visit over 4,000 flowers to make
one tablespoon of honey.

88
 INSECTS

Insect wings Defense and attack

Wings enable an insect to Insects have developed many ways of
escape from predators, and to fly defending themselves against enemies
to new areas in search These include camouflage, stinging,
of food. and squirting noxious chemicals. In
several cases these methods are also
Moth wing useful for attacking prey.

Dragonfly wing
CAMOUFLAGE
Main insects arc so
well-camouflaged that
they arc almost
impossible tor predators to
spot. The green markings of
this Javanese leaf insect
( Phyllium bioculatum ).

Beetle forewi ng complete with holes and brown

(elytron)
edges, make it look just like a
d\ ing leaf.

Insect vision
An insect's compound eyes are made
up of hundreds of individual lenses.
Dragonjliei have the
largest eyes
of <nty
insect.

Insect records
LOUDEST INSECTS
rare cicadas, which can be heard
up to 1,312ft (400m) away.

FASTEST FLYING INSECTS

are dragonflies, which have
been recorded flying at speeds
of over 31mph (50km/h).

FASTEST RUNNING INSECT

is the American cockroach
{Periplaneta americana), which
can run at speeds of almost
3mph (5km/h).
Common wasps (Vespula vulgaris) build
then nests from chewe&up wood fibers.

Giant dragonfly
The biggest insect ever to
have lived was a prehistoric
dragonfly. It had a wingspan
of 29.5in (75cm): about the
same as a Eurasian kestrel's.
Helpful insects
BEES
Bees pollinate main types of crops, Diseases carried B\ fleas and tins
and produce hone} (the first sweetenei have caused more than half of all
used l>\ humans) and Beeswax. human deaths since the Si. me Vje

SILK MOTHS BODY LICE

Silk produced from the cocoon
is More than .^.800 Bod\ hie i an li\ e on
(pupa) of the silk moth BomAyx mori. one person. Bi unhygienic situations
Each cocoon produces a thread of silk i !h \ can transmit disease.
that may Be oxer 0.6 miles ( I km) long. l \l«;i si WING-SPAN
KILLER BEES is iB. u of the u« lei moth
DUNG BEETLES An aggressive type of African hone)
(Tkysania agripina),
Dunn Beetles were introduced to bei I adansomt) attacks
\pis mellifern
Australia to eat the large amounts of ii ins m ithoul pro> m ation Mori w Inch measures up to
dung produced by cattle. than 300 people have Been killed 1 Jin (30cm) icioss
LIVING WORLD

Portrait of an arachnid Pedipalp

Arachnids Arachnids have eight legs, and their

body is divided into the cephalothorax

SOME OF THE world's least loved (front and middle), and the abdomen
(rear). They have a pair of leglike or
animals are arachnids. They
pincerlike pedipalps for feeling
include spiders, scorpions, ticks, and feeding.
and mites. Most arachnids live on
land. They are found all over the
world in almost every habitat:
there is even a species of spider
that lives high on Mount Everest.
There are no
veins: blood
Types of arachnid flows freely
There are more than 73,000 species of inside the
body.
arachnid, divided into ten orders (see
p. 72). Six orders are llustrated below.

Arachnid records
MOST VENOMOUS SCORPION
Imperial scorpion is the Israeli gold scorpion
(Pandinus imperator) (Leiurus quinquestriatus).

LARGEST SPIDER WEB

Life cycle is spun by the tropical orb
Life cycle of a spider
Arachnids lay eggs
spider (NepAila). It measures
Scorpions Whip scorpions that hatch into
(Scorpiones) (Uropygi)
up to 10ft (3m) across.
nymphs resembling
2,000 species 60 species LARGEST ARACHNID
adults. They molt
(shed their skin) is Leblondis' goliath bird-eating

several times before spider (Theraphosa leblondi):

they are mature. with a leg span
Some mites live of 11in (28cm),

just a few weeks; itcan cover a

Camel spiders Harvestmen larger species of dinner plate.
(Solifugae) (Opiliones) spider may live up
900 species 4,500 species
to 30 vears. Arachnid facts
• More people die from bee
stings than from the bites
and stings of all the venomous
Ballooning spiders arachnids put together.
tTT-" Spiderlings can "balloon" from
one area to another, traveling up • There are more than 2 million
Mites and ticks Spiders
to 1,243 miles (2,000km) spiders lurking in an average
(Acari) (Araneae)
30,000 species 40.000 species at heights of more than 9,843ft acre of meadow.
(3,000m). They release a
NET-CASTING
thread of silk from their SPIDER
Spider attack abdomen, which is picked up The net-casting
All spiders are carnivorous (meat-eating),
by the wind. spider spins a sticky net
that it holds between
feeding mainly on insects and other spiders. its front legs, ready to
They are skillful hunters, and have throw over a
developed ingenious ways of capturing prey. passing meal.

After trapping a meal, they paralyze it

with venom, then wrap it in silk.
^
TRAPDOOR BOLAS SPIDER
SPIDER The bolas spider
The trapdoor spider produces a scent
burrow
lives in a that attracts moths,
sealed witha hinged then twirls a thread
door spun from silk. of silk with a sticky
When an insect blob on the end. Moths
passes, it flips open flying toward the
the trapdoor and scent are trapped
leaps on its prey. on the end of
the silk.

JUMPING SPIDER
The'jumping spider has
short, strong legs, and
can jump 40 times its

body length. anchors

It
SPIDER itself to the ground with
The jumping spider has
Orbj wca\ frf* spin an intricate a silk thread, then excellent eyesight for
^wdLiartfnidh to catch prey pounees on its prey. keeping a lookout for prey.

90
 CRI sl VCEANS

Portrait of a crustacean
Crustaceans ( .'ommon lobster (female)
(Homarua gammarus) Most crustaceans have a
three parts: the head, thorax (middle), and
hod\ divided into

Crustaceans range from tiny abdomen (rear). In some species the head and

water fleas invisible to the human thorax are joined to form the cephalothorax.
Crustaceans have compound eyes and
eye, to giant spider crabs with legs
two pairs of antennae. The bod\ is
longer than a person. Most covered b\ a tough coat, called the
crustaceans are aquatic (live in exoskeleton.

water). They are found all over the

world, from rivers andsho]^liD£S-ttL
the floors of the^Jeepest oceans. Compound eye
made up of
many lenses

Types of crustacean Cephalothorax

There more than 55,000 species of
are
crustacean. They are grouped into eight
Life cycle
classes (see p. 72), including the four
Most crustaceans lay their eggs
illustrated below.
in water. After hatching, many
species pass through several
larval stages. Crustaceans molt
(shed their skin) to grow bigger.

Life cycle of a shrimp

Branchiopods Copepods Crustacean
(Branchiopoda) (Copepoda)
e.g. fairy shrimps. tin} marine ami
records
SMALLEST CRI STACEANS
water fleas
1,000 species
freshwater organisms
13.000 species X Egg 2-^ Egg hatches into first are the water (leas A/ontlhi,
larval stage, called
nauplius;has single which grow only 0.25mm long.
eye, uses antennae
for swimming HEAVIEST CRI STACEAN
is the North Atlantic lobster

Second larval stage,

(Homarus americanus \\ hich i

called zoea; has weighs up to 441b 20kg). (

more appendages
Barnacles Malacostracans and two eyes LARGEST CRUSTACEAN
(Cirripedia) (Malacostraca) the Japanese spider crab
1,220 species e.g. crabs, lobsters
Final post-larval
stage; uses
abdominal limbs
^ti^h^ Th,rd stage, called
mysis; uses limbs on
is

(Macrocheira kaempferi): its leg

30,000 species
for swimming thorax for swimming span can reach nearly
*'
15ft (4m).
Crab defense Crustacean facts
Most crabs have a hardened • Copepods arc probably
exoskeleton, called a carapace, the most numerous animals
to protect them from predators. on Earth, forming much of
Many crabs also use camouflage, the plankton that floats in
burrowing, and running away as the ocean.
effective defensive tactics.
• The North Atlantic lobster
BURROWING (Homarus americanus) and the
Many crabs, such as this ghost crab
(Ocypode), burrow lo escape predators.
robber crab (Birgus It/tro) can
Their eyes may stick up above the live for over 50 years.
ground, keeping a lookout for danger.
• Sow bugs are the only SUPERSHRIMI 1

crustaceans that have The mantis shrimp can

successfully adapted to life deliver a blow with the same
on land. force as a small caliber rifle.

It can casik punch its wa\

• A swarm of krill
out of a fish t. ink.
(malacostracans) can cover
170s(] miles (440si| km) ami
weigh over 2 million tons.

• The pancarid, a type of

PINCKR POWER CAMOUFLAGE
The robber crab (Birgus
itself
latro)
with formidable pincers. These
defends Some
(Camposcia
crabs, such as this decoratoi crab
nglusa), cover their shell
shrimp, is only found in a single
Tunisian pool the size of a bath.
***£&&**
* *+i)m K
are so strong that this crab could cut us
way our of a cake tin.
\v plants and sea creatures to
i til

disguise themselves on the sea bed.

H
X
RUNNING SIDEWAYS
Scuttling sideways is the
fastest method of escape for
main crabs. It is easier for
them to enter their
burrow sideways
because of their bodx shape.

91
LIVING WORLD

Eardrum
Portrait
Amphibians of an
amphibian
Most AMPHIBIANS can live both Amphibians are
on land and in water. They need vertebrates (see

a moist environment because p. 83). Their skin

has no hair or scales,
their skin is not waterproof and
and is important for
Adults can
they rapidly lose body water in keeping the correct breathe through
Kidney
dry conditions. Amphibians have, balance of water in the their skin.

body. Most adult amphibians

nevertheless, adapted to a wide
have lungs, but can also
range of habitats, even deserts. breathe through European
common toad
They are found on every their skin.
(Bufo bufo)
continent except Antarctica. Frogs and
Lungs toads have
no tail.

Types of amphibian Life cycle

There are more than 4,200 species of
Most amphibians lay their eggs in water.
amphibian, divided into three orders
(sec
The young pass through a series of changes, Caring for eggs and young
p. 72).
called metamorphosis, before becoming Many amphibians lay their eggs and then
adults. Life spans range from a brief leave theyoung to fend for themselves.
breeding season to more than 50 years for Others protect them in a variety of ways.
the Japanese giant salamander (Anurias
japonicus).
Life cycle of a newt
Gills disappear;
adulthas lungs
and can live on
Frogs and toads Caecilians land or in water
(Anura) (Apoda)
3,700 species 1 70 species VOCAL SAC CARRYING TO
BROODER WATER
The male Darwin's frog The poison-dart frog
(Rhinoderma) swallows (Deiulrobates) carries its

his tadpoles into his newly hatched tadpoles

Back legs Front vocal sac for protection. on its back to a nearby
appear at legs When they become pool or stream.
seven to ^^r" appear about
froglets, he spits them
eight weeks three weeks after
after hatching hatching.
out one at a time.
Newts and salamanders
(Urodela) EGGS ON LEGS
350 species Amphibian facts The male
midwife toad
• Young frogs are called froglets, and youn^ (Alytes obstetricans)
toads are toadlets. wraps his string of
Amphibian feet eggs around his
Amphibians' feet are adapted • Amphibian comes from the Greek words back legs and carries
for their
way of life. Many species have
particular amphi and bios, meaning "double life," them until they are
ready to hatch.
webbed feet for swimming, while others are because amphibians can live both on land
adapted to burrow or climb. and in water. UNDER THE SKIN
The Surinam toad's
• The smallest frog in the (Pipa pipa) eggs arc-
world, Psyllophryne placed on the
didactyla, is smaller than female's back. Her
skin swells around
a fingernail at just 0.41 in
them until they are
(10.4mm) long. almost covered. The
young develop into
• Poison-dart frogs are so
toadlets under her
named because the indigenous skin, then hatch out
ThepalmaU newt Thesalamander
tiger (native) people of South America of her back.
Eggs embedded ^J\^,'
( I nturus helvetic us) (Ambystoma tigrinum)
bbed Inn flattened feet for
tip their arrows with their poison. i female toad's skin
i
feet fin
swimming. burrowing.

Largest frogs and toads Big tadpole, little frog

Length is measured from the snout to the
The South American paradoxical frog
end of the body.
{Pseudis paradoxd) is larger when it is a
Common name Scientific name Size (approx) tadpole than when it turns into an
mm in
adult frog.
Goliath frog Conraua gollath 358 14

American Pyxicephalus 230 9

bullfrog adspersus
I In White's treefrog in African clawed toad
I
Cane toad Bufo marinus 230 9
I
Litoria i aerulea has i i Xenopus)A<u webbed feet
\in lis, ihshs mi /is toes /in /in swimming and laws
gripping
fin i

Rococo toad Bufo paracnemls 230 9

gripping slippery surfaces.

92
 i . .

AMPHIBIANS

Amphibian colors
and shapes
Amphibians have evolved a
wide range of shapes and colors
to suit their habitat and lifestyle.
Many poisonous species arc-
I Ins brightly colored golden
brightly colored to warn mantella I Mantella litis South African shovel noted

<iui.iniiai.ii is a poisonous frog (Heminis gunanis)

predators to keep away, while
Madagascar. shovelrshaped mout for burrowing.
others have colors and shapes Mottled coloring helps
disguise this South American
that help them blend in with horned toad (( ieratophrys)
their surroundings. The shape and colors nf tins
leaf frog i
Megophrys
nasuta) resemble n dead leaf.

The flattened slta/te

ilns burt vwhigfrog
til

The ligei salamander's (Ambystoma Poisonrdart frogs are the mini poisonous nf I lir minis mill shape n/ ilns Malaysian iRhinophrynut
tigrinum) spots are a signal to predators nilamphibians. Thai startling colors make narrow-mouthed toad (Kaloula pulchra) may donahs) helps it in slip
that ii may make an unpleasant meat them easierfor enemies in spni ami avoid. fool predators into thinking ii is n wet stunt. easily through the sml

Defense and attack Amphibian records

Amphibians are carnivorous (meat-eating), Leap frog LARGEST SALAMANDER
and many species rely on camouflage to stay The African sharp-nosed frog {Ptychadena oxyrhynchus)
is the Japanese giant
holds the frog long jump record. One individual
hidden from prey as well as from predators. salamander, which grows up to
leaped 17.5ft (5.35m) at the Calaveras County Frog
Other defensive tactics include oozing 5ft (1.5m) long.
g-jss^^r^. Jubilee, California,
poison, looking fierce, and startling enemies.
;"-\'''l. '^.'7.<; in 1975.
SMAU EST SALAMANDERS
,„
are the Mexican lungless
SURPRISE
salamanders Thorius \\ Inch
( I.
The fire-bellied toad
lBombina bombina )
grow only O.SSin (14mm) long.
relics on its camouflage
MOST POISONOUS VMI'IIIHI \\
to stay hidden from
enemies. But it' it is
is the golden yellow poison-dart
attaeked, the toad CAMOUFLAGE frog {Pkyllobates terribilis). The
displays the This European yellow- poison from the skin of a
bright warning
bellied road [Bombina single frog could kill up to
eolorson its belly, variegata) is almost
hoping that the scarrled 20,000 mice.
completely hidden
predator will leave alone
it
u hen it sits on MOST EGGS
piece of bark.
are laid by the female cane toad
(Bufo Hid rums): she can produce-
SCARING TACTICS Patches of
If this Budgett's frog green complete up to 35,000 eggs m one year.
the load's
[Lepidobatrachus asper)
disguise.
is attaeked, it puts on a POISON
fearsome display. It If a predator tries to eat them, main
opens its mouth. amphibians ooze a nasty tasting poison
screams, and makes from then skin, Ilns should make the
loud grunting noises. attaekei spit them out.
If this performance
fails to scare awiv the
enemy, the frog may
bite it.

Sharp
STICKY TONGUE
Frogs have a long,
sticky tongue for
flicking out at prey,
such as insects.

PRICKLY RlliS LOOKING PIERCE // attacked, tin ml .

ft,

I Ik nlis of the Spanish sharp- Tins European common toad is newt (Notophihalmui
east, -in

ribbed salamander (Pleurodeies confronting an enemy. It has viridescens)

glands in lis skin
wait!)have needlelike tips. If a pulled up ns bod\ and . is
European common
predator tries to eat it, the ribs standing on its toes to make
frog (Ran.
temporal ia) pass through its skin giving the itselfappc.u larger. An oriental fine-bellied toad (Bombina
attacking prey predatoi a sharp surprise. oiiini.ilisl swimming away /mm dangn

LEAPING AND SWIMMING

If a frog is attacked, for example 1>\ a
bird, it quickly leaps out of danger
using its powerful back legs. If the frog
is close to a pond or stream, it will dive
into the water and swim out of the
predator's reach.
LIVING WORLD

Portrait of a reptile
Reptiles Mouth
Most reptiles (excluding snakes)
four legs and a tail.
have
Their scaly skin
Reptiles ranch from tiny retains water inside the body,

snakes up to 33ft (10m) enabling them to live in dry,

lizards to
barren regions.
long. They live in oeeans, lakes,
rivers, and on land. All reptiles
have a scaly skin. They depend
Esophagus
on their surroundings for
warmth, so they are more Trachea
(windpipe)
numerous in hot countries.

Types of reptile Life cycle

There are nearly 6,000
Most reptiles lay leathery-
species of reptile, grouped
shelled eggs, although some Eyed lizard (female)
into four orders (see p. 72). (Lacerta lepida)
give birth to fully developed
young. Reptiles continue to
grow after reaching matutity, so
older individuals may reach a
huge size. Sloughing Reptile skins
Life cycle of a gecko
Snakes and lizards slough (shed) The outer layer of a reptile's
their skin from time to time, skin thickened, forming
is

either in large flakes or in one waterproof scales. These scales

piece. This allows them to grow, arecomposed of keratin: the
Lizards and snakes and replaces worn-out skin. same substance that hoofs, hair,
(Squamata) and fingernails are made of.
5,700 species
Crocodilians
Crocodilians
have a tough,
armorlike skin
made of
rough, horny
scales (scutes).
Crocodilians C-ni man ski;

(( Irocodylia) Snakes
23 species Most snakes have
a smooth skin.
Reptile shells The scales
Turtles, tortoises, and terrapins Turtle and terrapin
overlap so that
A turtle's shell is lighter
have a bony shell covered with the snake can
and flatter than a
horny plates or leathery skin. bend easily.
tortoise's shell. The
The shell is for protection, and streamlined shape Snake sk

Tuatara often acts as a camouflage. enables the turtle to

(Rhynochocephalia) glide through the water Lizards
2 species Lizard skins
range from
smooth and
slippery, to
rough and spiky

Gecko skin

Turtles, tortoises,
and terrapins
(Chelonia)
Tortoise Soft-shelled turtle Longest snake
Tortoises usually have a strong, high- These turtles have a light, flat, shell
200 species The longest and heaviest
domed shell to protect the body from for bouyancy (floating), and for hiding
predators' jaws. in the sand and mud of the riverbed.
snake in the world is the
anaconda (Eunecies murinus).
Reptile colors The longest anaconda on
The colors of this diadem snake
CAMOUFLAGE (Spalerosophis diadema Clifford!) record measured 33ft 8in
Many reptileshave skin colors and
make it difficult to spot in its (10.26m): longer
desert habitat.
patterns that enable them to blend in than a bus.
with their surroundings, from bright
green forest lizards, to dull brown
desert snakes.

WARNING COLORS
Many venomous snakes, such as the
Eastern coral snake (Mirriinis fiikins),
have bright colors to warn
predators to keep away. Some harmless
species have also developed these
colors, to fool enemies into thinking
they are dangerous: this is called
Batesian mimicry.

94
 REPTILES

Reptiles on
the attack
Most reptiles are carnivorous
(meat-eating). From deadly
venom tongues and
to sticky
snapping jaws, they have
evolved some of the most \ ENOM CONSTRICTION STICKS TONGUE
Poisonous snakes, such as tins green Pythons and boas, such as this Chameleons have long tongue with
efficientmethods of attack in a
mamba {Dendroaspis angusticeps), kill anaconda, coil their body around their a stickv tip that they shoot out at prev.
the animal kingdom. pre) In biting it and injecting venom prev. slowly squeezing the animal until The chameleon's tongue is as long as
through their tangs. u suffocates. itsbody and tail combined.

Reptile records
LARGEST CROCODILIAN
is the saltwater crocodile
Alligators can grow (Crocodylus porosus), which can
up to 50 new sets of
teeth in a lifetime grow up to 20ft (6m) long.

LARGEST LIZARD
is the Komodo dragon ( Varanus
komodoensis), which grows up to
This alligator
snapping turtle 10ft (3m) long.
SNAPPING BEAKS (Macroclemys) has
Tortoises and turtles do not a pink, worm-like
have teeth: instead, they have a tongue for luring TERR1BLK TEETH
sharp, horny beak. Carnivorous fish into its mouth. Crocodiles and their relatives have
turtles, such as snapping turtles, formidable sharp, pointed teeth tor
have strong jaws tor grabbing and grabbing prev and tearing off chunks
chopping up a passing meal. of flesh.

Defensive tactics HISSING AND SPITTING

Many reptiles have developed Cobras rear up off the ground and hiss
to scare off an enemy. Most coin. is
effective ways of putting off
inject deadly venom bv biting,
their enemies. A predator but spitting cobras squirt
attacking a reptile may receive jets of venom into their

an unpleasant surprise. attacker's eyes.

NASTY SMELLS SQUIRTING BLOOD

The stinkpot turtle Some horned lizards
[Sternotherus odoratm ) (Phrynosomd) squirt drops
emits a foul-smelling of blood from then eves
yellow liquid to put at enemies. The blood
• Some snakes push their
off attackers. may contain irritants. windpipe out of their mouth to
avoid being suffocated when
swallow ing large animal.
Deadliest snakes .i

Some 50,000-1 ()(),()()() people die each year from • When a snake charmer's
snake bites. These arc sonic of the worst culprits. snake weaves to and fro. it
is not dancing to the music
Common name Scientific name No. of deaths
and distribution per year (approx.) but follow ing the snake-
charmer's movements.
Asian cobras (Asia) Naja 15,000
WALKING ON WATER LYING • A chameleon's eyes van
I
Saw- scaled vipers
Basilisk lizards (Basiliscus) Some such as
lizards, (Asia and Africa) Echis 10,000 move independently. One eye
drop onto water and run this living dragon (Draco can look up while the other
across the surface on volans), escape attack Russell's viper (Asia) Daboia russelii 5,000
looks down.
their back legs to escape bv leaping and gliding
Kraits (Asia) Bungarus 3,000
from a predator. from tree to tree. • Spitting cobras can s(|turt their
Lance-headed vipers venom up to 9ft (2.7m).
(Central and
LOSING THE TAIL
This lizard has South America) Bothrops 3,000
Many lizards can shed their tail if
After eight months the
recently lost part of
an attacker grabs hold of it; this tail has almost reached
its tail while escaping
allows them to escape. A new tail from a predator
eventually grows in its place.

The small vertebrae " "fl

(back bones) along the lizard's
have special weak points
tail

where the tail can break off.

.IVING WORLD

Lateral line
Portrait of a fish
Fish Fish are vertebrates (see
most familiar and numerous are the
p. 83). The
(sense organ)

There IS NO SUCH thing as a bony fish, which have a skeleton made

r\ groups are
pical fish: the three of bone, a swim bladder for buoyancy,
and a gill cover, called the
as different from each other as a
operculum. Most fish are
camel is from a crow. All fish live covered with scales.

in water, although some species

Caudal fin

can spend time on land. Their

habitats range from the cold, inky
depths of the deepest oceans, to
warm, sluggish, tropical rivers.

Types of fish
There are more than 20,000 species of
fish, the vast majority of which are
bony fish. Fish are divided into three
Anal fin
classes (see p.72).
Pectoral fin
Cloaca (anus and
urinogenital opening)
Crucian carp (female)
Pelvic fin , Ovary {Carassius carassius)

.lawless fish Life cycle of a trout Life cycle of a hammerhead shark

(Agnatha)
Life cycles
hagfish and lampreys Most fish release eggs, althou
75 species some give birth to fully
formed young. Many fish // Adult gives
<i birth to up to
produce thousands of
40 live young
eggs at a time, because
so few survive to become
adults. Life spans
range from a few
Cartilaginous fish
(Ghondrichthyes)
months, to over Shark
100 years for the Trout takes Young,
sharks, rays, and chimaeras
takes from from 5 to called a
800 species giant sturgeon 8 months to 15 years to pup, resembles
{Hi/ so /in so). 3 years to mature, mature, depending adult, but its head
depending on species on species. projectiles are bent back.

HOW FISH BREATHE

Small
Fish "breathe" using their gills. As water
Bony fish flows over the gills, oxygen passes through beginnings
(Ostcichthyes) thin membranes into the blood. An adult ocean
e.g. plaice, carp, cod sunfish (Mo/a mold)
20.000-22.000 species Pharynx (connects
is about 60 million
mouth with esophagus).
times bigger than
its young: newly
Water flows
Fish records The fish takes
/ out through
hatched sunfish
water are about 0.25in
LARGEST FISH in

through
the gill cover

is the whale shark {Rhincodon its mouth.

(operculum). (6mm) long, while
typus), which grows to more than adults measure
50ft (15m) long. about 10ft (3m).

SMALLEST FISH
is the goby {Pandaka pygmaea),

which grows just 0.3in

Fish movement
Fish move in three
(7.6mm) long: smaller than
dimensions: forward
a house tl\.
and backward; up and
FASTEST SWIMMER down; and left and
is the tunny ( Thunnus), which right. They use
ROLL YAW PITCH
The fish uses its dorsal, A combination of fin The fish sun els its
has been recorded swimming at different fins to control pectoral, and pelvic fins movements steers the fish pectoral and pelvic fins to
44mph (71km/h). these movements. to roll. to the left and right. rise, stay level, and dive.

Swimming
Fish swim by creating
a series of S-shaped
waves that travel Pelvic
The S-shaped wave begins The peak nj the wave has The peak is now between the The peak reaches the tail,
along the body from fin
when the fish swings its traveled in the region »/ iln 1
I urn dorsal fins, and the I ml m/il ihr head swings for
head to tail. head in the right. pelvic mill first dorsal fins. begins in thrust in the right. the next wain'.

96
 "

FISH

Caring for Fish shafhs

young Fish have evolved
Many fish do not many different shapes
look after their eggs to suit their particular

and young, leaving way of life, from

them tend for
co streamlined sharks
themselves. Others PROTECTIVE POUCH MOI Til BROODING PARENT NIBBLING shaped for fast
The female seahorse lays her \lan\ cichlids keep their eti^s The common brown discus swimming, to flatfish
are earing parents,
eggs into a special pouch on in their mouth while they fish (Symphysodon) secretes a
fiereely protecting that lie motionless on
the male seahorse's body. develop. After hatching, the special nourishing substance
their offspring The eggs grow inside the young usually stay in the mouth from its skin for the young to the sea floor.
from predators. pouch, and are "born" when for safety, finally leaving it nibble. They feed on their / hr jnli n Dors
the young are developed. when they are large enough. parents for about four weeks. A us) approaches prey head-
iiii. Its slim slinpr mnkrs it

ilijl'ii ult for thr victim in spot.

Feeding and diet FILTER FEEDING

Box-shaped
Fish feed in a variety of ways, depending on Filter feeders, such as
body
this paddlefish
their diet. There are plant-eaters, meat-
(Polyodon spathula), sift
eaters, scavengers (feed on dead plants and food from the water
animals), and parasites (see below). with their ^ill rakers.

Protectiu bony plates beneath tin

Fish facts skin give it a distinctive boxy shape.
• The
basking shark
maximus) filters
Kfg (jCetorhinus
about 396,000 gallons
(l,500cu m) of water per hour:
enough to fill 66,000 baths.
TEARING TEETH SUCKING BLOOD • Needlefish are the only fish
hatchetjfish "flies

Many such as this j^reat white

fish, The lamprey is a parasitic fish (feeds for short distances above
that have green bones. the wain, lis ilrrf) bod)
shark (Carciarodan carcharias), have on living things). It attaches itself to
shape kerfis it steady.
razor-sharp teeth for biting chunks out prey with a sucker, rasps at the flesh
of their prey. with its teeth, then sucks its blood.
• It would take 2,000 gobies
(smallest fish) to equal the
Defensive tactics length of a whale shark
Many on camouflage to
fish rely (largest fish).
stay hidden from predators. Several
• Some sharks give birth to just
species are poisonous, while the
one live young: the first to Ih,
electric eel (Electropkorus electricus)
develop inside the mother eats plaices
can deliver a 500-volt shock. i
Pleurone< icsi
all the other eggs and embryos.
/hitshape allows ii to remain
Poison is

A delivered • In times of drought, the

almost invisible on tin seabed.

through sharp
African lungfish (Protopterus)
spines
PUFFING UP buries itself in mud. It can
When attacked, the porcupine fish survive for at least three years I In long-nosed gm Lepisosteus osseus)Aai
inflates its body and erects its spines m by digesting its own muscles. a long, thin shapt
I

/"> quick dashes.

the hope that it will be too lar^e and
prickly to be eaten.
Fish habitats Lakes and rivers ( pside-down catfish

Mountain Carp, characins, and

lakes and (..irtlsh are some of

streams the most common

CAMOUFLAGE Fish live at
freshwater flsh.
Some fish, such as
altitudes of up to
these pipefish,
16,000ft (4,900m) Shoreline Mttilskippn
look exactly like
Some species
the vegetation
that live on the
r where they make shoreline can sun hivee
POISON their homes.
for long periods out of the water,
More than SO species offish are
poisonous. This lion fish (Phrois
( loastal waters
volitans) is one of the deadliest in
the world.
The

of
pipefish
resembles a piece
seaweed.
In tropical coastal
waters, coral reefs are
home to many brightlyv
•4*
colored fish.

On the attack SQUIRTING

•
fish

Most fish rely on speed and surprise to catel The archer flsh ( (pen ocean
prey. Some species have developed other
squirts water at Mam species of fish that
its prey, knocking live in the open ocean
methods of attack. it into the water. grow to a huge size.

LURES (laves
Some flsh use lures to Se\ era species I of
catch prey. Deep sea c.im fish ha\ e no
angler fish ha> c ,i
e\es: they do not
luminous orjjan on the need them since Deep-ocean Middle ooi an depths
end of a long, polelike they spend [heir Food is scan e here Many fish Lighi disappears .u\s\

fin ray. Prey are h\es m darkness. have large jaws to make the flsh aiefewei
attracted by the light, most of feeding opportunities in deepei

and are snapped up by v. Blind

Ill cave ocean
lunm aa I/ in waters. Onrfish
the waiting fish.

?4
i in ill

97
LIVING WORLD

Spinal cord
Portrait
Birds of A BIRD
Backbone Speckled pigeon
(Collltnba guinea)

The body of a Kidney

There ark more than 9,000 typical bird is Gizzard (muscular bag
for grinding food)
species of bird - about two for superbly adapted
Duodenum Secondary
every species of mammal. All for flight. The front flight feathers
limbs are modified Primary flight
birds have feathers, and most can toform wings, feathers

fly. They range in size from tiny and the

hummingbirds to the ostrich, body is a
streamlined shape
which can grow one and a half Birds have some
times as tall as a human. Birds hollow bones to
are found in almost all habitats. keep them light.

Types of bird
The 9,000 or so known species of bird are divided into 28 orders (see p. 72).

\
Ostrich Albatrosses, Parrots, lories, Pelicans, gannets,
(Struthioniform.es) petrels cockatoos cormorants
1 spec ies (Procellariiformes) (Psittaciformes) H (Pelecaniformes)
1 10 species 342 species 55 species

Rheas Owls Herons, storks, ibises Cuckoos, turacos

(Rheiforme (Strigiform.es) (Ciconiiformes) (Cuculiformes)
2 species 174 species 1 17 species 159 species

Emu, Waterfowl Nightjars, Swifts,

cassowaries (Anseriformes frogmouths hummingbirds
(( lasuariiformes) 150 species (Caprimulgiformes) (Apodiformes)
4 species 109 species 429 species

Tinamous Birds of prey Mousebirds Trogons

(Tinamiform.es) (Falconiform.es) (Coliiformes) (Trogoniformes)
46 species 290 species 6 species 39 species

Kiwis Game birds Kingfishers, bee-eaters, Woodpeckers,

(Apterygiform.es) (Galliformes) hoopoes toucans, barbets
3 species 274 species (Coraciiform.es) (Piciformes)
r^//
Jj^
204 species 381 species

Penguins Cranes, Passerines Pigeons

'j*
(Sphenisciformes) rails, (Passeriformes (Columbiformcs
IS species bustards 5.414 species 300 species
(Gruiformes)
190 species

Loons Shorebirds, gulls Sandgrouse Grebes

(Gaviiformes) terns, auks (Pteroclidiformes) (Podicipediformes)
5 species (Charadriiformes) 16 species 21 species
337 species

98
 BIRDS

Life cycle of a moorhen (GaUinula ckloropus)

Life cycle
Birds lay hard-shelled eggs Egg
Poisonous bird
The only known
w Inch one or both parents
poisonous bird is the
usually incubate. The
hooded pitohui {Pitohui
hatchlings of sonic species arc-
(lithium) from New
blind and helpless, and have to
Guinea. Its skin, feathers,
be looked after for many weeks.
and internal organs
Other species are able to leave
contain a poison similar to
the nest just one day after
that secreted b\ poison
hatching. Lifespans range from
arrow frogs (sec p. 93).
five years forsome species of
hummingbird, to more than
72 years for the Andean condor
( Vulturgryphus). Wing shapes
Birds' wings are shaped to suit

Hatching their lifestyles. They ma\ be

Most types of chick are ready to broad or slender; long or short.
hatch out of their egg a few Close-up of a
weeks after it was laid. This FEATHER Downcurved
sequence shows a duckling edge
feathers are strong and
chipping its v. i\ out of its shell. flexible. They arc made
from keratin: the same
1 The duckling
Inner vane
chips a hole in protein that hair,
(leeward edge)
the blunt end of fingernails, and
the shell with its Gulls have slender, pointed wings foi gliding.
hooves contain.
special egg tooth
This tooth falls off
Shaft of feather
after hatching.
is hollow. — Upcurved edge

2 The duckling
Macaw

J
feathe
turns as it chips.
cutting a circle in
Barbs are locked
its shell. It takes
tightly together to
long rests between form a smooth
bursts of pecking. surface.
Woodp Wood, rounded
Quill jm maneuverability.
3 When the circle
is complete,
the duckling
straightens
its neck to Types of feather
push the
There are four main types of feather, each with a different function.
top of the
egg away.

4 After a further
push with its
feet and
shoulders, Down feathers Wing feathers
E In nail wings In lift

the duckling These soft, fluffy feathers keep the Strom; w ing feathers pro\ ule the then heavy limit anil keep ii airborne
breaks off bud warm. surface the bird needs for flight.
the end of
the shell.

Body feathers
ers I ail feathers
Sleek body feathers emphasise the The bird uses us lorn; tail feathers for
bird's streamlined shape. Steering, balance, and braking.
Surifts haw slender, curved .

rapid mid powerful flight.

Feet shapes
5 The duckling
Birds' feet come in many different shapes and si/cs, to suit their
finally falls out of
the egg. Its feathers various habitats and lifestyles.

V
arc still wet.
The moorhen 's long toes
Perching birds, sui /; ,n
inr widely spread, have a single
b Within two or crows,
enabling the bird in hind tin' thrii enables th
three hours the
walk across mini and i„ hold tightly onto
duckling's soft,
floating vegetation.
branches
fluff)
down
feathers The wings nj flightless birds
Waterbirds, sin h as Owls' legs mill I'll mi
me UStleSS /in flight
have dncd. (
"anada geese (Branta covered m
feathers in silem
It w ill soon ianadcnsis havt webbed /<
),
thru approach as
lake lo the in paddle through the water. the) swoop mi prey.

water.

Woodpeckers have tieo toes I he feet of birds ofprey, sut h

pointing forward and lion as hawks, <m auipp <

pointing backward, to long, sharp lolnin jm

iinihm them n\ they chip gripping prey. > have paddh

V
I

away >ii if trunks jm swimming.

%
LIVING WORLD

Attracting a mate Eggs Bird facts

Birds go to great lengths to attract a mate. Usually, the The type and number of eggs a • Hummingbirds need to eat
males court the females: they may sing, dance, strut, or bird lays depends on its lifestyle half their body weight every day
show off their colors to attract attention. and habitat. Some species lay to stay alive.
justone egg; others lay several. • Pelican chicks can attract their
Display Eggs vary widely in size and parents' attention while still
Many birds display brightly colored shape. Many are colored and
parts of the body to attract a female.
inside the egg: they call when
patterned for camouflage, they are too hot or too cold.
The male raggiana bird of paradise
(Paradisaea raggiana) may hang upside making them difficult for
down as part of his display. predators,
• Starlings are some of the best

such as
mimics in the bird world: they
Presenting gifts can mimic other birds, and even
foxes, to
Some birds attract a female by ringing telephones.
presenting a gift. The male greater
spot. /
roadrunner (Georoccyx californianus) / I • Ostrich eggs are the largest
-M offers his mate a lizard, while the male single cells in the world.
sandwich tern {Sterna sandvicensis)
JL (left) presents his with a fish.
• Once a young sooty tern
(Sterna fuscata) takes to the
Building a bower
wing, it may stay airborne for
Male bowerbirds build a bower to
attract a mate. The male vogelkop
four years before returning to
\ jHBfc- L
gardener's (Amblyornis inornatus) bower the ground to breed.
is a complex shelter of twigs. The
• Large birds, e.g. swans, may
bower is only for attraction; after
mating, the female builds her own nest The eggs of the bee Ostrich (Struthio have more than 25,000 feathers.
in which to lay her eggs. hummingbird camelus) eggs are
(Mellisuga the largest in the
• The peregrine falcon (Falco
helenae) are the world, weighing up peregrinus) can reach speeds of
smallest in the world, to 3.641b (1.65kg),
112mph(180km/h) during a
Widest wingspan weighing only
0.009oz (0.25g).
and measuring up
to Sin (20cm) long. stoop (dive).
The wandering albatross
(Diomedea exulans) has the largest
Diets and beaks
wingspan of any bird, measuring
Birds eat a huge variety of food, including meat, fish, seeds, insects,
12ft (3.6m) from wingtip to
and fruit. Their beaks are adapted to suit their particular diets.
wingtip: greater than the length
of a small car. Serrated beaks
Birds do not have teeth, but some, such
as mergansers (Mergus), have teethlike
Woven nests
Birds' nests Many birds weave nests of
structures on the sides of their beak.

Most birds build a nest in which These serrations help them to catch fish.
grass, leaves, or twigs.
and rear their
to lay their eggs Weaverbirds build elaborate Avocet beak
chicks. They range from simple grass nests (right): the long
Avocets (Recurvirostra) have an upturned
entrance stops beak which they sweep from side to side
scrapes to intricately
snakes from to catch worms and other invertebrates in
woven nests. getting inside.
shallow estuary waters.
Simple nests Nests of sticks
Some birds lay their Fruit and nut eaters
The hamerkop
eggs in a scrape in the Parrots' beaks are shaped for cracking nuts
(Scopus umbretta)
ground. Others have no and eating fruit. The hook at the front of the
builds a huge, roofed
nest at all: murres beak is for tearing at fruit, and the strong base
nest of sticks, grass,
(right) lay eggs on of the beak cracks open seeds.
and mud. The nest
rocky ledges. measures up to 5ft
(1.5 m) across.
Flamingo beak
Burrows Flamingos have a "bent" beak for sifting
Some birds, including
food from water. The tongue pumps water
Nests of saliva
puffins (Fratercula
Edible-nest through fringes on either side of the bill,
tunica) (right), nest
inside a burrow.
^V* swiftlets (Collocalia trapping small animals and plants.
fuciphaga) build
Nests of mud their nests from Predators
Flamingos build saliva. These nests Birds of prey, such as falcons (Falco), are
conical pots of are used to make carnivorous (meat-eating). They have a
sand and mud to bird's nest soup: a strong, hooked beak for tearing apart prey
lay their eggs in. food delicacy in China too large to be swallowed whole.

Bird records Fastest-flying birds

High flier LARGEST BIRD FASTEST SWIMMER
RuppelTs griffons (Gyps the ostrich (Struthio Bird Scientific name Speed
is is the gentoo penguin
rueppelli) are the highest- km/h mph
camelus),which weighs (Pygoseelis papua ) w h c h
, i

flving birds. They

can reach up to 3441b (156kg), and can reach speeds of White-throated Hirundapus
heights of 37,000ft ( 1 1 ,278m): needletail caudacutus 171 106
grows up to 8.9ft 17mph(27.4km/h).
as high as airplanes fly.
(2.7m) tall.
Alpine swift Apus melba 160 99.4
MOST ABUNDANT BIRD
Magnificent Fregata
SMALLEST BIRD is the red-billed quelea frigatebird magnificens 159 99
is hummingbird
the bee (Quelea quelea), with an
Spurwing Plectropterus
(Mellisuga helenae), which adult population of
goose gambensis 142 88
weighs about 0.056oz about 1.5 billion. There
Red-breasted Mergus
(1.6g) and grows just may be up to 10 million
merganser senator 129 80
2.24in (5.7cm) long. birds in a single colony.

100
 ixaii-sik; birds

-L/wlVllLo 1 i\^ DIiyDo Allchickens are descended

arc descends
from the red jungle tow
Domestic birds ark birds that are ( Gallus gallus) of southeast

kept and bred by humans. They \sia, which is a member of

the pheasant family.
include chickens, ducks, and geese.
Chicken breeds are
Domestic birds are kept for various generally classified into
purposes: some are bred for their meat, American, Mediterranean,
English, and Asian. Eight of
eggs, or feathers; others for sports such
the 150 breeds are
as pigeon racing and falconry. illustrated here. f.

Turkey facts Chicken facts

• Turkeys were first • Chickens were domesticated about
domesticated by the Aztec and 8,000 years ago.
Zuni Indians for food and • In the Middle Ages, chicken was
sacrifice. They also used the
eaten only by royalty and the
feathers for decoration.
aristocracy. The poor kept chickens for
• Turkeys were first taken to eggs and new chicks, and killed a hen
Kurope by the Spanish in only when it became too old to lay.
about 1511. Today, chicken is probably the most
widely eaten meat in the world.
• There are about 124 million Turken
domestic turkeys in the world. • Hens can lay about 250 eggs a year.

Duck fact Domestic bird

Eggstraordinary! (k • The Muscovy duck was first records
About 160 billion hens' eggs
domesticated in South America FASTEST EGG-LAYING
are laid every year in
by pre-Columbian Indians. The CHICKEN
China: enough to make was a white leghorn that laid 571
mallard (right) was
an omelette that would eggs in 564 days.
domesticated
give every person in the
in China at LARGEST CHICKEN'S EGG
world a piece measuring
least 5,000 weighed 16oz(454g). It was laid
5.28ft (lm) across.
years ago. b\ a white leghorn in Vineland.
-a*
New Jersey, in 1956.

MOST YOLKS
Goose facts Types of domestic bird in a chicken's egg was nine, laid
• Geese were first domesticated
Domestic Uses Number of Descended from by a hen in Mount Morris. New
more than 5,000 years ago.
bird breeds (approx) York, in 1971.
• Goose was considered the
Chicken Meat, eggs 150 Red jungle fowl LARGEST CHICKEN PRODI CBR
finest poultry for festive (Gallus gallus) is the IS, which produces about
occasions until the turkey 15 million tons of chicken meat
Duck Meat, eggs, 97 Muscovy duck
became more popular in the down {Cairina moschata) and a year.
16th and 17th centuries. wild mallard (Anas
platyrhyncos) LAROHST GOOSE EGG
• In the Middle Ages, goose- weighed 24o/ (680g). It was
Goose Meat, eggs, 43 Most breeds from the
herds in Britain would drive laidby "Speckle" in
down greylag (Anser anser)
flocks of up to 20,000 geese to Goshen. Ohio.
be sold at goose fairs.
Turkey Meat 33 Common turkey
(Meleagns gallopavo) Ostriches (Siruihio

Other
camclus
/ni ihni meat and
'
Guinea fowl (Nuniidaj. Swans n't tt and /
domestic native to \jrica and then down, and us feathers.
Mutluousi hi, arenow ornamental hints
BIRDS raised foi their meat i

man) <
ounlries

Racing pigeons
Hut i nil pigeons
are descended
(Columba livia i ore
Irom the
kept fur sport.
rock
dove.

Mum types u/ lintl in, Canaries (Set inus Pheasants, native in

kept a \ pets. The ( .iii.ii i.i i ,/). kept as Ha, mi reared u
I

budgengm /'t'ls /til llll'll game buds.

(Mdopsittacus , beautiful long.
uiululatusj (i Jgffiji
particularly j«3 Pheasants have
The budgerigar
/lu/mlui. ^L-, been introduced
is native to
into Europe and
Australia.
North America

mi
 mm; world

Portrait of a mammal
Mammals Mammals usually have fur or hair.
Almost all species give birth to live
Male rabbit

Mammals range in size from young which they feed with milk
tiny shrews to the blue whale - produced in the female's body.

the largest animal that has ever Pinna (ear flap) directs
sounds toward inner ear.
lived on Earth. Mammals are
found all over the world: on land,
in oceans and rivers, and even, in
the case of bats, in the air.

Armadillo shell-ter
Some mammals grew to huge
ancient
si/es. The ancestors of modern Reproductive
organs
armadillos measured up to
10ft (3m) long. South American
Indians used their shells as roofs.

Types of mammal Mammal

There are more than 4,600 known species of mammal, divided into 21 orders (see p. 72).
reproduction
EGG-LAYING MAMMALS
Monotremes are the only mammals
r Female duck-billed
JilliF* that lay eggs.
platypuses
( Ornithorkynt hus
anatinus) (right)
Monotremes incubate their
(Monotremaca Marsupials Insectivores (Insectivora) eggs in a nest
3 species 111 species 42s species inside their
burrow; female
echidnas incubate
their eggs in a pouch

MARSUPIAL MAMMALS
Marsupials, such as kangaroos, give
Elephant shrews Flying lemurs Bats birth when the young are at a very-
(Macroscelidia) 15 spec- (Dermoptera) 2 species (Chiroptera) 923 species
early stage of development. The tiny
baby crawls across its mother's belrj to
reach the pouch, where it latches on to
Apes, a teat and feeds on milk. The baby
monkeys, remains in the pouch for many weeks,
Tree shrews and lemurs leaving it for longer periods as
(Scandentia (Primates) Edentates it grows older.
l
\ ) species 233 species (Edentata) 29 species

Aardvark Hares, rabbits,

Pangolins / (Tubulidentata) pikas (Lagomorpha)
(Pholidota) 7 species 1 species 80 species

*»
Carnivores
Rodents Whales and dolphins (Carnivora) PLACENTAL MAMMALS
(Rodentia) 2,021 species (( letacea ) 7N species 237 species Most mammals are placental: the
young grow inside the female and
receive nutrients via the placenta (a
connection between the mother's and

Seals,
*mk
jfu frti
baby's blood systems). At birth, the
young are physically well developed.

sea lions, ^&&*"> Elephants Newborn kittens

walrus (Proboscidea Hyraxes In-ill n gun III, 'it

(Pinnipedia) 34 species 2 species (Hyracoidea) 6 species IllOl/lt'l \

milk,

Odd-toed Even-toed
hoofed hoofed
mammals mammals
(Perissodactyla) (Artiodactyla)
1IS species 220 species

102
 .

MAMMALS

Mammal hides Mammal hands and feet

FURRY HIDE All early mammals
probably had five fingers
Hit mi:
Fur and hair enable mammals to live in and toes on each hand and foot. Over time,
almost ever) climate. B\ trapping air, a
these basic digits evolved to suit different
furry coat, Such as the Arcne fox's \lopi | i

lagopm keeps out the cold, stops body

I.
lifestyles and habitats. Humans {Homo
heat from escaping, and protects the skin sapiens) have the five fingers and toes typical
Finger bones
Alilll fn\ /ill from wind, rain, and strong sunlight. of many mammals. The colors of the various (toe bones)

parts of a human hand (right) are repeated in

Wfco\is
foci**-**

Jaguai fu.
CAMOUFLAGE PATTERNS
Many mammals have
colored and patterned for camouflage.
hides that

This enables them to blend in with their

background, hidden from enemies and
prey. A jaguar's (Panthera onca) spots blend
in with the dappled sunlight of the forest
floor where

ARMOR PLATING
it stalks its prey.

Pangolins and armadillos are covered with

bom plates and scales that pro\ ide
arc-

a
the illustrations that follow, to show how
those parts have developed to suit different
animals' lifestyles.

tough, armored coat to protect them from

predators. Some, such as the three- Cuts walk 'tn i In- lifts Elephants have fivt tot j Tapirs' (Tapii us
Lower arm bones
banded armadillo (Tolypeutes), can roll it] their toes, Each toe is on eat U foot, and a big front firi have fow (lower leg bones)
themselves up into a ball to defend their in imil with ii sharp fleshy jttnl in siiftjiiiii tins, while linn back
body completely claw for catching prey. then immense weight feet have thret

Armadillo skin

Gazelles have light,

CONFUSING PATTERNS iliinit\, two-toed feel hands mill ftti

enable them in are adapted for digging.

A zebra's {Equus) stripes break up its
ilitti

run very fast. They art broad ana

outline, making it more difficult for
strong with if nit daws.
predators, such as lions (Panthera led), to
pick out one individual from the herd.
This black and white pattern is

particularly effective at night, protecting

the herd from nocturnal hunters.
Zrfna j in Horses (Equus,) have Siiils hands and feet
'

imr long, strong toe have vohted mi" largt

'

nil link foot, paddle-shaped jlippers

NAKED SKIN protected by u In ml fin swimming
Hair or fur would slow down whales and
dolphins in the water, so the\ have lost all
but a few tufts. Naked mole rats Mammal records Mammal facts
(Heterocephalus glaber) have also lost their LARGEST MAMMAL • Some types of traditional Chinese
hair: it is easier for them to move forward is the blue whale {Balaenoptera warrior armor were based on the
and backward along a tunnel with a
which weighs up to 150 tons
tnusculus), protective overlapping scales of the
smooth, hairless skin.
Dolphin \hni and grows up to 1.5ft (.Mm) long. 1 1 pangolin's skin.

SMALLEST MAMMAL • There are only two types of

SPINY FUR
The hairs of hedgehogs and porcupines is the Kitti's hog-nosed bat poisonous mammal: the duck-billed
have developed into stiff, sharp spines that (Craseonycteris thonglongyai), which platypus, which injects poison through a
form an effective defense against weighs only 0.05oz (1.5g) and is about sharp spur on its ankle: and some
predators. The European hedgehog the size of a large bumblebee. shrews, which paralyze the earthworms
(Erinaceus europaeus) has up to 5,000
spines. When it senses danger, it rolls they feed on with poisonous saliva.
itself up into a ball.
Hedgehog spines

Longest gestation periods Big house on the

The gestation period amount of time the
is the Kitti's ling-nttsi'il bat aha PRAIRIE
young take to develop inside the mother. (Humans bumblebee, shown mi mil size.
Black-tailed prairie dog (Cyttomys
have a gestation period of nine months.) TALLEST MAMMAL ludovicianus) colonies can cover huge-
Mammal Scientific name Gestation is the giraffe (Girajfa catnelopardalis), areas. A colon\ in Texas
period which grows up to 19.4ft (5.9m) tall: had an area of about
more than three times the height of an 24,000sq miles (62,160
African elephant Loxodonta alricana 22 months
adult human. s(| km): twice the
Asian elephant Elephas maximus 22 months
FASTEST SWIMMER size of Belgiui

Baird's beaked whale Berardius bairdii 1 7 months is the sei whale {Balaenoptera borealh ),

which can svv im at speeds (if up to

White rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum 1 6 months
30mph (48km/h).

Tusks, horns, and antlers

Some mammals have antlers, horns, or tusks
that are used mainly for fighting ami
establishing dominance within their social
group. Antlers are shed and regrown each
year; horns grow steadily throughout an
animal's life. Tusks are elongated, liltttlt rhino (Diceros Elephant tusks grow about Itnl ilin i( lervus Indian bliukbutk fAiuilopr
pointed teeth. bicoi nis i ham 7in ( l~i m) pet Mm elcphus i itnilns crrvicapra

103
 [VING WORLD

Mammal tails Mammal records Mammal movement

Most mammals have a tail. Tails SHORTEST GESTATION PERIOD Most mammals walk and run on all fours. Some species have
ha\ e a variety of uses, including is that of the brindled bandicoot developed other ways of moving more suited to their habitat.
swatting flics, communication, (Isoodon macrourus). The young
and providing warmth. of this marsupial are born into
the pouch after an average of
just 12.5 days.

MOST TEATS
/ hi flying squirrel uses itsflattened tail as a
are found on the common tenrec
steering as it leaps from tree to tree. (Tenrec ecaudatus), which has 29.
The tail also acts as a brake in the ail. FLYING
DEEPEST DIVER Bats are the only mammals that can fly, although some, such as flying squirrels,
is the can glide for long distances when leaping between trees.
sperm
whale (Physeter
macrocephalus),
which can dive to
A horse's
thick hairs.
nthei pests
(EquusJ
It is

away.
tail is
used mainly
made of many
to keep flies
long,
and
depths of 3,900ft
(1,200m) or more.

LONGEST
SPANS
LIFE-
SWIMMING
J^%
are those of the Asian
Many mammals can swim. Some, for
example whales and dolphins, spend their
elephant (Kkp/ias entire life in the water.
Sirme animals, for example spider monkeys
(Ateles have a prehensile tail that ran grip
i. maximus), at up to
branches like a fifth limb.
This prehensile 90 years, and humans (Homo
opossum tail lias scaly skin at the tip to give
the animal a firm grip. sapiens), atup to 120 years.
LARGEST ELEPHANT TUSK
BRACHIATION
was 1 1.3ft (3.45m) long, and Apes and monkeys swing
weighed 2581b (117kg). through trees using their
long arms. This method of
LARGEST PRIMATE
movement is called
is the gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), Gibbons
The fallow deer's (Dama dama ) tail is dark br.it hhiti::n.

on top and white underneath. IJ danger which weighs up to (Hylobytes) can cover more
threatens, the deer holds up its tail to flash a 4851b (220kg). than 10ft (3m) in a
warning to the other deer in the herd. single swing.

Mammal fact
• The vampire bat (Desmodus
rotundas) is the only mammal
that liveson nothing but blood.
In the 10 minutes or so it spends
feeding on its victim, it can
Elephants have wiry hair at the end oj then
tail. Ibex sometimes hold onto each other's
drink more than own body
its
huh when walking along in single file. weight in blood. The bat BOUNDING
Kangaroos bound along when they need to move quickly. Their tails help them to
becomes so heavy that it is
balance. Some small rodents, for example jerboas, also move around by bounding.
unable to fly for a while
afterward.
BURROWING
Some mammals, such as
moles, spend all their time
underground. Moles have
broad front paws for
Beavers use their flat, scaly lad as a rudder burrowing, and strong hind
when swimming. They also slap it down on
legs for bracing themselves
the -water as a -warning signal to oilier heave
against tunnel walls.
when danger threatens.

Fastest mammals
Common name Scientific name Maximum speed
Ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catia use then ) km/h mph Feline peckish
striped tail for signaling, anil \oi spreading
around their sunt to establish dominance
A man-eating tiger (Panthera Tigris) in
Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus 105 65
OVi I nlber lemurs. Champawat district, India, was
Pronghorn antelope Antilocapra americana 86 53 reputed to have killed 43d people. It

was shot in 1907.

Mongolian gazelle Procapra gutturosa 80 50

Springbok Antidorcas marsupialis 80 50

Grant's gazelle Gazella granti 76 47

Foxes wrap their bushy tad around their body
to keep inn in They also use then lad to Thomson's gazelle Gazella thomsoni 76 47
.
iii others in then family group.

European hare Lepus capensis 72 45

Hats have a long, hanles and scaly tail that Horse Equus 70 43
they use for balance.

104
 DOMESTIC MAMMALS

Domestic mammals Types of domestic mammal

Domestic mammal Uses Number of breeds
(approx)
DOMESTIC mammals mammals that are keptare
Sheep Meat, wool 300
and bred by humans. They include sheep, cattle, (Ovis aries)

dogs, and cats. Many domestic mammals have Llama Pack animal, meat, 2
been selectively bred over hundreds of years: today (Uama glama) wool, hides, drieddung
for fuel, tallow for candles
some breeds look and behave very
Goat Milk, meat, cheese, 300
differently from their wild counterparts. (Capra) hair, leather

Pig Meat, leather 180

Domestic mammal records Cattle Meat, milk and dairy 280
LARGEST DOG BREED products, leather, transportation
is the St. Bernard, which can weigh up to
Cat Pets, pest control 110
1701b (77kg). (Felis catus)

SMALLEST DOG BREED Dog Pets, working dogs, 186

is the chihuahua, which weighs (Cants familiaris) sports dogs
as little as lib (0.45kg).
Buffalo Milk, butter, transportation 32
COUNTRY WITH THE MOST SHEEP Bactrian camel Transportation, wool, milk, 3
is Australia, which has about (Camelus bactrianus) hides, meat, dried dung for fuel

167,781,000 individuals. Arabian camel (as for Bactrian camel) 4

(Camelus dromedanus)
COUNTRY WITH THE
Horse, donkey, Sport and leisure, 100 (horse)
MOST CATTLE
mule (Equus) transportation, meat
is India, which has
about 197,300,000.
COUNTRY WITH Ragdoll
Cat facts Pig facts
THE MOST CAMELS • Cats were sacred to • Pigs are the most common
is Somalia, which has the ancient Egyptians. provider of meat in China.
about 6,855,000 individuals. Many dead cats were • In parts of Melanesia (sec
SMALLEST CAT BREED LARGEST CAT BREEDS mummified, and the p. 555). pigs arc treated as
include the ragdoll: males can Egyptians sinned off members of the family.
is the Singapura, which weighs
weigh up to 201b (9.07kg). their eyebrows to
as little as 41b (1.81 kg). • Pigs are often thought of as
mourn the loss of a cat.
dirty animals, but in fact thc\
Spaniel
Evolution of the
• In 1951, named keep themselves cleaner than
(>IUt titles
domestic dog a cat
most other domestic animals.
Dogs were the first mammals to be Sugar traveled
1,500 miles (2,414km) to • Main Oceanic (sec p.352-53)
domesticated. They were tamed by
humans about 12,000 years ago. Oklahoma to rejoin the Woods peoples measure their wealth in
Every breed of dog is family who had left him behind terms of the number of pigs
descended from the in California. thc\ own.

wolf {Cants lupus).

This illustration
shows the
Horses for courses
Every Thoroughbred racehorse is
possible wolf
Ffral dogs said tohave descended from three
ancestors of
desert stallions: the Darley
various dog
Arabian, the Godolphin Barb, e\^S
breeds.
and the Byerly Turk.
These stallions were
taken to England
European toy rfogs Oriental lay dogs
between 1689
and 1724.

European spitz dogs

# H*
Eskh spitz dog
Oriental spitz dogs

Mule: a nvss between n dotikey

Sheep facts Mule facts and ti mare (female tint se I
Cattle facts
• The wool
finest sheep's • Mules produced
are • There
arc about 1.21 billion
comes from the merino sheep. by crossing a donkey worldwide: more than the
cattle

(I'.qints fisiiius) with a human population of ( Ihin.i.

• Astrakhan fur comes from the
female horse. Mules are •
karakul sheep of central Asia. ( lattle aic descended from the
surer-footed and more intelligent
auroch. which once roamed
• Parchment than horses, but cannot reproduce. and Europe. The last
across \si.i
early type of
auroch died in 1<>27.
writing paper, • At one time there were many
was made from different types of mules, including • Kenyan Masai warriors live
untanned draft mules, farm mules, sugar mules, almost entirely on blood and
sheep hide. cotton mules, and mining mules. milk from then cattle.

105
UYIMi WORLD

Animal senses Animal senses

Many animals have

and behavior excellent sight and

hearing. Some have
senses that can detect
"sixth"

ANIMALS HAVE EVOLVED senses and An engle \ eyes see a Many animals, e.g. Many mammals,
magnetism, electricity, and magnified picture ni fixes,can heai higher e.g. ilngs, have a
patterns of behavior that ensure even infrared. the center of its field frequency smiuds highly developed
of vision. tluin humans. sense "I smell.
the survival of their species. Many
animals have senses that are more
highly developed than a human's.

Courtship behavior
Female animals select the best available mate
in order to produce strong
and healthy offspring. To
attract a female, male Sensitive whiskers An invertebrate's Spiders and scorpions Fish have a lateral line:

animals have evolved a help animals such as antennae touch, have sensitive hairs a row of sensitive pits
cats to find their way taste, and smell its that can delect the that detect movements
fascinating range of in the dark. surroundings. slightest air movements. in the water.
courtship behavior,
including strutting,
singing, and presenting
gifts to the female.

Hals navigate b\ ei holocatiou: Sharks have sensors Some migratory Pit vipers "see" an infra-
vN—ii'
they emit squeaks, and judge around their head that annuals may navigate red picture of their prey by
distances by how long the pick up electrical fields by sensing the Earth s detecting heat radiation
squeaks lake to bounce back. produced by prey. magnetic field. given off by its body.
To court a female, the common peafowl, or peacock (Pavo
cristatus i . fans mil and shakes his colorful tail.

Attack and defense Territorial behavior Surviving heat and cold

behavior Animals may fiercely defend their territory HIBERNATION

X Animals use a wide variety of attack and

^
defense tactics. Attack strategies
k r include stalking and pouncing;
defensive tactics include stinging
and oozing poison.
so that others cannot steal their food or
their young.
let other animals
know where
territorial
To

their
harm Many animals in cold climates hibernate to survive
the harsh conditions and lack of food that winter
brings. Their body temperature drops, their
heartbeat slows down, and they go into a deep sleep,
surviving on food reserves stored in the body.

ESTIVATION
boundaries lie, Some animals estivate to survive hot
F^k The caracal (Lynx and dry periods, becoming sluggish
animals call, mark
?3Sb^ carat .ill leaps into the
or dormant until favorable
X air to catch buds. trees and bushes
conditions return. Many
with scent, or desert animals estivate.
Bombardier beetles (Brachinus)
leave piles of A
spray their attackers with hot, cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)
unpleasant chemicals. droppings. marking its territory.

Senses and behavior facts • The malleefowl's (Leipoa ocellata) beak

• Net-casting spiders' eyes are 19 times thermometer. The bird incubates
acts as a
more sensitive than a human's. its eggs heap of rotting vegetation,
in a
checking the temperature with its beak.
• The blue whale's (Balaenoptera musculus)
Dormice in cold countries These snails are collecting
call is the loudest noise made by any animal. • A hibernating mammal's body can be up to hibernate far up to nine together on grass stems,
It can travel up to 1,000 miles (1,600km). 90°F (32°C) below its normal temperature. months of the year. ready to estivate.

Social behavior Using tools

Fake snake Animals that live in communities, Some animals use tools to
Some animals mimic others
such as chimpanzees {Pan obtain food, e.g. chimpanzees
to defend themselves. This
troglodytes) and lions (Pantliera poke twigs into termite mounds,
Costa Rican moth caterpillar
leo), have a social hierarchy and Egyptian vultures {Neophron
fools predators into thinking
("pecking order"). This is peirnopterus) throw stones at
Wolves use facial expressions In establish
it is a poisonous snake.
reinforced in various ways. hierarchy,and rower in front o/ dominant eggs to break them.
members nf the pack.
Herds of elephants are dominated by an Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) smash sea urchins
Matnsrrh Herd is made U P of adu "
elderly female, the matriarch.She keeps order and shellfish on a stone which
females and young.
mid di ales where the herd will go.
i
they place on their stomach.
Young male

Six-year-old
female

106
 MIGRATION AND HOMES

Migration and Migration

nimals migrate to

homes d the cold weather

and lack of food that
winter brings. Some
WHEN WINTER approaches, many species migrate a
few miles from
animals migrate to warmer
high ground to
climates. Others rely on their low: others travel
homes to protect them from harsh vast distances
across continents
conditions. Some animals live
d oceans.
alone, while others live in pairs or
in large, complex communities.
Navigation
It is still a mystery how some migrating

animals find their way. Most species Blue whale Monarch butterfly FARTHEST INSECT MIGRATION
probably use a combination of methods, 12.500 miles (20.000km) 3,500 miles (5,600km) is undertaken b\ the
including navigation by the Sun and stars, painted lady butterfly
and using an inherited mental map. Arctic tern
Green turtle ( I ancssii cardtti), w Inch flics
24,855 miles (40,000km) over 1,240 miles (2,000km)
up to 5,280 miles
(8,500km) a
Sight
Main birds tan recognize physical Caribou year. (This is not marked on the
Atlantic salmon
features such as coastlines, 1 ,400 miles (2,250 km) over 1 ,240 miles (2,000km) map, since it does not follow a set route).
mountain ranges, and deserts.

Using Earth's magnetic field

Migration records Animal relationships
Some animals, e.g. monarch
FARTHEST BIRD MIGRATION
and the longest migration of am SOLITARY ANIMALS
butterflies (Danaus plexippus), ma\
he ui.iui panda
I
tiluropoda I

navigate using a magnetic sense. animal, is that of the Arctic tern

melanoleuca) spends most of its lite-
(Sterna paradisaed) (sec map). alone, only meeting up lor mating.
Smell
Atlantic salmon (Salmosalar) return FARTHEST MAMMAL MIGRATION FAIRS AND FAMILIES
to the river in which they hatched. undertaken by the blue w hale
is Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos)
They na\ igate by smell.
spend their lite with the same
(Balaenoptera musculus) (sec map)
mate, raising a family each \ear.
Animal homes
Some animals do not build homes: they Loads of lemmings LARGE GROUPS
simply find a tree hole, perch on a branch, or Norway lemmings {Lemmus lemmus) \leerkats (Suricata suricatta), a type
of mongoose, live in large colonies
hide under a stone for protection. Others migrate when population explosions
with a complex social structure.
occur. Their huge numbers stop traffic
construct intricate nests or burrows.
and trains. When they reach the coast, MUTUALISM
some swim out to sea and Some different species live together
Animal home names drown, henct
lormutual benefit: oxpeckcis are
picking neks off this warthog.
Animal Description of home Name of lemming "mas
home
suicides." COMMENSALISM
Squirrel Nest of twigs Drey Two spec ics may live together but
only one benefits: this crab carries
Badger Underground chambers Sett
stinging anemones foi protection.

Eagle Nest of twigs Eyrie

PARASITISM
Rabbit Burrow Warren Parasites In e in or on another
species, causing it barm: this flea is
River otter Burrow in river bank Holt
sucking its host's blood

Types of animal home Animal colony fact

• Australia's Great Barrier Reef is the largest
Nests Pots
Many animals, including birds, mice, Potter w asps
structure in the world made b\ living things. It is

and ants, build nests. They use build tiny pots more than l,42 c > miles (2,300km) long, and has
various materials such as twigs, mud, of mud to lay taken about 800 million years to build.
leaves, and hair. then c ggs in
They build one
Burrows pot for each egg.
Beaver dam
A burrow is hole or tunnel dug b\
a
Beavers dam a river, then construct theii lodge on
one or more animals. It ma\ be a the shore, or on an island in the middle of the Like.
simple hole in the ground, or a
Free holes and caves
complex network of tunnels and Many animals take ad\ .image of ready -
Upstream side o) the dam The only way into the Lodge is a dome ol
chambers, such as a rabbit warren.
made homes, e.g. owls use tree holes, is plastered with mud to lodge is through a tunnel branches, reeds and
and bears often use caves. make it watertight that opens under water mud The living

chamber
Winter food
Mounds store
is Inskta

Termite colonies build

complex mounds bom
mud. These structures
have galleries, turrets,
and towers, and e\ en
built-in air
conditioning. Termite minimi litihhil warren /,',
i
,1 warblei '<
mw

107
LIVING WORLD

Food chain
Food chains Plant plankton
primary producer
is the
the
Plant
plankton

\
at

AND WEBS bottom of

When it is
this chain.
eaten, the
(microscopic
water plants)
use sunlight to

A FOOD CHAIN shows how energy, plankton's energy is

produce energy

form of food, passes from passed on to the next Animal plankton

in the eat plant plankton
organism in the chain.
one living thing to
another. At each chain's Food web
This illustration shows how the above food
base is a primary
chain links with others to form the food
producer - an organism web of a North American lake community.
that can make its own The arrows link each living thing to the
food. Most primary organism that eats it, beginning
with plankton at the bottom,
producers are plants.
and ending with carnivores
(meat-eaters) at the top.
Energy pyramid
About 90% of the energy a living thing takes in
as food used to make its body work. Only the
is

remaining 10% is built into the body itself, and

is therefore passed on to the next organism along

the food chain. This means there is very little

energy left toward the top of the food chain.

Only about 1 0%
Trophic level 4 of energy is
passed on to the
next trophic level.

The amount of
energy received by
each successive
link in the food
chain decreases
toward the top.

The various levels

of an energy
pyramid are called
trophic levels-

Trophic Primary
level 2 producers

Poisons in the
Trophic food chain /
level 1

Poisons, such as pesticides,

Pesticides
are sprayed on \/ \/ \/ \/ \/
are taken in by organisms at to crops to kill

insect pests.
the lower end of a food chain

Primary productivity
The longest food chains occur where the amount
These poisons pass up the
chain, and may eventually
Small amounts of /
K \ I / /

d
build into high concentration
of organic matter made by primary producers poison on each seed A bird of prey eats
in animals at the top of the build up into larger several seed-eating
(primary productivity) is high. This table shows amounts inside the birds Poison from
the primary productivity of various habitats.
chain. The process of poison bodies of seed- all these birds
building up in a food chain is eating birds. collects in the bird
Habitat Primary productivity (grams of dry
called bioaccum illation. of prey's body.
plant material per sq meter per year)

Coral reef 2,500

Toxic WHALES Food chain records
Tropical rainforest 2,200 SHORTEST FOOD
Over the last 40 years, pollutants in
Temperate
CHAINS % ^|
forest 1,250 Canada's St. Lawrence River have milt
consist of only two
Savanna 900 up in the food chain, at the top of w hich organisms, for
is the be iga whale (De/phinapterus
I

Cultivated land 650 example the giant

lent as). Chemicals arc now
panda {Ailuropoda
Open sea 125 so concentrated ^^^^^^^^^ melanoleuca) ami
Semidesert 90 in these
its major food
whales bamboo.
source,
that.
Food chain • The only food chains LONGEST FOOD CHAINS
facts that do not obtain energy
when
they die.
s often involve both land and water
from sunlight are those at organisms,e.g. diatom (microscopic
the\ are
• The majority of deep sea vents, which Daphnia (water flea), to
plant) to
food chains have
disposed of ^^1
derive energy from newly hatched fish, to dragonfly
as toxic w aste.
three or four links. volcanic activity (see p.4<S). larva, to adult fish, to heron.

108
 ENDANGERED SPECIES

Rates of
Endangered species extinction
A species is considered to be
Balmese
1952
tiger

An ENDANGERED SPECIES is a species that may extinct if it has not been

become extinct in the near future. Throughout found in the w ild for 50
years. This graph
evolutionary history, millions of species have died
lustrates the dramatic
out due to natural processes. Over the past 300 years, increase in the rate of
however, humans have speeded up the extinction extinction over the
past 300 years.
rate more than 1,000 times: it is now estimated that
one species dies out every 15 minutes.

Threats to wildlife Threatened animals

1 1 u mans are responsible for
This tabic shows the number of
almost all recent animal and
threatened species in each animal
plant extinctions. Threats to
group. Endangered species are
wildlife are caused by various
monitored by the International
human activities.
Union for the Conservation of
Nature, and recorded in their Red
Data Book.
1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1925 1950
Animal group Species at risk

Mammals 500
Most endangered animals
Birds 880 This table lists some of the rarest animal species in the
Reptiles 170 world. Some endangered species are now extinct in the wild
but are being bred in captivity. They will eventually be
Amphibians 60
released into the wild if conditions are sale.
. l\ the human population tpands, more and
t

more land /\ needed /at planting TObS, and

t
Fish 270 Common name Scientific name Distribution
for building settlements and mails. Natural
vegetation and wildlife arc destroyed. Insects 875 Queen Alexandra's Omithoptera Papua New Guinea
birdwing butterfly alexandrae
Other invertebrates 510
Devil's Hole pupfish Cypnnodon Nevada, US
diabolis

Saving endangered Kemp's Ridley Lepidochelys Mexico

sea kempii
species turtle

Various measures are being used Spix's macaw Cyanopsitta Brazil

spixii
around the world in an effort to save
endangered species from extinction. Seychelles magpie Copsychus Fregate Island,
robin sechellarum Seychelles
Antipoaching
Many animals are killed for then skins,
squads have been
hours, in horns. The jaguar (Panthera
set
California condor Gymnogyps California. US
n /' to protect
oncaj and o<f!af (l*Vlis pardalisj are among califomianus
minimis such as
the many species of cat thai havebecome rhinoceroses,
Black-footed ferret Mustela nignpes North America
endangered through poaching jm shins. elephants, and
gorillas. Some Giant panda Ailuropoda China
countries, including melanoleuca
Kenya, shoot
poachers on sight. Javan rhinoceros Rhinoceros Southeast Asia
sondaicus
The \rahian oryx
(Oryx leucoryx i
Woolly spider Brachyteles Brazil
win hunted to monkey arachnoides
extinction in the
wild, Aflei a Mediterranean monk Monachus Mediterranean
captive-breeding seal monachus coasts
program in zoos, ii
was relumed In its Yangtze River dolphin Lipotes vexillifer Yangtze River. China
Pollution from industry and farming can iiiiliniil hnlnlnl.
poison wildlife. Chemical spills and acid tain
(see p.65) can and fertilizers Sibenan tiger
and pesticides
kill riven life,

used in farming can upset

Declining tiger (250-400)
natinal systems and cycles.
HABITAT ki v

Tiger numbers have

dropped dramatically in
the last 100 years because Previous
<?,
.

^ Caspian tiger
(extinct)

tiger range
of the destruction of their
South Chinese
habitat and poaching.
tiger
Tiger reserves have been (.10 B0)
established, but poaching
is still a serious problem.
Indo-Chinese
This map shows the tiger
When non-native animals are introduced to
a country, they may have a disastrous impact declining range of the (800-1.400)
an native wildlife, preying on animals and tiger, and gives the
competingfoi food. The cane toad (Hulo
marinusj, introduced into Australia, has estimated numbers of Indian tiger Sumatran tiger Javan BaDnaaa How
now overrun native species in some areas. timers left today. (3,000-5.300) (400-500) (probably extinct) (extinct)

109
 )

I\ l\(i WORLD

Largest wingspans
Animal records BIRD
The wandering albatross

and comparisons (Diomedea exulans) has a

wingspan measuring about 12ft
There is a remarkable diversity within the (3.6m) across.

animal kingdom, from wasps no bigger than a BAT

period to crabs that grow larger than people, and Flying foxes of the Pteropus
from tiny, deadly cone shells to the blue whale - genus are the largest bats in the
world, with wingspans up to
the gentle giant of the oceans.
6.6ft (2m) across.

Loudest animals
MARINE ANIMAL
Largest animals The blue whale's (Balaenoptera
Largest mollusk Largest insect Largest arachnid nut sen Ius) call is the loudest
Giant Atlantic squid Goliath beetle Leblondis' goliath bird noise made by any animal. It
\.\rrh ten this) {Goliath us) eating spider registers up
188 decibels, and
to
66ft(20m) long 3.9oz(110g) (Theraphosa
can be heard by other whales up
North Atlantic Equatorial leblondi); leg span
Ocean .Africa 11 in (28cm); Brazil to 1,000 miles (1,600km) away.
Venezuela,
Guyana. French Guiana
LAND ANIMAL
The howler monkey (Alouatta)
can be heard up to
Largest crustacean Largest amphibian Heaviest reptile
2 miles (3km) awav.
Japanese spider crab (Macrocheira Japanese giant salamander Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus
kaempferi) (.1 ndhas. japonicus porosus); 20ft (6m) long
Leg span nearly 13ft (4m) 5ft(1.5m) long Southeast Asia, Indonesia,
Japan Japan Philippines. New Guinea, Australi

Howler
monkey

Largest fish Largest bird Heaviest mammal

Whale shark (R/ii/irodo/i typiis) Ostrich Blue whale (Ba/aenoptrra iiiusrii/us)
50ft (15m) long; Atlantic, Pacific, and (JStruthio ai in fins) 1 1 (34m) long; worldwide,
1.5ft
Indian Oceans
INSECT
8.9ft (2.7m) tall particularly Southern Hemisphere
Mainly eastern Cicadas can be heard up to
and southern 1,312ft (400m) away.
Africa

Smallest animals
Smallest insect Smallest amphibian Smallest fish Cumin
Fairyfly wasps Ps yllophryne didarty la; Dwarf goby (Pai/daha pygmaea)
0.2mm long 0.41 in (l'0.4mm)fong 0.3in (7.6mm) long
Worldwide Philippines
Brazil
Animal
A reproduction facts
• After spending a year or more
as a nymph, the adult mayfly
{Ephemera danica) has only a day
in which to mate and lay eggs
Smallest reptile Smallest bird Smallest mammal
before it dies.
British Virgin Island gecko Bee hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae) Kitti's hog-nosed bat (Craseonyt lens
{Sphaerodaclylus Z.2\n (5.7cm) long thonglongyai) • A tapeworm may release a
parthenopion) Cuba 1.3in (3.3cm)
million eggs a day for several
0.7in (18mm) long long
years. Hardly any eggs survive.
Virgin Islands Thailand
• Many fish lay millions
of eggs at a time, since
so few young survive.
The ocean sunfish (Mo/a
mo/a) lays about 30 million eggs

Animal Giant tortoise

(Megalochelys)
lifespans 150 years

Animals live from a

few days to more Housefly
than 200 years. The (Musca domestica) Andean condor
3-1 2 weeks Vultur gryphus)
lifespans shown here (

72 years
are approximate
I
I
I

maximum
I

ages. 1 month 3 months 6 months 1 year 5 years 10 years 50 years 100 years 150 years

10
 )

\\l\i.\L RKCORDS

Poisonous animals most poisonous fish MOST POISONOUS FROG MOST POISONOI S MA MM VI
When stepped on. the stonefish I he golden yellow poison dart frog The duck-billed platypus
MOST POISONOUS MOLLUSKS (Synanceja), which lurks in shallow (Phyllobatei terribilis), which li\cs (Ornithorhynchtu analinus) injec ts
A stiri^ from
blue-ringed octopus
a
waters in the Pacific and Indian in Colombia, South venom through a spur on one- fits
(JHapalochlaend) can kill a human. Oceans, injects America, oo/es the hind legs. Its sting
Three speeies venom through strongest animal causes intense pain
of cone spines in its poison in the world in humans. The
shell dorsal fin. from its skm. platypus is one
(Conus)
(right) also
causing
intense pain
anil sometimes
Toxin from a
single frog
could nearK ^N^
? «t of only two
species of
poisonous
have kill

^^^
'

.1 .!_•
deadly sting. death. 1,500 people. mammal (see p. 103)

MOST POISONOUS JELLYFISH MOST POISONOUS MOST POISONOUS SNAKES ONLY POISONOI s MRU
\ human stung SPIDER Sea snakes of the genus Hydrophii The only bird known to be poisonous
mine than six times The Brazilian have extremely poisonous venom. he I is the hooded pitohui (Pitokui diAromsS,
h\ a chironex wandering spider toxin of Hydrophh belcheri, which lues in. in New Guinea.
(Cfiirwtex flecieri) (Phoneutrid), which has a in the Timor Sea oil northwestern Tins brightly
can die within two leg span of4in (10cm). Australia, is about 100 times as strong colored bird
to three minutes. has the must poisonous as that of secretes a poison
This jellyfish of all spider bites. This the similar to that
occurs in huge spider has difficulty taipan produced li\ poison
swarms off the injecting venom into ( see dart frogs, although
northern coast of Austra humans, so it causes leu deaths below ). far less to\n.

Largest Animals ur
of the deep
inc. u
/A.i\i.w.\i^
Terrible taipan
The taipan (Oxyuranus) of insect home
VIES I
Mounds built by tm The deepest-diving bird is the
northeastern Australia and AB\ ^^^^^ emperor penguin

A^
New Guinea is one of the termites can reaceh ^UR ^9H^^. (Aptenodytes forstert).

up to 39ft (12m) , fl ^^k HV which reaches depths of

most poisonous snakes in the
tall: more than s
>J B\ up to 870ft (265m)
world. The venom from just
times the height
one of these snakes could kill
of an adult
125,000 miee. IU
human. JH
jflj IB \
The deepest-diving
turtle is the ^jfi
^
^^^^^^^^^^ \
leatherback turtle
/a^S^'
(Dermochelys
tefkf/^'
Tallest
animals
Heaviest animals
Animal Scientific name Weight
^#
^^^_
conacea). which dives
to 3.937ft (1.200m)
^HJ
^H "*!*<*
kg lb
MAMMAL
Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus 190,000 418.878
The giraffe (Giraffa The deepest-diving
catnelopardalis African elephant Loxodonta africanus 5,000 1 1 ,023 mammal is the sperm
whale (Physeler
measures up to JT Asian elephant Elephas maximas 4,000 8,818 macrocephalus)
19.4ft (5.9m) which dives down to
White rhinoceros Ceratothenum simum 2.200

t
4,850 3.937tt (1.200m)
tall.
Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius 2,000 4,409
BIRDS
The tallest bird is the Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis 1,200 2,646

ostrich. The tallest flying Saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus 1,100 2,425
birds are cranes: some species,
Asian gaur Bos frontalis 900 1,984
e.g. the Japanese crane (Grits
japonensis) (above), stand nearly American bison Bison bison 800 1,764 Rat-tails are some
of the deepest-
6.6ft (2m) high. Kodiak bear Ursus arctos middendorffi 800 1,764 living fish in the
oceans
Yak Bos grunniens 800 1,764

Animal speeds Racing pigeon

4
Columba livia)
White-throated needletail
(

AIR Dragonflies
53mph (85km/h) (Hirundapus caudaculus)
31mph(50km/h) 106mph(171km/h)
Fastest-flying insects Fastest-flying bird

PeregnneTalcon
Ostrich (Slrulhio camelus) Pronghorn antelope
(Fafco peregrin us)
LAND 45mph (72km/h) (Anlilocapra americana)
Cheetah (Acinonyx /ubalus) 112mph( 180km hi
Fastest-running bird 55mph (88km/h) 65mph(105km/h) Fastest bird in a dive
Brown hare Fastest mammal over ; Fastest mammal over short distances
(Lepus capensis) long distances
16mph(25km/h)

ll
JVING WORLD

The flying fish (Cypselurus)

Leaps and The red kangaroo
(Macropus rufus) can
leaps out of the water for

BOUNDS cover up to 40ft (12m) in

distances of up to 328ft (100m)

a single bound.
The flying dragon
(Draco) leaps up to 100ft
(30m) from tree to tree.

The sugar glider (Petaurus

The world long jump record breviceps) can cover up to
for a human is 29.4ft (8.95m). 300ft (90m) between trees.
fist 1

The African sharp-nosed frog

\\ (Ptychadena oxyrhynchus) can leap
* up to 17.6ft (5.35m).

I Distance (m) I
5 30 90 100

Highest Animal calorie Most dangerous animals

leapers requirements
Mosquitoes
transmit malaria,
Fleas are the highest which
This table compares the number of calories kills

leapers for their body 50,000-100,000 between one

different animal species need per day for a people die and three
size. The common flea
moderate amount of activity. every year from million people every year.
(Pulex irritans) can leap snake bites.
Adult animal Scientific name Calories Over a 217-year period the
up to 7.5in (19cm) high: required
in

ther{ were 1,291

US, there
about 130 times its own height. recorded black
House mouse Mus musculus 10.8 widow spider
Largest groups European robin Erithacus rubecula 21.4
[Latrodectus
mactans)
CRUSTACEANS bites.
Fifty-five of the
Swarms of krill {Euphausia Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus 66
victims died.

superbd) have been known to Gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis 92

Sharks
cover areas of ocean measuring attack about
Fennec fox Vulpes zerda 254
up to 170sq miles (440sq km). 100 people per
370 year: about 25 attacks
These large swarms may Domestic cat Felis catus
result in death.
contain up to 80 billion Baboon Papio hamadryas 1,610
individuals: about 16 times the
Giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla 1,760 Saltwater
world's human population. crocodiles
Female human Homo sapiens 2,400 (Crocodylus
BIRDS porosus) (right)
The red-billed quelea {Quelea Male human Homo sapiens 3,265 and Nile crocodiles (C.
kill hundreds of
niloticus)
quelea) gathers in roosts of up to
Llama Lama glama 3,840 people every year.
10 million birds.
Tiger Panthera tigris 8,000

Gorilla Gorilla gorilla 8,100

In the Sunderbans
American Ursus americanus 9,180 region of India, 521
people were killed
black bear
by tigers between
1975 and mid-1989.
Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis 36,370 About one person in 200 is
allergic to bee and wasp
Walrus Odobenus rosmarus 38,060
venom. In the US, between 50
and 100 people die every year
Male Asian elephant Elephas maximus 61,160
Locust swarm from bee and wasp stings.

INSECTS
Locusts gather in enormous
numbers. In 1873, a swarm of
Gestation periods
Rocky Mountain locusts
The gestation period is the
length of time an animal
estimated to contain 10 trillion
takes to develop inside its
insects crossed the US. Virginia opossum Golden hamster House mouse
mother before it is born. (Didelphis virginiana) (Mesocricetus auratus) (Mus musculus)
12 days; 8—14 young 15 days; 6—8 yourtg 20 days; 6—8 young,

Beefy beetle
One of the strongest insects

s#
is the Atlas beetle
{Chalcosoma atlas). It can lift
more than 800 times its own
body weight - equivalent to a
Red kangaroo Lion Goat Orangutan
man lifting a Leopard 2 tank. (Macropus rufus) (Panthera leo) (Capra) (Pongo pygmaeu
13 days 105-108 days / TO /lays 250, lays
I young 3—1 you n 1-2 young young
g 1

n Dolphin Asian elephant

Human (Homo sapiens) Cow 360 days (Elephas maximus)
267 flaw; 1 young 27S days; I young 1 young 660 days; I young

112
 Human Body
Stunning detailed illustrations, supported by a wealth of facts and
figures, show the amazing workings of the human body. Other topics
include evolution, reproduction and growth, the history of medicine,
traditional medicine, nutrition, and first aid.

Humankind • Human Body • The Brain • Nervous System • Eyes • Ears

Skin, Hair, and Nails • Smell, Taste, and Throat • Skeleton and Teeth • Muscles
Heart • Circulation and Blood • Respiratory System • Digestion • Urinary System

Endocrine System • Reproduction and Growth • Medicine • Nutrition

Traditional Medicine • Eirst Aid

113
Ill \IA\ BODY

Human family tree

Humankind Sivapithecus
7-13 million years ago
Orangutan
Differences in skull
iarly ancestor of the liapc put them in a
Scientists believe the first orangutan separate family from
living thing on Earth was a humans and gorillas.

single-celled organism that

developed almost four billion
years ago. From that
organism, plant and
animal life evolved.
Finally, just five Chimpanzee/gorilla
Skull shape links them
million years to human family, but
they do not walk upright
ago, hominids Aegyptopithecus and brain is smaller.
""
appeared. 30 million years ago
Ancestor of monkeys,
apes, and humans

Brain power
Homo habilh had a larger brain than the first ape
Homo sapiens sapiens
40,000 years ago
people, but was only half the size of a modern
it
Modern humans were the
human brain. As the brain grew in size, people first artists. Emerged in

developed greater powers of reasoning and survival Africa and spread to all
continents by
1 1,000 years ago.

Australopithecus habilis Homo sapiens neanderthalensis

40,000-100,000 years ago
Subspecies of modern humans with
Human fossils overhanging brow. First burial ceremonies
The structure of human remains and where they are found
a great deal about the growth and development of the hum:

• Lucy
Skeleton shapes
The human skeleton is
A three million-year-old
Australopithecus skeleton,
designed for upright walking.
found in Ethiopia. Human toes point forward,
• Homo
Fossils
same area
and
habilis skull
tools
in
found
East Africa.
in Pt§' •?>' whereas a gorilla's big toe is
at an angle for grasping. The
Homo sapiens hip bone is
• Beijing man shorter than a gorilla's for
Homo erectus skull found.
Evidence of
easy striding. The human
fire in area.
head is more centrally
• Neanderthals
balanced on the backbone
Fossils found in Europe.
than a gorilla's. Gorilla Human foot

Evolution facts The iceman Human family

• Early humans used wisdom • Neanderthals had a slightly In 1991 the oldest complete As humans spread across the
teeth to eat roots and berries. bigger brain than humans today. Homo sapiens corpse was found world, they gradually evolved
Today, some people do not It may have signified a stronger in a glacier in the European different features, such as
even develop them. body, not high intelligence. Alps. His internal organs, skin, dark and light hair, that were
and even his eyes were intact. suited, for example, to a
Evolutionary clock particular climate.
Dinosaurs Humans Jt Earth formed If this clock face represents
200 million ^M 4 6 billion
the time the Earth has existed,
years ago years ago
4f\ •

human began only few

Apes fir life a
seconds ago. Our five-million-
year history is short compared
Reptiles
The to other life-forms. The Iceman had been frozen for 5,300 years

clock starts East Indian Native Australian

running as the Earth is American Aboriginal
formed. It takes
for the most basii life-form to
20 minutes PlLTDOWN HOAX
appear. It is over 55 minutes Remains found in Piltdown, England,
Land
plants
before the dinosaurs evolve. were first thought to show a missing
Apes arrive at 40 seconds to
link between apes and humans. But
tin'hour, and humans /Bacteria
evolve fust n\ the 3.8 billion in 1953, tests showed them to be the
hour strikes. years ago skull of a 14th-century man and
the jaw of a 15th-century orangutan.
C.aucasoid Black African Mongoloid

114
 HI MAN BODY

Human body Inside a cell

Nearly all human cells are too small to sec without a
microscope: the average diameter is 0.02mm. Inside
Types of cell
More than 200 cell types each
perform specialized functions.
Each body SYSTEM is composed each there are organelles that control and run the eel
of organs made from different Nucleus controls
Pores are dents Membrane holds
types of tissue. Tissue is made
in the cell.
the cell membrane cell together and
filters materials
from performing a similar
cells all passing in and out
Ribosomes
function. There are roughly manufacture
proteins
50 billion cells in the body. . Cytoplasm is al cells use Secretary thyroid
mostly water minus to protect gta nil irlh control
and protein against stomach acid, iht metabolism.
Cell growth and makes up
body of cell
As cells divide and
multiply, children
and young people Mitochondria

grow. In later life,

make energy
to power
>?-,•
some cells still the cell

multiply, but this

is to replace the Endoplasmic Red Mood itlls urn 1 !

First nucleus, Each cell waj in tin female trad lot otngen ami live for
millions of cells that reticulum consists of
then nil divides grow in size </
channels to carry up in b about 120 ihi\s.
Golgi apparatus
die every second. in two. parent < elL
chemicals around Nucleus contains stores proteins for
the cell. genetic material. use outside cell.

The body at work

Each body system combines
and organs.
cells, tissue,
Cell discovery
In 1838, German botanist Matthias Schleiden
recognized that plants are made up of cells. In 1839,
German physiologist Theodor Schwann extended
this theory to animal life. Schwann cells are so named Brain nil. afta 18 Bon&maintaining
\i ins wt lose mini i ill\ fir, rlttfi from
because of his research on the nervous system. linn, 1,000 a day.

Matthias Schleiden
(1804-81) Cell, cell, cell!
If all the cells in a human
Theodoi Schwan
Individual cells
(1810-82)
body were put end to end.
combine to make
cell tissue, such Cells, tissue, and
*i thc\ would stretch
.

as ma|or nerves. nerves make up the brain **$£ L for 020 miles
and spinal cord: the major organs <S^|*-C (1,000km):
human nervous system.
<~«/v'*&
of the
( from Paris
^«^s/ Rome.
Cell facts J
to

• Some gut cells have a life • Red blood cells are the only • All humans develop from just
expectancy of only three days. cells without a nucleus. two cells: an ovum and a sperm.
A brain cell can last for life. • Cancer causes cells in many • Neurons, the message carriers
• An egg cell (ovum) is the body systems to multiply of the nervous system, are the
largest human cell and can just uncontrollably, form tumors, longest cells in the human body.
be seen without a microscope. and invade neighboring tissue. Some are up to 4ft (1.2m) long.

Body systems
The major systems
shown here work
together to help the
body function
efficiently. Each
system consists of
organs that carry Excretory s\ stem
out a similar task. filters waste from
the blood.

u
Respiratory system I hgesbve system Skeletal system (Circulator) system Muscular system NervOUS s\ stem Skin system
draws oxygen into processes food, is iisu.ilK made consists of the has 650 muse les thai messages to and consists of the skin,
the boih .iihI expels absorbs nutrients, up of 206 heart, blood, and exen pulling powei from the brain. Endoc rine nails, anil ban

carbon dioxide. and expels waste. indi\ idual bones. blood \ cssels nil belies. s\ stem an Ks hormones.
i covering the body.

115
 :

HUMAN BODY

Structure of the brain

The brain Hemispheres have
a cortex of nerve
cells (gray matter)
and inner areas
Periosteum
membrane)
(skull

Frontal
The brain has three main regions: the brain
stem, which merges with the spinal cord;
THE brain is THE major organ of of nerve fibers
(white matter).
lobe
the cerebellum; and the cerebrum, which

the nervous system. It is the contains the two cerebral hemispheres. The
cerebrum makes up 90% of the brain.
control center of the body,
responsible for thought, memory, Parietal lobe

language, and emotion. The brain Three layers.

called meninges,
is protected by the skull, which cover the brain.

encases it, and the cerebrospinal Dura mater:

fluid, which cushions it. toughest layer

Arachnoid layer: contains

Sensory areas blood vessels and fluid.

Different parts of the brain carry out Nasal

cavity ^~-\ Pia mater: nourishes
specialized functions. For example, the
the brain.
occipital lobe deals with vision, an area in
the frontal lobe controls speech, and the Hypothalamus \. Left cerebral hemisphere
temporal lobe receives and interprets controls part of the Occipital lobe
nervous system Cerebellum
information from
Sensation Temporal lobe
the ears.
Optic nerves (see p. 1 1
8)
Basic
movements
Brain power
The brain sends and receives messages
as impulses of electrical energy. The
energy travels via nerve cells, called
neurons, that run down the spinal cord
to the rest of the body. Each neuron Information passes between Close-up of a synapse
Balance and nerve cells at the synapses: the Iran inferring information
Speech muscle ends in a network of fine branches.
points where the tips of axons from one netve cell
Hearing coordination and dendrites meet. to another.

Brain functions CEREBRAL Memory

HEMISPHERES
The brain stem controls The cerebrum is
Memory works in three ways:
digestion, breathing,and divided into two iconic memory briefly
heartbeat, and the cerebellum halves, called remembers things seen for a
cerebral hemispheres.
controls muscle coordination.
The
split-second; short-term memory
The left half is usually left side of the brain is responsible for logical
These are all involuntary dominant and controls activities such as language and numeracy. stores things for about five
activities (see p. 11 7). Conscious speech and thought; minutes; and long-term memory
functions, such as memory, the right half can store things for a lifetime.
learning, speech, and the
manages artistic and
imaginative activity.
conscious control of movement, The corpus callosum Brain waves
take place in the cerebrum. joins the two The right side mainly controls the imagination, and
An electroencephalogram (EEG)
Thoughts also occur here. hemispheres. artistic activities such as music and painting. records tiny electrical impulses
produced by brain activity.
Brain comparisons Alpha waves
Animals have brains of varying Awake and
relaxed
shapes and sizes. Some have
larger brains than humans, Beta waves
including dolphins, elephants, Ape brain Concentrating
'! < >
~ v
ii' r|i
and whales. An elephant's brain
i i

Delta waves
is four times as heavy as a
Human brain: the
a cauliflower
Asleep
size oj
human's. However, the human
Theta waves
brain is much heavier in relation
to body weight than the brain of
any other animal. Bird brain Fish brain
Meditation and
creative
thought
WvWW
Megamemory Memory facts Brain facts Common illnesses
• Short-term memory can hold • A typical adult brain weighs
In 1974, a man named about seven unrelated facts at about 31b (1.3kg). Name Description
Bhandanta j T$ &k any one time. • About 1.8 pints (0.85 liters) of
Encephalitis Inflammation of the
\ icitsara recited brain; usually caused by
16,000 pages of
Buddhist text
WKj • As a person gets older,
becomes easier for them to
it blood travel through the brain
every minute.
viral infection

Meningitis Inflammation of the

from memory \ek '
i *( remember past events than • A human brain contains about meninges; usually
enough to fill K |
Y= to remember recent events. fifteen billion cells. caused by bacterial or
viral infection
books equaling r-5^ va^.' • The brain has to forget certain • The gray matter of a brain's
the height of a Alzheimer's Deterioration of memory
things in order to make room for cortex, laid out flat, would cover
six-vear-old. disease and thought processes
new memories. an office desk.

16
 NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cerebrum
Structure of the
Nervous system nervous system
The nervous system is made up of the
Cerebellum

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM is a huge central nervous system ((AS), which

communications network of nerves. This consists of the brain and spinal cord, and
the peripheral nervous system, which
network allows us to feel, see, and hear the
consists of the nerves extending from the
world, and to detect and respond quickly CNS to the rest of the body.
Spinal
to changes inside and outside the body.
Nerves cord

There are millions of

Thoracic
Neurons (nerve cells) nerves and billions nerves
Neurons are the building blocks of the of nerve cells in the
Radial
nervous system. Each consists of a cell body. This close-up nerve
body containing the nucleus, and a long, shows nerve cells in
threadlike nerve fiber called the axon. the brain.

The axon carries

Neuron functions
m
impulses away
from the cell. There are three types of
neuron: sensory neurons
send signals triggered by
An insulating layer of sensations to the CNS;
myelin (a fatty material)
protects the axon and
motor neurons carry
speeds up the signals from the CNS to
electrical impulses.
muscles to make them
Nerve fibers consist of contract; and association neurons
the axon and dendrites
transfer signals between other neurons.
of a neuron. _^
Synapses are Dendrites Nerve endings
gaps where the are nerve
There are
axon of one neuron fibers that carry
meets the dendrites of the next. impulses toward a several types of
cell body. nerve ending.
Involuntary actions 5 Signals also travel up
Each detects a

Automatic actions that the brain does to the brain. When different type
not consciously decide on, such as they reach the cerebral of feeling.
heartbeat, are called involuntary cortex, the

actions. They include the actions of person

feels pain.
internal organs (autonomic actions),
Deep
and reflex actions. This sequence peroneal
shows how the nervous system nerve

produces an A 4 A motor
involuntary reflex neuron makes
action in response the muscles
to touching a flame contract, pulling

1 When the hand

/"'
the hand a\\a\
from the source
Acupuncture Phantom pain
This is an ancient Chinese
touches hot object,
.1
of pain. People sometimes
sensory neurons method of treating illness by
feel sensations in a
produce a signal. inserting fine needles into
limb they have lost
energy points on the body.
2 The signal passes 3 The signal British Admiral
'These points are found along a
along the neuron's axon passes across a Lord Nelson
to an association neuron synapse to a system of channels, called
(1758-1805) had
in the spinal cord. motor neuron. meridians, that runs the length
his arm cut off after
of the body, rather like the
it was fractured b\
Spinal cord nervous system.
gunshot. le felt
I

The spinal cord bundle of

is a Nerve facts pain in the non-
nerves that runs down from the • Electric signals travel through
existent arm for the
brain inside the backbone (see some nerve fibers at more than rest of his life.
p. 122). Spinal nerves branch out 250mph (4()()km/h). Small axons
from the spinal cord through the conduct impulses more slowly.
gaps between the vertebrae. • All the nerves in the body laid Common illnesses
Spinal cord end to end would stretch for Name Description
about 47 miles (75km).
Neuritis Inflammation of a nerve
• 'The tip of the index finger is
Neuralgia Pain caused by an
one of the most sensitive parts
irntated or damaged nerve
of the body, with many
thousands of sense receptors. Neuroma Benign (will not spread)
tumor ot nerve tissue
• The longest nerve is the
Multiple Progressive dtseas.
sciatic nerve, stretching from acupunchm
19th-century woodcut showing system
sclei central nervous
base of the spine to the knee. pointi mi the face, mil;, shoulder, and hand.

117
 —

II \l\\ BODY

Lateral rectus
Eye structure membrane
Eyes The eye is a
of clear, jellylike fluid
round bag Vitreous
allows
muscle

humor
light
Conjunctiva: thin
skin; keeps eye moist

THE EYES ARE probably the most called vitreous humor, through to
retina

important of the sense organs, surrounded by a tough

outer covering called
enabling us to see and react to the sclera. Each eyebal
the world around us. They are measures about 1 in

positioned in protective bony (2.5cm) across.

sockets in the skull. Eyes work

in pairs to transmit images to the
brain via the optic nerves.

Eye function Aqueous

Light rays enter the eye through the pupil, Retina:
humor: watery
detects light
and are focused by the cornea and the lens fluid; fills chamber
behind cornea
to form an image on the retina. Light- Retinal

sensitive cells in the retina convert the blood vessel Pigments in iris give
Image upside eye its color
image into nerve is

down, because light Choroid: contains /

impulses that rays cross over nourishing blood vessels. Lens focuses light.

crave! along the behind the lens.

Medial Ciliary body: muscular ring;
optic nerve to rectus muscle controls shape of lens
Image flashes along
the brain. the optic nerve to the
brain, where
way
it is turned Blind spot Muscles
the right up.
This is a tiny, oval-shaped area Each eye has six muscles to
on the retina where the optic move the eyeball around.
nerve joins the eye. There are Movements are coordinated, so
RODS AND
Light rays reflected no rods or cones here, so this it is impossible to look in two
off the image travel
CONES
Millions of light- area of the retina cannot see. different directions at once.
to the eye.
sensitive cells, Superior rectus: upward, Superior oblique:
Cornea partly
called rods and Light inward, clockwise / downward,
focuses the rays
cones, pick up the rays __A— -*lt£ outward,
Lens fine-focuses the image image. Rods see clockwise
black and white, and
Image is reflected onto the retina. of rods mill aims cones see color.

Stereoscopic vision
Two eyes give a wide range of Lateral
vision, and enable us to judge rectus: outward

depth, distance, and speed Inferior rectus: Inferior oblique:

effectively. Each eye receives a Eye facts downward, inward,

counterclockwise
upward, outward,
counterclockwise
slightly different view of the • Most people blink about
same object. The brain 15 times a minute. Tears
combines the two images to Tears are necessary to keep the
Combined, three • About one person in thirty
give a three-dimensional dimensional
eyes moist and clean.
interpretation of the object. image
is color blind. More men are
affected than women.
Sight problems • The best photographic film
COLOR BLINDNESS Sharp eyes at least 1,000 times less sensitive
is

Color-blind people are unable to tell The human eye is so

than the human eye.
the difference between certain colors: sensitive that it can see
normally red and green. The problem
is normally caused by a defect in some
a lighted candle ^^ • Male eyes are about 0.5 mm Surplus tear
down
of the retina's cone cells. True color
positioned 1 mile vy bigger than female eyes.
fluid drains
tear ducts to the
the
nose
blindness, where people can only see (1.6km) away in
shades of black and white,
• Carrots help you to see in the
is very rare. the dark.
dark: they contain vitamin A, Common problems
from which the light-sensitive Name Description
chemical in the rods is made.
Cataracts Loss of transparency
• The body produces excess of the lens. Causes
near-sightedness
tears in times of strong emotion.
and distorted vision
No one knows why humans cry. or blindness

FAR- AND NEAR Far-sightedness:

Conjunctivitis Inflammation of the
Causes

«0~<(^
conjunctiva.
SICHTEDNESS rays focused
redness, discomfort,
Near-sighted people behind the retina.
Convex lens and discharge
cannot see distant
corrects focus.
objects clearly, and far- Glaucoma Abnormally high
sighted people cannot see pressure of fluid in the
Near-sightedness:
near objects clearly. eye. Causes severe
rays focused in
This is a test for color blindness. If you have
These problems are front of the retina. pain, and partial or
normal vision you can see the number 29. If caused by irregularly Concave lens complete loss of vision
you are color blind you see the number 70. shaped eyeballs. corrects focus.

18
 KARS

Helix (outer
2 Sound ua\csscreeched
bounce
Ear structure
Ears Pinna rim) off" a tightl)

membrane, called
eardrum, making
the
it vibrate
Each ear has three main
the outer, middle, and inner ear.
parts:

EARS ARE THE organs of hearing The outer ear consists of the ear
and balance. Set on either side of flapand the ear canal. The
middle ear consists of the
the head, only part of each ear is
eardrum and the three ossicles,
visible; the rest is protected by nnerear Deep within the hones of the
the bones of the skull. Ears work Cochlea ^^ skull is the inner ear.

in pairs to collect sound ^^ containing the

cochlea and the
vibrations and turn them into three fluid-filled
signals, which are then passed to Nerves semicircular
canals.
the brain, enabling us to hear.

Ear bones, Round window

The three tiny
ossicles in the 4\s the oval window
middle ear arc \ ibrates, liquid
named the passes o\ er tiny hairs
in the cochlea. This
hammer, the
produces nerve
anvil, and the signals that pass along
stirrup because the auditory nerve to
of their shapes. Eardrum the brain.

Balance
Every time the body moves, Noise levels
fluid, calledperilymph, flows Loudness of sound is measured
around the three semicircular in decibels (dB). Sounds above

canals. Tiny hair cells sense the Semicircular y()dB cause pain to the human
movement and send signals to canals car.Sounds above 15()dB can
the brain tocommunicate the Fluid flows mm
man
damage the car. and ma\ cause-
body's position. This helps the than 20,000firu hairs deafness. This diagram
inside ihr cochlea.
body to keep its balance. Cochlea compares some noise levels.

Hearing ranges Ear facts Dizziness

Animals hear different levels of • Stirrup is the smallest bone in If you spin around
sound frequency (see p.233). thehuman body, at only 0.1 2in and around and
This diagram compares the (3mm) long. then stop, the
Pneumatic drill

hearing ranges of some animals. • Sensation of ears "popping" is

fluid in the
semicircular canals
caused by the eustachian tube
continues to move
opening to equalize air pressure
for a while. This
in the middle ear.
10,000 Hz confuses the brain
• Ear canal is about lin (2.5cm) causing dizziness.
in length.

• Ears can detect the direction

of a sound within three degrees. Ear wax
Bat Glands in the skin lining the ear
• Children usually have more-
canal produce ear wax. This v\.i\
sensitive ears than adults.
10 Hz protects the eardrum from dirt
?£*

^
• Kars can detect 1 ,500 and dust, and its unpleasant
Dolphin
different tones, and 350 degrees smell discourages insects from
Dog On ibels
of loudness. entering the ear.

Human

Hearing I hi trumpets wen This hearing aid Common problems

mi ihr head.
Perfect balance held against the eai
Name Description
In 1973, Frenchman Henri
aids In amplify
am rease) sound Volume control
Deafness Inability to hear
In the past, people with
Rochatain (b. 1926) spent
hearing difficulties used Tinnitus Noises, such as
185 days on a tightrope 82ft
large ear trumpets. ringing or buzzing, heard
(25m) above a supermarket inside the ear
Modern hearing aids arc-
in St. Etienne, France.
smaller and less noticeable Meniere's Inner ear disorder.
disease May cause tinnitus,

deafness, and vertigo

Modern hearing aid This tiny hearing
(illusion of spinning)

d
consisting <>l
<i aid j/t\ inside
urn rophone, tht "i' where
Earache Pain often caused
amplifier, and if is almost
battery; worn i ompletely lu<l<l<>i
by into
hrliimi ihr ear.

m
 II MAN BODY

Outer layers
Skin structure
Skin, hair, and nails consist of
skin cells
containing a
dead
The skin has two main layers: the outer
epidermis and the inner dermis. The surface
Movement of hairs
THE skin is THE largest organ of the creates the of the epidermis consists of dead skin cells.

body. It is waterproof, bacteria-proof,

sensation of touch These are worn away and replaced by new
skin cells from deep in the epidermis. The
and repairs itself. Hair and nails are
dermis is living and contains vital nerves,
extensions of the skin and are mainly glands, hairs, and blood vessels.
composed of keratin, a protein that also Epidermis contains

protects the skin. The skin has nerve cells layers of

dead
new and
skin cells.

that respond to touch, heat, and pain.

Hair and nails, however, lack nerve cells. Basal cell layer
produces new
cellswhich
Hair structure Sebaceous glands
continually move
A tube of the protein keratin is coat hair and skin
toward the surface.

pushed up from the hair follicle in waterproof oil.

to form the hair shaft. Each hair Blood vessels

Hair follicles are expand when
is attached to a tiny muscle that
surrounded by body is hot.
allows it to move independently. touch-sensitive The skin flushes
nerve endings. and heat is
Medulla rapidly lost.

Hair-erector muscle
Cortex tightens in the cold,
causing hairs to
stand on end and
Beneath the skin is an
Melanin
insulating layer of fat.
granule trap warmth.

The dermis is about four

Sweat gland produces sweat to times thicker than the
cool down body temperature epidermis.

Skin facts Blood clotting

• Protects internal organs from Red blood cells help cuts to heal
Skin loss
Cuticle
injury and infection. quickly by binding together and
The body sheds about 401b
(18kg) of dead skin in a
forming a clot.
• Sweat glands control body lifetime: about the weight of
temperature by pushing water
Hair types and salt to the surface.
1 A cut in the skin
a six- to seven-year-old child.

The shape of the triggers the release

by platelets of
^ rr
~

hair follicle • Contains thousands of nerve

substances to ".#e^~ ^*.^^.
determines can detect pressure,
cells that make blood cells *--- * •
whether the hair temperature, and pain. stickv. Red blood (ells

grows straight,
• Contains the pigment melanin
wavy, or curly. Curly hairgrvuis 2 White blood
from an oval follicle.
that gives the skin its color and
cells fight
protects against the Sun's rays. infection in the
Dark skin contains more cut. Fibrin

melanin than threads are made Skin's surface

fair.
from blood- White blood cell These magnified images show
• In most places skin is about clotting factors. details of the skin's surface.
Wavy hair grows Straight hair grows 0.08in (2mm) thick. 3 Fibrin threads
from a flat follicle. from a round follicle.
contract and bind
• Freckles are due to an uneven
red blood cells
Hair facts production of melanin. into a clot. This
• There are about 100,000 hairs hardens to a scab
• Household dust is mostly which protects Fibrin threads stop
on the head; 80 fall out every day. blood flow
made up of dead skin cells. the cut as it heals.
• Hair grows about 0.08-0.1 in
Lunula Dermis
(2-3mm) in a week. Nail structure Sweat pores allow Hair grows out of
Nails are made of a tough fluid to escape. This pits called hair
protein called keratin. The cools the skin. follicles.
Rare hair half-moon at the base
These two boys have a rare
of each nail - the
medical condition known as
lunula - is covered
Common problems
"werewolf syndrome." Their Name Description
by a flap of skin
faces are covered in hair. Acne Skin disorder: raised red
called the cuticle. Fatty pad cushions the
spots that may scar
sensitive skin of the fingertip.

Eczema Itchy skin inflammation:

Nail facts Fingerprints may cause

and scaling
blisters

• Fingernails take six months to The patterns made by the

grow from the base to the tip. ridges on your fingertips are Psoriasis Skin disorder: patches of
red skin often covered
called fingerprints. The patterns
with silvery scales
• Nailsgrow at a rate of 0.02in areformed months before birth,
(0.5mm) per week. They can and no two fingerprint patterns Alopecia Patchy loss of hair,

usually on scalp
grow up to 12in (30cm) long. are the same.

120
 SMELL, TASTE, WD IHKOAT

Airpasses over smell receptors

Smell, taste, and throat attached to the olfactory bulb. These

are made up of thousands of cells
bearing microscopic hairs that are The smell
receptors send a
sensitive to chemicals in the mucus
TASTE and smell are Sense of smell message to the
brain through the
closely linked. The There are specialized nerve olfactory nerve
endings at the back of the nose
flavor sensation
called smell receptors. These
combines messages from are sensitive to chemicals in the Olfactory nerve

taste buds and smell airstream deposited in mucus.

receptors, as well as heat

and texture. An increase Chemicals from the airstream are
deposited in the mucus.
Nasal cavity

or decrease of 30 percent
in the strength of a The nasal cavity is lined

smell or taste is needed with a very thin skin called

mucus membrane,
Mucus moves
the back toward the
for the brain to detect a which secretes mucus. throat Harmful
microorganisms
change. Humans can are swallowed
and made
distinguish 2,000 to harmless by
Nasal hairs filter particles acids in the
4,000 different smells. as they are breathed in. stomach

Nasal cavity and mouth

Tongue and taste The voice passage join at the
Epiglottis
flap

The human tongue measures Sounds are made by throat (pharynx)

about 4in (10cm) in length, forcing air from

and is covered with taste the lungs up the
buds. These microscopic trachea and
nerve endings are the through the vocal
main organs of taste. cords, causing
Different areas detect them to vibrate.
different tastes. There are The tongue, throat,
four basic tastes: sweet, sour, mouth, and lips change
salt, and bitter. the sounds into words.

Tongue surface Relaxed chords Active chords

magnified to \hnw Vocal chords arc Muscles bring
sensory nerve endings far apart tor low- vocal chords close
pitched noise and together tor high-
breathing. pitched sound.

; tasted Esophagus /
along the sides at Sweet tastes such No taste buds carries food down
the front. as sugar at the tip in center to the stomach

Voice records Loss of smell Voice box Voice facts

LOUDEST RECORDED Immediately after birth the 'The vocal cords are two rubbery • The larynx is larger in men,
shout measured 1 19 decibels - efficiency of our smell receptors ligaments in the larynx. which is why they can produce
louder than a loud rock concert. begins to decline. deeper sounds.
The harder air is Epiglottis flap
This graph shows closeswhen
forced through • A boy's voice changes w hen
FASTEST SPEAKERS how the sense of the vocal cords, we swallow to
the louder the stop food from the larynx enlarges at puberty.
can say more than
minute and still
?>()() words per

be understood.
smell deteriorates as
we age.
sound they
make
«S going the
wrong way • If the larynx lining is tickled
by food particle, a reflex
a
38% -n^rtyt^ contraction causes coughing,
Sneezing record which ejects the foreign body.
An Englishwoman sneezed Trachea
about 2.7 million times over Rings of cartilage (windpipe) shown
2.7 years. With each sneeze
. \ge 2() .
Ige 60 .
Ige so
hold trachea open to
allow air through
sliced open and
laid flat
Common problems
she expelled about 0.2 cu ft Name Description
of air. During her world Taste facts
Smell facts Allergic mucus
Inflammation of
record sneezing fit, she blew • You can smell better • Taste buds work onl\ w hen membrane caused
if you rhinitis

out enough air to fill eight because more chemicals

(hay lever) by allergy to pollen
sniff hard saliva dissolves in
or dust
hot air balloons.
food ami washes over the buds.
chemicals reach the receptors
in your nose. Common Viral infection causing
cold stuffed -up or runny nose
• Babies are bom with taste
and sneezing
• The brain can become used to buds all mouth. Thc\
over their
smells, even the most horrible gradually disappear, remaining Laryngitis Inflammation of the larynx
caused by infection,
ones. It simply switches off ami only on the tongue, Adults ha> e
^cuce
you stop detecting them. about 1,000 taste buds.

121
HUMAN BODY
Cranium (skull)

Mandible
Skeleton
Skeleton and teeth (jawbone)

Clavicle
The
bones.
average person has 206
Some people have extra
The FRAMEWORK OF bones in the human body, bones in their thumbs or big

including the teeth, is called the skeleton, and it toes, calledsesamoid bones.
Women have shallower and
supports and protects delicate internal organs, such wider pelvic bones than men, to
as the brain, lungs, and heart. The skeleton also help with childbirth.
provides strong fixed points of attachment for
muscles. Bones contain marrow, which generates
Bone facts
• Some people have an extra
red and white blood cells. (thirteenth) pair of ribs.

• A giraffe's neck contains the

Bone structure same number of bones as the
Bones contain calcium human neck.
and phosphorus, which
make them hard. The • The bones in a baby's head
are not fused - they can overlap
strongest part of a bone is its '

slightly to ease birth.

compact outer layer. Inside
longer bones, softer living Micrograph • Babies have more than 300
tissue, calledmarrow, compact of marrow bones - they fuse together later.
produces red and white bone
Cross-section of a humerus
blood cells and stores fat.
(upper arm bone)

Joints Bone records Spinal column

Where bones meet, a joint forms. In a LARGEST BONE The spinal column has
mobile joint, the bone surface is coated with in the body is the four curves: cervical,
slippery cartilage and lubricated with thigh bone (femur): thoracic, lumbar, and
synovial fluid. Most joints are held together average male length sacral. Fach bone in the
by cords or bands called ligaments. Below 18.1in(46cm). spine is called a vertebra
are several types of joints. Fibula and most are separated
SMALLEST BONE (calfbone)
from their neighbors by
Ball-and-socket is the stirrup (stapes)
shock-absorbing
Ball-and-socket joints bone in the middle
vertebral disks.
(e.g. shoulder, hip) ear, 0.1-0. Bin
allow the most Vertebrae interlock with
(2. 6-3. 4mm) long.
movement of any joint. each other by
cartilaginous joints.
Hinge
Hinge joints (e.g.
Teeth Coccyx

elbow, knee) allow

Teeth are covered with enamel, the hardest substance
movement in just one made by animals. They are connected to the jaw by
plane. strong fibers that allow slight movement when chewing Tooth facts
or biting. Humans have two sets of teeth: the first, of 20, • Teeth decay more easily
Fixed called "milk" teeth, starts to fall during the first 25 years of life;
Some bones lock
together, allowing no
out at about age 6; the mature enamel is more resistant
movement at all (e.g. second, of 32, replaces the to attack.
cranial joints). first and is permanent.
• Some babies are born with a
Pivot TOOTH TYPES full set of teeth - King Louis
Pivot joints consist of a Our front \Z teeth (incisors and XIV of France, for instance.
bony projection that canines) are sharp; they grip
pivots within a ring and tear off pieces of food. Our • Some adults' four back molars
(e.g. neck). back 20 teeth (premolars and (wisdom teeth) never fully grow.
molars) grind and crush food

Ellipsoidal
for later digestion. The third CARING FOR TEETH
molars, or wisdom teeth, Tooth decay can be reduced by cutting
An ellipsoidal joint (e.g.
sometimes remain embedded down on the sugar and starch we eat
wrist) one where an
is
beneath gum in the jawbone. and by brushing (with a fluoride-based
oval bone fits into an
oval cavity. toothpaste) and flossing after meals.
TOOTH STRUCTURE
Enamel forms the hard, nonliving,
A BONE TO PICK surface of the tooth. The pulp contains
vessels that bring blood to the tooth,
A small piece of bone could
enabling it to live and grow. Correct brushing
support a nine-ton weight.
The same weight
would crush f% Common problems
a piece of Name Description
cement of Osteoarthritis Degeneration of cartilage or bone ends in the joints
the same
Blood vessels Osteoporosis Thinning of bone, with aging. Bone fractures easily
size.
Caries Patches of decay and erosion of tooth enamel and dentine by
Root canal
plaque (bacteria, saliva, and food remains)

Gingivitis Inflammation of the gums, due to infection

Sinn lure of a tooth

22
 MUSCLES

Muscle system
Muscles Flexors of
forearm Muscles warm up when used, providing about four-
fifths of the body's heat. Many organs, such as the
Muscles carry oi all the body's !

i
Fronfialis
heart, intestines,and bladder, have muscles. Most
movements. They number more than voluntary muscles (muscles under
conscious control) are anchored
600, accounting for about half the to bones at two or more points bv
body's weight. Muscles are arranged in strong cords called tendons.
groups of fibers that contract when
Sternocleidomastoid
triggered by nerves. Regular, vigorous Trapezius
Temporalis

exercise increases a muscle's size and Pectoralis

Sternocleidomastoid
major
improves its circulation of blood.
Deltoid Trapezius
Rectus abdominis

Unea alba Biceps

Types of muscle External oblique brachii

Voluntary muscles (e.g. bicep) can be

consciously controlled; involuntary ones do
internal jobs, such as the muscles of the
intestine, which move food through the
digestive system.

Voluntary muscle
Biceps femoris .
Voluntary (skeletal)
muscle cells appear Semitendinosus
striped close up. The
muscle fibers are
bundled together for
quick contraction.

Involuntary muscle Soleus

Involuntary (smooth)
muscle cells arc
tapered and loosely
win en, and contract
more slowly than other
muscle types.

Cardiac muscle
Cardiac (heart) muscle
Muscle functions
lias short, branching
• Move bones at joints..
cells; these help spread
• Force food through intestines
the nerve signals that
cause contraction.
Muscle action
Muscles can only pull, not push. • Blink the eyelids.

So, they often work in opposing • Smile or make other facial

pairs called antagonists; one expressions.
Contraction Muscle muscle in the pair contracts
• Make breathing movements of
Muscle fiber contains tiny strands called records while the other relaxes.
chest and diaphragm.
myofibrils. A myofibril contains overlapping LONGEST MUSCLE
layers of two proteins: actin and myosin. • Contract walls of blood vessels.
is the sartorius,
When triggered by an electrical nerve signal, which runs from the
the actin and myosin attract each other, and pelvis to just below Muscle facts
their layers slide closer together. The the knee. • Muscle cells can contract bv
myofibril shortens; the muscle contracts. Triceps up to one-third of their length.
BIGGEST MUSCLE contracts Muscles li/i

Strut tun oi is the gluteus III, /,,!, ,11111 • The muscles working a gnat's
a muscle
Myofibril maximus (buttock). wings can make them beat over
Tendon attaches
Muscle
SMALLEST MUSCLE muscle to bone 1,000 times a second.

is the stapedius in
Musi Ui straighten • When we walk, we use more
the middle ear - less the forearm.
than 200 different muscles.
than O.O.Sin
(1.27mm) long. TYPES OF EXERCISE
FASTEST MUSCLE
Muscles normally use glucose and
oxygen for day-to-day (aerobic)
Common problems
Overlapping and Name Description
blinks the eyelids exercise. If glucose or oxygen are in
interlocking myosin
s h< nt supply, muscles use their own
ami actin proteins up to five times Cramp Painful spasms from acid
energy smies. This anaerobic exercise muscles
Tough membrane protects muscle. every second. buildup in
generates lactic acid, which causes
muscles to tire and ai he. and makes us Strain Tear in muscle, causing
n.isp fur replacement oxygen. bleeding and swelling
Multi-muscle mover
Tetanus Toxin makes mu;
1 lumans have more than 600 /^^^V^/ contract continuously
muscles, but an average-sized fA7 r**^ >
'

caterpillar has over 2,000. Muscular ig ot musde

dystrophy fibers, an mlv

Tendinitis of tendon.
caused by
A^ .

123
 iiiM.w Bom

Heart structure Coronary nerves stimulate

Heart The septum

heart.
divides the two sides of the
Each side has two chambers: an
Artery to head
the heart muscle, passing
electrical signals
brain to tell
from the
the heart how
Coronary nerves fast should beat.
Thk heart
it

is a fist- atrium and a ventricle, separated by

sized muscular pump valves. The stronger left Valves stop blood
from going the wrong
side pumps oxygenated Pulmonary valve
that pushes blood way when , he neart
blood from the lungs to Tricuspid valve muscle contracts.
around the body. It has the rest of the body; the Left

two sides, and each side right bringsdeoxygenated pulmonary

artery
(used) blood back to
has two chambers. Aortic valve
the lungs.
These chambers Right pulmonary artery
contract and relax about
once every four-fifths of
Heart lies Location of sinoatrial node
a second, ensuring in middle of
i Ins/; il /iris
blood continually flows farther left
sum- left
in the right direction. side Iwais Right pulmonary vein /
stronger.

Heartbeat cycle In this diagram,

The heart is a special kind of muscle, a arteries are
colored red
cardiac muscle, that works automatically. A and veins are
heartbeat has four phases, or stages, and colored blue. Coronary
artery
lasts for about four-fifths of a second.

Tricuspid Mitral
Heart facts
valve opens. valve opens. • Heart sounds are caused by
the valves snapping shut, and
the whoosh of blood leaving Left \ Muscular column
the heart. ventricle supporting valve tendons

• Bicuspid valves have two

flaps; tricuspid have three.
Heartbeat pacemaker
• A heart beats more than 30 million times a The heart has a built-in
year, and about 3 billion times in a lifetime. pacemaker that keeps it

beating rhythmically. It
IThc and right • Our heart rate increases when we
left
Blood fills
atria relax.
2 Blood passes
and
tricuspid
through
mitral to supply our muscles with extra oxygen.
exercise,
lies at the top of the
them through pulmonary valves from atria into heart, at the sinoatrial
veins and vena cava. right and left ventricles. • The heart rests between beats. In an node, and sends an Electrocardiogram of
electrical impulse just
average lifetime of 70 years, the heart will electrical signal around
Tricuspid Mitral before a heartbeat
valve shuts. valve shuts. be at rest for about 40 years. the heart just before
every beat. An electrocardiograph machine
Heart records can record these impulses painlessly.
LONGEST CARDIAC ARREST
lasted four hours - Norwegian fisherman
Egil Refsdahl (b.1936), later revived.

FIRST HUMAN HEART TRANSPLANT

ECG (electrocardiogram) of a normal heartbeat
was performed on December 3, 1967 by
South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard,
4Pulmonaiirv on grocer Louis Washkansky.
3 Ventricles contract and
blood through
force lose as
valves clc
and aortic
jJJjjU^^
aorticand pulmonary ventricles relax. Cycle LONGEST-SURVIVING TRANSPLANTEE
valves into main arteries. restarts at phase one. survived for 22 years, 10 months, 24 days. ECO of complete heart block (chambers heal independently)

Blood wagon Hole in the heart Artificial valves

The heart ejects about 0.17
Sometimes the and left right Caged-balt valve Common problems
sides of the heart connect Closed Open Name Description
pints (XOml) of blood with
through a hole in the septum.
every beat. If an adult heart Angina Tight heart pain caused
Holes are closed by surgery;
was connected to an 2,000- by lack of oxygen, often
otherwise, fresh blood from the from narrowed arteries
gallon (7,600-liter) container
lungs returns
truck, could fill it
it in a day, Coronary Reduced blood supply
there directly, Tilling dish valve
with blood to spare. heart from narrowed arteries
without going Closed Open Moil l lied
disease
pig's valve
around the
Cardiac Part or all of heart
body.
arrest muscle stops beating
Sometimes valves do not work
Septum
properly, and blood flows the Endo- Infection of the heart
Surgical seal
carditis valves.
wrong way. Surgeons replace
1 nihil n/ai
septal defect (hole
them with real valves from pigs Arrhythmia Disturbance in heartbeat
in the septum) or artificial, mechanical ones.

124
 CIRCULATION AND BLOOD

Circulation and blood ARTERIES VEINS

Internal jugular vein
Common carotid artery
THE circulatory system supplies each body cell
Subclavian artery
Brachiocephalic vein

with life-giving blood. Blood flows round the body Aortic arch
Subclavian vein

in a continuous circuit, through a network of vessels Pulmonary artery

Axillary vein

that is thousands of miles long. The heart acts as a Axillary artery

Coronary artery Superior vena cava

pump, keeping the entire system moving. Brachial artery
Pulmonary vein
Cephalic vein

Gastric artery Basilic vein

The circulatory system _
Superior Hepatic portal vein
Hepatic artery
Veins bring deoxygenated Splenic vein
blood from the body to the Renal artery - Median cubital vein
right-hand side of the heart. Superior mesenteric artery — Anterior median vein
The right ventricle pumps Lung
Inferior mesenteric artery
Inferior vena cava
Inferior
it to the lungs, where it
Gonadal artery mesenteric vein
becomes saturated with Gonadal vein
oxygen. This blood returns Palmar arch

to the left atrium of the

Digital artery
Kidney
heart and enters the left
ventricle. The ventricle
then pumps it into the
Inferior vena cava
network of arteries, keeping
Kidney
the body constantly
supplied with oxygen.

Blood Blood vessels

White blood cell Muscular-walled arteries divide
(lymphocyte)
into smaller arterioles, then into
Peroneal artery
capillaries, which have thin
walls through which oxygen can Anterior tibial artery

pass. Deoxygenated blood

Posterior tibial artery
rcttirns via venules, which join
up into wider, thin-walled veins.
Lateral plantar artery

Dorsal metatarsal artery

Red blood
cell (erythrocyte)

Blood consists of red blood cells, Blood pressure

white blood cells, and cell ' rl Blood circulates under pressure.
Endothelium / /
fragments called platelets, Fatty deposits / 'Thisis measured using two

floating in a fluid called plasma. Muscle fibers /

figures: the systole, or first
Proteins, hormones, and ^ Arteriole Ven ill/' figure, gives the pressure as the
minerals are dissolved in the heart pumps blood into the
Valve
plasma. Red blood cells contain
<i< lion
system; the diastole, or second
hemoglobin, which stores Single cell invein figure, gives the pressure when
oxygen and releases it to the layer the heart rests between beats.
body. White blood cells fight
infection. Platelets help blood to Capillary Valve open Valve shut 8 AM 9 10 11

clot when we cut our skin. PRESSURE CHANCES

Blood facts Wood pressure is low when we sleep.

Vessel records • There are four main types, or \ nurse <>>

and uses during exercise. Also, it m.i\
use us we grow older. \ 20-year-old
doctor
LARGEST ARTERY groups, of blood: A, B, AB, and
measures might have a pressure of l0/70mm 1

is the aorta. It has an internal ().Blood transfusions (transfers) blood pressure, mercury; a 60-year-old of K>()/ l >()rnn>.
diameter of 1 in (2.5cm). must use compatible groups.
HlV AND AIDS Common problems
LARGEST VEIN • Red blood about fourcells last The HIV virus that causes
is the vena cava. It has an months and make about 72,000 1 AIDS disables the immune Name Description

internal diameter of lin (2.5cm). circuits around the bodv. system. One way it achieves tins Hemophilia Deficiency of a blood-
isby destroying the T4- clotting factor

lymphocytes (white blood cells)

Leech lunch • ^3 r~vigmiN*i^ that help "killer" lymphocytes
Anemia Hemoglobin deficiency
causing lack of oxygen
Leeches attach themselves
attack
with suckers to animals and Arterio- Thickening of artery wall
in\ aders. sclerosis due to deposits of fat
feed off their blood. They can
drink up to ten times their own Varicose Swelling, twisting, and
W/< rograph a vein
bodyw eight of blood - enough <>l vein distortion of
an Hl\ virus
to last them for nine months. nu\liu<* nun : .. • »••»„ ^ Aneurysm Thinning and dilation
,11 (widei

125
 \l W BODY

Respiratory system Ace airways

If the inner surfaces of the
lungs were laid out their
When we breathe in, would be l,938sq ft
total area
flat,

we supply our bodies (180sq m). This would cover

with oxygen from the air, more than two-thirds of a
tennis court.
and when we breathe
out, we
expel a waste
gas, carbon dioxide. We
breathe about
10.56 pints (6 liters) of
air every minute, and
adult lungs hold about
5.28 pints (3 liters) of air.

Respiratory system
Air enters the body at the upper respiratory traet
(nose, mouth, and trachea). The trachea splits into
two bronchi (tubes), which divide into narrower
bronchi, leading to tiny, hollow capsules called
alveoli. Air is drawn in and out of this system by
the action of the diaphragm muscle.

Alveoli
The lungs' 700 million
microscopic alveoli are
hollow and covered in
a network of capillary
arteries and veins.
Their moist walls are
so thin that blood
passing by can release The bases of our lungs rest on
itswaste carbon the diaphragm, a dome-shaped
dioxide and take up muscle. When we inhale, it pulls
oxygen. The capillaries the bases down, and chest
Capillary .

then join up to form network /

(intercostal) muscles expand the
the pulmonary vein. ribcage. Air rushes into the

t&> Alveoli

Oxygen: 21%
lungs through the trachea.

Respiration facts
• The lung has two lobes, or
left • Rings of cartilage reinforce the Nitrogen: 75% • Hiccups are caused by the
Carbon dioxide: 4%
and the right has three.
sections, trachea and bronchi to prevent rapid contraction of the
Each lung is encased in a them from collapsing. Composite of inhaled t diaphragm. Air is drawn in very
lubricated skin Oxygen: 16% rapidly and the vocal cords snap
• Thousands of tiny hairs, called
called a pleural Nitrogen: 75% shut quickly, causing the noise
cilia, line the walls of the Carbon dioxide: 9%
membrane. It we hear as a hiccup.
airways. They carry dust and
allows the
bacteria away from the lungs. A Composition o\ exhaled air
• Between the trachea and the
lungs to slide
mucous lining also catches dust.
easily during • Nitrogen dissolves in blood alveoli the airways divide
breathing. • We can survive with just one plasma, but is not used in any of 23 times, totaling 1,491 miles
X-ray of lungs fully working lung. the body's processes. (2,400km) of airways.

HlC HIC
Lungs and smoking Common problems
More than 4,000 chemicals have
American farmer Charles Name Description
been identified in cigarette
Osborne (1894-1991) began smoke, and many of these Asthma Causes wheezing
hiccupingin 1922. He and difficulty of
irritate the lungs and cause
continued until 1990, after breathing out
cancer. Many
people die each
68 years of constant hiccups. Bronchitis Inflammation of the
Healthy lung Smoker 's hi ng year from the effects of smoking.
bronchi

Pneumonia Inflammation of lungs

Smoking health risk caused by infection

Cigarettes per day Lung cancer deaths per year per 100,000 males Lung cancer Malignant tumors
of the lung
10

1-14 Emphysema Damage to alveoli,

78
causes
15-24 127 breathlessness

126
 DIGESTION

MOUTH AND THROAT

Digestion i
a
Digestion begins as soon as you take
chewing breaks down
bite of food:
food into smaller lumps; enzymes
Iron and fiber
Since 1966, Frenchman
Michel Lolito, "Monsieur
FOOD HAS TO BE broken (proteins that speed up chemica
reactions) in saliva begin to break Mangetout," has eaten and
down into small down complex carbohydrates into digested ten bicycles, seven
particles before the simpler sugars. The tongue rolls food TVs, six chandeliers, and a
into a bolus (lump) and pushes u to tl
body can make use of Cessna light aircraft.
back of the throat, where
a swallow ing relies is
its energy and nutrients.
activated. The bolus
This process is called passes down the
esophagus (food pipe)
digestion and happens toward the stomach.

in the digestive tract, a

r\ STOMACH
tube 29.5ft (9m) long. —i The lining of the stomach gives out
highly aeidie juices and en/\ mes that
break down food. Acid
Digestive tract helps the enzymes work
The digestive tract runs from and kills bacteria. The Digestion facts
resulting soupy liquid is
the mouth Organs
to the anus. • loot! spends 3 to 5 hours in
called chyme.
such as the liver, pancreas, and the stomach, and f> to 20 hours
gall bladder connect with the in the large intestine.
tract and help it to break down
DUODENUM • The stomach wall is protected
and absorb food.
3 The duodenum receives b\ a mucus lining: otherwise, it

Right lobe bile (green, watery fluid) would start to digest itself.
The livkr from the liver and juices
from the pancreas. • When we swallow, a lid called
Pancreatic juice continues
the epiglottis covers the trachea
to break down food, but
also neutralizes stomach to stop food from entering.
acids so that other
enzymes can act. Bile Peristalsis
emulsifies (splits up)
fats for later digestion.
Inferior
Duodenum Bolus
vena cava / \ Gall bladder
The liver receives blood from 4 food ILEUM (SMALL INTESTINE)
is absorbed in the ileum, and
Circular
the hepatic and portal muscle
some substances, Mich as fats, lactose,
contracts
(intestinal) arteries, and has a and sucrose, are fin.ilK
great many functions, including: digested here. Nutrients
• Makes bile for digesting food. absorbed into the blood
are sent to the liver for
• Helps maintain blood sugar
processing. Colon
levels.
• Makes blood proteins. A muscular, wavelike movement
• Helps blood to clot. called peristalsis pushes food
• Controls blood cell formation through the digestive tract. The
and destruction. walls of the tract contain rings
Epithelium
• Stores vitamins. Anal sphincter
and lengths of muscle. These
muscle
• Removes poisons from body. contract and relax alternately to
• Stores energy. propel food through the system.
• Makes heat. II nun
Anus
• Destroys microorganisms.

Absorbing food COLON AND RECTUM

The lining of the small intestine 5 (LARGE INTESTINE)
\\ arerand fiber from food pass into the
has millions of microscopic,
colon, where much of the watei is
fingerlike projections called absorbed into the body, The large
They arc packed with
villi. intestine does not secrete enzymes,
blood and lymph vessels and but contains bacteria which break
down the fibrous, undigested leftovers.
have thin walls through which Muscles contract X-ra\
This semisolid waste, called feces,
nutrients from the partly and relax to Mucosa layer contains
then passes into the rectum, and is through ilit
squeeze food along venules, arterioles, and
digested food can easily pass. later expelled through the anus. colon
thin muscle sheets.

Key enzymes Common problems

Region Enzymes produced Foods acted on by enzymes Name Description

Mouth Salivary amylase Starch (carbohydrate) Indigestion Stomach pain, when stomach stretches with gas or acid buildup

Stomach Pepsin and rennin Proteins and milk protein Diarrhea Liquid or semiliquid feces caused by poisoned food or infection

Duodenum Trypsin, amylase, lipase Proteins, peptides, starch, and fats Constipation Slow bowel actions; can be caused by lack of fiber in diet

Ileum Trypsin, amylase, lipase Peptides, fats, maltose, sucrose, lactose Cirrhosis Scarring and breakdown of liver commonly caused by alcohol abuse

Colon Bacterial enzymes Undigested food and fiber Hepatitis Inflammation of liver caused by viral infection, drugs, or poisons

127
Ill MAN BODY
Suprarenal gland
-j KIDNEYS
Urinary system A Blood enters the kidneys and flows
into the nephrons. Each nephron
contains a filtering unit called a
glomerulus. Water and salts pass from
THE KIDNEYS CONTROL the amount of the blood into collecting tubules.
water and minerals in our blood by getting
Renal artery
rid of unwanted substances in the form of
urine. Urine is expelled from the body via
Renal vein
a muscular reservoir called the bladder.
This system is known as the urinary or
excretory system. The kidneys filter all
Medulla:
the blood in the body every five minutes. URETER
light

2 The filtrate of water and salts, called

inner core

Glomerulus
urine,produced in the nephrons, leaves
and Bowman's
The kidneys capsule
the kidney via a tube called the ureter.

The two kidneys contain about

1.3 million tiny tubes, called
-2 BLADDER Vas deferens: carries

nephrons, that cleanse the blood. As

O Day and night urine trickles
sperm from testes.

down the two ureters into a

blood passes through the tubes into a stretchable, muscular bag called the
network of tiny blood vessels, called bladder. The adult bladder can store
well over 19fl oz (570ml) of urine,
the glomerulus, wastes and water are
until can be released from the
it
filtered out into a cup-shaped organ body time. Urine
at a suitable
called a Bowman's capsule. Some of this leaves through the urethral
filtrate reabsorbed into the blood. The
is opening in the base.

rest, now concentrated, travels down the

ureter toward the bladder.
Set linn

Urinary facts
• Up
lCTS
to about two
^^ through kidney
Urine-collecting tubule

years of age, the

bladder is
Kidney filtrates
This table shows percentages
emptied by a Seminal
of major substances in the vesicle
reflex action.
blood serum (plasma), and Prostate
After this age, a
how much then filtered out
is
child learns to
control the bladder.
by the kidneys as urine. 4 URETHRA
Urine leaves
Compounds Blood % Urine % the body Y,,;,.

• ADH (antidiuretic hormone),

7-9
through a tube 'site

Proteins called the urethra.

made in the pituitary gland,
Urea 2
The male urethra is
controls the uptake of water in 0.03
about Sin (20cm) long
the kidneys. Uric Acid 0.005 0.05 and stretches to the tip
of the penis. The female
• We can survive with only one Ammonium 0.0001 0.04 urethra is much shorter:
Vas deferens
kidney. If one stops working the about 1.4in (4cm) long.
Water 90-93 95
other enlarges in order to do the
work for both.
PROSTATE GLAND
This gland, found only in males, surrounds the part
KIDNEY STONES of the urethra nearest the bladder. It secretes a milky
Sometimes, minerals from urine solidify and block fluid into the urethra, which forms about 30% of the
the tubes inside the kidneys, forming kidney stones. seminal fluid in which sperm are ejaculated. After
Some are smooth, like pebbles, while others, called the age of about 50, this gland naturally enlarges.
Staghorn stones, are spiked. Passing a small stone However, sometimes it may squash
causes intense pain. Larger stones can be broken up the urethra and make urination X-ray showing
b\ ultrasound waves, or removed by surgery. difficult. Treatment usually involves enlarged prostate
Disserted kidney with stones removal of all or part of the gland. gland

KIDNEY DIALYSIS AND TRANSPLANT

Waste not If the kidneys fail completely, a dialysis machine can Common problems
be used to filter blood. Blood passes through the
Our word "lotion" comes from the Latin machine 20 times before it is properly cleansed, and Name Description
word for urine, lotium. Romans used stale the patient must have two to three of these filtering Cystitis Inflammation of inside of bladder
urine as a hair lotion because itprevented sessions every week. More often, kidney failure is caused by bacterial infection; more
dandruff and killed lice. It was also used treated by transplanting a healthy organ. Drugs then common in women than in men
prevent the body from rejecting the new kidney.
to help dye clothes.
Kidneys are the most commonly transplanted organ. Pyelonephritis Infection of the kidney caused by
bacteria

Kidney stones Stones formed from salts in urine

Polycystic Multiple fluid sacs that grow in

kidneys kidneys

Bladder stones Stones formed in bladder resulting

Patient connected from solidified salts in urine; can
to a kidney block urethral opening
dialysis machine

128
 ENDOCRIVK SYSTEM

Pituitary gland
Hormone imbalance
Endocrine system Thyroid gland
One
by the
of the hormones produced
pituitary controls our rate
ENDOCRINE GLANDS produce chemicals of growth. Too much can cause
gigantism (excessive growth).
that the body needs in order to grow Parathyroid glands

Too little causes short stature.

properly and work smoothly. The
chemicals that these glands (e.g. I"allest fMTSon:
llm (2.7m lull
Smallest person:
2-t in Oh m i lull
i I

8ft
Adrenal gland
pituitary, thyroid gland) produce are
Pancreas
called hormones and are released directly
into the bloodstream. Tiny amounts can Ovaries
have great effects on the body's systems. In women, the ovaries produce
estrogen and progesterone,
Major endocrine glands which control the development
of sexual characteristics at
Endocrine glands have no ducts or openings, but the puberty, such as breast growth
hormones they produce enter the bloodstream as it and pubic hair, and aspects of
menstruation.
passes through the gland. Hormones released by endocrine
glands tend to have profound effects.

The pituitary gland The liver controls

The pituitary gland, situated in the brain,
often called the master gland; it secretes
is
the duration of
some hormones'
Nervous energy
action. When When Mrs. Maxwell Rogers
more than 10 hormones that act on other
hormones pass of Florida found her son
glands (e.g. thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, testes, through the liver, Testis

they are made

pinned underneath their car,
mammary glands) to help them produce
inactive and pass, In men, the fear and adrenaline gave her
hormones of their own. Some of the via the kidneys, into testes produce
the strength to lift the 1.6-ton
functions of the pituitary gland are urine. (So, doctors testosterone, a hormone that controls
test for pregnancy by the development of sexual vehicle. She cracked several
controlled by an area of the brain that lies characteristics at puberty, such as
analyzing urine for vertebrae.
justabove it, called the hypothalamus. It hormone changes). pubic and body hair, and voice pitch.

alsoproduces ADH (antidiuretic

hormone), which
controls the
Fight and flight
In situations of fear, anger, or
level of 75 120
shock, adrenal glands produce
water in the
adrenaline, which mobilizes
body.
the body in preparation for
strong physical exertion.
Mil rograph
showing cross- Levels return to normal
section of
after exercise. Time (mins)
pituitary gland

Endocrine glands and their hormones

Gland Hormones produced Function Effect of deficiency Effect of excess

Thyroid Thyroxine, Regulate chemical activity in cells. Essential for normal In growth and
children, retards Thyrotoxicosis: overactivity, anxiety,
triiodothyronine physical growth and mental development in children mental development (cretinism) weight loss, diarrhea, rapid pulse

Pituitary Growth hormone Stimulates cell growth in bone, cartilage, and soft tissue Short stature Gigantism
TSH Stimulates thyroid gland to secrete hormones Slow metabolism, bloating
Prolactin Stimulates breast growth and milk production Reduced sex drive
ACTH Stimulates adrenal glands to secrete hormones
LH and FSH Controls functioning of sexual organs Can cause infertility Overproduction of eggs
MSH Controls skin darkening
ADH Acts on kidneys to decrease water loss Increases water loss Causes fluid retention, bloating
Oxytocin Stimulates uterus contraction during birth Prolonged labor

Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Regulates blood calcium levels; important for nerves Tetany: spasm and twitching of May cause thinning of bones
(PTH) and muscle functioning the muscles (osteoporosis), or kidney stones

Adrenal Epinephrine Mobilizes body in response to fear, anger, shock Addison's disease: salt imbalance, Cushing's Disease: obesity, moon
Cortisone Controls metabolism, body shape low blood pressure, weakness, face, high blood pressure, high blood
Aldosterone Controls level of salts in body weight loss, intestinal upsets sugar levels, hairiness

Pancreas Insulin Control level of sugar in blood Diabetes: excess sugar in blood Rare: Coma, due to reduced sugar
Glucagon in blood

Kidneys Erythropoietin Acts on bone marrow to produce red blood cells Anemia
1 ,25 dihydroxychole- Raises amount of calcium absorbed in gut, formed from Rickets, osteomalacia
calciferol Vitamin D
Renin Helps control blood pressure High blood pressure

Ovaries Estrogen Stimulates breast growth and egg production, pubic and Infertility Levels naturally high during
body hair, changes distribution of body fat at puberty. pregnancy: at other times, can cause
Progesterone Thickens uterus walls after ovulation blood clots

Testes Testosterone Stimulates sperm production, muscle and bone In males, low sperm count and Excessive muscular development
enlargement, deepening of voice, pubic and body hair. sex drive. Hair thinning and bin nates, can cai
Small amounts present in females painful, persistent erection (priapism)

129
 ,

Ill MAN BODY

Reproduction systems
Reproduction FEMALE SEX ORGANS
Fallopian tube Eggs stored in the ovary

and growth Eggs

ovaries.
are stored in both
Each month,
during the menstrual
Pi, wis AND animals produce young like cycle, one egg ripens,
leaves the ovary, and
themselves. This creation of life is called enters the fallopian tube.

reproduction. Humans reproduce sexually: If it is then fertilized by

sperm, it becomes implanted in the
men and women mate to produce their uterus. If the egg is not fertilized, the
uterus lining breaks up and is shed
young. A new human life begins when a from the body (menstruation).
sperm cell from the father joins an egg cell The woman' s main sex organs, the two
from the mother. This cell divides into many ovaries, are inside the abdomen.

cells, until it begins to look like a baby.

Bladder
MALE SEX ORGANS Menstrual cycle
The two testes produce
fresh sperm cells every
From puberty until menopause, a woman has monthly menstrual
day. The cells are cycles (menstruation), during which she loses blood.
stored in the testes and
epididymides. If the Endometrium
sperm are not released,
the cells break down
and are reabsorbed into
the bloodstream.

The man's main

sex organs, the
testes and penis,
are outside the
abdomen.

Reproduction IAn egg starts to ripen in one of the weeks

2 Abouteggtwoenters later, the
ovaries. The lining of the uterus, ripe the fallopian
facts endometrium, swells with now ready to be
• The sperm about 0.002in
cell is
Sexual intercourse called the
blood in preparation for the egg.
tube. It is

fertilized.
(0.05mm) long and can be seen For the egg to be fertilized by
only with a microscope. It can sperm, a man and woman must Fallopian tube Lining of the uterus

swim at about 7in (18cm) per have sexual intercourse. The man's breaks down and passes
vagina.
penis becomes erect and enters the
i

hour and takes, on average, 2

hours to reach the egg. woman's vagina. When the man
climaxes, he ejaculates a fluid,
• The testes are kept outside the
semen, which contains sperm cells.
body in the scrotum, since they
The cells swim into the fallopian
need to be 7°F (4°C) cooler than
tube. One of these cells may reach Ripe egg
the body temperature. If they
the egg and fertilize it.
heat up, sperm production slows
down and infertility may result.

• The biggest human cell is 3 Thetheegg

If egg
reaches
not is
the uterus.
fertilized, it
4 The
down and
lining of the uterus breaks
passes out of the
the egg measures
cell; it
vagina as menstrual blood flow.
is expelled.
0.004-0.008in (0.1-0.2mm) in
diameter and is just visible to
the naked eye. Fertilization Implantation
After sexual intercourse, Once an egg has been fertilized,
Types of contraceptive
sperm cells enter the uterus it divides into a ball of cells,
Oral contraceptive
pills
and travel along the fallopian called the morula, as it travels
tube. Only one sperm cell may down the fallopian tube. After
The cap
break through the outer layer five days, the cells form a hollow
of the egg cell. Once the egg is ball, or blastocyst. About a week
fertilized, it divides into two after fertilization, the blastocyst
Sperm race cells, then into four, and , becomes implanted in the rich
More than 300 sperm are
million
Tadpole-shaped sperm / lining of the uterus.
ejaculated into the vagina; 50-150 cells are propelled
Egg divides into
sperm reach the egg in the by their tails..
two cells within
fallopian tube, but only one may 36 hours.
The egg
fertilize the egg. subdivides
CONTRACEPTION further to form a
ball of cells, called
Contraceptives arc used to prevent
the morula
conception (pregnancy). A rubber
sheath, or condom, fits over the penis
to catch semen. Hormones in the oral
contraceptive pill prevent eggs from
being released. The cap is placed over
3 °
the cervix to stop sperm from entering
the uterus.

130
 .

REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH

Wall of uterus
Stages of growth
FOUR-WEEK EMBRYO TWELVE WEEKS
The blastocyst quickly develops to EIGHT-WEEK All the organs of
the fetus are fully
form the placenta, umbilical cord, and FETUS
formed. Erom this
the developing baby, or embryo. The The embryo
stage on, the fetus
embryo protected by amniotic' fluid.
is is 1 in (2.5cm)
About now, its heart begins to beat. develops quickly.
long and is

now called a
fetus. All the
Formation of
internal organs have
the eye begins.
developed.

Arm bud
Leg bud

Vertebra, or backbone

Baby in womb
The baby receives food and oxygen
from the mother's bloodstream via
the placenta, a disk-shaped organ
that is attached to the baby by the
umbilical cord.The baby's waste
products pass back into the TWENTY-
mother's bloodstream for excretion. WEEK FETUS
During the last (>
The baby is surrounded by months of growth.
amniotic fluid, which cushions it the I). ibs develops fine details like
from knocks and bumps. fingernails and hair. From 16 to 20
weeks, it starts to move and kick.
This is called quickening. The
baby can now hear, rell light from
Child development dark, swallow, and suck
its thumb.
SIX-MONTH BABY
Most babies sit propped up and
can support the weight of NEWBORN BABY
their he. uls lhe\ will start to t^ \ttcr about 40 weeks, or months, of
make word sounds such as \2* development, the bab\ is read) to be
Da-Da" or "Ma-Ma." The born. The muscles of the litems
first teeth start to show contract anil the cer\ i\ dilates, pushing
During the bab\ out. usually headfirst. The
the last b.ibs soon breath of fresh
[.ikes n-, fust
NINE- TO TWELVE-MONTH BABY few weeks of
air. The newborn bab\ can hear well
Most babies learn to crawl, can pull pregnancy, the baby Vagina
but cannot locus us eyes properly.
themselves upright on turns around so its head is
furniture, and can stand facing downward, ready to be born.

unsupported for a second or

two. By 12 months, they
m.i\ have up to eight
Puberty facts Genetics
teeth and weigh three
• When children reach Kgg and sperm cells each
times their birthu eight. puberty, they undergo contain 23 chromosomes. When
physical and psychological an egg and a sperm cell join, the
changes that prepare them new cell has 46 chromosomes -
EIGHTEEN-MONTH CHILD for sexual maturity. the same as all other types of
Most children can walk cell in the human body. A Newborn bab\
unaided. They will know at
• A girl's ovaries produce
the hormones progesterone baby's sex determined by one
is
least six words, usually
many more, and can and estrogen. These cause chromosome, X or Y. The egg Growth facts
put words together to
breasts to develop, hips to
carries only X, but the sperm • The proportions of our bodies
make simple phrases.
broaden, and pubic hair to can carry either X or Y. If the change as we grow. A baby's
They can climb stairs and
grow. At this time egg is fertilized by a sperm head accounts for about one-
make towers
of blocks. menstruation begins. carrying an X, the sex will be fourth of its bod} length. B\
female (XX); if the sperm carries adulthood, the proportion has
• A boy's testes produce the
a Y, the sex will be male (XY). reduced to one-eighth.
TWO- TO THREE-YEAR-OLD hormone testosterone. This
causes muscles to develop, • Girls grow faster than boys
CHILD
( Children can hold a pencil and draw. hair togrow on the face and during the earK stages of
By age 3, they can talk in simple body, the voice to deepen, growth. A girl is about three-
sentences and cop\ basic shapes. quarters of Iter adult height by
and sperm to be produced.
the age of 77 : a bo\ reaches this
height by the age of 9.
Common problems • A person is about 0.4in lem) (

Ectopic pregnancy Fetus implanted outside the womb. taller in the morning than in the
Infertility Inability to conceive a child. e\ ening. This is because the
Miscarriage Premature ending of pregnancy on or before 24 weeks.
pads of cartilage m the spine
become nunc compressed
Preeclampsia High blood pressure developed during pregnancy.
Girl(XX) Ba\ <\> I Girl\ KX) Boy \
\) I
during the day.

131
Ill \l\\ BODY

c.10,000 B.C. Trepanning 2700 B.C. First named doctor

Medicine is practiced in Europe and

America. Holes are

drilled into a person's
is Imhotep of Egypt. He tcquired
a great reputation
for healing. He
skull to cure illness. later became
Tl [ROUGHOUT THE
AGES, people have tried to find
People believed that known as the
ways to cure illness. In early times, it was believed through
evil spirits left Egyptian god
these holes. of medicine.
that disease was a punishment from the gods. Today, Trepanning Imhotep

scientists are constantly searching for new ways of

/» 7 10,000 B.C. 2700 B.C.
treating and preventing illness.

c.A.D. 130 Galen, a The four humors: choleric (with 1300s Leeches are used to 1543 First accurate c.1590 Compound
f.-retk physician introduces
sanguine (with ape),
lion), suck blood from the body, anatomical drawings of microscope invented
phlegmatic (with sheep), and
the idea that a person's since it was believed that too the human body are Dutchman,
melancholic (with hog).
mood depends on the much blood was the cause of drawn by Flemish doctor Zacharias
balancing of four fluids, or some illnesses. Blood-letting Andreas Vesalius Janssen
humors, in the body: black is used of
to treat a variety (1514-64). Stolen (1580-C.1638)
bile (melancholy), yellow illnesses, such as tumors, corpses are used for makes lenses held
bile (choleric), blood fevers, and gout. his studies. in two iron tubes, one
(sanguine), and phlegm inside the other.
(phlegmatic). First anatomical drawings Early microscope

V A.D. 130 1543 1590

(ll

1683 Bacteria first seen under 1796 Vaccination against 1800 Effects of 1810 Homeopathy is

amicroscope by Antonie van smallpox is discovered by English electricityon introduced by German

Lecuwenhoek (1632-1723), a doctor Edward Jenner muscles described by physician Samuel
Dutch scientist. (1749-1823). He innoculates an Italian phvsicist Volta Hahnemann
eight-year-old boy with cowpox (1745-1827). (1755-1843). This new
taken from a sore on the hand of a system is based on the
dairymaid. 1805 Morphine, a
principle of curing like

painkiller, is separated with like.

Coin issued c. 1800 to celebrate

from opium.
Edward Jenner's discovery of vaccination Samuel Hahnemann

1683 1796 1805 1810

Antonie van Lceuwenhoek

1854 Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), born in Florence, Italy, 1860 Antiseptic, in 1864 Red Cross Society
nurses soldiers during the Crimean War (1854—56) in the hospital at the fotm of weak founded in Geneva,
Scutari, Turkey. She becomes known as "the lady with the lamp." carbolic acid,is used to Switzerland, by Swiss
Four years she opens
later, prevent infections businessman Henri
the Nightingale Training during operations by Dunant (1829-1910),
School for nurses in English surgeon after helping casualties
London, which greatly loseph Lister at the Battle of
improves nursing (1827-1912). Solferino (1859).
standards.

Florence Nightingale Joseph Lister Henri Dunant

1854 1860 1864

'/,

1895 X-rays 1895 Psychoanalysis 1902 Radium and polonium Marie i

1910 Four blood groups, 1920 First EEG
Pierre AB, O, discovered by machine
discovered by founded by Austrian doctor discovered bv Polish-born Marie I
A, B, is

German physicist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Curie (1867-1934) and her Austrian pathologist Dr. developed to record
Wilhelm Roentgen He treats people with mental husband, Pierre Curie Karl Landsteiner electrical brain
(1845-1923). He disorders by talking to (1859-1906), of France (1868-1943). waves.
uses his wife's them about their These elements are 1921 First birth
hand for the first dreams and now used in 1912 Vitamins discovered control clinic
pictures. childhood radiation by British biochemist Sir founded by Marie
experiences. therapy to Frederick Gowland Stopes (1880-1958)
treat cancer. Hopkins (1861-1947). London.
One of the first X-rays Sigmund in
Freud
1895 1902 1910 1912 1921

1952 Vaccine 1953 Structure of genetic material 1954 Heart-lung machine 1967 First heart transplant,
against polio (DNA) discovered by American biologist developed for use during performed by South African
produced by James Watson (born 1928) and English heart surgery. surgeon Christiaan Barnard
American biochemist Francis Crick (born 1916). (born 1922). The patient
scientist
1954 First internal heart survives 18 days.
Jonas Salk pacemaker fitted in

(born 19141. Stockholm, Sweden.

1970 Heart pacemakers
1958 Endoscope, a flexible
in general use.
Watson
and Crick telescope that looks inside
fnu as Salk the body, is developed. Christiaan Barnard

A* 1952 1954 1958 1970

132
 MEDIUM-.

2600 B.C. The Canons of 400 B.C. Creek physician 2 B.C. Acupuncture,
Medicine is written in China. Hippocrates (c.460-377 B.C.) puncturing
the skin w
Branches of medicine
It includes an account of blood teaches that the first dut\ of a ith

circulation. doctor is to do what is best for needles to Name What it deals with
his patients and makes rules for cure illness,
Cardiology Heart and arteries
1000 B.C. Surgery practiced his pupils to follow. They form is practiced

in India.Surgeons perform the basis of the Hippocraric in China. Chiropody Feet

amputations and skin grafts and Oath, which doctors still
Dermatology Skin
remo\ e cataracts from eyes. follow todav.

Endocrinology Hormones
2600 B.C. T 1000 B.C. 400 B.C.
Gastroenterology Stomach,
_ Geriatrics Elderly
intestines

people
1600s Quinine is used to 1628 First description
Gynecology Female reproductive organs
South
treat malaria in of the circulation of
America. the blood by Hematology Blood
Englishman William
1615 First thermometer Harvey (1578-1657), Neurology Brain and nerves
for taking human physician to King Ophthalmology Eyes
temperature invented l>\
James and King
I

Italian physician Sanctorius Charles of England.

I Osteopathy Manipulation of back and limbs to
(1561-1636). ease pain
William I lmvii; with Charlei I
Sam tonus '

thermomete Pediatrics Children

1600 1615 1628 Pharmacology Drugs

'*/
Physical therapy Exercise and massage of the body

Psychiatry Mental illness

1816 First stethoscope 1846 Ether used as an 1849 First
made from of paper
a roll anesthetic by William female medical Obstetrics Pregnancy
by French doctor Rene Morton (1819-68), an graduate in the
Laennec (1781-1826). American dentist. US
is Elizabeth Oncology Growths and tumors

1844 Laughing gas Blackwell

Orthopedics Bones, joints, muscles
(nitrous oxide) used
is first
1847 Chloroform is (1X21-1910).
as a general anesthetic by
used as an anesthetic Pathology Body tissues and fluids

Horace Wells (1815-48). by Sir James Young

Simpson (1X11-70). Radiology X-rays

Rene Laennec Elizabeth Hltuhoi Renal medicine Kidneys

Surgery Operations
1816 1846 1847

1865 Elizabeth
Garrett Anderson
1883 Bacteria
tuberculosis and cholera
that cause 1886 Surgical instruments Drug types
is arc sterilized by steam. Masks,
first woman to practice discovered by German gowns, and capes are used by Name Use
medicine in Britain. scientist Robert Koch surgeons in operations.
(1843-1910). Analgesic Provides from pain, such as
relief
Pasteurization invented
headache and stomachache.
b\ frenchman Louis
Pasteur (1822-95) to 1883 Cocaine used as a Antacid Counteracts acid in the stomach to
heat-treat food and kill local anesthetic during an relieve heartburn, indigestion, etc.
bacteria. eve operation.
Antibiotic Treats infections by killing bacteria.
Louts Pasteur

Antihistamine Counteracts allergies such as hay

1865 1883 1886 fever.

Operation, 1880s Antipyretic Reduces fevers, such as those

caused by influenza.
1922 Insulin discovered by Canadian scientists Banting 1936 First mobile 1950s Birth control pill
(1X91-1941) and Best (1X99-1978). blood-transfusion developed for women. Bronchodilator Eases breathing in diseases such
service organized by By the early 1960s, it is as asthma.
1928 Penicillin Canadian doctor widely used.
Decongestant Common cold treatment; works by
discovered by Scottish Norman Bethune.
unblocking nasal passages.
bacteriologist Alexander
Fleming (1X81-1955), in a 1950 First kidney
green mold growing on a transplant performed in
plate. Chicago, Illinois.
Alexander Fleming Birth control pill
Return of the leech
Leeches are being used again in modem
1922 1928 1950 medicine. After certain operations. thc\ .ire
used to restore blood circulation and to
prevent the blood from clotting.
1970s CT (computerized 1976 Bionie, 1980s- 1990s Laser surgery
tomography) scan introduced. transistorized arm is used in eye operations anil to
Produces more detailed picture of fitted to the victim of remove cancer cells.
internal organs than an X-ray. a road accident in Keyhole surgery is practiced:
Australia. operations are performed
MRI (magnetic resonance through small incisions in
imaging) scan uses radio waves 1978 First test tube the body.
to produce pictures of the inside baby, I >ouise Brown, Gene transplants performi d
of the body. is born in Britain. defective or missing genes are
MM scan replaced with artificial copies.

1970 1976 1978

'*.

133
Ill \i\\ BODY

A BALANCED DIET
Nutrition The food pyramid was developed by
American nutritionists in the early
A GOOD DIET an essential part of a healthy
is 1990s. It represents the proportions in
Sugars, fats, and

lifestyle tor children and adults. Rich in vitamins, which the five food groups should oils(use sparingly)
be eaten each day for a
minerals, and other nutrients, a balanced diet will balanced diet.
assist growth and help fight disease.

Vital components of food Dairy products

Nutrients arc the essential elements for healthy (2-3 servings)

eating and include:

Vitamins Minerals Fiber

These aid the release of
energy from glucose,
and assist the body's
giow th and repair-
These help growth and The indigestible part of
repair processes, the fruit, vegetables, bread,
release of energy from and eereals, fiber aids
nutrients, and help form normal bowel function.
new tissues.
Grains and grain products (5-12 servings)

Food facts Food words

• Surprisingly, frozen vegetables
Acid A substance produced by the
are just as good for you as fresh
stomach that helps digest food.
vegetables. Antibodies Proteins in the blood
• In India, many people are that protect the body by fighting
Carbohydrates Fats Protein vegetarian, following the Hindu bacteria and viruses.
These arc compounds of These supply This is a substance the Antioxidant A substance added to
belief that all life is sacred.
carbon, hydrogen, and concentrated energy. body needs for growth foods to prevent them from
They also help form and found in
• All vegetables contain some oxidizing and going stale.
oxygen, such as starch repair. It is

and sugar, that provide chemical "messengers,' foods such as meat, fish, protein, but dried peas and Calorie A unit used to measure the
the body with energy. such as hormones. cheese, and beans. beans have large amounts. energy content of foods.
Carnivore Person who eats meat.
Cholesterol A chemical found in
certain foods, such as eggs, and
Main vitamin sources and requirements produced in the liver from
saturated fats.
Type of vitamin Where found Required for
Digestion The breaking down of
Vitamin A Liver, fish-liver oils, egg yolk, and Growth, healthy eyes and skin. Fights infection. food in the stomach so that
yellow-orange-colored fruit and vegetables. nutrients may be absorbed into
the body.
Vitamin B-] (Thiamine) Whole grains (whole-grain bread and pasta), Healthy functioning of nervous and digestive Glucose A sugar, released from the
brown rice, liver, beans, peas, and nuts. systems digestion of starch and sucrose, that
is the body's main energy source.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Milk, liver, cheese, eggs, green vegetables, Metabolism of protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Hormone Chemical "messenger"
brewer's yeast, lean meat, and wheat germ. Keeps tissues healthy. that moves in the bloodstream and
controls the functions of the body.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Liver, lean meats, poultry, fish, nuts, Production of energy and a healthy skin.
Kilojoule A unit of measurement
whole-grain cereals, and dried beans. showing energy content in food.
Vitamin Bg (Pyridoxine) Liver, poultry, pork, fish, bananas, potatoes, Metabolism of protein and production of red
One kilojoule equals 1,000 joules.
Metabolism The chemical
dried beans, and most fruit and vegetables. blood cells.
processes occurring in the body
Vitamin C Citrus fruit, strawberries, tomatoes, and Healthy skin, teeth, bones, and tissues, and for that result in growth, production of

potatoes. fighting disease. energy, and elimination of waste.

Nutrient An essential dietary
Vitamin D Oily fish (such as salmon), liver, eggs, The absorption of calcium and phosphorus. factor- carbohydrate, fat. protein,
cod-liver oil, and sunlight. vitamin, and mineral.
Saturated fat Fat that tends to
Vitamin E Margarine, lettuce, leafy green vegetables, The formation of new red blood cells. Protection increase the amount of unwanted
whole-grain cereals, and nuts. of cell linings in the lungs. cholesterol in the blood. 'Mostly
found in animal fats.

Starch A polymer found in plants

Judo
Burning calories Male: SIS
that
human
is an important part of the
diet.
The energy from food is measured calorics per hour Unsaturated fat Fat that helps
in calories. But if your calorie Female: 702 decrease unwanted types of
calories per hour cholesterol in the blood. Most
intake exceeds your energy and
vegetable fats are unsaturated.
body maintenance requirements,
Vegan Petson who does not eat or
you will put on weight. Physical use any products or by-products
activity helps you avoid putting on Running Basketball from animals.
Male: 810 Male: 580 Vegetarian Person who does not
weight by burning off calories.
calories per hour calories per hour
eat animal products, sometimes
Different activities will burn off Female: 695 Female: 497 with the exception offish and eggs.
calories at different rates. calories per hour calories per hour

134
 .

TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

js5#sJ* V
Early healing
Traditional '

lor thousands of years, people have used

plants and minerals to ease pain, heal

medicine ,

jgi
wounds, and relieve the symptoms of
illness. In ancient Egypt, records from

More and MORE people are now W'ijL about 1600 B.C. list plant remedies.
such as gentian, senna, and
turning to traditional, or
thyme, that are still used today.
alternative, forms of medicine to
I Archaeologists have also found in
improve their health or simply to China lists of herbs carved on oracle
stay well. Many
of these therapies ^" bones dated about the same time.

treat the whole person and aim to

This detail from the I2th-cenlur) Persian
restore the body's natural state of Book of Antidotes shows tf, ; plants
jm mi'iiii null purposes,
balance, or harmony.

ACUPUNCTURE ALEXANDER TECHNIQUE AROMATHERAPY

Acupuncturists treat illness by inserting This therapy aims to treat and This form of treatment uses
needles into the skin at particular points. prevent a range of disorders by highly concentrated oils
These points lie along invisible energy improving posture. Australian extracted from plants. The oils
channels, known as meridians, that actor F. Matthias Alexander can be used in massage, added
are linked to internal organs. The (1869-1955) developed the to baths, or inhaled. French
needles unblock, increase, or technique when he found that chemist Rene Gattefossc
decrease the flow of energy (called bad posture had caused him to (1881-1950). who treated soldiers
Qi) to restore balance and health. lose his voice. during World \\ ar I, was a pioneer
L7 of modern aromatherapy
The m upuiirtare points
mill meridian me numbered.
mi \ correct posture, jm right,
on the Alexander technique
bused Jill
/ *v > i Rase ml has a
southing effect.

AYURVEDA CHINESE HERBALISM CHIROPRACTIC

The oldest system of Indian medicine is This natural method of treatment is Chiropractic relieves pain

>
Ayurveda, from the Sanskrit word meaning based on restoring the balance of bv manipulating the joints.
"the science of life." Remedies, mainly Yin (female) and Yang (male) in the especially those of the
plants, are chosen for their both s energy channels. spine. It can be used to
ability to harmonize the Combinations of herbs are selected aid people with
balance between a patient and supplied in the form of tea, disorders of the joints,
and the basic influences of powder, pills, or pastes. muscles, and spine.
life, such as diet, work, and American David Daniel
home life. in Chinese medicine, i he five Palmer (1845-1913) is
elements »/ wood, fire, earth, metal, considered the founder chiropractor
Out - the symbol for the life
.1
inn! wain me used in diagnosis. modern checks thf sjntif
/urn' in ,\\un'eiln medicine. of chiropractic. .

HOMEOPATHY HYDROTHERAPY OSTEOPATHY

Homeopathy uses a minute dose of a Water, form of hot and cold baths or
in the When the body's framework is out
substance that, in large amounts,
produces the same symptoms
sprays, is used in hydrotherapy to stimulate
the body's power to heal itself. The first
of alignment, osteopaths can
diagnose and treat disorders.
@%
Iw
from which the patient is hydrotherapy center in Britain They use their hands to /^^\
suffering. The aim is to was founded by a Dominican massage and manipulate the / • \
stimulate the body's monk, Sebastian Kneipp joints to restore normal
defenses, so they fight the (1821-97). movement. Osteopathy, was
hrVMfl '
h <\\
disease. Its founder
German physicist
was
Samuel Hot and cold water ^,~~
a founded bv American
doctoi \ihIk\\ 1 as loi
ill \u '

,.
Samuel
, Hahncmann'( 1755-1 843). sprays stimulate & •2'W'iR?
-Wis
Still (1828-1917). Shoulders and spun
circulation out nl alignment
Hahnemann

REFLEXOLOGY SHIATSU YOGA

In this form of therapy, areas on Shiatsu Japanese word meaning "finger
is a This well-known Hindu system
the feet, known as reflex areas, pressure." The therapist uses pressure on combines physical, mental, and
relate to certain parts of the hundreds of surface points along the body's spiritual health. The mosi
body. By skillful massage of the meridians to rebalance the common form is I laih.i ]

related area, blockages in the quality and quantity of course of exercises and
energy channels are released, energy. The system was postures designed to promote
allow ing the affected part of the popularized bv Tokujiro physical and mental well-
body to heal. The practice was Namikoshi (1905-94). b( in" ) Oga has been

developed in the United States pra< in ed in India for

by Eunice Ingham 1889-1974). ( The yin-yang symbol represents thousands of ve.us.
I III lilt IIS fHtSltlllll
Reflex n> harmony <» balance in the body.

Feverfew <<ni help

relieve migraines Plants in medicine Medicine facts
mill arthritis
Wild flowers such evening primrose
as • Chinese medicine uses dried seahorse in
(Oenothera biennis) and feverfew {Tanacetum preparations to treat kidney problems.
parthenium) are among the most widely used
medicinal herbs. Research has confirmed • In Ayurvedic medicine, the flesh from a
I vening primrose is

used /hi skin problems. their power to heal. pit v i per is given to relieve musculai pain,

35
Ill (MAN BODY

Learning the a, b, c and

First aid The A B (Breathing), and C (Circulation)
(Airway),
of any unconscious person must be established
FIRST aid is the first assistance within three minutes in order to prevent

or treatment given to a person permanent injury.

for any injury or sudden illness, y Wk

before the arrival of an
ambulance, doctor, or other
qualified help. The main aim of
I
first aid is to prevent the injury

from becoming worse.

Keep the head

tilted back.
A IS FOR AIRWAY B IS FOR BREATHING C IS FOR CIRCULATION
Airway must be opened and kept Breathing must be established Circulation of blood must be
open. Tilt the head of the injured and maintained. If breathing has maintained. Be sure the heart is
person (victim) back and lift the stopped, then start mouth-to- beating by feeling for a pulse. If
chin forward to open the airway. mouth resuscitation by blowing the heart has stopped, chest
yourown expelled air into the compressions can be applied,
victim's lungs. together with artificial respiration.
In the US and Canada, the hand
nearest the victim's feet should be
Recovery position used for compressions.
If an injured child is unconscious but still
breathing and has a pulse, place her or him
Adjust
in the recovery position. under
Check for a pulse Place foot flat on the Clasp under thigh
If the heart is beating, there will be a pulse ground and bend at knee.

in the neck. Tilt the head back and feel for

the Adam's apple with the pads of two
fingers. Slide your fingers back into the gap
between the windpipe and the muscle that
runs beside Feel for five seconds before
it.

deciding that the pulse is absent.

Keep this leg straight
Bend top leg into a right
Call an ambulance or angle to prevent her from
rolling forward.
doctor for: First, laythe child on her back and straighten her Gently pull on the thigh of the bent leg, and roll the
• Unexplained drowsiness or loss of legs. Bend the arm nearest to you and lay it on the patient toward you and onto her side. Bend this

consciousness ground with the palm up. Bring the other arm across same leg into a right angle to prevent her from
• Severe bleeding her chest and hold the palm of your hand against her rolling forward. Tilt her head back to make sure the
cheek. Use your free hand to pull her knee up. airway is still open. Call an ambulance.
• Unexplained convulsions of any sort
• Difficulty in breathing
• Severe abdominal pain
Advice note Home safety facts
• Sudden blurred vision or seeing colored Although most people think of home as the
This page supplies some basic information
halos around lights safest place, you are more likely to have an
on first aid. It does not offer complete
accident in the home than at work or school.
procedures, and readers are advised to
First-aid kit refer to a first-aid manual for full guidance.
To make the home a safer place:
Every home and car should have a first-aid
• Do not use electrical equipment in the
kit containing items needed for
bathroom or near water.
emergency treatment. Keep the
Scissors for cutting
box clean and clearly labeled, bandages • Keep saucepan handles turned inward so
and out of reach of children. they do not hang over the work
Replace items as soon surface,and use back
«— —-&*••
Different injuries require
as you use them. a variety of dressings burners of a stove first.
and bandages.
• Store dangerous items
on a high shelf, out of the reach of
children.
Safety pins to hold

Cotton is useful for

dressings in place. • Do not put toxic substances in a familiar
cleaning wounds. food or drink container.

• Run the cold water into the bath first, and

Adhesive bandages
protect minor cuts and
keep testing the temperature as
scrapes while they heal you add the hot water.
Eye bath is useful for
washing the eye clean of
chemicals such as bleach.
• Do not hold a hot drink when
you have a baby on your lap.

Elastic bandages stretch

toprovide support for Antiseptic cream protects
• Do not put an iron on the floor
sprained ankles minor cuts against infection. to cool; put it out of reach.

136
 Beliefs,
Customs, and
Society
Focusing on the way we live, this section provides detailed facts
and figures on religion, politics, philosophy, and money around the
world, as well as describing all kinds of strange customs and rituals.

Myths and Legends • Faith Systems • Other Faiths

Great Thinkers • Patterns of Family and Society • Customs and Rituals

Celebration and Decoration • Money • Politics • Law and Order

On pages 139 to 143, B.C.E. (Before the Common Era)

and ( I.E. (( lommon Era) stand for the same dates
as B.C. and A.D.
BELIEFS, CI MOMS, AND SOCIETY
^1*,
AN AZTEC MYTH
Myths and legends Quetzalcoatl, the chief god of the Aztecs,
who lived in Central Mexico, took the
From ANCIENT TIMES people have invented form of a feathered serpent. He created
stories to explain theworld around them. Myths humans and gave them knowledge, but
then he sailed away on a raft of serpents.
help explain events such as how the world was The Aztecs believed that their world
created and why people die, as well as natural would end upon his return.

phenomena such as the weather. Legends

This mink, representing the god Quetzalcoatl,
are closely related to myths but may be
is

made of turquoise mosait

based on actual events.

Earth goddess King Arthur

For thousands of years, people in A famous British legend tells how
different parts of the world worshipped the magic sword Excalibur was
images of the Earth Goddess, or Great given to King Arthur by the Lady
Mother. As the "mother of the world," of the Lake. Another version tells

FIGURE OF VENUS
This clay figure from
Austria shows the Venus of
Willcndort. dated 25,000 B.C.
she was believed to give life to plants, how he proved himself king by
animals, and humans. Because the power pulling the sword from a stone. It
f fertiIity ensures the future of isthought that Arthur may have
.
-
,,, , .

Her full figure represents the humanity, earth goddesses have always been a real king or chieftain in 5th-
fertility of the goddess. played an important role in mythology. century Britain.

Arthur watches the sword

Creation myths Excalibur rise from the lake.
Stories that try to answer the mystery
of how the world began are called THE RAVEN Sacred sites
A Native American myth tells
creation myths. Mount
how a raven, flying over water, Shasta, California, is a Native American site
could find nowhere to land. He where the power of the Earth Spirit is strong.
IZANAGI AND IZANAMI dropped pebbles to make Glastonbury Tor, England, is one of the reputed
The Japanese thought tlfe Earth was once a islands and then created trees.
resting places of the Holy Grail, the cup Christ drank
shapeless mass. A god and goddess, Izanagi and Beasts lived in the forests and from at the Last Supper.
Izanami. stirred the mass with a long spear. fish in the sea. When the raven
Gradually the mixture thickened and dropped had made the first man and Uluru, Australia, is a special
off the spear to form an island. The god and woman out of wood and clay, place to the Aboriginals.
goddess married and had children who became the world was Paintings in rock __^^^^^^^^^^-_
the eight islands of Japan. shelters show the
complete.
journeys of the
ancestral beings

THE WORLD EGG who formed its

features.
In Egyptian mythology, life began from water.
The first dry land - a primeval mound - rose Cape Reinga, New
Zealand, is where spirits of Uluru (Ayers Rock)
above the water. A large bird called the Great
Cackler alighted on the land and laid the world the dead depart for Hawaiki,
egg, which brought the first life. far away in the mystical beginnings of Polynesia.

Egyptian mythology Mythical beasts Greek and roman mythology

There are some frightening creatures in
Gods Egypt often had a human
in The Greeks had 12 main gods and goddesses
mythology that may have been
body and the head of an animal or who cared for different aspects of their life. The
created to represent evil. Some
bird to represent their power. Romans later adopted many Greek gods as their
appear as half-human, half-
own, but with new names.
Name Form animal; others take on shapes
Ra (Amun-Ra) Universal god, takes they can change at will. Greek Roman Role

many forms Zeus Jupiter King of the gods, god of thunder

Anubis Jackal or dog DEMONS

Demons, or evil spirits, are often Hera Juno Queen of the gods, protector
of women
Apis Bull shown as grotesque beings who haunt
cemeteries and force people to
Bastet Cat Aphrodite Venus Goddess of beauty and love
commit violent acts. They appear in
Hathor Cow various forms in the religions of the Apollo Apollo Sun god, and god of prophecy
world, sometimes with cloven feet,
Isis Woman with horns, and a long tail. Ares Mars God of war
throne on her head
Artemis Diana Goddess of hunting, protector
Khepri Scarab of animals and children

Mut Vulture
MONSTERS Athena Minerva Goddess of wisdom and war
Nut Woman with long This figure shows a
body, or cow gorgon, a female monster Demeter Ceres Goddess of fertility and of fruit

from Greek mythology, and crops

Osiris Mummified man who had snakes for hair.
Medusa is the most Hephaestus Vulcan God of fire
Set, or Seth Fantastic beast
famous of the three
Hermes Mercury Messenger god, god of travelers
Sobek Crocodile gorgons. F^ven after she
was beheaded by Perseus, Hestia Vesta Goddess of the hearth and home
Tefnut Lioness
her head still had the
Thoth Ibis or baboon power to turn anyone who Poseidon Neptune God of the sea
>oked at it into stone.

138
 FAITH SYSTEMS

Faith systems Division of major faiths by geographic aria

Figures arc given in percentages. (L.A. = Latin America. X.A. = North America)
Faith Africa Asia Europe L.A. N.A. Oceania Eurasia Total
Faith systems ark sets of
Christianity 17.9 15.6 22.55 23.75 13.0 1.2 6.0 (100%)
beliefs that help to explain some
Islam 28.66 65.56 1.30 0.14 0.29 0.01 4.04 (100%)
of the mysteries of life and
Hinduism 0.2 99.37 0.1 0.1 0.17 0.059 0.001 (100%)
death. Most people who have a
Buddhism 0.01 99.42 0.08 0.17 0.18 0.01 0.13 (100%)
faith believe in either one god
Sikhism 0.14 97.2 1.2 0.05 1.36 0.05 0.00 (100%)
or several gods.
Judaism 1.89 31.35 8.24 6.13 39.29 0.55 12.55 (100%)
Top six faiths
Number
Faith of followers
World percentages
Christianity 1 ,833 million This bar chart shows the percentage
Islam 971 million distribution of the major world faiths.

Hinduism 733 million

The figure for "Others" includes those
who do not follow a faith system.
Buddhism 315 million

Sikhism 13.5-16 million

Judaism 13-14.3 million

History of religions
B.C.E. (Before the Common Era) and C.E. (Common
Era) stand for the same dates as B.C. and AD. Judaism Christianity
0.3% 334%
*J UDAISM
c.2000 B.C.E. C.1200 B.C.E. C.900 B.C.E. 587 B.C.E. C.E. 70
7
c.2000 B.C.E. c.1200 B.C.E. 931 B.C.E. Hebrew 587 B.C.H. C.E. 70 Herod's
Abraham, patriarch of Hebrews settle in kingdom divides into Jerusalem, in Temple, Jerusalem, is

Judaism, Christianity, Canaan, mainly Israel and |ndah. present-day Israel, is destroyed b\ the
and Islam, is born in I 'r, present-day Israel, after c.900 B.C.E. Toruh. captured by the Romans. Today, only
in present-day Iraq. the Exodus from Egypt. the first five books of Babylonians and the the Western Wall
the Bible, is written. Jews sent into exile. remains.
.*) Islam
c.2000 B.C.E. / C.E. 570 c.C.E. 622
7
c.2000 B.C.E. Abraham C.E. 570-632 c.C.E. 610-632 c.C.E. 622
and his son, Ishmael, build Muhammad, the last Koran (Qur'an), the Muhammad goes to
Ka'ba, an Islamic shrine, in and most important Islamic scriptures, is Medina, in present-day
Mecca (Makkah), in present- Islamic prophet, is born revealed to Muhammad Saudi Arabia. his I

day Saudi Arabia. in Mecca. by the angel Gabriel. marks the beginning of
the Islamic calendar.
^Hinduism Mecca, Saudi Arabia

c.1750 B.C.E. C.1 700 B.C.E C.1400 B.C.E. c.800 B.C.E.

e.1750 B.C.E. c. 1700 B.C.E. c.1400 B.C.E. Rig c.800 B.C.E The
Beginning of Hinduism Hindu beliefs are Veda, the earliest and Upanishads, the final
in India is influenced by revealed to the risAis, most important book of books of the Vedas, are
the Arsan people, who or holymen. and the Vedas, which contain written. They develop
worship many gods. passed on by word Hindu beliefs, the idea of Brahman, the
of mouth. Therishis is w ritten. soul of the I Inn crse.
6feBliDDHISM
C.563 B.C.E. c.100 B.C.E. c.C.E 20

c.563-483 B.C.E. c.100 B.C.E. The Pali c.C.E. 20-200 The c.l300Shwe Dagon
Siddharta Gautama, Canon, or Tripitaka Sutras (collections of Pagoda, major Buddhist
later known as Buddha, (three baskets), the holy sayings), the earliest temple, is built in Rangoon
founder of Buddhism, book of Theravada holy books of Mahayana in Burma. It is said to
lives in northeast India. Buddhists, is written. Buddhists, is written. contain [he hairs of Buddha.

Buddhist wheel of life Slnt>r Dagon Pagoda

^Christian ity
c.4 B.C.E.
z c.C.E. 40

c.4 B.C.E. Jesus c.C.E. 30 Jesus is c.C.E. 40-100 e.1506 St. Peter's
Christ, founder of crucified on a cross. New Testament of the Basilica, a majoi
(Christianity, is born in Three days later he is ( Christian Bible is (Christian church, is

Bethlehem, in present- raised from the dead written. I Christianity built in Rome.
dav Israel. (the Resurrection). spreads throughout the (( Original built in
Roman empire c.C.E.330.)
(IKHISM The Crucifixion
/ c.1469 c.1600

1469-1539 Guru Guru Nanak c. 1600 Golden C.1604 \ili (niintli. Sikh
Nanak, leader and find the other Temple of Amritsar, hols book, compiled In
is

founder of Sikhism, inur Gurus major Sikh temple, is (linn \i|.m This was later
lives in the Punjab who developed built m the Punjab l>\ added to and called the Guru
region of north India Sikhism (imii Allan Sf, ( 1 s 1606), Grunth Sahi/>.
and Pakistan. ihe fifth Guru.
reading On Guru Granth

139
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

Origin Jesus Christ

Christianity Christianity esus was born in Bethlehem,

+
,

Christians believe that Jesus originated in about Israel, in c.4 B.C.E. From the
Christ is the Son of God. Their C.E. 30 in Jerusalem, age of 30, he began to preach
JORDAN in present-day and heal the sick. A few years
symbol is a cross, which stands
Israel. Today, it is later he was tried and
for the cross on which Jesus was crucified. Jerusalem practiced executed for having beliefs
throughout the against Hebrew law.
Ten commandments Key points world.
( lliristians obey these ten • Jesus rose from the
BIBLE
rulesadapted from the dead. This holy book is made up of two
Jewish scriptures (which parts, the Old and the New
• The Holy Trinity is God • Jesus taught that people
( lliristians call the Old Testaments. The Old Testament
as the Father, Son, and must love God, and love contains the sacred writings of the
Testament). neighbor as God
Holy Spirit. their Jews. The New Testament is about
Worship only one God.
1
loves them. the life of Jesus and the growth of
2 Make no image of God. the early Church.
3 Respect God's name. BAPTISM First printed Bible, 1455
4 Keep Sunday holy. The ceremony of being dipped by Johannes Gutenberg.
5 Honor your parents. in water is called baptism. It is

practiced by Christians
6 Do not kill.
throughout the world upon
7 Do not commit TYpES QF CH RI S TIAN
entering the taith. 1 his practice
adultery. dates from when Jesus was
8 Do not steal. baptized by John the Baptist. / — /
9 Do not tell lies.
10 Do not be envious John the Btijilisl lmj>litfd Jesus in Others Protestants Roman Catholics

ST PETER'S BASILICA
This Roman Catholic
CHRISTIAN HOLY DAYS CHRISTIAN WORDS
church in the Vatican
Name Event City, Rome, Italy, took Advent Preparation for Evangelist One of the
more than 100 years to the coming of Jesus. four Gospel writers.
Christmas The birthday of Jesus Christ
build. Ten architects Ascension Raising of Gospel One of four
Good Friday Jesus is crucified on a cross worked on it, Jesus to Heaven. accounts of Jesus' life
including Eucharist Bread and in the New Testament.
Easter Jesus is resurrected from the dead Michelangelo, wine taken in memorv Lent Forty days of
Pentecost Coming of the Holy Spirit
who designed of Jesus. preparation for Easter.
the dome.

Origin
Islam Islam originated in

^=^
At Jj
7X The islamic faith
based on belief in one God,
Allah. Followers of Islam are
is about C.E. 600 in
Mecca (Makkah), in
present-day Saudi
1s!
L- J^ <ZZ\ y< vA
Taa % Mi yJJf
Shahada
Arabia. It is now Muhammad
called Muslims. Their symbol is a
practiced throughout The last and greatest of the 26 Islamic-
star and a crescent moon. the world. prophets was Muhammad, born in Mecca
in c.C.E. 570. The shaliada states that
Pillars of Islam Key points Muhammad is Allah's messenger.
Muslims must obey • Muslims promise to obey • Muhammad is Allah's
these five rules: the will of Allah. main messenger. KORAN (QUR'AN)
In this sacred book of Islam,
1 Shahadah Allah is
• Islam is Allah's ch osen • The Islamic calendar has Allah revealed to Muhammad
the only god, and how humankind should on
live
faith for the human race. no leap years.
Muhammad is his earth. Muslims treat the book
crjyn-v^y*- with great respect. They
messenger. ;

MECCA (MAKKAH) keep it in a clean place

2 Salah Pray five This city in Saudi Arabia is the and wash before
times a day. most sacred place in the Muslim touching it.
3 Zakah Give aid to world. It contains a cube-shaped
shrine, the Ka'ba, believed to
charity.
have been built by Abraham and TYPES OF MUSLIM
4 Sawm Fast during Ishmacl over 3,000 years ago.
month of Ramadan. I \cr\ ytir, especially during
5 Hajj Make at least their month of pilgrimage,
Muslims flock to Mecca and
one pilgrimage to
gather around the Ka'ba.
Mecca in a lifetime. Others Shi'ites Sunnis

ISI AMIC FESTIVALS AT PRAYER

Muslims often pray ISLAMIC WORDS
Name Event together in groups. Avatollah Shi'ite leader. Jihad Striving to
They kneel, facing Hadith Stories about spread the Islamic \\a\
Mawlid al-Nabi Birthday of Muhammad
Mecca, on clean Muhammad. of life.

Layl'at al-Qadr Koran revealed to Muhammad ground, or on Hafiz Muslim who has Shari'ah Islamic law.
fabric; this may be a memorized the Koran. Masjid Place of
Id al-Fitr Celebration of end of Ramadan woven carpet, straw Hajji One who has worship.
mat, or even a fulfilled the Hajj. Mulla Scholar.
Id al-Adha End of pilgrimage to Mecca
handkerchief.

140
 I Mill SYSTEMS

Origin FOI NDBRS

Hinduism 1 linduism I linduism has no
^^^ Most Hindus believe
•W ^ many but one gods, in
in originated in
India, in about
single founder.
early gods
were
Its

1750B.C.E. brought by the

^mw^) underlying Reality, and
Today it has Aryan people who
that when a person dies the soul is spread invaded India. Shiva
reborn again in another body. Their throughout much is one of the main

symbol is a sacred sound, OM. of southeast Asia. Hindu gods.

Shiva

Hindu gods KEY POINTS VEDAS

These are some of the • People living good lives are • Hindus aim to be free The earliest Hindu
most important gods: born again in a higher life; from the cycle of rebirth to beliefs were written
Brahman Divine, bad lives lead to a lower life. become one with Brahman. dow n as the VedaS in
c.1400B.< :.!;.. which
absolute reality. consists of hymns and
Vishnu Life-giver. HOLY CITY chants. The Ri« Veda is

Shiva God of good and Varanasi, or Be nares. in India, is one of the Rig \ iilii
the most important
oldest cities in the world and the chief place of book of the Vedas.
evil.
Hindu pilgrimage. Every TYPES OF HINDI
Sarasvati Goddess of
year millions come to
truth. bathe in its sacred
Indra God of war. rncr, the Ganges.

Lakshmi Goddess of The waters are

believed to wash
beauty. aua\ sin. People's
Kali Goddess of death. ashes are often
Krishna Hero and lover. scattered on the river. Subgroups Vaishnavrtes

HINDU HOLY DAYS SAGRED COW

I lindus respect all animals, HINDU WORDS
Name Event especially cows, as sacred Atman Individual soul. Mokslui Release from
beings. Most Hindus arc Avatar Appearance of the life cycle.
Divali New Year Festival of Lights
vegetarians, The cow Vishnu on Earth. Nirt ana otal peace. 1

Holi Spring Festival is a symbol of the Guru Religious teacher. Fuja Worship.
Earth and feeding a Karma Moral law. Sanskrit lindu I

Janmashtami Birthday of Krishna cow is considered an Mantra Sacred chant. language.

Shiva Ratri Main festival of Shiva

act of worship. hymn, or poem. Yogi Holy man.

Origin Buddha
Buddhism Buddhism Siddharta Gautama was born
THE BUDDHIST faith is originated in India c.563 B.C.F. Brought

based on the teachings northern India as a prince, lie left his

in about 500 home at age 29 to lead
of the Buddha. Its symbol
B.C.F. Today it a life of meditation
is an eight-spoked wheel. has spread and preaching. le was I

throughout named Buddha, "the

Four truths Key points most of enlightened one."
These holy principles • Spiritual fulfillment comes southeast Asia.
are contained in the from right actions and
scripture, the thoughts. • Life is a sequence of birth,
l)lunnw(i[)<ida. death, and rebirth.
1 Dukkha To live is HOLY TEXT Extracts from the Pali Canon
to suffer.
GOLDEN PAGODA The Dhammapada the best-known part of the Pali
is
The Shwedagon pagoda in Rangoon, Canon, the collected teachings of Buddha. It contains
2 Samudaya Desire Myanmar, is one of the earliest and the four Truths and the Eightfold Path: tightness of
or craving causes most important Buddhist temples views, intention, speech, action, wa> of life, effort.
suffering. of worship. It is covered with ^old awareness, and concentration.
and is topped bv an "umbrella" of
3 Nirodha Freedom TYPES OF
more than 4,000 diamonds.
from desire leads to BUDDHIST
the end of suffering. MONKS
Buddhist monks live a
4 Magga Freedom simple life, ji.i\ inj^. up
can be found by most of thcii
following the eight- possessions. I hc\
pra\, teach,
fold path of Buddhism. Skwedagpn pagoda
i

Other
1 meditate, and beg
I' ii their food,
BUDDHIST HOLY DAYS BUDDHIST WORDS
Name Event *V*^. Monks wear
Vnatta No such thing Jataka Accounts of
saffron-yellow
~ lobes as sell Buddha's lives.
Sakyamuni (or Wesak) Birth of Siddharta Gautama ,

\iucea Self is Mibbana State of

Bodhi Day Buddha's enlightenment __ Begging tmpermaneni pen e
bowl \i .ib.it \\ orthy, used to Sangha i )rdei of
Parinirvana Buddha's ascent from Earth describe Buddha. monks.
Hbikklui Monk \ ib.iia Monaster)
Phagguna Origin of life cycle

141
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

Origin Guru Nanak

SlKHISM Sikhism began in Guru Nanak was
Thk based on
sikii faith is the Punjab region born in the Punjab
the worship of one God and of northern India region in 1469. At
and Pakistan in the age of 30, he
on the cycle of rebirth. God about 1500 C.E. underwent a
is the eternal Gum who inspires all
Today, it has religious experience
religious teachers. The Sikh symbol spread to Britain and founded the
is the Khanda, a design of weapons. and North Sikh religion. He
America. was succeeded by
Kei points nine other Gurus.
• God is found in all things. • All people are equal in

• All the eyes of God.

humans will be reborn.

Five k's
The Khalsa (Pure Ones) are
deeply committed to Sikhism.
They must wear five items:
1 Kesh Uncut hair, worn in a Sword

turban if a man. GURU GRANTH

The Guru
Granth Sahib
2 Kara Steel bracelet.
AMRITSAR contains hymns and poems
3 Kangha Hair comb. This town in the Punjab is sacred to I'ritten by the Gurus, especially

4 Kirpan Sword. Sikhs. They make pilgrimages to its

juru Arjan, the fifth Guru. The
5 Kaccha Short trousers often Golden Temple, which is situated in book is central to Sikh ritual and

the middle of a lake. is treated with great respect. Sikhs bow down before
worn as an undergarment. the book, which is placed under a special canopy.

MEDITATION
SIKH HOLY DAYS Sikhs believe that God is inside SIKH WORDS .Japji Morning praver.
everybody. Guru Nanak taught Darbar Sahib Name Kaur Female
Name Event
the importance of meditation to for Golden Temple. surname.
Baisakhi New Year and formation of Khalsa strengthen a person's sense Diwan Group worship. Mool Mantra
of God. Sikhs often use Gurdwara Place of Statement of belief.
Divali Release from prison of Guru beads (Mala) during worship. Mukti Freedom of the
Hargobind, the sixth Guru meditation. Guru Name for leader. spirit from cycle.
Guru Nanak Birthday of the Founder scripture, and God. Singh Male surname.
A Sikh meditating.

Origin Abraham
Judaism Judaism Abraham, the first leader
Followers of Judaism are originated in of the Hebrews, was born
about 2000 in Ur, inpresent-day Iraq,
called Jews. They believe
B.C.E. in inabout 2000 B.C.E. At
in one God, who revealed
Canaan, the God's command, he later
the Law to his people. Their Promised Land, settled in Canaan.
Jordan
symbol is the Star of David. mainly present-day
Israel. Today, it has
Rules and rituals spread throughout TENAKH
These are some of the the world. The Jewish Bible is called the

Tenakh. It tells the history of the

traditions of Jewish life: Key points Jewish people. The most
• God created the world and • The Jews are God's important part is the Torn//, the
• Baby boys are
all its history. chosen people, "a light to all first five books of the Bible. It
circumcised eight days
nations." contains the laws, including the
after birth. • The Jews are descendants Ten Commandments, that God
• The Sabbath day of the Hebrew people. revealed to Moses.

(Saturday) is the holy

WESTERN WALL ^ Tenakh scroll
This wall Jerusalem, also
in
day of rest.
known as the Wailing Wall, is

• Pork and shellfish the only remaining part of

Herod's Temple, which was
must not be eaten. TYPES OF JEW
destroyed in C.E. 70. Today,
•A Jewish boy becomes Jews come here to pray and to

aBar-Mitzvah, an adult
member of Jewish life,
when he is 13.
tuck written prayers and
requests in between the huge
blocks of stone. ^^?r=^
Sephardis Orientals Ashkenazi

JEWISH HOLY DAYS JEWISH WORDS Rabbi Teacher and

Diaspora Dispersion, leader.
Name Event or spread, of Jews. Synagogue Place of
Exodus Israelites' worship.
Hannukah Festival of Lights
escape from Egvpt. Tephillin Prayer box
Pesach/Passover Deliverance from slavery Gentiles Non-Jewish containing words from
in Egypt people. the Torah worn
Kaddish Synagogue strapped to forehead
Yom Kippur Day of Atonement The prayer. and arm.
Tenakh

142
 OTIIKR FAITHS

Origin of other faiths

Other faiths
Baha'ism (Iran)
THERE ARE thousands of faith
systems, with millions of Confucianism (China)
followers all around the world.
Apart from the six major faiths Jainism (India)

already discussed, the faiths

Shmtoism (Japan)
below are among the best-
known. Each has an organized Taoism (China)
structure and established beliefs.
Zoroastnanism (Iran)

FAITH WORLD Confucianism CONFl Cll S

CENTER Confucius, or k'ung u T/c. 1

The Baha'i
Baha'is worship
Confucianism is not based (551-479 B.C.E.) was the
faith is based in private homes on the worship of a god, founder of Confucianism.
on the worship and louses of
I but on following The Tao horn in China, he worked
Worship. The (The Way). It teaches as ,i gov eminent
of one God,
most famous is administrator, and became
w ho is at the root of all the wisdom of living a
respected teacher anil
the World Center a

religions. The Baha'i in I laifa, Israel,

balanced life that is in moral philosopher. I le

symbol is a nine-pointed w Inch is also the harmony with nature. was known for his wise
savings, such as "
star that stands for this ee nter of \

administration. man is nevei alone."

combination of faiths.
Facts
Facts • Al-Kitab al-Aqdas is the most • Confucianism originated in • Confucianism is practiced
• Founded in Persia (present- important scripture. the Shantung province of throughout China.
da^ Iran) in the 1'Jth century. China c.6th century B.C.E. • main teaching is "Never
• There are about 6 million Its

• The founder was Baha'u'llah followers; many of them are in • The Analects are the major do w hat you would
to others
(1817-1892). India and South America. scriptures. not like them to do to you."

Jainism l JAIN NUN Shintoism MOUNT FIJI

4 Jain nuns and monks lead a Shintoists love
|
Jains do not believe in a
god. Their faith is based
f life

chastity.
of poverty, obedience, and
They must protect all
n'Fhis faith is
nature. Mam
Shinto shrines are
on nonviolence to all \ tonus of life. They use a brush based on m parks, gardens,
sweep the ground ami on
living things, or ^j Hk
to
of them, for fear of
in front
t he-
mountains.
ahimsa. Jains believe worship of the gods Mount Fuji, in
uftt treading on insects,
of nature. symbol
in the cycle of rebirth. / lA and wear masks to Its Japan, is a Shinto
A good prevent insects from the outline of a god. People come
person is . ^^^^^V is

ftv ^^ entering their to pra\ at a shrine

born again into a ^^k temple gateway.
on summit.
ft\ ^^ mouths. its
higher life. ™
Facts • Shintoists worship alone, not
Facts • Jains worship in temples, or • Shintoism started in Japan in in groups.
• Founded in India, in the in shrines in the home. the 8th century B.C.E. • One of the chief Shinto
6th century B.C.E. • • 'Fhe Chronicles of Japan and deities is Amaterasu, the Sun
There are approximately
• The founder was Maha\ ira 4 nillion Jains; most of them the Record of Ancient Things Coddess.
(c540-468B.CE.). live in India. contain Shinto stories. • Most followers live in Japan.

Taoism LAO TZU ZOROASTRIANISM FIRE ll MI'I 1

1 Tzu, the founder of

,ao Sacred fires.
Taoists believe in Taoism, was born in about s\ mbolizing

many gods. They the 4th century \hiua Mazda,

aim to live in 15. ( I.E. lis name on two bum continually
means
I

"( )ld ft ^© m Zoroastrian tire

harmony gods:
Master." temples. I'nests
with nature. Their Ahura Mazda, a good covet their
According to
s\ mbol, Yin Yang, legend, he was spirit; and Angra Mainyu, mouths when
stands for balance and born with an evil spirit. Its symbol is tending the
w hite hair. sac rificial lues.
harmony. a winged image of Ahura.

Facts • Most Taoists live in ( Ihina Facts • The scriptui e is the Avesta,
• Taoism originated in China and the Far East. • Founded in Persia (present- w hich ex plains the struggle
in about the 4th century day Iran), C.1000 B.C.E. between good anil ev il.
• Taoists aim to balance the
B.c.i-;.
calm, feminine side of the • Zoroaster, or Zarathustra, • There areaboui 140.000
• The
Tao TeChing is the most body {Yin), with the active, was the major prophet. follow CIS most of (hem are
; in

important scripture. male side Yang). (

India and Iran.

143
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

624 B.C. Thales Pythagoras (c.580-500

Great thinkers (624-550 B.C.) is

born
He
in Miletus, Greece.
is interested in
B.C.), Greek philosopher,
explores the importance of
numbers. He discovers the
FROM EARLY TIMES, philosophers have astronomy and
.is
politics,
well as philosophy.
mathematical relationship
between sound vibrations and
used argument and reason to try to I le became known as the length of a string or pipe.
the first Western
understand the world and our plaee in it. philosopher. Thales Pythagoras
They question the meaning of ideas
PHYXOLAV5'
such as reality, right and wrong, and art.
624 B.C.
£7 '
l!:

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) St.Augustine 1225-74 St. Thomas Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679),
is the last and most (A.D. 354-430), Aquinas, Italian friar, English political philosopher, says
influential of the Greek North African aims to make Christian that giving all power to the state is
philosophers I [e stresses philosopher, uses teaching consistent with the only way to avoid chaos and
the importance of logic, or Plato's philosophy Aristotle's philosophy. endless war. He writes the Leviathan
reasoning, in philosophy. to express in 1651.
Christian ideas.
Aristotle tutoring Alexander
St. Thomas Aquinas
the Great (356-323 B.C.).

384 B.C. A.D. 354 1225 1588

George Berkeley David Hume (171 1-76), Scottish Jean-Jacques Rousseau Immanuel Kant
(1685-1753), Irish bishop and empiricist and skeptic, states that (1712-78), French (1724-1804),
idealist philosopher, believes all knowledge is taken from ideas political philosopher, is German thinker, says
that objects, such as tables and and experience, but denies that against the limitations that we gain knowledge
chairs, are collections of ideas, thisknow ledge can ever of civilized society and through both experience
and exist only person
if a be proved. advises a return to and understanding.
perceives (is aware of) them. nature.
Rousseau Immanuel Kant
David 1 1 a mi'

1685 1724
'*. 1711

John Stuart Mill Swren Kierkegaard Karl Marx (1818-83), William James ( 1842-1910),
(1806-73), Knglish (1813-55), Danish German revolutionary thinker, American psychologist and
utilitarian, emphasizes founder ot founds Communism, adapting pragmatist, sees the truthfulness
that some pleasures are existentialism and ideas from Hegel's philosophy, of any idea in terms of the
worthier than others. He religious writer, He writes bus Kapital'm 1867. usefulness of its results.
u rites On Liberty in 1859. claims that the only
teal thing is individual
Jo/in Stuart Mill existence. Kail Marx

1813 1818 1842

Bertrand Russell Martin Ludvvig Wittgenstein Jean-Paul Sartre

(1872-1970), Knglish Heidegger (1889-1951), Austrian analytic (1905-80), French
thinker and political (1889-1976), philosopher, explores the existentialist, says there is

activist, tries to pro\ ide German relationship between language no fixed human nature or
firm foundations in existentialist, and the world. He argues that destiny, and that people are
philosophy for v\ rites Being und everything that can be thought free to choose their actions
mathematics. Time'm 1927. can also be said. without following
icietv's rules. e„w,„
Bertrand Russell Ludwig Wittgenstein

1889 1889 1905

Famous philosophical sayings Warm thoughts

Philosopher Dates Nationality Quotation
In 1620, Rene Descartes
Protagoras C.485-410B.C. Greek Man is the measure of all things. thought up his most famous
Socrates 470-399 B.C. Greek The unexamined statement, "I think, therefore
life is not worth living.
I am," he kept warm by a
as
Francis Bacon 1561-1626 English Knowledge is power.
stove while on military
Rene Descartes 1596-1650 French 1 think, therefore 1 am. service in Bavaria, Germany.
George Berkeley 1685-1753 Irish To be is to be perceived.

David Hume 1711-76 Scottish Beauty in things exists in the mind which contemplates them.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-78 French Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.

G.W.F. Hegel 1770-1831 German History teaches us that people have never learnt anything from history.

John Stuart Mill 1806-73 English Ask yourself whether you are happy, and you cease to be so.

Karl Marx 1818-83 German Philosophers have only interpreted the world, the point is to change it.

Friedrich Nietzsche 1844-1900 German God is dead.

Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951 Austrian The limits of my language are the limits of my world.

144
 1

GREAT THINKKRS

C.470-399 B.C. Socrates, (Jack Plato (c.428-347 B.G.),

philosopher, and Plato's teacher, uses of Athens, Greece, Philosophy
a question and answer method of founds the Academy (a

inquiry. lis main concern is morality

I
university) in .Athens and words
teaches Aristotle there. Analytic Movement that considers
(right and wrong). le is accused by
I

le outlines Ins ideal city- philosophy to be based essentially

the state of corrupting young people I

state n The Republu on logic.

and is sentenced to death. i .

Socrates is forced to
A priori Knowledge based on

drink hemlock, a poison. Plato's icaaemy

reasoning rather than experience.
Determinism Idea that all
(hums, including "free
470 B.C. 428 B.C.
will," are already fixed, or
predetermined.
Dualism Belief that there
Rene Descartes (1596-1650), John Locke (1632-1704), English are two distinct types of
French dualist, rationalist philosopher and political writer, founds substance in the world: the physical
philosopher, and mathematician, classical Britishempiricism. His .ind the mental.
is considered the first modern political writings form the foundations Empiricism Belief that all
philosopher, lie bases all
knowledge on one truth: that we
Mi >^ )
of modern democracy lie wrote l^o
Treatises "/ Government in 1690.
knowledge is based on experience.
At birth, the mind is a blank sheet,
cannot doubt the existence of mi which experience then makes
our ow n thoughts, , its mark.
;
,
full 1 1 Locke
Kpistemologx Study of the theory
1596 of knowledge: what knowledge is.
«.:. 14- how we come to know things, how
much we can hope to know, etc.
Ethics Study of moral systems. 01
Jeremv Bentham G.W.F. Hegel Arthur Schopenhauer
ideas about how people ought to
(1748-1832), English (1770-1831), German (1788-1860),
In cand bchav c.
judges an
utilitarian, idealist, says that the German idealist, saw
Existentialism Belief that the
action to be rif^hc by the history of events and art as the only
individual has tree will and must
extent to which it thoughts is a process of escape from a world
take responsibility for his or her
promotes happiness or conflict, which will lead to without reason.
actions in a world where there arc
minimizes pain. an inevitable conclusion.
no definite rights or w tongs,
Iliwl Sehopenhauet Idealism Belief that the world is in
some wa\ created bv the mind.
> 1770 1788 7 Idealists do not deny that the world
exists,but deny that it can be
separated from a person's
Friedrieh Wilhelm Nietzsche Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), perception of it.
(1844-1900), CJerman philosopher, German philosopher, develops Logic Series of statements that
argues that people are driven in life the basic ideas of phenomenology necessarily follow from each
by the "will to power," and that society (descriptions of human other. Also called a chain of
will evolve into a race of "supermen." experience). reasoning.
He rejects Christianity, and influences Materialism Belief that everything
the Nazi party. that exists is cither matter
"
Nietzsche's "I termenschen ( "supermen "i
(substance), or is dependent on
matter for its existence.
1844 Metaphysics Study of principles of
-7FT nature, such as being, identity.
substance, time,
and space.
Simone de Beauvoir (1908-86), Michel Foueault Jacques Derrida (born
Objectivity
French existentialist and founder (1926-84), French 1930), French founder of
Existence outside a
of modern feminist philosophy. philosopher, looks deconstructionism, w hich
person's mind; the
at ways in which rejects the idea of any fixed
Willard van Orme Gjuine (horn opposite ot
the individual is truths in language and
1908), American pragmatist, subjectiv ity.
controlled b\ philosophy.
points out inconsistencies in carK Pragmatism \ practical view
society's rules.
anal) tic philosophy. of philosophy: the truthfulness ot
Michel Foueault
Simone de Beauvoi an idea is seen in terms of the
usefulness of its results.
1906 1908 1926 1930 7 Rationalism Belief that reason
alone, w ithout am reliance on
experience, can reveal the basic
was mummified. Bentham's truths of the niv cisc, and that
Philosophy facts • In hiswill, Jeremy Bentham
everything can be explained l>\
I

a
body to University
left his is still on display
dressed corpse
• Pythagoras refused to eat beans, single system
College, London. His corpse at the university. Realism Belief, usually contrasted
since he believed they had souls.
was preserved and dressed, and with idealism, that physical objects
• English philosopher Francis • Rene Descartes was tutor to exist independently of the mind.
crowned with a wax head. The
Bacon (1561-1626) died of the Swedish monarch Queen Relativism Bchcfth.it there arc no
corpse was kept in a glass case, Standards or truths;
pneumonia, caught while stuffing a
Christina (1626-89). She made iini\ civil
along with his real head, which usually a rejectionof absolute
dead chicken with snow on him give her philosophy lessons
i ights and w r
at dawn, even though she knew Skepticism Belief
Ilampstead Heath, London, in an that nothing

early attempt to preserve it by of his preference for lying in can be known foi certain.
Subicctiv it\ xisc. nc insidt a
refrigeration.
bed and meditating until 1
I

person's mind; the opposite of

o'clock in the morning.
• The most influential philosopher object" ity,

Solipsism Belief that the only

of the 20th century, Ludwig • Until the 18th and 19th
reality is inside youi own mind.
Wittgenstein, published one work centuries, the term I Itilitarianism Belief that
in his lifetime. Parts of his "philosophy" included many actions are nulit if thcx

7 'nuta ius Logit a -philosophic ns were result in happiness.

branches that have since
i
thev
written in the trenches during become areas of Study in then result in
World War (1914-18), while he
I own right: physics, biology, unhappiness,
was on sentry duty. Jeremy Bentham mathematics, and engineering.
-

145
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

Dreaming
Patterns of family Aboriginal
Australians

and society believe the land

and all the living
creatures were
EVERY HUMAN SOCIETY (community of people) in
formed by spirit
the world based on the family. Types of family
is ancestors in the
and marriage arrangements, however, vary from dawn of time
called the
one society to the next. Organization and living
Dreaming.
habits can also be very different, according to
how and where people live and work.
Aboriginal Rainbow Snake Dreaming

Kinship
Kinship is a way of describing bonds between people of Key
the same family. A family may be defined as just parents
Family
and children, or it may include other types of relatives. Male = Female words
Ancestor Ancestor An earlier

'
/ / "7 r ^ "7
member
family.
of the

Clan A family group

Great Grand- Grand- Grand- Grand- Great descended from a
aunt father mother father mother uncle Husband Daughter Son Wife

/
/
//
^ ~7 /"
/
7 /
/
/
common ancestor.
Dowry A wedding
payment from the
4
n Uncle Mother Father
Grand-
daughter
Grand-
son
Grand-
daughter
Grand-
son
bride to the groom.
Lineage A line of
/ /- ^- / M
family relations.
/ / Great Great Great
/ Great
/ Marriage A legal
grand grand- grand- grand- bond between two
Ego Sister son daughter son * daughter people.
Tribe A group of
EGO-FOCUSED KINSHIP ANCESTOR-FOCUSED KINSHIP people linked to an
People can use themselves from which
as the starting point People can trace their roots to a known ancestor who starts ancestor.

to construct a family tree. They back as far

trace their roots off the family tree. This is called ancestor-focused kinship and Western society
as they can through both their fathers' and mothers' families. is found, for example, in Scottish clans where everyone shares People living in
This is called ego-focused kinship. the same last name. industrialized areas.

Descent
Green shows Orange line
The system linking families to their ancestors line
shows matrilineal
patrilineal line of
is called descent. Inheritance of family property descent line of descent
and titles is based on rules of descent.
/ —7

/
.
/ / -7
fc
-7 y^—z

PATRILINEAL DESCENT MATRILINEAL DESCENT

Duke of Westminster, a
Descent traced through the male
is called patrilineal descent.
of Westminster inherited his
the first-born son - a feature of a type
British aristocrat of European patrilineal descent.
line Matrilineal families trace their
The Duke descent through female relatives.
title as Many tribal societies, such as that
of the Trobriand Islanders of the
Trobriand Island mother and child southwestern Pacific, are matrilineal.

Households i^^~~ ~^" --- :^_

A household is a
group of people who
live together as a
family. The number
of people in a family
household can vary
widely around the
u I 1

world; so can the

way in which
members of a
Kibbutzim Extended family Nuclear family
household organize
In communities in Israel called kibbutzim In many tribal societies several generations Anthropologists use the term nuclear family
family life and bring families live and work together, helping to of the same family live together and share to mean a household consisting of two
up their children. bring up each others' children. the responsibility for domestic duties. parents who bring up their own children.

146
 PATTERNS OF FAMILY AND SOCIETY

Marriage types Taking the

Marriage records Traditional brides
Kndogamy Marriage between LARGEST GROUP WEDDING Brides vv ho vv ant a traditional
members of the same family or clan. plunge was between 60,000 members wedding can choose from many
Kxogamy Marriage between members On September 13, 1991, of the Unificationist Church on different styles of outfit.
of a different family or clan. Dustin and Becca Webster August 25, 1992, in the Seoul
Monogamy Marriage of one man to of California completed Olympic Stadium, Korea.
one wife.
their wedding by diving Chinese brides
Bigamy Marriage of one man to two
70ft (21.30m) into a
MOST EXPENSIVE WEDDING may w ear a
w ives or one woman to two husbands. was 20 million dollars for
swimming pool. traditional head-
Polygamy Marriage of one man or one Mohammed, son of Sheik dress of pierced
woman to several wives or several metal strips,
same time.
Rashid Bin Saeed Al Maktoum,
husbands at the often silver, with
Polyandry Marriage of one woman to
and Princess Salama, in Dubai, a veil made
several husbands at the same time. in May 1981. from feathers
Polygyny Marriage of one man to and pearls.
MOST MARRIED MAN
same time.
several wives at the
was Giovanni Vigliotto from
Levirate Remarriage of a woman to
her dead husband's brother. New York, who married 104
Western brides
Sororate Remarriage of a man to his times in 15 different countries,
wear a long dress
dead wife's sister. from 1949 to 1981. and veil in white.
symbolizing
Wedding customs purity and
Marriage and divorce • Greek Orthodox couples innocence.
This custom
statistics wear wedding crowns dates from the
Country Marriages Divorces linked by a red ribbon. 19th century.
per year per year
• Indian couples tie their
1979 1991 1979 1991
clothes together and walk Japanese brides
US 9.9 9.4 5.0 4.73
may
seven times around a fire. dress in a
Japan 8.5 6.0 1.1 1.27 brightly colored
• In Egypt the bride's traditional
New Zealand 8.0 6.8 1.6 2.7
father signs her wedding kimono. This
contrasts with the
Australia 7.8 6.8 1.3 2.49 contract while she sits
black costumes
France 7.1 5.0 1.0 1.87
alone in a separate room. of the brides'
attendants.
Cuba 7.0 15.0 2.4 4.05 • Japanese couples take
three sips of sake (rice
Italy 6.7 5.4 0.3 0.48
wine) to complete their
Sweden 5.5 4.7 2.7 2.20 wedding ceremony. Hindu brides
wear a red dress
Guatemala 4.1 5.3 0.1 0.18 and both bride and
• Jewish couples do not
UK - groom wear colorful
7.7 2.0 • Ancient Romans first eat or drink on their
garlands of
(figures given per thousand people) gave pieces of wedding wedding day until the flowers around
cake to guests. ceremony is over. their necks.

Symbols Society
A symbol Society words
something, such as an object,
is
types Rural People who live and work in
a sign, or a mark, that stands for something Work and home life
the countryside.
else. All the symbols shown below have a influence how
clear meaning.
Urban People who live and work
people live. in towns or cities
City dwellers Suburban People who live on the
Wedding ring
Many city dwellers live edges of a large city.
A wedding ring is worn
inapartment buildings or
by both the bride and Migrant People who have moved
housing developments.
the groom to show their from one region to another, or one
bond to each other. country to another.
T.
^^f Hi

The Scout Association

The symbol of the Scout Hunter-gatherers
Association stands for this Hunters and gatherers
worldwide movement for live in small groups of
boys and girls, which They
several families.
started in 1908. move home from one
place to another in
search of wild animals
US Navy and plants to eat.
Commander
Three equal lace
stripes on the sleeve
are worn bv IS I

Navv commanders.
Pastoral nomads One world
Nomads arc groups of Different societies' customs
Olympic rings people who have no can travel all over the world \ i.i

Five colored rings arc fixed home, but who

film and tele\ ision. \ t lamps
the symbol that stands move with their animals
for the International from one grazing ground Indian bo) from Peru now
Olympic Committee. to .mother. enjoys a game with a frisbee.

147
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

THE JAPANESE
Customs and rituals TEA CEREMONY
In Japan, drinking tea
THROUGHOUT THE world, different societies have is a long-established
their own traditions for marking important events ritual thatis based

on the teachings of
such as the birth of a child, or the harvesting of
Zen Buddhism. Tea
crops. These customs and
traditions are called is prepared and served

rituals, and many are based around the cycles of in a special tea room or
tea house.
nature, and the mystery of life and death.

Birth rites Death rites Birth and death facts

The Azande people of the Sudan gently Traditional Taoist (see p. 143) funerals • Many Christian babies are baptised in
wave newborn babies through smoke to involve the burning of imitation money. holy water in a church font.
protect them against witchcraft and to help The smoke will earry it to the dead to spend • Jewish baby boys are circumcised eight
them grow up strong and healthy. in a future life.
days after birth.
• Romany gypsies press a gold ring against
their baby's hand to bring it wealth.

• Pregnant women in New Guinea live

alone until their baby is born.

• Death rites in Melanesia last for several

years, until the deceased becomes
an ancestor.
• Chinese coffins are painted white to give
the dead a happy future life.

i
Initiation rites
Initiation is a rite to welcome adolescents
into adulthood in many traditional societies.
The White Mountain
Apache from North
America perform a
ritual for teenage
girls, called the
Sunrise Dance.
Handshake Bow Nose rub Wave
The gripping and Bowing is a greeting in This Maori greeting is A friendly waving of the 1 Ground-up plants

shaking of hands is a the Far Hast, show ing called a hongi. It is hand and arm means and colored rocks
formal greeting around politeness by lowering usually made on hello or goodbye, all are daubed oxer
the world. the head. ceremonial occasions. around the world. the girl's head with a
brush made from
plant stalks.
Gestures
A gesture is an action that
sends a visual signal to
2 The girl kneels
an onlooker.
facing the sun,
acting out the
legend of the
creation of the
First Woman.
Finally, as a
woman, she is
Thumbs up V for victory Ssshh! Beautiful!
given the powers
Raising the thumb is a This \ ictory gesture A finger pressed to the This Native American
of a goddess for
friendly gesture. It is a sign was made famous b\ lips is a worldwide sign gesture means beauty. It
four days.
of approval, or that all is Sir Winston Churchil meaning "keep quiet" combines the signs for
going well. during World War II. or "keep this a secret." "good" and "looking."

4-leaf clover Garlic

Charms Finding a rare A clove of garlic
four-leaf clover has many powers: it
People keep or carry
is said to bring cures warts and keeps
certain objects to bring
good luck. vampires away!
them good luck or to
ward off evil.

Pocket-sized Cork & coin Sugar skull

Charm bracelet
A coin wedged
J- Buddhas
popular
good-luck
charms
are
into a
champagne
cork acts as a
This chain holds
a variety of tiny
lucky charms.
This lucky
candy is eaten
during the
Mexican Day
worldwide. lucky charm. of the Dead
Festival.

148
 n

CELEBRATION AND DECORATION'

Celebration facts
Celebration and • Dragon Boat Festival of China
give thanks for food and water in the dry
is held to

decoration season, with races of decorated boats.

• On Thanksgiving Da\ in the IS and

Celebrations that Canada, families sit down to a special meal
involve the whole in celebration of the harvest.

community mark events • Diwali Festival in India celebrates the

harvest with decorative lights and offerings
such as the passing of
to Lakshmi, Hindu goddess of prosperity.
the seasons and holy
• IntiRaymi is the Peruvian Festival of the
days. These events
Sun god. Inn, held in an Inca fortress.
contain a mixture of
• The Rio de Janeiro Carnh al is a mass
customs, using music,
parade of costume and dance, based on the
dance, and costume. Christian celebration of the end of Lent.
Mexit <in Day <>/ the Dead Festival

Wimple
Dress codes Eye-slits
Wearing certain items of clothing helps to
identify what a person is or does.

Nun's habit Arab burka

Graduate's gown Nuns wear a The burka is a

College students plain robe single length of

wear a black gown called a habit. clothworn by
and a hat called a Their head is Arab women.
Rio di- Janeiro Cat
mortarboard at covered by a It covers the

their graduation hood called body, except

ceremony. a wimple, for the eyes. Dancing for joy
Dancing is one of the earliest known
Devil mask
activities of humankind. Some dances are
Bearskin Toque purely for fun; others are important rituals.

Bolivian dancer's Welsh Guard Chefs whites

mask Various army Chefs wear
This Devil mask is regiments, such as starched white
worn as part of the the Welsh Guards, clothing they
colorful costume wear ceremonial call their whites
at the annual uniforms topped and a tall white
Diablada Fcstiva by hats made of cloth hat called
in Bolivia. bear fur. a toque. ,\ ritual tribal dance Thejitterbug, /><>f>til<i> in
/mm Kenya ,h, Win the I940's

Body Most
decoration
Decorative jewelry
tattoos
and body scars are
Tom Leppard, a
Scotsman, has
part of a person's
leopard skin
appearance. Each
Forehead spot Earring Lipping tattoos covering
society, however,
1 lindu women paint a A ring through the car Kaiapo men from the 99.2% of his bod
has different ideas
red spot on their draws attention to the Brazilian Amazon wear a
about what makes forehead called a tilak, eyes and adds to the wooden lip plug to
the body beautiful. as a symbol of wisdom. bourn of the face. decorate their mouths.

,,;:
Cosmetic surgery
The three most popular cosmetic surgery
operations in the US in 1990 were:
Women Men
(87% of all operations) (1 3% of all operations)
Scarification Samoan tattoo Sikh hand-painting
Many African tribal Men from the Pacific Safety pins and othci Sikh brides paint Liposuction Nose reshaping
people decorate their islands of Samoa are unusual objects are worn decorath e patterns on
Breast enlargement Eyelid surgery
face and body w ith scars tattooed all over the body as jcwclrv foi lie
t their hands w uh dye
to add to their beauty, as a sign of manliness. startling effect. from the henna plant. Collagen injection Llposu

1 44
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

Early money The first coins

Money The oldest recorded use of
in ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq), about
money was The first known coins
were made 2,700 years
MONEY COMES which
IN the form of cash, 4,500 years ago. Inscribed tablets ago in Lydia, Turkey,
consists of coins and banknotes. Anything describe payments made with weighed from a mixture of gold
amounts of silver. Other early forms of and silver called
that represents cash, such as the computer money include cowrie shells, used electrum. They were
records of a bank account, a check, or a in ancient Egypt, and feather money stamped at mints to
credit card, is also money. Today, many on Santa Cruz ^^ confirm their weight
"*-. ' and value. Today, most
island, Pacific
people prefer to pay for things with cards \
Ocean. \ coins are made out of
rather than carry around cash.
u cheaper metals.

Burnisher
Banknotes Paper money Sharp burins smoothing
for

Banknotes have extremely Paper money - banknotes - was invented by the

complicated designs with Chinese in the 10th century. People tired of carrying
special security features, to coins around and left them with merchants instead.
make it as difficult as possible Merchants provided vouchers (receipts) for the money INTAGLIO
for forgers to copy them. The and people exchanged the vouchers among themselves,
ENGRAVING
The features of the note
four main stages of making a rather than turn them back into cash. are engraved onto a steel
banknote are design, plate by hand, using

papermaking, ink-mixing, BACKGROUND DESIGN special sharp tools, called

This design uses eight different burins. The engraved area
and printing. When the notes
colored inks. First, these ate printed on is then inked.
are printed, three separate
three sheets in groups
processes are used. of colors:
blues,
yellows,
and
SKETCHES reds.
An artist makes two preliminary
sketches tor the note: the first one
SECURITY THREAD
shows the main features; the second
Banknote paper is made
shows the background details.
with a plastic thread
scaled inside it.

This feature is
extremely difficult NUMBERING
for forgers to copy.
Numbering barrels
print a different serial
Inks foreach color
group are combined on number on each
a single sheet. banknote.

FINISHED NOTE Money records

This type of specimen BIGGEST MINT
banknote is produced in the world is in Philadelphia,
by the company, US, where 15 billion coins are
Thomas de La Rue, to made each year.
show to its customers
all over the world.
FIRST CREDIT CARD
was the Diners Club card,
Amazing money World's richest people issued in the US in 1950. The
(excluding heads of state) card enabled the first 200
The people of Yap, a Pacific-
members to eat on credit at 27
island, used large stone disks Name Country Business
for money. The largest was
New York restaurants.
Walton family US Discount store chain
about 12ft (3.7m) across - as
Mars family US Confectionery (sweets)
GREATEST GOLD RESERVES
big as two adults standing on
are held by the United States
each other's shoulders. Du Pont family US Nylon and Lycra
at Fort Knox, Kentucky. The
Rausing Brothers Sweden Packaging gold bars are stored in bomb-
Yoshiaki Tsutsumi Japan Land, railroads, leisure proof vaults, surrounded by
armed guards.
Bill Gates US Computer software

Money facts • Forgers try to make copies of

• The ancient Greeks put a notes and pass them off as
silver coin into the mouths of genuine. Forgers are highly
corpses. The purpose was to pay skilled professional criminals.
the ferryman, Charon, to carry
• "Piggy banks" have been
their souls across the River Styx.
used for saving money since the
• Numismatists are people who 14th century. The first pigs
Gold coins are the
collect coins. were made of clay and had to be
oldest and most precious. smashed to extract the money.

150
 1 .

MONKV

Banks Banking facts • Checks.

Most people find it convenient • Automatic teller machines « ritten
to keep their money in a bank. allow people to withdraw money instructions to
The hank keeps a record of how from their bank accounts 24 make payment
much each person takes out or hours a day. can be written
puts into their account. This • Banks today arrange anything, even a cow
information is printed out in the
insurance, pensions, and • Hanking began in the 14th
form of a bank statement.
mortgages (loans to buy houses), century, in Lombardy,
keeping money safe.
as well as northern I tab.
Automatii telle* mat hm

Stocks and shares

People can invest company by buying
in a
Financial words
Company Price Weekly change Accountant A person who keeps
shares (stocks) in it. If the company makes a
+ /- and checks financial records for a
profit, the shareholders are entitled to some person or business
Birch Inte s 69 -I
of it. Share prices can rise or fall according to Credit An amount of money made
the company's performance. Share prices are ( .im/i Propel tics -1 --
available to make purchases on the
basis that they will be paid for later.
displayed in the financial sections of Kenned) Holding PLC 16 +2

newspapers. Crash A veiy quick and huge drop

Krugei * <>i poration 162 inthe price of shares, causing
people to lose a great deal of
THE STOCK MARKET Shaw Assoi iates \'i\
money.
The stock marker is a place where shares are bought
and sold. People who want to invest in a company I)i\ idend Share of a company 's

employ a stockbroker who buys and sells the shares Shares listing (imaginary) as shown m man) newspaper profits that is paid out to
tor them. The activity of a stock market reflects the shareholders.
economic performance and prospects of a country. Exchange rate The amount of one
country's currency needed to bu) a

Key stock exchanges fixed amount of another country's

currency .

Country City Index

Merchant hank \ bank that deals
Japan Tokyo Nikkei Average in finance and loans for businesses.

United States New York Dow-Jones Share index Shows the price of
selected shares being traded.
United Kingdom London FTSE-100- Stockbroker/Broker \ member

Germany Frankfurt DAX- of a stock ext hange who buys and

sells sh.ucs.
•
Financial Times Stock Exchange 100
Takeover When one companv
*'
bu\s another.
Deutsche Aktien Index

Foreign currency Key hard currencies Galloping inflation

Every country has its own Inflation results when prices increase
Country Currency
money, or currency. Some and the purchasing power of money
currencies hold their value France Franc decreases. Very rapid price rises,
longer than others because Germany Deutschmark called "hyperinflation," took
they reflect the economic- place in Germany between 1921
Japan Yen
strength of the country. Stable, and 1923. At this time, monc\
widely traded currencies are Switzerland Swiss franc was worth so little that children
known as hard currency. United Kingdom Pound sterling used banknotes for building
Dealers buy and sell them on blocks.
United States US dollar
foreign currency markets. German inflation, 1923

Currency values (1994)

Today's money CHARGE CARDS
Increasingly, plastic cards are You can pay for something w ith a
Nearly every country has its own money, or currency. Usually charge card at a store oi pay foi goods
taking the place of cash and
each currency can be broken down into 100 smaller units. over the phone. The credit company
checks as a form of payment. records all transactions and sends a bill
Currencies are worth different amounts, as you can see from the
Banks, credit companies, and each month.
cost of an ounce (2c!.35g) of gold in each currency in this table.
stores issue credit, or charge,
Country Currency Value Cost for an
cards. These allow people to
ounce of gold
buy things and pay for them
Chile Peso 1 00 centavos 164,800 later. The latest cards, smart
China Yuan 100 fen, 10 jiao 3,480 cards, use microchips to store
information.
Ethiopia Birr 100 cents 2,400

Germany Deutschmark 1 00 pfennigs 640

India Rupee 1 00 paise 12,400 SMART CARDS

Japan Yen 1 00 sen 40,000 Money from a bank
.inmini can be
Papua New Guinea Kina 1 00 toea 380 transferred onto a smart
card. This card cm then
Poland Zloty 100groszy 8,960,000
be used in p.i\ tin man)
United Kingdom Pound 100 pence 267 things, from goods m
sioics to electricity bills. Sin, lit i. ml
US Dollar 100 cents 400

151
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, \ND SOCIETY

The birth of democracy

Politics Democracy means "rule by the people."
Democratic traditions of debate and voting
POLITICS IS CONCERNED with the organization of first appeared 2,500 years ago in the ancient

society. Political parties are groups of people who Greek city-state of Athens. A regular general
assembly was held where every male citizen
agree about the way in which a country should be was free to speak and vote. Daily running of
run and who seek to gain power in government. the city was in the hands of an elected
"Council of Five Hundred." Women and
Political systems slaves, however, were not allowed to vote.
Every political system has a central authority called a government
that is responsible for organizing the duties of the state. The most
common form of government in the world today is the presidentia Pericles, leader of Alliens al Ihe height of its power

system. This system has three branches.

Bill Clinton is sworn in as US President. IIS Congress, Washington D.C. US Supreme Court, Washington D.C.

PRESIDENT LEGISLATURE JUDICIARY

In a presidential system, an elected president is The legislaturean assembly of elected
is The judiciary is a legal body that reviews the
the head of state and chief executive. He or she representatives. Every new law must be passed laws passed by the legislature and ensures that
ptoposes new laws and sends them to the by this assembly. It may propose laws itself and they are in line with the country's written
legislature, which may or may not pass them, and votes on those proposed by the president. In Constitution. In the US, the highest legal body is
can also refuse to pass laws proposed by the most presidential systems, the legislature is the Supreme Court. It can judge the activities of
legislature. The president is Commander-in- composed of two assemblies, or houses. In the the executive and legislative branches, and
Chief of the army and controls foreign policy. IIS, the legislature is called Congress. reverse judicial decisions made by lower courts.

F\'RPI 1TIVR US State Department Political facts

The president, as chief executive, is
• The word "government" • The terms right and left wing
responsible for the administration of comes from the latin word come from France's Assembly of
the state and for putting into practice git bemare, meaning "to steer." the 1 790s: conservatives sat on
new acts of law. He or she appoints
the heads of the many administrative • In Switzerland, voting in
the right of the speaker's chair,
departments such as Defense, Trade,
elections is compulsory - it is
and reformers
Education, Agriculture, and State. sat on its
regarded as every citizen's duty.
left.
• Until the 1980s, Soviet leaders

PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM were able to rule Communist

French
In a parliamentary system, political USSR as virtual dictators - with
Assembly.
activity focuses on an assembly where more power than US presidents. c.1 865'
matters are debated and laws are
passed. Citizens elect members to act
as their representatives. In Britain, the
Political records
OLDEST CONSTITUTION
political party with the largest number OLDEST RECORDED LAW-
of members elected to the House of MAKING BODY still in use is that of the US,
Commons forms the government. The is It was
the Althing in Iceland.
which was written in 1787.
leader of that party becomes the Prime
Minister, or chief executive. All
formed about A.D. 930 and
in LARGEST LAW-MAKING BODY
executive power is held by the Prime consisted of 40 local priest- is the National People's
Minister and his or her cabinet. House of Commons - Ihe political fot us chieftains. It was abolished in Congress of the People's
of Parliament and oj British democracy Republic of China.
1800 but then restored in 1843.

Peaceful parliament
Communism
German thinker Karl Marx (1818-83) devised a new
During debates in the British House of
and economic system, which he called
political
Commons, the leaders of the government
Communism, in which all property is owned by the
and opposition stand at two swords'
community and everyone shares in the country's wealth.
lengths from each other. This is a symbol
In 1917, the USSR became the
of the parliamentary rule that members communist state. Wealth
first
should never use violence to solve
was shared more or less equally
political problems.
but, unlike Marx's ideal
communist state, a single party, Under
the Soviet Communist party, capitalism,
a few people
wielded total power and was able own all Ihe

to use it unfairly. lactones, hill

do not share
Communis! magazine, showing a worker profits with
.mashing Ihe chains of capitalism. the workers.

152
 \

POLITICS

Political organizations
and pressure groups Political words
Anarchism Movement in favor of
Throughout the world, people and the abolition of the state.
countries with shared interests form Cabinet Group of advisors to a
organizations to promote and defend their head of state.

interests. Some, such as the United Capitalism E( onomic system

Nations, the Arab League, and the where invested capital
European Community, are concerned with (accumulated wealth) and profit-
member making dnv es industry.
the common interests of states.
Others, such as the environmental group Coalition Temporary alliance
between different parties for
Greenpeace and the human rights group combined action.
Amnesty International, devote themselves
Members Greenpeace protest against plans Jbi a niieleai powei station
Communism Political and
to a particular cause. oj
economic s\ stein in which all
property is commonly owned and
Voting each person is paid according to
People hold elections to choose people to Women's voting their needs ami abilities.

represent them. Each person usually casts rights Congress I IS legislature

one vote, and the candidate who receives the Women have not always composed of two houses - the
Senate ami the louse of
most votes is elected to office. This system shared in decisions about the
I

Representatives.
is used in electing one representative for way they were governed.
Constituency The residents in an
each constituency. An alternative system, Country First vote electoral district.
proportional representation, allocates the
New Zealand 1893 Constitution liasic set of law s
seats in numbers proportional to the total
that set out the institutions through
number of votes given for each party. Australia 1902 power
u Im li political is exercised.

1906 *
Finland Constitutional monarch
System of government authorized
Norway 1913
b\ a constitution with a monarch as

Denmark 1915 the head of State.

d'Etat Violent o\ erthrow of

W
( ^iiiip
Former USSR 1917 -

South African Britain 1918

I j government
Democracy System
by a small group.

of
citizen casts hei
US 1920 government by the whole
vole in 1994 Emmeline Pankhurst, a British
elections for
population or its representatives.
Japan 1945 supportet oj women s voting
president and rights, arrested during a protest. Dictatorship Government by a
parliament.
rulci w ho holds unrestricted
authority.

Government examples around the world Electorate Body of people

entitled to vote in .m election.
Power may be held by groups Totalitarian regimes Military dictatorships
China is ruled by one party, Myanmar (Burma) is Executive Branch of government
or individuals. Democracies
the Communist l\nt\. and ruled b\ a I9-member that carries out laws and performs
mav differ in structure.
other parties are forbidden. military council. general administration.

Monarchies
Saudi Arabia

no
is

absolute monarchy with

an

political parties.
Facade democracies
Iran holds elections for
presidency, but candidates
arechosen b\ those in power.
its

o Presidential republics
France's democracy has
both a president and prime
minister.
Fascism Extreme right-wing
nationalist movement.

House of Commons
the elected

Judiciary
chamber of Parliament.
All the nation's judges.
In Britain,

Legislature Assembly or group

Key political thinkers False starter that passes laws.

Thinker Dates Biographical details Bolivia's political system has Lobb\ Group of people seeking
experienced great turmoil. In to influence law -makers.
Plato 429-347 B.C. Greek philosopher, rejected democracy in
The Republic and insisted that government
the 156 years from its Prime minister Chief executive
was a science, requiring experts. independence from Spain ot government in countries with a
parliamentary system.
(1825) to 1981, Bolivia has
Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527 Italian political thinker and diplomat, wrote a
had 1 J2 changes of
( Republic State in which power is
book, The Prince, that described methods
held In the people or their elected
of achieving political unity. government. This is an
representatives
Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679 English philosopher, argued in Leviathan
average of a new government
Revolution Forcible overthrow of
that human nature made absolute every ten months.
agovernment Ol social order.
monarchy desirable and inevitable.
Socialism Svsiem in which the
Jean-Jacques 1712-78 French philosopher. His Social Contract means of production (factories,
Rousseau argued that people sacrifice their rights in etc. and distribution ate owned
I
b\
return for protection by a head of state. the community as a whole.

Comte de 1760-1825 French social scientist, believed that society Suffrage Right to vote in a
Saint-Simon should be organized along industrial lines. political election.

John Stuart Mill 1806-73 English philosopher and political activist,

Suffragette \ woman who
protests foi hei right to vote.
argued for truly representative democracy.
I r.idc union Group of workers oi
Karl Marx 1818-83 German philosopher and economist,
professionals united to protect and
founder of Communism. Wrote Das Kapital.
promote then rights and interests
Emile Durkheim 1858-1917 French founder of sociology. Totalitarianism lit tutorial I

Max Weber svstem of government that extends

1864-1920 German economist. Described the
us control to all so, i.il institutions.
relationship between economy and society.

153
BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

Law and order Legal words

Every country has Accused Person
of rules or laws designed to
a set
charged with
protect the rights of its citizens. Laws are usually committing a
crime.
enforced by government through the police and the Arson Criminal
courts. In most countries, legal systems are the result damage caused by
fire. Arson
of years of development and reform. Assault Threat or attempt to
physically harm a person.

Early law Bail Money given to gain

temporary release of a prisoner
About 4,000 years ago, King facing trial.
Hammurabi of Babylon set out Scales of justice Bankruptcy Situation in which a
some of the recorded codes of
first The Statue of Justice at the Old person is unable to pay their debts.
behavior. He devised laws, as well Bailey, London (above), holds scales to Barrister In Britain, a lawyer who
show that justice weighs opposing practices in the higher courts.
as penalties, covering family, property,
evidence the way a balance weighs Damages Money claimed or
slaves, and wages. These laws were goods. The sword represents awarded as compensation for loss
engraved on a stone pillar. punishment. Some countries abuse or injury.
their legal powers and remove Defendant Person prosecuted in a
freedoms instead of upholding them. criminal action.
Hammurabi meets the god ofjustice.
Defense Defendant's case in a
law suit.
The first courts Types of law Evidence The means used for
There are several branches of the law proving a disputed fact in
In about 450 B.C., the Romans formed a
each devised to meet the different a legal action.
system of courts in which trials were held; Felony A crime
problems of society.
judges decided whether a person had broken regarded by the law as
the law. In serious cases, the accused paid a CRIMINAL LAW serious, usually
This branch of the law covers acts such as murder, involving violence.
lawyer, called an advocatus, to speak for him.
arson, rape, and robbery. In the US, these are broken down
Most European law is based on Roman law. into first, second, third, and fourth degrees, depending on
English judge

the state of mind of the accused. Fraud Deliberate trickery to gain

Trial by jury an advantage, often financial.
CIVIL LAW Insolvent Situation in which a
Anyone accused of a serious crime has the
This law deals with cases in which no company is unable to pay its debts.
by a jury, usually 12
right to a trial men and Judge Official who hears and tries
crime has taken place, but someone's
women, chosen at random. rights have been infringed. It covers
cases in a court of law.

day-to-day events such as buying a

Jury Group of people who give a
The judge helps the jury on points of verdict in criminal cases on the
house or making a will, as well as
the law, listens to the evidence, basis of evidence given in court.
resolving disputes between companies.
and passes sentence if fhere Kidnap To carry off a person
is a guilty verdict.
against their will.

Prisoner on trial
RELIGIOUS LAW Libel Words published about
This law deals with cases in which religious code people that may harm their good
(the accused)
determines the law. For example. Islamic Law reputation.
is based on the Koran and the teachings of Murder To kill a person.
Muhammad and is the basis for the law in Oath Formal declaration as to the
North Africa and the Middle East. truth of something.
Perjury To willfully tell an
untruth when under oath.
Probation An alternative to a

COURT PROCEDURE Prison population prison sentence whereby an

offender must report regularly to a
A prosecuting lawyer tries to western europe (1994) probation officer.
convince the jury that the accused
Country Prisoners per Prosecution The carrying on of
is guilty, while a defense lawyer
100,000 population legal proceedings.
sets out to prove the person's
Rape To force a person to have
innocence. After listening to UK 92.1 sexual intercourse against her will.
evidence from various witnesses, Jury of 12men and women Sentence The judgment and
the jury has to decide whether chosen from members of the Spain 91.8
punishment passed on a person in
the prosecution has proved guilt. public aged over 18
Austria 87.5 criminal proceedings.
Slander Words spoken about
Switzerland 84.9 people that may harm their good
Prosecution tries
to prove guilt reputation.
France 83.9
Defense tries fo
Subpoena A written demand that
convince the jury Portugal 82.0 aperson appear in court.
that the prisoner is Sue To begin legal proceedings.
not guilty. Germany 78.8
Summons A call
Denmark 63.0 to appear before
a judge or
Finland 62.6 magistrate.
Theft To take another's
Belgium 60.5
property without their
Prison facts • The world's most secure consent. Subpoena
Trial Legal proceedings
prison was Alcatraz, on an
• Early prisons were filthy, and THE DEATH PENALTY to determine issues
island off the California The death penalty is still legal in 105 between parties.
people often died of a kind of
coast. Although 24 countries, although many of them Verdict Decision made
typhus known as "jail fever."
convicts tried to never carry out the sentence. Offenses in a criminal case.

• The range from murder to drug trafficking Warrant Written authorization

longest prison sentence break free, no one
or counterfeiting banknotes. The first allowing police to search property
was 141,078 years, passed on a ever managed to country to abolish the death penalty and make arrests.
woman in Thailand, for fraud. escape. was Austria, in 1787.

154
 Arts and
the Media
All the major art forms, from architecture to music, are given

detailed treatment in this section. Timelines present key

developments in the arts, and tables list famous painters,
composers, architects, and writers. The media pages feature the
latest in modern technology, including virtual reality.

Architecture • Fine Arts • Artists and Materials • Photography

Theater • Dance • Ballet and Modern Dance • Traditional World Dance
Music • Classical Music • Popular Music • Musical Instruments
Writing • Printing • Radio • Television • Movies • Animation
Video • Newspapers

155
ARTS AM) THE MKDIA

e.220() B.C. Stonehenge, a

Architecture massive stone circle that is one of

prehistoric Europe's most complex
stone monuments, is erected

Architecture is the art and C.6500 B.C. Catal c.2650-2150 B.C. Pyramids are
for religious
purposes.
Stonehenge
Hiiyiik in I urkc, one constructed in the lower Nile Valley,
science of designing and of the first known towns, Egypt. The famous Step Pyramid at
constructing buildings. Modern lias rectangular houses Saqqara is designed by Imhotep, a
built from mud bricks. doctor and the first recorded architect.
steel-and-glass structures are now
a feature of cities worldwide.

700-400 B.C. Ancient
Greece. Architects of Greek
temples de\elop three
architectural "orders": Doric,
Ionic, and Corinthian. Each
order has its own style and
proporrions, based on
mathematics and geometry,
that are thought to be
pleasing to the Greek
Parthenon, Alliens
Indian stupa .200 B.C.-A.D. 500 Roman architecture
takes over the Greek orders and the
Etruscan arch. The Romans
develop concrete and use it to
construct huge vaults and
domes. Their public
buildings include courts,
bathhouses, temples, and
c.300 B.C. Buddhist stupas appear in
India and Southeast Asia. These solid amphitheaters.
gods.
mounds symbolize the dome of heaven
and contain sacred Buddhist relics. Colosseum. Rome

607-670 Japan's temple of the
Horyuji Buddhist monastery, Nara,
is the world's oldest surviving
wooden building.
618-782 China. Nanchan
Buddhist temple, Shaanxi
province, built on a holy mountain,
is the earliest surviving traditional
Chinese timber-framed building.
A^=-~
607
690-850 Early Islamic mosques, c.900-1 150 Romanesque
palaces, and houses are designed style of architecture
around courtyards. Mosques have develops in western
minarets (prayer towers), arcades, Europe. Romanesque
and vaulted porches. Surface churches have massive
decoration is often mosaic - patterns rubble-filled walls with
of glass, stone, or marble pieces. small windows. Arches are
semicircular in shape and
778-850 Borobudur Buddhist
stand on top of huge
temple, Indonesia, has 8 stone
cylindrical columns.
Great Mosque, Samaria terraces and 72 bell-shaped stupas. Pisa Cathedral. Italy
618 778

Horyuji Temple

c.1420 Renaissance The Duomo, c.1650 Baroque style in 1750-1840 Neo-Classicism.

begins in Florence, Italy. Florence, Europe reinterprets Architects rediscover the
Italy
Key figures are Roman and Renaissance proportions and details of
Brunelleschi (1377-1446) styles. Architects are Roman and then Greek
and Alberti (1404-72). commissioned by the classical architecture. A
This study of and Catholic Church and the fine example
the is

adaptation of classical royalty to build large-scale, church of Sainte

Roman styles and building grand, and very ornate Genevieve, Paris, later
techniques soon spreads churches and palaces. renamed the "Pantheon.'
through western Europe. Pa n III eon
Church of St. Nicholas, Prague

c.1420 c.1650

1900-40s American architect 1919-33 Bauhaus, 1920s 1970s High-Tech style.

Frank Lloyd Wright (1867- Germany, an International In the steel-and-glass
1959) promotes "organic" influential design Modernism. buildings of Richard
architecture - buildings school led by Walter Leading Swiss- Rogers (born 1933) and
that blend in with Gropius (1883-1969), born architect, Norman Foster (born
3Bt nature, such as teaches design based Le Gotbusier 1935), parts of the
Falling Water, on modern industrial (1887-1965) defines structure and services
Pennsylvania. technologies. a house as"a machine (pipes) are left exposed.
for living in." A typical example is the

Le Corbusier
Lloyds Building, London.
Palling Water Bauhaus, Dessau

1919

ORDERS Caryatids
In classical Greek These female
architecture, an order
statues are used as
consists of an upright
supporting
column supporting a
columns.
horizontal entablature.
\ cornice, a frieze, and
an architrave make up Atlas (male
caryatid)
the entablature itself.
The three Greek
orders are Doric, Doric Ionic Corinthian
Ionic, and Corinthian. 'Fhe Cireeks used From 600 B.C., This decorative
this order from this order appeared order originated in
about 700 B.C. in western Asia. Athens in .500 B.C.

56
 .

ARCHITECT! RE
'>
Ziggurat, I

clSOOB.C. Minoan Palace 800-200 B.C. DOMES

of Knossos ison the
rebuilt Etruscans, in modern- These curved roofs are
island of Crete, Greece. day Tuscany, Italy, use convex (arched) in shape, and
Paintings decorate the walls. the arch m the are often a feature of religions
c.1700- 1200 B.C. construction of their buildings worldwide.
c.2112-2095 B.C. Beehive tomb (tholos) buildings.
Sumerians build ziggurats, is constructed by the ^>***i> pherieal dome
massive, stepped temples of Mycenean ch ilization
mini bricks, in Mesopotamia. on the Greek mainland.
*v^:

A.I). 300-1540 Pre-Columbian A.D. 330-1453 Byzantine

civilizations build stepped pyramid architecture develops
of stone, crowned with temples. when the new Roman
On ion ilium I'tihlit'itud dome
One of the finest to sur\i\e is the Imperial capital moves to
Mayan pyramid, known as the Byzantium (now Istanbul).
piant Jaguar, built before It reflects both Roman and ROOFS
A.I). 800 in the ceremonial Middle Eastern styles. The Roofs are defined bv the
complex at Tikal. largest domed church of its
shape and Structure of their
Guatemala. day, Hagia Sophia. Istanbul, supporting frames. Co\ enngs
is completed in 537. range from tiles to reeds.
Giant Jaguai
Ihpjml riiiif

I Infill Sophia

c.l 100-1500 Gothic A 1113-C.1150 Angkor Wat, a vast stone

style used for
is first temple city, is built by the Khmers
( Ihristian churches in at their capital in lambodia.
( It

northern Europe. New is crowned with lotus-bud

construction methods - spires and covers almost

the pointed arch and the 495 acres (200 hectares).
Pavilion rooj I urret roof Gable and-vaUry
flying buttress - result
roof
in much taller, lighter

structures.

Amiens Cathedral, France \ AU.TS AND ARCHES

Vaults are arched roofs or ceilings, and
1113 there are four main types, \rches
span openings and carrv weight.

L1830-1930s Gothic 19th-century Industrial

Revival. Architects attempt Revolution resultsin mass Band vault
to recapture the style of produced materials that
medieval buildings. They also transform construction. Plate
aim to create a new srvlc glassis used from the 1840s,

Usui}; modern building steel from 1K.S6, and

Casa liatl/u, Barcelona
methods and materials as in reinforced concrete from the
the Pennsylvania Academy of lX60s. Following the 1890- early 1900s Art
Pine Arts. Philadelphia. invention of the elevator, Nouveau - "new art" - is

Home Insurance Building, steel-framed skyscrapers arc- inspired by plant f< s.

(III* il go first erected in Chicago. buildings are very ornate.

Groin vault liiti -vault Ian vault

Mid-1970s Postmodernism 1980s Environmental

develops, a style that refers tc concerns, such as energ)
past stvles, sometimes in a sa\ ing and recycling, are
humorous way. taken into account bv
Buildings are often some architects. Such
strong, bright colors new buildings are more
such as the Nctic environment-friendly
Staatsgalerie, and mav feature greater
Stuttgart, Germany. insulation and sol.u
Xrtu' Staatsealei heating and powei
Pointed arch I l<n\i \hm arch l.iJml an h
IMwh liuililiiiti

WINDOWS
A window is an opening to let in

light and air. Its materials, shape.

CAPITALS BWTTRKSSES
and design reflect a building's
The top section, or head, of a Made of stone or brickwork,
architec tural st\ Ic.
column is called a capital. buttresses are built against
walls to strengthen them.
Flying buttresses transfer
the weight of the upper
part ol .i w .ill to in cmc
support.

Fhine huin,
Egyptian Romanesque Ollhll li„,lll ,()\ ,M I

capital capital iiijuiiil windmi'

157
ARTS AND THE MEDIA

Seven wonders of Architecture facts Records

• Ancient Greeks painted the inside and BIGGEST CASTLE
the world outside of their temples in brilliant colors. inthe world is Prague Castle in the Czech
The present whitened marble is due to Republic. Founded in about 850, the castle
weathering and bleaching by the hot sun. now covers about 20 acres (8 hectares).

• There is about 100 times more stone and TALLEST RESIDENTIAL BLOCK OF FLATS
brick in the Great Pyramid of Gheops than is Lake Point Tower, Chicago, Illinois. It
Temple
there is in the Empire State Building. has 70 floors and is 639ft (195m) high.
of Artemis
Originally erected in • Our ancestors' homes were dark caves. BIGGEST SHOPPING CENTER
about 550 B.( I., this marble temple was burned
Today, in the mining community of Coober in the world is West Edmonton Mall,
dow n and later rebuilt. The gold statue of
Artemis was destroyed, and only one of the Pedy, Australia, people live in well- Alberta, Canada, which is as big as 90
original 127 Ionic columns remains. equipped dugouts with TVs and showers. American football fields.

Traditional homes around the world

AFRICA

Zulu kraal, South Africa Masai house, Kenya Algerian desert village
Mausoleum Pharos Kraals are traditional dome- The Masai people build their Houses are packed tightly
at Haliearnassus of Alexandria shaped, grass-covered houses rounded houses from bent together, so that as little of the
This vast marble Built in about 297 B.C., with low openings at the front. branches covered with cow dung. house as possible is exposed to the

tomb of Turkish ruler this lighthouse stood on blistering heat of the sun.
Mausolos was built in the island of Pharos, OCEANIA
Dogon village, Mali
about 350 B.C. On Alexandria, Egypt. At
In these West African Longhouse
site,only the night burned,
a fire
villages, houses are These communa
foundations remain, reflected by bronze
built of mud-brick, houses are raised
but some statues are mirrors. Three
and storehouse roofs on wooden stilts
in London's British earthquakes reduced the
are thatched. to keep
Museum. building to rubble.
animals out.
Pyramids of Giza
These pyramids were
built at Giza, Egypt,
between about 2575
and 2465 B.C. The
EUROPE
Great Pyramid of
Cheops ishave
said to
taken 100,000 men 20
vears to build.

Swiss mountain chalet Scandinavian house Mediterranean village house

These traditional wooden chalets Roofs of traditionally built The whitewashed stone houses of
have sloping roofs to stop too houses in such cold climates are this region reflect the sun's heat,
much snow from collecting. turf covered to keep in the heat. keeping the interior cool.

ASIA

Statue of Zeus, Colossus of Rhodes

Olympia
This huge statue of
the king of the gods
was made from ivory
and gold. The head
alone measured 43ft
(13m) in height.
This bronze statue of
the Sun god, Helios,
stood more than 1 10ft
(35m) high at the
Yurt Japanese house Chinese house
entrance to Rhodes
Nomads from Iran to Mongolia Traditional timber-framed houses In China, traditional houses are
harbor, Greece. An
these willow-framed tents
live in have sliding walls and doors that arranged around a courtyard. The
earthquake toppled it.
covered in felt and canvas. can be opened to the outside. main part is on the north side.

AMERICAS

Hanging
Gardens
of Babylon
Nebuchadnezzar II

(c.605-562 B.C.), King

of Babylon, built these magnificent terraced
gardens for one of his wives. Although Amyara Indian house Adobe houses New England house
descriptions exist, archaeologists are srill
On Lake Titicaca, Bolivia, In New Mexico, traditional The walls of these North American
looking for the site. Amyara Indians live in houses houses arc built with adobe houses have overlapping wooden
constructed from woven reeds. bricks of sun-baked mud. boards (clapboards).

158
 ARCHITECTURE

Cross-section of a skyscraper,
Key architects
hong kong and shanghai bank, hong kong Name Dates Nationality Building

Mast Illuminated display External maintenance Filippo Bmnelleschi 1377-1446 Italian Santa Maria del 1- lore.
crane Florence. Italv
Michelangelo Buonarroti 1475-1564 Italian Dome of St. Peter's.
Curved Vatican ( at\
glass Circular access Andrea Palladia 1 508-80 Italian Villa Rotonda.
platform
\ icen/.a, ItaK
[nigO Jones 1573-1652 British Banqueting House.
London. England
Face panel Francois Mansart 1598-1666 French ( lhateau de Maiaons,
Mullion
Pans. France
Christopher Wren 1632-1723 British St. Paul's.

London. England
Overhang Jacques-Germain Souftlot 1713-80 French The Pantheon.
Pans. 1 ranee
Andrc\an Zakharov 1761-1811 Russian The Admiralty,
St. Petersburg. Russia
Karl Friedrich Schinkel 1781-1841 German \ltes Museum.
Berlin. German)
Antonio Oiaudi 1852-1926 Spanish La Sagrada lamiha.
Barcelona. Spam
Frank Lloyd Wright 1867-1959 American Falling Water,
Penns) Ivania
Edwin 1, linens 1869-1944 British Viceroy's 1 louse.
New Delhi. India
Adolf I .ocis 1870-1933 ( Izcch Scheu 1 louse.
Vienna, Austria
Walter Gropius 1883-1969 German Bauhaus.
Dessau. German)
Mies van der Rohe 1886-1969 German Seagram Building.
New York. 1 S
Erich Mendelsohn 1887-19.33 German Einstein Tower,
Potsdam. German)
Le ( lorbusier 1887-1963 Sw iss \otre Dame du laut. 1

Ronchamp, France
R. Buckminster Fuller 1895-1983 American ISA Pavilion, Expo67,
Montreal. ( lanada
Philip Johnson b.1906 Vmerican The Glass 1 louse.
< lonnecticui
Overhang ( )scar Niemeyer b.1907 Brazilian Government Buildings.
Full-height
glazing — leoh Minn I' 1-' 1 b.1917 American
Brasilia. Bra/il

Louvre Pyramid.
Paris. France
Arthur Erikson b. 1924 ( Canadian Canadian Embassy,
Glazed curtain Lightweight Washington ).< s I I., 1

wall steel and

Richard Rogers b.1933 British Lloyds Building.
concrete floor
London, England
Norman Foster b.1935 British Hong Kong mm.\
Shanghai Bank.
1 limy Kong
Entrance lobby S,,„//, /,/

On a high Tallest buildings

When the Manhattan
Towers (not illustrated)
Height
skyscrapers were erected, m
red-hot rivets were driven KTHI-TV Mast, North Dakota, US 629 2,064
into holes in narrow steel
KSLA-TV Mast, Louisiana, US 579 1,900
beams hundreds of feet up in
the air with nothing
CN Tower, Toronto, Canada 555 1,821

beneath. Iroquois and Building and location

Mohawk Indians
1 Sears Tower, Chicago, US 443 1,453
show no fear of
heights and have 2 World Trade Center, New York, US 417 1,368
put up many 3 Empire State Building, New York. US 381 1,250
of these
4 Bank of China, Hong Kong 368 1,207
skyscrapers.
5 Amoco Building, Chicago, US 346 1,135

6 John Hancock Center, Chicago, US 344 1,129

7 Chrysler Building, New York, US 319 1,047

8 Nations Bank Plaza, Atlanta, US 312 1,024

9 First Interstate, Los Angeles, US 310 i.mti

10 Texas Commerce Tower, Houston, US 305 1,001

I59
 1

ARTS AND THE MEDIA

Fine arts c.27,000 B.C.

K "Venus" figurines,
small clay statues of
EVERY CULTURE HAS its own works of art. In some ,.

pregnant women,
cultures, artistic styles have changed significantly; others appear across Europe.

have remained more or less the same over thousands of Figurine, Lespugue, France Horse, Lascaux
years. Movements in Western art have been given
names and dates by specialists called art historians.

c.500-323 B.C. Greek 323-31 B.C.Greek e.100 B.C.-A.D. 400 A.D. 100-400
Classical sculptors study the Hellenistic sculptors Roman decorative art Gandharan sculpture,
form of the human body and make statues that flourishes. Relief influenced by Greek art,
explore its movement, making emphasize the body's carvings (standing out develops in the Indus
detailed figures of gods and gracefulness. The portrait from the surface), often Valley region (Pakistan).
athletes in marble, bronze, and isdeveloped and profiles &B depicting Roman Sculptures show scenes
chv Fhidias a famous sculptor of Greek rulers appear on military victories, adorn from the Buddha's life.
makes a huge statue of Athena coins. arches and columns.
forthe Parthenon, Athens,
between 445 and 432 B.C. Detail, fin /mi's column Gandhara Buddha teaching

Bronze charioteer,
^ r , A\t\
Greece
_/£j
1000-1200 1000-1600 Easter 1368-1644 Ming 1450s Printing process
Romanesque style Island (Polynesia). Dynasty in China develops in Germany.
in Europe is displayed Gigantic, half-length is famous for its Illustrations arc first printed
in church sculpture and figures up to 33ft glazed blue and using carved woodblocks;
mural painting and in (10m) in height are white porcelain images are then engraved onto
embroideries such as carved from volcanic bowls and vases. copper for greater detail.
the Bayeux Tapestry, rock and erected
showing the Norman facing the sea.
conquest of England.
Detail, Bayeux Tapestry, 1066 Statue, Easier Island

'*,
1368
w
1600s Dutch Golden Age 1600s Baroque style Late 1700s to mid-1800s.
painters represent scenes from develops in Europe. Paintings Romantic school of painting
c\ eryday life, portraits and feature energetic movement reflects the power of human
still-life subjects (such as fruit and strong contrasts of light emotions and nature. Key
and flowers), and landscapes. and shadow to create dramatic painters include J.M.VV. Turner
Key artists are Rembrandt van effects. Michelangelo da (1775-1851) and Caspar David
Rijn (1606-69) and Jan Caravaggio (1573-1610) is one Friedrich (1774-1840).
Vermeer (1632-75). of the most influential artists.
Norham Castle,
Saskia as Flora. Turner, 1824
Rembrandt, c.1635

1880-1905 Post- 1880s-90s 1880s-90s Symbolist artists create

Impressionist artists Paul
Cezanne (1839-1906),
Vincent Van Gogh
(1853-90), and Paul
Gauguin (1848-1903),
develop in their own
different directions.
Expressionism develops images that portray inner feelings
in Europe. Intense color and suggest what may lie beneath
and free brushstrokes the surface of things. Key painters
communicate artists' include Gustave Moreau (1826-98).
feelings. Ernst Ludwig
Kirchner (1880-1938) is a 1905-7 Fauves, a group of
key figure in Germany. French painters that includes Henri
Matisse (1869-1954), represent the
Drawing, Kirchner world in brilliant color harmonies.

1920s Surrealism develops 1940s Abstract Expressionism Mid-1950s Pop Art Late 1950s Performance
from Dada and Freud's appears in New
York. Artists develops in the LIS and artists combine different
theories of psychoanalysis create abstract images, while Britain. Artists use art forms - painting, music,
(sec p. 132). Artists such as experimenting with the physical consumer goods and theatet, film, video - in
Salvador Dali (1904-89) and properties of paint and different images from the media their work. Key figures are
Max Ernst (1891-1976) use ways of applying it to the canvas. in their work. A key Gilbert (born 1943) and
dreams to explore their Jackson Pollock (1912-56) figure is Andv Warhol George (born 1942), and
hidden feelings. develops his paint-dripping (1928-87). Joseph Beuys (1921-86).
technique as a way of expressing
Salvador Doll 1 97 his feelings more directly. Andy Warhol, 1971 Planted, Gilbert and
George, 1992

&
160
 FINE ARTS

c. 15,000 B.C. Lascaux c.4000- 1000 B.C. Bull-leaping, Crete e.SOOIi.C. Nolc
caves, Prance, are Egyptian art includes culture. Nigeria.
decorated with images painted statues sculpted
1600-1027 Shang West Africa,
of animals. Artists use roni limestone, wall and produces lifelike
Dynasty craftsmen,
natural mineral colors, scroll paintings, and fine terracotta figurine*
2000-1 100 B.C. Minoans on
< Ihina, discover how to cast
applying them with gold jewelry, set with ( Irete, of humans with
in bronze and make
fingers, brushes, and by precious stones. an island near Greece, decorate the indiv idual features
beautiful decorated vessels
blowing through hollow walls of their huge palaces with emphasi/cd.
for food and w inc.
reeds. Nefertiti, Queen oj Egypt colored murals.

terracotta
head

A.D. 100-1000 400-1 100 Medieval 600-1185 Icons 618-907 Tang

Mayan carvings European monks (religious portraitsl arc Dynasty, a golden age
combine ornate produce illuminated developed. Painters in in Chinese art. In this
human figures u itl manuscripts, such as the Eastern Christian period, the great
hieroglyphs the Book of Kells - ( Ihurch follow strict tradition of Chinese
(picture-writing). the four gospels rules that govern how landscape painting
( Ian ing is done copied out and religious figures must develops, and figure
without metal tools illustrated by a 9th- be shown. (people painting
i

centurv Irish friar. continues.

Mayan incense bumet linn. Madonna and Child / lung "blue and green "
landscapt

600

1 1>< Annunciation,
1400-1500 Early Renaissance Leonardo <ln Vinci
starts inFlorence, Italy, with a
revival of interest m Classical
Late 1400s Islamic
sculpture and architecture.
miniature painting
Masaccio (1401-28) is the
flourishes in Persia
painter to use
first
(Irani. Paintings arc
perspective (see p. 162).
brightly colored and
highly detailed.
1500s- 1600s High Renaissance period
The Flood, l'aoln Ucello, *.1~H =
Pome and Venice.
in Italy, particularly

Major artists are Leonardo da \ mci

« (1452-1519), Raphael (1483-1520), and
Michelangelo (1475-1564).

1840s Realism develops in 1848 Pre-Raphaelites in 1860s-90s Impressionism originates

France with painters such .is
Gustave Courbet (1819-77)
who show ordinary people and
their surroundings in a direct,
natural, and lifelike way.
The Winnowers,
England are inspired h\ in France. Painters, notably Claude
painters before Raphael Monet (1840-1926) and Edouard
but develop their own Manet (1832-83), tr\ to capture their
Style and symbols. The impressions, in particular the light,
group includes Dante of a fleeting moment in time.
Gabriel Rossetti (1828-82) Neo-Impressionism develops, led
andJ.E. Millais (1829-96). In Georges Seurat (1859-91), whose
work is based on dots of pure colour.
Courbet, 1855
l l>
Waterlilies, Monet, l >l(i-l

1848

1907-1 920s Cubism 1910-50 Abstract movement 1916 Dada movement.

dev clops in Paris, appears, in which artists" originally a protest
Most expensive paintings
France, w tth Pablo paintings and sculptures do not against World War I. sold at auction
Picasso (1881-1973) directly resemble people or forms
rejects tradirion.il
and Georges Braque things in everyday life. The of Marcel )uchamp
art. I Title, artist, date sold Price in US$
(1882-1963), who use first abstract painting mav be a (1887-1968), selects and
geometric shapes to work (c. 1910) In Wassily displays cv cr\ da\ Portrait of Dr. Gachet, 82,500,000
portrav what thc\ sec. k.mdmskv (1866-1944). objects,which he calls Van Gogh, 1990
"ready-mades."
Au Moulin de la Galette, 78.100,000
Picasso, 1955 Hornform, Kandinsky, 1924 Renoir, 1990

Irises, Van Gogh, 1987 53,900,000

Les /Voces de Pierette, 51 ,895,000

1980s Art in Nature. Picasso, 1989
From 1970s Video
Artists use ideo and
v
\msrs such as Kit haul Long
(born 1945) and \nd\
Self Portrait: Yo Picasso, 47,850,000
computer technology.
foldsworthy (bom 1956) Picasso, 1989
Their installations (

(exhibitions) feature create outdoor works of art thai

are in hanimin w uh the
Au Lapin Agile, 40,700,000
v ideo projection. \
landscape. Materials stones, Picasso, 1989
key figure is Korean-
born Nam Jim Paik leaves, ere. arc found on site
Sunflowers, Van Gogh, 1987 40.342,500
(born 1932).
Portrait of Cosimo 1 de 35.200,000
Mower, ind} Goldsworthy, 1992
Medici, Pontormo, 1989

161
ARTS AND TIIK MKDIA

Artists and materials Layers of a painting

"There are several layers to an oil painting.
These can help modern historians to date a
Artists USE paint to create images of the world as Varnish picture accurately, and also to spot
they see it. Originally they painted on cave whether it is a fake. This artwork,
walls, using the most basic materials. Paint layers showing a section of Caravaggio's Youth
with a Ram, reveals the layers through
Today, an artist can choose different Drawing a typical 17th-century oil painting.
materials and techniques to layer

express his or her ideas

and feelings. Artist facts
• Architect and artist Leon
Materials Battista Alberti (1404-72) wrote a

Artists paint on many surfaces using a

key book about perspective in
1436. His methods enabled artists
range of materials. One person may spread Imprimatura
to create a
thick blobs of oil paint on a canvas with a knife,
Priming geometrically
while another will apply delicate brushstrokes of
controlled space
watercolor onto a sheet of paper. Some artists paint Size

with their fingers, or employ traditional methods such 7 on a two-

Ground
dimensional
as egg tempera.
surface.

PIGMENTS • Making copies of paintings by

made from
DRAWING TOOLS BRUSHES
Paint is
Artists often make sketches (quick Paintbrushes into two main
Old Masters was considered an

»
fall
pigments (powdered essential part of a young
drawings) to record what they see, or groups, soft-hair brushes, mostly
eolors). Pigments were
to prepare for a finished work. Many used for watercolors, and bristle painter's training. Edouard
first found in natural
drawings are sold as finished works of brushes, used in oil painting and
substances such as carbon Manet made copies of both
art. A variety of tools is available. acrylics. Within these groups
(black), chalk (white),
there are three main types (round,
Delacroix and Titian while
and red and yellow Malachite working as a student.
flat, and filbert) defined by the
earths. The ancient Conte crayon
length and shape of the hairs.
• Pablo Picasso's famous work

*
Egyptians added mineral
colors such as malachite Guernica (1937) depicts scenes
(green) from copper, and H* VSSft; from the Spanish Civil War.
ultramarine (blue) from Pencil
lapis lazuli.
Picasso refused to let the
Lapis lazuli Round
Graph lie painting hang in Spain until the
slick
country was free. It remained in
Material facts Flal New York until 1981, when
• The pigment Indian yellow
democracy was restored.
used to be made by boiling the
urine of cows fed only on mango • Katsushika Hokusai
Reed pen Filbert
leaves. The urine was mixed and ink
(1760-1849) was a master of the
with earth, heated, and dried. Japanese ukiyo-e (pictures of
PAINTS Watercolor paints Acrylic paints the floating world) school. He
• Brushes were once made by Oil paints These are pigments These were developed
bound with gum arabic US during the
made beautiful
tying white hog These are a mixture of in the
dry pigment and an oil - and diluted with water. 1920s. Acrylic is applied woodblock color
bristles to a stick.
usually linseed oil. They They became popular with a knife, or diluted prints showing
The brush was were used by 15th- with 18th-century and used with a brush.
first views of
then used to whitewash a wall century painters, such as landscape artists, such as Acrylic was used by-
Mr.. Fuji.
until the bristles became supple. Jan van Eyck. J. MAY. Turner. Andy Warhol.

• Thousands of years ago, artists Fake facts

in Australia mixed paint, such as
red ocher or charcoal, in their
mouths and spat the
paintings on the cave walls.
color into

n i Oil paint
% Watercolor
paint
MR
^^^
;\t lylll

paint
• Paint can be dated by analyzing
itscontent. Cobalt blue, for
example, was not produced
before 1802, but is used by
forgers when they need a cheap
substitute for ultramarine.
Popular European Sculptor facts Labor of love • Many signed drawings and
• When Rodin exhibited his Michelangelo painted the paintings, supposedly by
galleries (1993) major work, The Age of
first ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in
Rembrandt, were actually done
Art Gallery Visitors
Bronze (1878), it caused a Rome. 'The fresco covers more by artists of his school.
sensation. The figure was so than 9,688sq ft (900sq m), and
Louvre, Paris 5,000,000 • Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa
lifelike he was accused of took four and a half years to
was stolen from
Prado, Madrid 1 ,828,058 casting it from a living model. complete.
the Louvre in
Uffizi Gallery, Florence 1,020,972 • Henry Moore's work was 1912. It took
Van Gogh Museum, 850,952 influenced by the carvings of three years to
Amsterdam the Aztecs. A sculpture of their find, during
ancient rain god, Tlaloc, gave which time six
National Gallery, 575,880
London him the idea for fotgeties turned
his statues of up in the LIS,
Alte Pinakothek, 325,84
Munich Reclining each selling for a
Women. very high price.

162
 . , 1

ARTISTS AND MATH RIALS

Artists' words Key artists

Airbrushing Spraying on color under pressure Name Dates Nationality key work ^^-Jfe^
with an airbrush. Donatello c. 1386-1466 Italian Da: id
Alia prima A direct form of painting made
one session. Used h\ artists when dic\ want
paint spontaneously

Casting To make an object, often a sculpture, by

in
to
Jan van Eyck
Piero della Francesca
Sandro Botticelli
Albrecht Diircr
c. 1390-1441

c. 1420-92

c. 1445- 15 10

1471-1528
Flemish
Italian
Italian
German
and his \\ it,
Arrtolfini
Dream of Con start line
of Venus
liirr/i

Melancholia
X
pouring metal into a mold and letting it harden. Michelangelo Buonarroti 1475-1564 Italian Dai id. The Creation of Adam
Chiaroscuro The treatment of light and shade in Raphael 1485-1520 Italian The Sistine Madonna .

drawing and painting. Titian e. 1487-1 576 Italian Assumption of the Madonna
Chroma The intensity or saturation of a color. Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519 Italian Mona Lisa
Pieter Bruegel the Klder c. 1525-69 Flemish .1 Country Wedding
Collage A pictorial technique in which various
materials are arranged and fixed to a hacking. Michelangelo da ( ^arav aggio 1573-1610 Italian The Supper at Emmaus
Peter Patil Rubens 1577-1640 Flemish Peace and War
Craquelure The network of small
cracks that appears on a painting Frans Hals 1580-1666 Flemish hi ugh irig Cavalier
n hen. in the course of time, the Artemisia Gentileschi 1593-1651 Italian Judith and Holofernes
pigment's varnish has become Nicholas Poussin 1594-1665 French h.t in Arcadia Ego
brittle. Diego do Velazquez 1599-1660 Spanish I .as Meninas
Engraving The various processes Claude Lorrain 1600-82 French Landscape with Sacrifice to Apollo
of cutting a design into a plate or Rembrandt van Rijn 1606-69 Dutch The Night Watch
block of metal or wood, and the prints Jan Ycrmecr 1632-75 Dutch Young Woman with a Water Jug
"k/iu
taken from these plates or blocks. Antoine Watteau 1684-1721 F"rench Lrul/arcatioii for the Isle of Crthera
Etching A method of engraving in which a Antonio Canaletto 1697-1768 Italian The Stonemason 's ) arc/
corrosive acid "cats" a design Thomas Gainsborough 1727-88 English The Blue Boy
into a metal plate. 1746-1828
Francisco de Goya y Lucientes Spanish The Second ofAfay
Ferrule The metal part of a brush that surrounds Jacques-Louis David 1748-1825 French The Death of Marat
and retains the hairs. Caspar David Fricdrich 1774-1840 German Solitary 'Tree
Fresco Pondered pigments mixed in water and Joseph Mallord William Turner 1775-1851 Fnglish The Lighting Temeraire
means "fresh"
applied to wet lime-plaster, fresco John Constable 1776-1837 English 'The Nay Wain
in Italian. Eugene Delacroix 1798-1863 French The Massacre at Chios
.

Gesso A traditional surface for tempera and oil Gustave Courbet 1819-77 French The Peasants of Llagey
painting on a panel made of glue and plaster Kdouard Manet 1832-83 French Dejeuner sur I'herhe
of paris. Paul Cezanne 1839-1906 French . Mont Ste. I ictoire

Glaze film of transparent color laid over a Auguste Rodin 1840-1917 French The Kiss
painting once it has dried. Claude Monet 1840-1926 French The Water Lilies
Gouache Similar technique to watercolor but glue- Auguste Renoir 1841-1919 French Le Moulin de la Calette
is used to bind the color together. 1 'sed Mary Cassatt 1844-1926 American La l.oge
since the 18th century. Paul Gauguin 1848-1903 French 'Le Rereioa (Rest)
Ground The surface on which color is applied. Vincent van Gogh 1853-90 Dutch Sunflowers
Gum arabic Gum from the acacia tree, which is Georges Seurat 1859-91 French A Summer Sunday at hi Grande
used as a binding material in the manufacture of Jatte
watercolor paints. Gustave Klimt 1862-1918 Austrian The Kiss
Impasto Paint put on so Edvard Munch 1863-1944 Norwegian The Scream
thickly that it stands up from Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec 1864-1901 French Le Moulin Rouge
the surface. Wassily kandinsky 1866-1944 Russian Shrill-Peaceful Pink
Imprimatura A thin overall Kathe Kollw it/ 1867-1945 German Bread
film or stain of translucent color Pierre Bonnard 1867-1947 French At tin fable
over a white priming. Henri Matisse 1869-1954 French La Dans,
Pigment The coloring matter, Pier Mondrian 1872-1944 Dutch New YoriCily I

usually powder, which forms Constantin Brancusi 1876-1957 Romanian Endless Column
the basis of all paint. Paul Klee 1879-1940 Swiss . \ mbassador ofA utumn
Priming The preliminary Fernand Leger 1881-1955 French The Outing
S'graffito
coating that is put onto the Pablo Picasso 1881-1973 Spanish Lis Demoiselles <T Avignon
support before painting. Georges Braque 1882-1963 French Man with a Pipe
S'graffito A technique
using a scalpel or sharp Marcel Duchamp 1887-1968 French The Large Class
knife in which dried paint is scraped off the painted Georgia O'Keeffe 1887-1986 American Lilies
surface. Used to create texture. Egon Schiele 1890-1918 Austrian Death and the Maiden .

Size Material such as glue or gelatin used to Max Krnst 1891-1976 German On the Threshold ofLiberty
prepare canvas prior to priming or to reduce the Joan Mird 1893-1985 Spanish The Birth of the World
absorbency of paper. Rene Magritte 1898-1967 Belgian I'll, I St of Words

Support The material on which a painting is Henry Moore 1898-1986 Fnglish Reclining figure
made, such as paper, canvas, or a wooden panel. Alberto Giaeomctti 1901-66 Swiss The forest
Tempera Usually refers to egg tempera, a Mark Rothko 1903-70 American Blue, Orange, and Rid
pigment bound w ith egg white instead of glue. Barbara 1 lepvvorth 1903-75 Fnglish Wa\
Most important technique for panel painting Salvador Dali 1904-89 Spanish Premonition of a Cn.il War
(wood) in Europe from 13th to 15th centuries Francis Bacon 1909-92 English The Screaming Pop,
before oil. Layers of paint are built up slowly.
Jackson Pollock 1912-56 American I ,/. , nd, r Mist
Tone The degree of darkness or Joseph Bcuvs 1921-86 German Lh, Pack
lightness of a color.
Sw
Jean Tinguely b.1925- ISS Homage to New York
Trompc-I'oeil A still-life painting Robert Rauschenberg b.1925- American lied
designed to give an illusion of reality. Andy Warhol 1928-87 American Marilyn .1/ on roe
Varnish Protective surface ovei .i Jasper Johns b.1950- American Thin flags
Finished painting that gives a Bridget Riley b.1931- English I at. Morning
glossv or matt appearance.
1 )avid 1 lockiicv b.1957- English , r Splash
Wash A thin, transparent layer Gilbert and George b.1943-, 1942- English (
'nderneath th, 1

Wash
of paint. Ansel m Kiefer b.1945- German Scorched faith

105
 —
\RTS AM) THE MEDIA

1 I ill century 1727.Johann Schulze

Photography Camera ohscura

("dark room")
in\ cured in
is
(1687-1744), a German
discovers that silver nitrate
darkens when exposed
doctor,

to light.

PHOTOGRAPHY is a way of recording Arabia for

observing solar 1827 First photographic image
images using a lens and some light- eclipses. It later
isproduced by Joseph Niccphorc
sensitive material. Taking a good forms the basis
18th-century camera Niepce (1765-1833). It takes
of photography. obst inn inihtili'\ a imr eight hours of exposure time.
photograph depends more on the First photographic imag

photographer's visual skills than $ .<?,

1727 1827

on the equipment used. a

1839 Daguerrotype 183" Calotype 1851 Collodion process 1907 First practical 1913 35mm film is

process developed by
is process is invented is developed by color photographic used for the first time.
Frenchman Louis by Englishman English sculptor process is introduced by
Daguerre (1757-1851). William Fox Frederick Archer French brothers Auguste
Talbot (1800-77). (1813-57). His (1862-1954) and Louis
This negative- glass-plate (18d4-l u 48) Lumiere.
positive process negatives allow
allows photographs paper prints to
to be copied. be made.
William Fox Talbot Frederick Archer

1839 1851

1924 The Leica I, the
first 35mm camera, is
launched commercially.
Its frame counter runs to
36 exposures, setting the
standard for later cameras.
1935 Kodachrome 1947 First instant 1975 Using special cameras 1976 First compact 1990 First "Eye-Start"
film invented,
is picture camera, invented andlights, an American camera with automatic system is introduced. The
allowing color by American Edwin Land scientist photographs a bullet focusing is produced in camera lens automatically
transparencies to be (1909-90), is marketed by passing through an apple at Japan by Konica. It is zooms in on the subject
both projected and Polaroid Corporation. one three-millionth of a called the Konica C35AF when you look through
reproduced. second exposure. the viewfinder.

Leica I 1939 First important

negative color film is
1994 First integral
produced by Agfa. 35mm still and video

camera is launched.
Edwin Land

1924 1935 1939 1990 1994

Photography facts Photography

Types of camera • The successful camera

m
first

weighed 511b (23kg), which is

words
Aperture The opening in
the same weight as a red-
the camera lens that controls
necked wallaby. the amount of light passing
on to the film.
• Every day, more than two
million photographs are taken Auto-focus A system in the camera
Basic compact
Manual SLR camera
camera
which adjusts the focus automatically.
Automatic SLR around the world.
.am era l
Darkroom A lightproof room used
*'-jjJj • Until about 1930, for developing photographic film.
photographers made flash lights
Electronic flash The light source
by creating small explosions on a camera that is needed for
with magnesium powder. taking pictures after dark, indoors,
or in dim light.
\a ..i
compact.
'
• One 35mm transparency

8
Advanced Enlargement A
6cm x 4.5cm roll (slide) can hold as much photographic print that
film camera information as a single high- is larger than the

density floppy disk for a negative from which it

was developed.
personal computer.
Motor-drive The
device on a camera that
Stiff shot enables you to take a rapid
Direct vision camera The first cameras required sequence of photographs.
6cm x 7cm roll 6cm x 9cm roll film camera
film camera long exposure times, so people SLR (single-lens reflex) A type of
had to stand still camera where the view through the
for long periods viewfinder is what will actually be
recorded on the film.
in order to
avoid a Transparency A positive
Instant camera image, in black and white or
Waterproof camera blurred
Wide-view camera color, that produced on a

f
is
image. The transparent film.
photographer

+
Tripod A stand that supports
also attached a a camera to keep it steady
clamp to the and avoid blurred images.
subject's head Viewfinder The device on
and body. acamera that shows what
Large-format camera Single-use camera
Panoramic camera will be in the photograph.

164
 PHOTOGRAPHY

Light source The

Inside a camera The light path illuminating the subject
light

A camera is basically a lightproof box inside the camera is reflected through the

that has a hole, or lens, at one end. This diagram shows how camera lens.

An open lens allows light to enter

Rear viewfinder light is adjusted when it Lens \ piece ai
and shine on a piece of film (light- camera travels through the camera to curved glass that
sensitive paper) inside the camera, reflects the light r.i\s.
form an image on the light-
forming an image. The most sensitive film. Diaphragm \ de\ ice
important parts of a camera are the for controlling the

lens, shutter, and diaphragm. amount of light

entering the camera,
Frame counter Aperture control made of metal plates.
ring
t forms an adjustable
Shutter speed _
dial aperture thole I.

Shutter The shutter

Shutter release can be set to open
button and close at different
speeds, which
determines tor how
long the film is
exposed to the light.

Focal plane and

film The local

aoooooorjfcooooooc P ,anc " hcre thc

ls

light from the lens

is brought into

Q-) locus, coinciding

Front lens element uODOuuDOuonrjOOut with the position
it the film.

Film speed
Film comes in various speeds, which are shown on
Fisheye lens wide-angle Filters are flat,
Types of lenses lens
is

which covers up
a
to 210° colored disks that the package as ISO (International Standards
Lenses can be fitted onto the of vision. are attached to the Organization) numbers. This table shows their
basic camera lens of certain front of a camera uses for different situations and subjects.
Fisheyelem cns to alter or
types of cameras to create l

„ distort the subject. ISO Speed Situations and subjects

o
different effects in a photograph
or to help take a better picture 32 Slow Well lit. still life

of difficult subjects.
200 Medium General subjects and lighting levels

400 Moderate-fast Dimly lit, moving subjects

Wide-angle lens allows 50% Standard lens shows the scene

more of the subject to appeal on almost as it appears to the
the film than a standard lens. naked eye. Famous photographers
Purple Julia Robert Cupu
Wide-angle
Standard lens Margaret (1913-54)
lens
Cameron Hungarian-

Telephoto lens used to take close-

is Super telephoto lens
$ (1815-79)
British-born
portrait
photographer.
born war
photographer.
In 1947 Capa
and ( iaiticr-
Bresson founded
Magnum Studios.

ups of subjects from a distance and to is a specialized lens that needs a Henri Carrier Richard Avedon
make them appear bigger. tripod to support its weight. ^^, -^ Bresson boi n
i (born 1923)
Telephoto lens 1908) French American
photographer photographer
who dnl muc h famous for
to establish portraits and
photo- fashion pictures
journalism as
an art form.

Color film has three

Developing lasers of light-sensitive
A photograph is developed by emulsion Each reacts to
a color - eithei blue,
fixing theimage onto special
green, or red. The
photographic paper using
emulsion layers record
chemicals. This process is done how much of eat h i oloi
in the dark. there is in the image

IKach grain of
on the film
silver
changes when it is
exposed to light.
The film must be
processed before the
image can be seen.

165
 )

\K IS AND 1111. \n:ni\

c.3000 B.C. Religious e. 1000 B.C. Thespis's cart

Theater ceremonies all over the

world include music, dance,
and elements of drama.
Chinese and
Indian dance-
dramas develop
c.500 B.C. Tragedy,
and soon comedy,
develops in Greece.
MODERN WESTERN THEATER has and become
more formalized 534 B.C. Thespis, the first 384-322 B.C. Aristotle,
its origins in ancient Greece. in style. actor to step outside the chorus Greek philosopher,
of singers and dancers, arrives explains his theories of
The word comes from the itself Egyptian hunters in Athens. tragedy in The Poetics.

ancient Greek word theatron, 1000 B.C. 534 B.C. 500 B.C. 320 B.C.

meaning "place for viewing."

e. 200 B.C. Romans c.A.D. 1-100 c. 1200 Traveling story- 1453 The c. 1500
adapt Greek comedies. Pantomimus, a form tellers in Middle Eastern Renaissance Commedia
Plautus (254-184) and of theater in which countries use mime to break begins in Italy, and dell'Arte
Terence (190-159) actors used gesture through language barriers. soon spreads to the companies
are among the most and movement to act rest of Europe. ^"» from Italy
popular playwrights. out tragic stories, was c. 1300 Indian folk theater Roman plays are travelwidely in
popular in Rome develops, following the revived, and Europe, greatly
c. A.D. 1 Sanskrit throughout the decline of Sanskrit theater. buildings reflect the influencing

theater quickly first century. Noh theater becomes the style of classical theatrical styles.

flourishes in India.
dominant form in Japan. architecture.
Pantomimus Harlequin

200 B.C. A.D. 1 1200 1300

1564 William Shakespeare, 1603 Okuni, a young 1678 Aphra Behn 1782 Friedrich von
an English Japanese woman, (1640-1689), an Schiller (1759-1805), a
'^jij^ dramatist, is born. creates a new dance English dramatist, German dramatist, stages
called Kabuki. stages The Rover, a The Robbers. This play is
-#*J l
c. 1600 Kathakali (meaning Restoration comedy among those that inspire
story-play) is created in India. 1653 Japanese Behn is the first the German Romantic
Actors use body language authorities allow only British woman to movement of the late
and mime to tell popular adult males to perform write plays for a 18th and early 19th
Hindu epic stories. Kabuki, and it begins living. She- centuries (see p. 161).
to develop a more is also a spy.
Kathakali theatrical style. Friedrich von Schiller

1600 1653 1678 1782

e. 1800 Peking Opera 1877Henrik 1894 George 1896 Alfred Jarry c. 1905
'""
begins China. The
in Ibsen (1828-1906), Bernard Shaw (1873-1907), a Expressionism
performances are a mixture of a Norwegian (1856-1950), an Irish French dramatist, (see p.161
mime, song, dance, dialogue, dramatist, stages The dramatist, stages stagesUbu Roi in emerges in
and acrobatics. In Vietnam, Pillars of Society. Arms and the Man. Paris.The play later Germany. Georg
Hat Boi uses a similar influences the Kaiser (1878-1945)
theatrical style to c. 1890 Symbolism 1894 The Olympia movement called and Ernst Toller
dramatize tales of war (see p. 160) begins in Theater is the first 'Theater of the Absurd. (1893-1939) are
and suffering. A the German to open on Broadway, popular
%-*. theater. New York. playwrights.
Peking Opera Poster forUbu Roi

1800 1877 1890 1894 1896 1905

1905 The Russian 1935 Antonin Artaud 1949 Bertolt Brecht 1950 Eugene Ionesco
Revolution creates a (1896-1948), a French (1898-1956), a German (1912-1994), a French
need for Agit-prop dramatist, stages Les dramatist, founds the dramatist, stages The Bald
(agitational propaganda) Cenci, the first play Berliner Ensemble. Primadonna, the first
theater. Actors act out to represent Theater The company stages example of his Theater
political events, of Cruelty. This style plays in Brecht's of the Absurd.
replacing newspapers of theater is "epic" style, always
for the many people intended to horrify reminding the 1955 Tennessee
who cannot read. the audience. audience that it is Williams (1911-1983), an
watching a play, and American dramatist, stages
Agitprop Bertoll Brerhl not real events. Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.

1905 1935 1949 1950

1956 John Osborne 1959 Jerzy 1986 Wole Soyinka 1990s Musicals, especially
(born 1929), an Grotowski (born (born 1934), a Nigerian revivals such as Crazy for You, ire
English dramatist, 1933), a Polish actor, dramatist, becomes the the most popular form in most
stages Look Bach in founds the Polish first black African to win commercial western theaters.
Anger. The term Laboratory Theater. the Nobel Prize for Crazy For You
"kitchen sink drama" literature. He was
is used to describe its 1970s The Women's imprisoned from 1967 to
realistic coverage of Liberation 1969 for criticizing the
everyday life. Movement produces Nigerian government
many women's | ^
Look Hack in Anger theater groups. Wole Soyinka

1956 1959 1986

166
 .

TIIKV11.K

A MODERN THEATER Scenery is suspended

In ropes from a grid
Curtain is

lowered while
usually Iron, or safety
curtain, separates
FOLLOW SHOT OPERATOR
The follow spot operator controls a
Many modern theaters are designed above the stage. This stagehands change stage and auditorium heavy spotlight, directing
like this one, with a proscenium arch area is called the "flics. the set (scenery ). so that a fire cannot the beam of light so
spread roo quickly moving
separating the real world of that a actor is

the audienee from the

always lit. The
follow spot is usually
pretend world of the aetors either in the
The word "proscenium" lighting box. or
comes from the ancient high up ai one-

side of the
Greek/)//; skene, meaning
auditorium.
"in front of the stage."

Upstage (farthest from the

Dressing rooms
audience) actors arc well lit.
are usually shared
and draw the
audience's
b\ members of
the company.
attention.
Actors are
( reen room is
sometimes
w here actors rest
accused of
between scenes.
"upstaging"
each other.
Dressing room
for an actor who
Props is raking a
(properties)
leading role.
are objects
that the actors
carry on stage.
They are kept Wardrobe
on a table in department
the wings. / makes and
looks after
costumes.
Wings each side of the
at
stage provide space for Scenery is

scenery and costumes made anil

that will be used later.
Downstage (toward /
the pit) the audience's
attention can easily be
distracted. Actors use this
area when another actor
has more important lines.
stored in the
workshop.
Elevators can make Orchestra pit is in front Lighting operators Stage manager gives
actors or scenery of the stage. In many control lighting using "calls" tomake sure
appear and disappear to theaters the pit can be a board, or console. that scenery moves and
surprise the audience. covered to extend the Computerized boards actors make their
Some theaters have- stage or add extra seating control every light in entrances on time.
two or more elevators. if necessary. the theater.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616)

MOST POPULAR AMERICAN PLAYS (script sales)
William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-
upon-Avon, England, but moved to London Title First staged Playwright
in about 1590. There he became an actor and
Our Town 1938 Thornton N. Wilder (1897-1976)
playwright, and a shareholder in the Globe
Theater. 'Today Shakespeare is the most A Streetcar Named Desire 1948 Tennessee Williams (191 1 -83)
often performed playwright in the world.
He is thought to have written 37 plays, Death of a Salesman 1949 Arthur Miller (born 1915)

with more than 100,000 lines. The

Long Day's Journey Into Night 1957 Eugene G. O'Neill (1888-1953)
longest Shakespearean role is Hamlet,
which has a total of 1,530 lines. Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? 1962 Edward Albee (born 1928)

Theater records THE IMAGINARY INVALID Theater facts

SMALLEST PROFESSIONAL EARLIEST KNOWN STONE Mohere (1622-1673), France's • I'ntil the invention of
THEATER AMPHITHEATER most famous dramatist, acted greasepaint in the 1860s,
is the Piccolo in Hamburg, was built in Rome about
in and managed a theatrical stage make-up contained
company u riting
as well as
Germany. It can seat no 54 B.C. It held approximately
plays. le died w ithin hours of
I
lead. Main actors died
more than 30 people. 40,000 people. collapsing on stage in a from lead poisoning.
LONGEST RUNNING PLAY SHORTEST RECORDED PLAY, production of his ow n • The title of Macbeth is
The Mousetrap, which has play, Le Malade
is Breath, by Samuel Beckett, considered unlucky in the
Imaginairt (Tit
been running in London consists of 35 seconds of Imaginary Im <alid). theater. Instead, the pl.i\ is
"
since 1952. human cries and breaths. called "the Scottish play

Building theaters \

Since the ancient Greeks built

the first theaters in the 5th
century B.C. the style of _____ \
theatrical buildings has altered I I

constantly to suit the demands Ancient Greek theaters Roman theaters were Renaissance theaters Elizabethan English Modern stages take

of the plays performed in them. had scats built into the built ofwood or stone were loosely based on theaters had several many forms. ( )ne is

sides of a natural bow I. in asemicircular those of ancient Rome, entrances .»^\ exits, theatei m the round,
In many modern theaters, the
The center was used foi shape. A permanent w nli the audience on used foi acting out w here the audience
shape and size of the stage can singing and dancing, and roof sheltered the one side only. i omplex plots. surrounds tlu
be changed for each production. the small stage for acting. ,n mis on stage,

167
\RTS WD TIIK MKDIA

Japanese theater yr Mime Theater words

The two forms of
traditional Mime, or the art of gesture and
Angel Someone who provides the
Japanese cheater arc Noh and movement, has always been financial backing for a production.
Kabuki. The actors arc male, part of acting. But Apron The part of the stage in
and usually trained by their modern mime, which front of the proscenium arch (see
fathers to act a particular role. developed mainly in
(
p. 167).

Noh and
actors w ear masks, France, does not use Arena A stage that is surrounded
b\ seating for the audience.
Kabuki actors use make-up. the spoken word at all.

One of the most famous mime Block To set the actors'

movements around the stage.
KABl kl CHAKAGTERS artists is the Frenchman Marcel
, \ Snli ill till ( Ihorus Actors in ancient Greek
Marceau (born 1923).
drama who sang and commented
on the action.
Costumes Corpse To burst into laughter
Costumes play an important part in any production. on stage.

They can change an actor's appearance by altering Deus ex

shape or height, indicate the period and country in machina
(God from the
which a play is set, or completely transform an actor
machine) A
into an animal, an object, or a fantasy figure. god brought
in to resolve

Noble mull Crab Wicked male the plot in

ancient
Greek drama. Dens ex machina
Cabaret Director The person who has
Cabaret may be pure entertainment, or it artistic control of a production,
can contain political statements. Writers and interpreting the script and

performers often use cabaret to comment on rehearsing the actors.

society or to challenge fixed ideas. Dress rehearsal The last

rehearsal before the opening night.
with costumes, lights, and scenery.
Dry To forget one's lines.

Flats Screens painted with

scenery, often on both sides, which
can be moved around the stage for
different effects.

Footlights Lights at the front of

the stage, near the auditorium.
Fringe theater Alternative
Ancient Greek actors Animal costumes are Modern costumes theater, including unconventional

wore masks, and often usually padded and tellus about the plays, \enues, or theatrical styles.

platform shoes, tomake heavy, and can be period as well as Gallery Seats at the top rear of the
Au mid ans. performed at the Admirals Palace, Berlin, 1926 them appear godlike. difficult to move in. the character. auditorium. Also called "the gods."
Ham A bad actor,

Puppets and puppetry Puppet facts usually one who ,

k
t k
overacts. '''••)?
There have been puppet shows Europe
in Wayang Kulit plays may last
• a
House The <'\ "^•••
and probably even whole week, and some use as
I

since at least 500 B.C.,

audience.
earlier than this in other parts of the world. many as 200 puppets.
Limelight
• Punch and Judy (British) and Powerful light,
ANIMATRONICS SHADOW PUPPETS Petrushka (Russian) grew out of like that once
The term animatronh Shadow puppets are one produced by
s

characters in Commedia dell'Arte

is used to describe a of the most versatile burning lime.
puppet that kinds of puppet. They (see p. 166).
is partly Open stage A
controlled b\ electronics. are controlled by sticks • It takes three puppeteers to stage without a
Operators control the joined to their arms and
control each of the Bunraku doll proscenium H Hni,
facial movements from legs. In Indonesia arch, with the
a distance by sending shadow puppetry is puppets of Japan.
audience seated on three sides.
electronic signals called Wayang Kulit.
Producer The person responsible
through a cable.
for financial and practical aspects of

STRING PUPPETS
Theatergoing a production. A theatrical producer

'. In some parts of the around the world is not usually involved in artistic

direction.
world string puppets Country Theater visits in a
perform complete operas
Prompt To whisper lines to an
year (per 1 00 people) who has forgotten them. A
actor
or tragedies. The
puppeteers mine the Cuba 255 "prompt" is someone employed for
this purpose.
puppets* limbs from
Mongolia 170 Rake The
above using strings.
Vietnam 100 angle of
the stage.
FINGER PUPPETS UK 72 In modern
Finger puppets are theaters the
Iceland 65 rake can be
eas} ro make and
operate, but limited in Bulgaria 65 altered for
movement. Glove different productions.
Luxembourg 62
Trap A

rjy m
puppets lit over the trapdoor opening into the
whole hand, and each V'l Romania 58 area below thestage. Often used
finger moves a different together with an elevator for
part of the puppet. Netherlands 58 surprise entrances (see p. 167).

US 17 Walk-on A nonspeaking part.

.68
 DANCE

c.15,000 B.C. 3000-1000 B.C.

Dance
"
i

Stone Age roek Ancient Egyptian* use

paintings in Europe ritual and ceremonial
and Africa show danee in the worship of
PEOPLE HAVE been dancing people in dancelike
ritual formation.
gods ami goddesses such
as Isis.
since prehistoric times.Over
Fresco (wail pointing) from
thousands of years, many Tanzanian Stone Age Thebes, showing dancers <it
rock painting a banquet, 1 125 B.l
different styles of dance have
15,000 B.C. 3000 B.C.
developed all over the world.

e.1400 B.C. Bull dancing is a c.1000 B.C. C.500-400 B.C. Spartan warriors c. 150 B.C. c.A.D. 400 c.SOO Barf)
popular entertainment in Crete. Chinese in Greece use dance as part of their Romans close- Kagura dances Christians include
People dance around a bull, shamans training, Socrates (470-399 B.C.), all dance performed to traditional pagan
springing on and off its back or (healers and Greek philosopher, states "The schools. ( licero religious chants dances in Chrisrian
leaping between spiritguides) best dancer (106-43 B.C.), at Shinto ceremonies.
its horns. use dance to is also the Roman consul, shrines in Charlemagne
bring spirits best no
states that Japan. Dancers MoK
(742-814), the
down to warrior." man dances accompanied by Roman Emperor,
Earth. unless he is drums, brass, bans dancing, but
insane. gongs, and flutes. the ban is ignored.
Spartan warriors Kagura daneei

1000 B.C. 500^100 B.C. 400 800

Bronze j< ulpture »/ Xt?o'
boy leaping over a bull V/
1300s Ballroom dancing 1416 First European 1653 Louis XIV 1700s The waltz develops
emerges in the royal dancing manual. On the Art (1638-1715), 14-year-old from German folk dances,
palaces of Europe. a! Dancing and Directing French king, appears in and will become popular in
Choruses, is published. /.e Ballet ili- In Sim European courts.
1300-1500 Mass dances (Ballet of the Night).
in Europe cause frenzy Late 1400s Ballo, Italian dance
and often trances. In Italy performance with a story line, is 1681 Women arc now
the tarantella devised to
is the earliest form of ballet. allowed to danee in
sweat the poison from a ballets, although their
spider's bite out of the c.1600 kathakali (sec Louis XIV in long, bulky skirts get in
victim's body. Medieval Ge n peasants p. 1 7 1 ) emerges in India. Le Ballet de la Nuil the was.

1416 1653 1681

:#/
Waltzen m I lu- Court Ball

Late 1700s French ballet 1832 Marie Taglioni r 1880s-1890s Classical e.1900 American Isadora
masters, frustrated by lack (1N04-84), Italian, is the ballet (see p. 170) Duncan (1877-1927), the first

of opportunity, travel to first ballerina to go en reaches its peak modern dancer, develops freer
Russia and develop the pointe (on points) in
<T in Russia. forms of dance.
full-length story-ballet. / a Sylphide.
1892 Loie Fuller 1909 Serge Diaghilev (1872-1929),
1830-1840s Romantic 1870s The cancan, (1862-1928), American Russian arts promoter, presents
ballet developsand a high-kicking dancer, uses fabric and his BalletsRusses company in
flourishes.The ballerina is dance, becomes lighting in her Serpentine Paris.Dancers include Yaslav
the most important dancer \ cry fashionable Dance to create a Nijinskv (1889-1950) and \nna
in the performance. Cancan dancer m France. Marie Taglioni dreamlike effect. Loie Fuller, 1897 Pavlova (1881-1931).

1832 1892

1913 Nijinsky 1927 Rudolf von 1927 Martha Graham, 1930s Jitterbug and 1933 Fred Astaire
uses turned-in Laban (1879-1958), (1894-1991), American jive are twoliv cK , (1899 I987)and
feet in his ballet. lungarian dancer
I modern dancer and popular jazz dances. Ginger
The Rite of Spring. and choreographer, choreographer, Rogers (born 1911),
ins cuts a method of founds 1933 Ted Shawn American dancers,
1920s Tap, recording ballet her own (1891-1972). American appear in the film
Charleston, jazz, anil movements using company. dancer, forms an all- Km heil
Flying Down in
many other dance forms geometric sketches, male company to show More films
Astain
influenced by African- called I .abanotation. men as dancers in their
follow . including
American dancing, are own right, not |iist as
llm
The Gay DhorcA and /«/>
increasingly popular. Vijinsky in Giselle Martha tWaham supports tor women.

1913 1927 1933

1945 Latin American rumba, samba, 1960s Post-modern dance develops 19S() S Break dancing 1990s DYS.uul
calypso, and cha-cha are added to the inNew York. It is experimental, and .mil body-popping arc Othei companies
established ballroom dances. often improvised. born. Dancers spin design dances foi

around on then bat ks and telev ision as well as

1950s Roek and roll develops .is a 1970s Disco dancing is populai
Ik.uIs, and imitate robotic stage
social dance, mainly for teenagers. in Europe and the IS, I
niciv ements,
1952 Meree Cunningham 1976 Twyla Tharp These st\ les
(born 1919), American dancer and (born 1942), American appeal in other
choreographer, forms his ow n company .
dancer, choreographs Push ('.unit to >
media, such as film.
IIc uses natural movement to create a Sin', harp uses elements of main
, I

free-flow ing effect. Re k-and-roll dancers, 1956 Othei stvlcs in hci dances. Break <lm. D\ 3Phv

1945 1952 1976

/
M
ARTS AND THE MEDIA

'

Ballet
Ballet and styles <~j

The
modern dance three main
styles of ballet are
Romantic, Classical,
BALLET A combination
IS and modern. The
style of ballet is
of music, dance, and mime,
usually reflected in
with set steps and techniques. the type of
Most Romantic ballets feature In Classical dancers In modern
Modern dance developed from costume that the spirits and magic. Dancers often
ballets,
wear short dresses, called tutus,
ballets,
dancers usually wear

it as a freer, more natural form.

dancers wear. wear white, calf-length dresses. to show off their footwork. simple costumes.

The five positions Modern dance

In ballet there are five basic In the late 1800s, Isadora Duncan and Loie
positions for the arms, and five Fuller (see p.169) felt ballet movements were
for the feet. unnatural, and developed a new, freer style. Today, new
Martha Graham and Merce Cunningham modern dance
Positions of the arms techniques are
(see p. 169) are the two most famous dancer- being
Second, fourth, and fifth still

positions have variations, choreographers of the modern dance movement. developed.

e.g. in demi-seconde, the <1J>

arms are raised half-way
between first and
second positions.
Dance notation
Famous 20th century dancers Like music, dance is written down using
First position
Many dancers have become choreographers and
a system of symbols. There are two forms
teachers, passing their style and skills on to others.
of dance notation: Benesh and Laban. The
Marie Rambert (1888-1982) Vaslav Nijinsky (1890-1950) Benesh method, which is usually used for
Polish teacher and dancer, Russian Classical dancer, was ballet, was devised by Rudolf (1916-75) and
founded the famous for his
Joan Benesh (born 1920). Labanotation,
Ballet athletic style
Rambert and innovative
named after Rudolf von Laban (see p. 169),
(now the choreography. is mainly used to record modern dance.

Rambert He was the

Dance star of the
Company). Ballets Russes.

M argot Fonteyn (1919-91) Arthur Mitchell (born 1934)

British, and Rudolf Nureyev American dancer. In 1969 he
(1938-93), founded the
Russian, Dance Theater
Fourth position formed the of Harlem,
world's most the first dance
Positions of the feet
Almost every famous and company with
movement danced most popular only black
partnership. dancers. This grand pile (a deep knee
in a ballet begins and
bend) is recorded (right) in two
ends with one of forms of dance notation. Grand pile in Labanotation
the five positions i

of the feet.
First position
Ballet records Famous ballets
{ \ \ \ MOST CURTAIN CALLS
was 89, taken by Margot Title Choreographer First danced
Fonteyn and Rudolf Nureyev La Sylphide Filippo Taglioni (1777-1871), Italian 1832
after a performance of Swan
Nutcracker Lev Ivanov (1834-1901), Russian 1892
Lake in Austria in 1964.
Second position Swan Lake Lev Ivanov and Marius Petipa (1818-1910), French 1895
MOST EXPENSIVE COSTUME
Manon Kenneth MacMillan (1929-93), British 1974
was made for the part of the
Chinese conjurer in Parade,
premiered in Paris in 1917. Ballet facts • During the averagedength
Designed by Pablo Picasso • A ballerina who dances career, dancers practise for eight
(see p. 161), the costume fetched regularly wears out about ten hours a day, six days a week: in
Fourth position Fifth position $42,000 at auction in 1984. pairs of pointe shoes each month. total, about five-and-a-half years.

Choreography Ballet terms Pas de chat A jumping step

Feet feat
Choreography is the art of
Pas de deux A dance
designing and devising the steps
of a ballet or dance routine. The
Barre The bar that
dancers use to help
* fortwo people (male
British
Wayne
dancer
Sleep
and female), usually
them balance during (born 1948)
term comes from the ancient the principals
exercises achieved six
Greek words khoreia (dancing)
Battement A beating
Pirouette A
complete 360° turn
f entrechats in 1973,
and graphos (writing).
movement of the leg (many forms) ° crossing and
Choreographers - the people Pas de deux
Corps de The uncrossing his legs
who devise dance routines - ballet chorus of Plie A knee-bending movement
dancers (those not dancing solo roles) sixtimes while still
work with dancers to compose a Pointe On the points or the tips of
Jete A jump from one leg to the other the toes (female dancers) in the air.
dance sequence, then record it
using notation.

70
 a

TRADITIONAL WORLD DANCE

Traditional world dance POLYNESIAN U.WCk

Dance plays an important
role in traditional
AMERICAN DANCE
Native Americans
dance at special
l'ol\ nesian culture. ceremonies to w in the
MOST COUNTRIES OF the world have a traditional SOUTHEAST ASIA
Classical dance is
Women often swing and goodwill of spirits,

form of dance that has evolved over many performed by highly

rotate their hips rapidly,
lawaiian hula.
ancestors, and gods.
e.g. in the I
trained artists. Dancing
years. These dances have often developed V
is complex
slow, with
from simple religious or tribal rituals into hand movements.

complex dance forms with set movements.

European jolk dancers Japanese gagaku dam

Indian IrmpU dancer

EUROPEAN DANCE EAST ASIA AFRICAN DANCE

Many traditional European
folk dances have their roots in
religious rituals.For example,
dancing in a circle probably
originated from circling
around an object of worship.
Most Hast Asian dance forms Most African dance has
pari of theatrical dance roots in tribal rituals. It
drama, e.g. Chinese opera. includes Sun- and
Japanese gagaku and bugaka Moon- worshipping,
are the world's oldest forms weapon, fertility, and
of traditional court dance. hunting dances.
its INDIA
Indian classical dance developed from
religious rituals inwhich dancers told
stories about the lixcs of the gods.
There are si\ styles of dance, including
Iciilhiihiih and blitirntn ntitytim.

Trance dances Dance props

In many cultures, people dance
Low-down limbo
Props (items in addition to costume that a dancer may- Caribbean limbo dancers can
themselves into a trance as a
use) are important in many traditional dances. pass underneath bars as
way of communicating with
low as 6in (15cm)
and gods. They may
spirits Prop Country Significance
off the ground.
perform acts that would
Maypole England The maypole is a fertility object
normally be dangerous, but symbolizing a tree. People dance
which leave them unharmed. around it, holding ribbons that
represent branches.

Weapons Worldwide The use of weapons, e.g. swords,

clubs, and shields, dates back to
religious ceremonies in which the gods
were asked for help in battle.

Snakes N. America The Hopi people use snakes in their

rain dances. Snakes are believed to be Dance facts
brothers of the spirits that control • In North Africa, belly dancers are judged
clouds and rain.
by how well they move their shoulders.

Instruments Worldwide Dancers often wear or use • Judges under

at Irish jigging contests sit
instruments to accentuate the rhythm
of a dance, e.g. castanets in Spanish
the stage to assess the speed and precision
flamenco; bells worn by classical of the dancers' steps.
Barong dancers in Hali strike themselves Indian dancers.
Willi daggers while in u Inline. • The cakewalk was the first African-
American dance to be taken up b\

Face facts Dance records white Americans. It developed from

FASTEST TAP DANCE dance competitions where the prize was
Kathakali dancers
was 32 taps per second by Englishman usually a cake.
take up to four
Stephen Care (born 1967), in 1990.
hours to apply • Between 1910 and 1920, animal dances
their makeup. LONGEST CONGA such as the chicken scratch and the
They have such was the Miami Super ( longa in grizzly bear were popular in the s I

control over their 1988, which consisted of Not everyone approved: a woman was
facial muscles that 119,986 people. jailed foi 50 days for doing the turkey trot.
they can laugh a tlance that was officially denounced In
with one side of
the Vatican
their face and cry
with the other. • Flamenco dancers cm tap then heels at a

rate of up to I6tapspei second.

171
\R I S AND THE MEDIA

Musical sounds and notation

Music Most Western music is based on major and minor scales - traditional
patterns of pitches that sound pleasing to the ear. Composers write down Sharps and flats are signs before a
note that indicate a note should be
From a primitive these pitches using notation - a code of signs and symbols that enables a raised by a half step (sharp) or

war cry to the musician to interpret and play a musical composition. lowered by a half step (flat).

complex sound of The tempo marking tells the musician how

A natural sign A piece of music is divided
A key a related set
is fast the music should go. Allegro means fast.
a symphony of notes. The key
cancels the
preceding sharp
into
the
measures, each with
same number of beats.
signature shows which
orchestra, music Allegro When more than two notes or flat on that The bar line shows where
key the music is in.
are played together, the tones particular note. the measure ends.
has been created produced are called a chord

by every known Rests show the

musician where,
The five horizontal
society. Vibrations lines are called
and for how long,
to be silent.
the staff.
are the source of
all musical sound. The clef, here a
treble clef, shows
Sforzando means
which pitches are
that the note should
represented by the Dynamic markings be played loudly with
lines and spaces tell the player how The time signature special emphasis.
of the staff.
loud or soft to play shows the number of
SCALE the music, m/stands beats in a measure This sign, called a crescendo, indicates
Pitches are named from low to high using seven for mezzo-forte, or and which type of that the music becomes gradually louder.
letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. This series of letters moderately loud. note gets one beat.
is repeated as the notes continue to ascend in pitch.

Pitches lying in Black keys represent the

between the C major notes notes that lie between
staffs lines and
spaces are shown
using sharp
and flat ( I. )
(#)
signs. "E
G
Q
A B
11

C
on staff
correspond to
white keys on
the keyboard.
II Hill some
C

White key
of the
major scale.

on keyboard
notes of the

One octave (eight

D D D E
notes) of the stale of majo
I
c

Musical words Time signatures Tempo markings

Largo Very slow and broad
Pianissimo (/>/>) Very soft Time Meaning Examples
signature Grave Very slow and solemn
Piano (/>) Soft
2 beats per measure; Twinkle, twinkle Adagio Slow and leisurely
Mezzo-piano (mp) Medium soft
2 little star;

4 quarter note = 1 beat Beethoven's Fifth Symphony Andante Moderately slow

Mezzo-forte (/«/) Medium loud
3 3 beats per measure; Happy Birthday; Allegretto Moderately fast
Forte (/) Loud 4 quarter note = 1 beat My Country Tis of Thee
Allegro Fast and brisk
Fortissimo (ff) Very loud 4 4 beats per measure; Add Lang Syne;
Vivace Lively and quick
Forte-piano Loud then suddenly soft
4 quarter note = 1 beat America the Beautiful
(fp)
Presto Very fast
Crescendo (cresc.) Getting louder 6 6 beats per measure; For He's a Jolly Good Fellow
8 eighth note = 1 beat Pop Goes the Weasel Prestissimo Extremely fast

Diminuendo (dim.) Getting softer

Dolce Sweetly
World music facts
Legato Smoothly • Indian music uses patterns of notes Note values
Leggiero Lightly called ragas. There are about 130 Name Sign Rest

Pizzicato (pizz.) Marking for stringed

commonly used ragas, and each one has a
instruments meaning that the player should special association. It can be an emotion, Whole note o -
pluck the string a time of day, or a season of the year.
Half note -
Accelerando (accel.) Accelerate or speed up • Strings on one African drum can vary J
the tension in the drum-head to produce Quarter note
Ritardando (fit.) or rallentando Slow down 1
J
Sforzando Note or chord played loudly,
different notes. Players can
(sf) Eighth note 1
with special emphasis use it to recreate the J>

Staccato Short, separated notes

changing tones of 16th note
their language.
h 7
Con brio With fire 32nd note
Nigerian "talking" drum } 7

725 Orchestra developed 1480 First 1553 Violin design 1709 Early
Dates in music history inChina. These orchestras printed music developed into its pianoforte built by
c.4000 B.C. Flutes and A.D. 600 Schola included flutes, guitars. in Europe. early form in Europe. Italian Rartolomeo
harps played in Egypt. Cantorum gongs, and drums. Cristofori
founded 1600s Opera begins
Egyptian tomb /Minium (1655-1731).
to be developed by
Showing COUTi muSU inn\ in Rome. This
was an early the Camerata - a 1727 German J.S.
music school,
group of poets and Bach (1685-1750)
musicians - in composes choral work
founded on the
order of Pope
Florence, Italy. S/. Matthew Passion.
Gregory the Great Eariy music printed
(c.540-604). 1 rodilionat Chin from carved woodblocks. J.S. Buck

A.D.600 1480 1553 1600 1709 1727

172
 MUSIC

Musical groups Major composers in western music

Groups range from duos, which have two
Composer Nationality, dates Major work(s), date(s) composed
performers, to symphony orchestras,
which contain up to 120 (see p. 74). Most 1
Renaissance (1450-1600)
Guillaume Dufay Flemish, c. 1400-74 Church music and secular pieces
classical music groups play written music.
Jazz groups take a theme and invent Josqum des Pres Flemish, c.1445-1521 Choral church and secular music

variations on it as they play. Giovanni Palestrina Italian, c. 1525-94 Choral church and secular music

Duo WilHam Byrd English, 1543-1623 Church music, string music, keyboard music, and madrigals
In a duo, one player^ Baroque (1 600-1 750)
usually plays a Claudio Monteverdi Italian, 1567-1643 Orfeo (1607), Vespers (1610)
brass, string, or
wind Heinrich Schutz German, 1585-1672 Symphonae Sacrae (1650)
instrument
Jean Baptiste Lully French, 1632-87 Operas, church compositions
and the other
a piano. Pieces Henry Purcell English, 1659-95 Dido and Aeneas (1689)
for two players
are called duets. Cello and piano dun Antonio Vivaldi Italian, 1678-1741 Four Seasons (1 725)

Jean Phillippe Rameau French, 1683-1764 Castor and Pollux (1 737)

Trio Johann Sebastian Bach German, 1685-1750 Brandenburg Concertos (1 721), Sf. Matthew Passion (1 727)
Trios have three
George Frederic Handel German, 1685-1759 The Messiah (1741), Music for the Royal Fireworks (1 749)
players. A
string trio uses Classical (1750-1 820)
a violin, viola, Joseph Haydn 1732-1809
Austrian, London Symphonies: 1 st set (1 791-92)
and cello. Piano London Symphonies: 2nd set (1 793-95),
trios are written
for violin, cello, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Austrian, 1756-91 Piano Concertos in C Major and D Minor (1 785),
and piano. String trio The Marriage of Figaro (1 786), Don Giovanni (1 787)

Quartet Ludwig van Beethoven German, 1770-1827 Symphonies No. 3 (1802), No. 5 (1809), and No. 9 (1823)
JaZZ groups Romantic 820-1 900
1
often use Franz Schubert Austrian, 1797-1828 Piano Quintet A 81 9). "Unfinished" Symphony No. 8
in (1 (1 822)
quartets (groups
of four players). Hector Berlioz French, 1803-69 Symphonie Fantastique (1830), 77ie Trojans (1859)
String quartets
Frederic Chopin Polish, 1810-49 Piano compositions, Preludes (1839)
contain two
violins, a viola, Franz Liszt Hungarian, 1811-86 Piano Sonata in B Mm (1853), Hungarian Rhapsodies (1839-85)
and a cello. Jazz quartet
Richard Wagner German, 1813-83 The Flying Dutchman (1841), The Ring of the Nibelung (1848-74)
Quintet
Quintets use Giuseppe Verdi Italian, 1813-1901 Aida (1871), Requiem Mass (1873), Ofe//o (1887)
five players
and usually
Johannes Brahms German, 1833-97 Violin Concerto in D Major (1878), Symphony No. 4 (1884)

contain Peter llyich Tchaikovsky Russian, 1840-93 Piano Concerto No 1 (1874-5), Swan Lake (1876)
wind or brass
instruments or Edvard Grieg Norwegian, 1843-1907 Piano Concerto in A Minor (1869), Peer Gynt (1876)
instruments
Edward Elgar English, 1857-1934 Enigma Variations (1899), Violin Concerto (1910)
from different
families Mixed quintet Modern 1 900 to present
Claude Debussy French, 1862-1918 Pe//eas and Melisande (1892-1902), Images (1905-07)
Choir
Arnold Schoenberg Austrian, 1874-1951 First String Quartet (1897), Pierrot Lunaire (1912)
A choir is a group of
singers. A mixed voice Bela Bartok Hungarian, 1881-1945 Six String Quartets (1939), Concerto for Orchestra (1944)
choir contains men and
women, who sing four Igor Stravinsky Russian, 1882-1971 The Firebird (1910), The Rite of Spring (1913)
parts. Most choirs sing
Sergei Prokofiev Russian, 1891-1953 Romeo and Juliet (1 935), Peter and the Wolf (1 936)
religious music.

Small ill null limn

Lili Boulanger French, 1893-1918 Faust and Helene (1913)
LARGER GROUPS
George Gershwin American, 1898-1937 Rhapsody in Blue (1 924), Porgy and Bess (1 935)
• Large groups of wind, brass, and
Dmitry Shostakovich Russian, 1906-75 Symphonies No.5 (1937) and No. 10 (1953)
percussion players, called bands, play for
outdoor concerts and military ceremonies. John Cage American, 1912-92 Music of changes (1951). 4' 33° (1954)

• A medium-sized string group, often Pierre Boulez French, born 1925 Le Marteau sans Maitre (1954), Memorials (1975)
including a few wind instruments, is
Karlheinz Stockhausen German, born 1928 Groups (1955-57)
called a chamber orchestra. Many
Philip Glass American, born 1937 Einstein on the Beach (1 976)
composers have written for this group.

1787 Austrian eomposer 1874 German 1<M() S\ nthesi/.ei-s 195S Rock

Wolfgang A. Mozart 756-91) ( 1 eomposer Richard appear, gh mg music Off beat
composes opera. Dun Giovanni. Wagner (1813-83) composers new appeals in

electronic sounds. S
Jean Baptiste l.ulK (1632-87), court
finishes Tie Ring «/ I

1808 German ///, Nibelung. musician u> .ouis XI\ of France, stabbed
I

eomposer Rock singei Chuck Berry Ins fool \\ ith the lorn;
Ludwig van e.1900 Jazz music
Beethoven jSfcni,^ appears in New Orleans, staff that he banged on
(1770-1K27) the floor in older to
composes keep lus orchestra in
Symphonies tune. I le l.itci died
The young Mozart No.S and No.6. Ludzoig van Beethoven
l>ln\i>io the piano from an abscess
1787 1808 1874 caused In tins injury,

17:
 a

ARTS AND THK MKDIA

PERCUSSION
Classical 4 Gong
Symphony
MUSIC Symphonies arc pieces
of music written for a
full range of orchestral
When people think instruments. There is

of classical music, most no dominant soloist.

think of orchestras and Concerto

In a concerto, a soloist
symphonies, and opera.
i

accompanied by an orchestra. A
concerto orchestra usually has
Orchestra fewer brass and percussion
instruments, which allows the
'The orchestra is
soloist to be heard more clearly.
the largest
grouping of
instruments in STRINGS
classical music. Double bass

/I

CONDUCTOR
A conductor directs
the performance,
In Tosca, the heroine jumps to her death
indicating the pace
of the music. He or from castle battlements. In I960, angry
she traces patterns stagehands backstage substituted a
through the air with trampoline for the usual mattress.
Two beats Three beats Four beats Five beats
a baton, according ti
in a bar in a bar ina bar in a bar Tosca reappeared 15 times
the time signature
of the piece. Diagrams show traditional baton movements.
before the curtain fell.

Madam Butterfly Madam Butterfly, a moving love

Opera sings soprano story, was created by Puccini in
Key opera
Operas are musical dramas in part. 1904. It centers on a Japanese

which singers, accompanied

heroine, Madam Butterfly, whose singers
betrayal by an American sailor
by an orchestra, act out a ends with her suicide.
Tito Gobbi
story. They can be US Navy Lieutenant (1915-84), Italian
sung throughout, F.B. Pinkerton operatic baritone,

or sung and
sings tenor part. made his debut in
Rome in 1938.
spoken. Solos by major
characters are
called arias. Kathleen Ferrier
Royal Opera
House (1912-53),
production^ English contralto
l.imdim singer, made her
debut as
Lucre tia in
Benjamin
Britten's The Rape
Opera facts Key operas ofLucretia in 1946.
• There are six commonly
Composer performed Luciano Pavarotti
accepted ranges of voice. From Title First
(born 1935),
lowest to highest these are bass, The Marriage of Figaro Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 1786 Italian operatic
baritone, tenor, contralto, (1756-91), Austrian Vienna tenor, made his

mezzo-soprano, and soprano. international

The Barber of Seville Gioacchino Rossini 1816
debut as Rudolfo
(1792-1868), Italian Rome
• Many people believe that the inPuccini's I.

quality of an opera singer's Otello Giuseppe Verdi 1887 Boheme in 1961.

(1813-1901), Italian Milan, Italy
voice improves with extra body-
weight. In fact, a person's The Ring of the Nibelung Richard Wagner 1876 Kiri Te Kanawa
(1813-83), German Bayreuth, Germany (born 1944), New
weight is irrelevant: thin people
may possess the finest voices. Carmen Georges Bizet 1875 Zealand operatic
soprano, made
(1838-75), French Paris
• Some people can identify the her international
La Boheme Giacomo Puccini 1896 debut in 1971, as
pitch of any note that they hear,
(1858-1924), Italian Turin, Italy the Countess in
without needing to refer to an Mo/art's Thr
Peter Grimes Benjamin Britten 1945
instrument. This ability is called Marriage of Figaro.
(1913-76), British London
"perfect pitch."

74
 POR LAR Ml SIC

Popular music COUNTRY AND

WESTERN
DISCO
In the 1970s,
music centered around
new
(lountry and Western
\1 \\Y DIFFERENT styles of music- music takes its the disco movement.
inspiration from the It was promoted by
have evolved in the twentieth country life of the films such as Saturday

century. Here the most popular American West.
performers, often
Western styles are described. dressed as cow boss of
the Old West, sing
Its Nigfil Fever and by a
revival of interest in
1950s music bv black
such as James
artists

FOLK MUSIC with the accent of liiown (born 1933).

In the I 'Mi century, southern I S and are I )isco artists include
America's southern Johnny Cash lie bee (iees and
accompanied by I

hejohnn) ( :..sl, ( Election )onna Summer. Saturday Night Fever

black population, instruments such '
I

including transport as the banjo, fiddle, and guitar. Performers include

workers on the railroads I lank Williams (born 1923), Johnny ( lash i bom PUNK
and riverboats,
as cotton workers,
and listened
as well

to folk
sang
1932), and Tammy Wynette (born 1942). Punk music exploded
onto the scene at the
i lose of the 1970s, led
1 'Itil !N1
ROCK AND ROLL
Songs at work, or
end of the day. The}
at the
Rock and began in
roll
b\ the British groups
The Sex andPistols
ji f 'iJ:

created a new kind of the 1950s as a mix of The Clash. It had a

folk song in which they
mixed the complex,
\lbuiii of early African-
\ninmnt suites
rhythm-and-blues and
country music and was
s.n age character, and
appealed to young
4W r4

\
-

overlapping rhythms played loudly on new ly people w hose dress.

and tree melodies of West African music with the
harmonies of Western music. This combination
invented electric
guitars. Though this
language, and
behav ior were ^,-
formed the foundation for music that would Style arose in black designed to outrage The Ihimmtl
communities, white Damned, Damned, Damned
dominate popular tastes during the 20th century. traditional tastes.
singer anil guitarist
BLUES Elvis Presley (1935-77) 1980S POP MUSIC
Elvis Presley Elvis Presley
The blues express the greatly increased its Pop music in the 1980s
troubles and emotions popularity. became lighter and
of the performer in a more concerned with
simple but strict form.
ROCK dance rhythms. Major
The performer sets
In the 1960s, rock and pop artists anil groups '
three lines of poetry to
rollwas abbrev iated to included Michael
"rock" music. Rock
12 bars of music. The Jackson. The 1'et Shop
music lias a heav \, Boss. Madonna, and
blues use a basic, set
driving rhythm, with Bryan Ferry. Pop
pattern of harmonies
eight eighth notes to v idcos. in w hich the
(chords), overwhich the
the bar and accents on music was accompanied
performer invents
Leadbelh the second and fourth bv images, made it Michael Jackson I In illci
variations.
beats. Early rock bands
possible for a performer to be
included The Beatles, seen on teles ision bs millions at the same time as
JAZZ The Rolling Stones, the release of their record.
Pink Floyd, The Who, The Rolling Stones
Jazz emerged in the
and Thejimi Hendrix Their Satanic Majesties
carls 1900s in New Request POPULAR
Experience. 1990S
Orleans, US, as a
Ml SIC
mixture of blues.
A specialized form of
religious gospel REGGAE dance music, called
singing, and European West Indian reggae
house music, emerged
influences. Driven by music was spread
in the 1980s, based on
the urgent rhythms of abroad by West Indian
scry rapid rhs thms anil
West African music communities ov crscas.
electronic sounds. The
and using the melodic It is closely associated
technology for making
style of the Blues, jazz with the Rastafarian
and mixing these
musicians improv ise - / ouii Armstrong
most
religion. Its
Laughing Louis sounds is nosv w ulely
they recreate the famous artist was Bob
,i\ ailable to musicians,
melody of a piece each Marley (1945-81), TheOrb Blue Room
and their music has
time it is performed. This allows each player to whose music calls for
since developed into the related stslcs of acid house.
express their emotions through their special version an end to racism and
techno, trance, ambient, and jungle music.
of the music. Major artists of the "jazz age" of the political repression. Bob Marley and I In Wailei
I"'20s included American trumpeters Louis
"Satchmo" Armstrong (c.1898-1971) and Bix
Beiderbecke (1903-31 and the orchestral composer Best-selling singles worldwide Pop music records
),
MOST EXPENSIVE Gl ITA8
George Gershwin (1898-1937). Performer/group Copies sold
Single was a Fender Stratocastci belonging
(approx.) to Jinn lendrix 1942 70). It was
I 1

BIG BANDS AND sold to, £180,000(1 S $2 5.940)ai

White Christmas Bing Crosby 30,000.000
Sotheby 's, London, in 19'HI.
BE- BOP
In the 1930s and earls Rock Around the Clock Bill Haley 17,000,000
1940s, swing, a form of
jazz, was played by "big
bands," under great
bandleaders such as
1

It's
Want to Hold Your Hand

Now or Never
and His Comets

The Beatles

Elvis Presley
12,000,000

10,000.000
^ -"
I)ukc Ellington
(1899-1974). Later, a
Hound Dog/Don't Be Cruel Elvis Presley 9,000.000
new emerged,
style
Paul Anka
called be-bop. It was
Diana MOST SI CCESSFI I

pioneered by trumpeter Hey Jude The Beatles 8,000,000 SONGWRI II RS

I)i//\ Gillespie (bom Charlie Parka Bird 1 ives ,ue Paul McCartney (born 1942),
1917) anil saxophonist I'm a Believer The Monkees 8,00t I
who has had 32 numbei one singles
(lharlie I'arker (1920-55). Be-bop led to more in the S and 28 in the
I K. and I

Can't Buy Me Love The Beatles 7,000,000

John Lennon (1940-80), with :<*
complex schemes of harmony. Majoi amsis included
trumpeter Miles Davis (1926-91 ) anil saxophonist Do They Know It's Christmas? Band Aid numbei one singles in the I S and
JohnColtrane (1926-67). 29 in the k I

175
ARTS AND THE MEDIA

Stringed instruments
Musical instruments A stringed instrument consists of a seties of
stretched strings connected to a hollow box
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS are designed that amplifies the string's vibrations. The
to make vibrations that our ears and string is motion by being plucked, as
set in
with a harp; by the friction of a bow, as with
brain recognize as musical sounds. a violin; or by being struck, as with a piano.
They are usually classified into
Carved
percussion, stringed, woodwind, pegbox

brass, and keyboard. Archaeologists Ih

excavating the sites of ancient Heart-
shaped
Mesopotamian cities (see p. 375) sound hole,

have found evidence for every

basic instrument type. Fish
shaped
body
VIOLIN
The violin is the smallest stringed
instrument. It also produces the
highest sound. The player holds
the violinbetween the chin and the
Portuguese rajao
shoulder, drawing the bow across
is a folk music
the strings to produce a elear tone.
instrument originating
in Madeira, an island

Mouthpiece off North Africa.

with reed

Woodwind
instruments
A woodwind instrument is

either a tube that the player DOUBLE REED

blows across or into or a tube A double reed is made by binding
the
that amplifies the vibrations ends of a bent of cane and fitting
strip

of a thin reed at one end. them into a staple (cork tube). The
bend is then sliced off.
Most woodwind instruments
have holes running down the
tube. The player covers and
uncovers them to produce Pied pipers
different notes. In 1454, French knights from
the Order of the Golden
Holder uses
Fleece held a banquet in
thumb to support
instrument body which more than
20 musicians
SAXOPHONE emerged
The saxophone, like the flute, is a from a
woodwind instrument made of
giant
metal. It can produce a harsh, raw
tone, but it also carries a smooth, Alto clarinet Dragon flute, Oboe, Guyanese pie to
lilting melody with great produces a or lung-ti an orchestral flute entertain
sensitivity. Clarinettists m.i\ easily deeper sound flute, is used instrument, is with pitch the guests.
play the saxophone since they than a standard in Chinese used to tune controlled
share a common type of reed. clarinet. ceremonies. the orchestra. bv hand.

THE TRUMPET
Brass instruments This trumpet is a modern version of the oldest brass
Brass instruments have a instrument. It has changed very little since its invention and
mouthpiece shaped like a funnel. is the dominant instrument in many bands and orchestras.

Vibrations are produced not by

the instrument itself, but by the
player's lips ptesscd against this
mouthpiece. The player alters
1780s horn
Tenor horn
the pitch by changing the tension coiled for
is a descendant is

in and by changing the

the lips,
Cup-shaped of the bugle. ease of playing.
length of tubing through which mouthpiece
allows variety of
the vibrating air passes.
notes to be
made with lips.

Moroccan nfir Mouthpiece

is a trumpet used in
Islamic religious
festivals.It is 5ft (1.5m)

long and is made from

brass sections that are French horn Serpent horn
fixed together and raken Detachable has a wide has two sets of
apart after use. brass section flared bell. fingcrholcs.

76
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Percussion DRUM KIT

Crash cymbal
A drum kit consists
of different types
instruments loosely fitted to of drums and cymbals. The player uses
Percussion instruments allow vibrations both hands and feet to operate it.

are played by being

struck, rubbed, or
shaken; they usually
High-hat
uses two
-U,
Ride cymbal
provide the rhythmic- cymbals.

beat in an instrumental
group. They include Eg) ptian Oriental gong Nigerian Chincsc
snare drums, bass darabuka is srruck in the gourd rattle
is an example of center to cause the rattlc drum
drums, tambourines, the goblet drum greatest vibrations.
cymbals, gongs, popular in many
castanets, maracas, tom- Arab countries.
toms, timpani, bells, the
xylophone, celesta,
marimba, vibraphone,
and chimes.

Keyboard
instruments Most expensive
Keyboard instruments have an
arrangement of levers or keys that
instruments
activate the source of sound. Their Instrument Date Value

popularity arose from a capacity to

made $

play melody and accompaniment "Mendelssohn" 1720 1.382,766

violin by Stradivari
atthe same time. The three major
keyboard instruments arc the "Cholmondeley" 1698 950,460
pianoforte or piano, the celloby Stradivari

harpsichord, and the organ. "Bonjour" cello 1690 927,465

by Stradivari
PIANOFORTE Violin by Joseph 1743 797,160
The keys of a pianoforte manipulate felt- del Gesu
covered hammers. These strike wire
strings, causing them to resonate. The "Marie Hall" violin 1709 659.190
player can sound manynotes at once and by Stradivari
ean vary the loudness of individual notes.
"Schreiber" violin 1712 539.616
by Stradivari
Square Italian spinet by
Violin Pietro 1715 339.560
pianoforte 1550s used Guarnen
made in a four-
Kngland in octave "Ex-Kosman" C.1 750 339.560
1773. keyboard. by
violin

G. Guadagnini

Electronic Electronic "Montagnana" 1741 314.265

instruments keyboard
can change
by
violin
a D. Montagnana
The electronic synthesizer
sound wave to
creates sound by artificial produce a Jimi Hendrix's 1968 275.940
means. It changes electric great variety Stratocaster guitar

impulses into sound, and every of sounds.

aspect of the sound can be

controlled. The synthesizer Drum pad
player can generate virtually any emits electric
sound imaginable, from those of signal when
struck, to
the natural world or of
produce
traditional instruments, to new, electronic Pickups that convert
unique, "space-age" sounds. drum sound. stnng vibrations into
electrical impulses

Music facts
• Italian violinist Niccolo • In 1846, • The drum used on British • In 1709, the first piano was
Paganini (1782-1840) was the Belgian explorer Sir Francis Drake's built b\ Italian Bartolomeo
most skilled violin virtuoso of instrument ship hangs in Buckland Abbey, Cristofori (1655-1731) The . first

the 19th century. He was the maker England. It is believed to roll bv iron-framed pi. mo appeared in
fastest violinist in the Adolphe Sax itself when 1859.
world, playing his invented the England
own Mouvement saxophone. faces
Perpetuel in three danger. It

minutes, three • The harmonica is the world's was last

seconds. This most popular instrument. In heard in

translates as 12 1965, more than 28 million World \\ u

notes per second. were sold in the >S. I (1414 18).

ARTS AND THE MEDIA

3000 B.C. The 2000 B.C. 600 B.C. Greek

Writing Egyptians invent

form of writing using
picture signs called
a Sumerian epic
poem Gilgamesh is
recorded on 12 clay
writer
composes
Aesop
his fables,
including the story

THE FIRST WRITING began as a hieroglyphs.

write on scrolls
They
made
tablets using
cuneiform, a script
of The Boy Who
Crier/ Wolf and
way to keep accounts and to from papyrus reed. named after the The Crow and
wedge-shaped pen Pitcher.
record details of history. Today Egyptian hieroglyphs used for writing. -4S-
•^r&&
people read books for pleasure
3000-2000 B.C. 2000 B.C. 600 B.C.
and to learn about the world.

610-580 B.C. Female 500 B.C. The most famous A.D. 100 A.D. 105 868 A.D. The
poet Sappho, from the Hindu text, the Bhagavad-Gita, Plutarch Chinese invent earliest known
Greek island of Lesbos, is written as a conversation writes first paper, which they woodblock-
composes lyrical between Arjuna and Krishna. biography, make from the printed book,
poetry on Parallel Lives, pulp of fibers with woodcut
themes of love 200 B.C. Parchment (the skin which details from mulberry illustrations, is

and jealousy. of sheep or goats treated to the lives of trees. They keep the Diamond
make smooth surface) is
a Greek invention a secret Sutra, printed
invented in the Greek city of soldiers. for 600 years. in China.
Greek poet Pergamum. Parchment is used Making paper
Plutarch (A.D.46-1 19)
Sappho in the West for 1,000 years.

500-200 B.C. A.D.100 A.D.105 A.D. 868

k
ROBINSON
CRUSOE
1007 Murasaki Shikibu (973-1014) c.1450 Johann 1605 Miguel de Cervantes 1719 Englishman
writes The Tale ofGenji, based on life in Gutenberg (1547-1616) writes Don Quixote, Daniel Defoe
the Heian court of Japan. It is the (c.1397-1468) invents a comic satire about the travels (1660-1731) writes
world's first novel. printing by movable of an elderly Spanish knight. Robinson Crusoe. Defoe
type. First printing is is one of the first
1048-1123 Persian poet Omar 170 bibles. 1697 French author Charles people to write major
Khayyam writes the The Rubdiydt. Perrault writes Tales of Mother works of literature in
1593 William
1190-1320 Writers Iceland begin Goose, a collection of oral folk an "ordinary" or
in Shakespeare writes
to record the oral part of their history tales that includes Cinderella natural style.
one of his first plays,
as a story. This is known as a saga. The Taming of die Shrew. Gutenberg bible
and Beauty and the Beast.
Early copy o/Robinson Crusoe

1007-1320 1593 1605 1697 1719

1800s Charles 1837 First book for the blind, A 1847 Charlotte Bronte 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe's
Dickens's novel, Summary of French History, Century writes Jane Eyre, a love book, Uncle Tom's Cabin, draws
The Old Curiosity by Century, is printed using braille, story that breaks the attention to the injustice of
Shop, is published a asystem of raised dots invented by rules of Victorian society. slavery in the United States.
chapter a month. Louis Braille (1809-52). She uses the pseudonym
Crowds at New York of Currer Bell, since it is

docks shout still unacceptable for

"is 1841 American author, Edgar
Little Nell Dead?" Allan Poe (1809-49), creates The women to write fiction.
as ship arrives with Murders in the Rue Morgue, which is
the next installment. the first true detective story. Charlotte Bronte (1816-55)

1800 1837 1841 1847

Scene from Uncle Tom's Cabin

1864 Jules Verne 1873 First typewriter in the 1901 French poet Sully World War I soldiers 1914-18 World War I.

(1828-1905) writes world produced and sold

is Prudhomme (1839-1907) becomes shown in action A group of English poets
A Journey to the by the American Remington person to win Nobel Prize for
first that includes Rupert
Center of the Company. His work includes The
litetature. Brooke, Wilfred Owen,
Earth, which is Broken Vase and Solitude. and Siegfried Sassoon
the first science record with great
fiction story. 1910 First children's encyclopedia emotions the horror
is compiled and published by Arthur of life for soldiers in
An illustration Mee
(1875-1943). It is called The the war.
from Journey to the Early Children's Encyclopedia in
Center of the Earth typewriter
the LIS.

1864 1873 1901 1910 1914-18

1935 Penguin 1943 Anne 1944 English author George Orwel 1986 The first book on
4 f^ paperback books
appear in English-
Frank, a young
Jewish girl hiding
writes Animal Farm, a satire about a
group of animals who overthrow
CD-ROM, called
Electronic Encyclopedia, is

speaking from the Nazis in their master. published the US

in

M *UAo,
countries. The occupied Holland, by Grolier Electronic
s
first title is Ariel writes a diary that is
1970s Desktop Publishing, Inc. It contains
by Andre Maurois published after her publishing arrives. the full-text version of 20
(1885-1967), with capture and death Word processors and volumes of the Academic
a printing of in a concentration
computers revolutionize A merican Encyclopedia.
25,000 copies. camp. book printing. Word processor
Penguin paperbacks

1995 Production and

1935 1943 1944 1970s 1986
marketing of CD-ROM
titles increases significantly.

78
 WRITING

Literary words Key writers "^^iBU

Allegory A story with a second meaning hidden Name Dates Nationality Key work ^^E^
^-**"
beneath its obvious meaning. Homer c.800 B.C. Greek The Wad
Alliteration The repetition of the same sounds Virgil 70-1 B.C. Roman The Aeneid
(usually consonants of words or stressed syllables) Dante Alighicri 1265-1321 Italian Divine Comedy
e.g., "landscape-lover, lord of language" (Alfred Giovanni Boccaccio 1313-75 Italian The Decameron
Lord Tennyson).
Geoffrey Chaucer e. 1340- 1400 English The Canterbury Tales
Allusion An indirect reference tosome event, Miguel de Cervantes 1547-1616 Spanish Don Quixote
person, place, or work of art; its nature or
relevance not explained by the
Edmund Spenser 1552-99 English The Faerie Queene
is

writer but relies on the reader's John Milton 1608-74 English Paradise Lost
familiarity with what is John Bunyan 1628-88 English The Pilgrim 's Progress
mentioned. Henry Fielding 1707-54 English Tom Jones
Autobiography An account of a Laurence Sterne 1713-68 Irish Tristram Shandy
person's life that is written or W. Von Goethe 1748-1832 German
J. Faust
recorded by that person.
William Wordsworth 1770-1850 F'nglish Lyrical Ballads
Biography An account of a Jane Austen 1775-1817 English Pride and Prejudice
person's life written by another.
Mary Shelley 1797-1851 English Frankenstein
Character A person in a story or Honore de Balzac 1799-1850 French OldGoriot
drama, or a sketch describing some •"* character
recognizable type of person.
Huckleberry Finn Victor Hugo 1802-85 F'rench Les Miserables
Charles Dickens 1812-70 English Oliver 'Twist
Cliche A phrase or saying made
Charlotte Bronte 1816-55 English Jane Fyre
commonplace by overuse.
Emily Bronte 1818-48 English II ulhering Heights
Couplet A pair of rhyming verse lines.
George Eliot 1819-80 English Middleman h
Criticism The reasoned discussion of literary Herman Melville 1819-91 American Mol>y Dick
works.
Walt Whitman 1819-92 American leaves of Grass
Drama A story written in dialogue, or Gustave Flaubert 1821-80 French Madame Binary
conversational, form so that it can be spoken and
Feodor Dostoyevsky 1821-81 Russian Crime and Punishment
acted.
Leo Tolstoy 1828-1910 Russian War and Peace
Elegy A poem lamenting the death of a friend
Emile Zola 1840-1902 French Germinal
on a
or public figure, or reflecting seriously
solemn subject. Thomas Hardy 1840-1928 English Tess of the
d'l rbenil/es
Epic A
long narrative poem celebrating, in a
grand style, the great deeds of one or more Henry James 1843-1916 American Portrait ofa Lady
legendary heroes. Joseph Conrad 1857-1924 British Heart of Darkness
Fable A short story, often about animals who Rabindranath Tagore 1861-1941 Indian Gitanjali
behave and talk as humans, that teaches about W.B. Yeats 1865-1939 Irish The Tower
right and wrong. Marcel Proust 1871-1922 F'rench Remembrance of Things Past
Fiction Something that is not true. A category Thomas Mann 1875-1955 German The Magic Mountain
used to describe a novel. E.M. Forster 1879-1970 Fmglish Passage to India
Genre French term for a type, species, or class of James Joyce 1882-1941 Irish ( lysses
composition. Virginia Woolf 1882-1941 English To flic Lighthouse
Gothic novel A story of terror Franz Kafka 1883-1924 Czechoslovakian The Trial
and suspense, usually set in a D.H. Lawrence 1885-1930 English Sons and Lovers
gloomy castle or monastery.
Ezra Pound 1885-1972 American The Cantos
Lyric Expressing the writer's T.S. Eliot 1888-1965 American The Waste Land
personal feelings and
Boris Pasternak 1890-1960 Russian Dr. Zhtvago
thoughts. Used to describe
poetry. Aldous Huxley 1894-1963 English Brave Naa World

Metaphor A word
F. Scott Fitzgerald 1896-1940 American The Great Gcitsby
or phrase
used about thing or an action
a A Gothic castle Ernest Hemingway 1899-1961 American A Farewell to Anns
that is not literally true, but describes it Vladimir Nabokov 1899-1977 Russian l.olita
imaginatively. Jorge Luis Borges 1899-1986 Argentinian Labyrinths
Nonfiction A written work that is based on fact. John Steinbeck 1902-68 American The Grapes of Wrath
Novel An invented, or fictitious, story that George Orwell 1903-50 English Animal Farm
usually deals with human relationships, often in a Evelyn Waugh 1903-66 F^nglish Brides/ieacl Rtx isiti d
specified setting. Pablo Neruda 1904-73 ( Ihilean Great Song
Onomatopoeia The use of words that seem to Graham Greene 1904-91 Flnglish The Paver and the Glory
imitate the sounds they refer to (e.g., buzz, William Golding 1911-93 English Lord of the Flics
crackle, hiss, snap, splash).
Patrick White 1912-90 Australian 1 aw
Oral Anything that is spoken or verbal. Albert Camus 1913-60 F'rench TheStrangei
Plot The pattern of events in a story or a play. Dylan Thomas 1914-53 Welsh Under Milt Wood
Rhetoric Eloquence in public speaking or Anthony Burgess b.1917- English A (
'locktaork On
writing for the most persuasive effect. Doris Lessing b.1919- English The Golden Notebook
Murdoch h. 1919- English Bruno's Die, mi
Satire A
kind of writing that makes fun of the Iris

such as
failings of individuals, or societies, halo Calvino 1923-85 Italian The Path to the Nt
William Golding's Lord of the Flics. Spi
Sonnet A lyric poem of 14 rhyming lines of equal Vukio Mishima 1925-1970 Japanese The Sound oj II.

length. Giintcr Grass b.1927- German The Tin Drvrn

Tragedy A serious work representing the Gabriel Garcia Marque/ b.1928- ( lolombian One Hundred Yean ot
unhappy downfall of a central character, such as Solitude
William Shakespeare's Hamlet.
Toni Morrison b.1931- American Beloved

179
\R is \\|) INK \IHDIA

Color separation
Printing Color illustrations are
Printing words
Ascender Part of a lower-ease
above the x-height.
I

separated into four colors letter that is

BEFORE PRINTING was invented, information was (magenta, cyan, yellow, and Bromide Photosensitive
paper on which an image
written by hand. The introduction of printing with black) by an electronic scanner
is created.
before printing. A laser scans
movable type (one block for each character or Cold type Modern method of printing
the pictures four times, once that produces a photographic image.
letter) allowed many copies of an original work to for each separation. This Color correction Changing the
be made quickly and cheaply. Today, many stages process results in four pieces strength of colors in an illustration
before going to print.
of printing are done by computer. 'of film, one for each color.
Cropping Trimming and
flat colo
shaping illustrations.

Virtually any color can be

Descender Part of a lower-case
created from a combination of letter that is below the x-height.
the four colors shown. Em Unit of measurement.
Flat color Area of printed color
without variations in tone.
Flop Reversal of an illustration.
Font Set of typed characters of the
same style.
Format Size of a book or a page.
Gutter Margin that runs down the
center of a spread.
Hot metal Traditional method of
printing in which type is cast from
molten lead.
The illustration is placed
on a revolving drum and is Kerning Adjusting the space
scanned by a laser. between letters.
Leading Space between lines of type.
Lower case Letters that are not capitals
Paper is fed Measure Length of a line of type.
Cyan Black through the press, The final full- Mechanical Illustrations and text ^^^
and comes into color printed drawn up for reproduction.
contact with each
Printing press sheets appear Orphan The start of a paragraph ilz^^i
of the color plates at the far end at the foot of the page.
in turn.
After color separation, the details "
Ozalid Reproduction of
on each of the colored films is printed material onto chemically
transferred onto a plate. Each plate treated, usually blue, paper.

is treated with chemicals, then

Phototypesetting Setting of type on
film or photographic paper.
fitted to rollers on a press. The paper
Pica Unit of type measurement equal
feeds through, and as it comes into to 12 points.
contact with each plate, the four Point A measurement of tvpe equal to
colors are added one by one. 0.013837in (0.351457mm).
Proof A reproduction of illustrations
or text before the printing stage.
Typography Range Lining up of type cither
Typography is the design of letters and words printed on a page. vertically or horizontally.
descent
Typographers create page of print using different type styles
a
Reproduction Process by
which artwork reproduced, through
is
which, when put together, make the page look appealing and easy to
color separation, before printing.
read. Typefaces can be divided into two main groups: I Ipper case Letters that are capitals.
Widow A short
SERIF A SANS SERIF ^m TYPESETTING X-height The height of a
line.
letter that does
Serif faces have little nkcs
strokes ^km. Sans serif typefaces ^K^k Today, this mainly done by computer.
is
not include its ascender or descender.
(serifs) at the end of many
iv g^^k do not serifs, ^k ^k\ The typeface and text width is set, and
letters. The serifs form a I ^k They are harder k\t ^L corrections can be made on screen.
link between the letters , I--S to read A laser printer, which is connected to the
I Printing facts
^k
m^k m
which helps bind them than serif ^k\ computer, prints the words onto a sheet
together as words. JL. _m» faces. of light-sensitive film, or type film. • First printers were the Chinese,
who printed scrolls and books using
TYPEFACES
There are thousands of different
Some of the most common
Helvetica

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR wooden blocks in about A.D. 770.

typefaces.
shown on the
a
right.
range of styles (such as
A typeface
italics)
comes
and
are
in STUVWXYZ
sizes, which are measured in points. This
book isset in the Caslon typeface.
Times
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ
Typeface RSTUVWXYZ
pom Futura
Caslon Roman. 10
ABCDEFGHJKLMNOPQRST
I

Chinese wooden block

Typeface UVWXYZ • Today, there are more than

1 1 ,000 Western typefaces.
Caslon 10 point
italic,

Mm
Typeface abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Caslon bold, 10 point

180
 )

RADIO

1888 Heinrich 1894 Guglielmo 1901 Morse code

Radio Hertz
(1857-1894),
German
Marconi
(1874-1937),
Italian-born
(see p.269)
transmitted across
the Atlantic by
is

sends Marconi.
Radio WAVES WERE first used for physicist,
discovers
physicist,
radio waxes across
communication some 30 years radio waves. a room, making a
bell riny.
before television appeared. The Hi unit li lint: Gugtithno Marconi

invention of radio also made 1888 1894 1901

possible television broadcasting. /

1912 Titanic sends an 1927 BBC (British 19S4 First transistor 1960 First \ HI -1M
emergency signal by radio after Broadcasting C Corporation radio appears in the I
S. stereo broadcasts, from
hitting an iceberg. is granted its first Transistors replace tubes. KDKA-FM
charter, or license.
1988 Radio Data System
1920 First commercial radio 1932 Frequency (automatic station
station, KDKA of Pittsburgh, Modulation, which reduces identification and traffic

startsbroadcasting with a interference, invented by

is news for car radio-, i
is

transmission of the presidential American inventor Edwin introduced in the 1 K and

election results. Armstrong (1890-1954). Sweden.
RMS Titanu Radio inn yojihunr Early transistor radio

1912 1920 1927 1932 1954 1960

Radio facts Radio frequencies

• Australian RPH radio stations Radio waves are waxes of electromagnetic- stations use long, medium, or short
Satellites
broadcast only programs for the energy that have varying lengths and waves. TV satellite link-ups and
prov ide
vision impaired. that vibrate at varying speeds. The rate microwave ovens also use communication
of vibration is called frequency. Radio radio waves. between vcrv
• During the five days in 1991 distant locations
thatCyclone Val pounded u ith microwaves.
Samoa, the island's only link
with the outside world was ham-
operated radio.

• Digital Audio Broadcasting

(DAB) is a new radio system
Frequency bands
that produces CD-quality are divided between rad
digital sound. stations so each station
can broadcast on its
• The distance radio waves own frequency and
travel around the Earth depends no clashes with other
stations occur.
partly on the number of
sunspots at the time.

Radio receivers
Top radio owners select
channel
a single radio
anil convert
Country Radios per the waves back into
person sound.

US 2.1

Bermuda 1.4

Australia 1.3
Long waves (FW)
Gibraltar 1.2
can travel almost
United Kingdom 1.1 1.240 miles Medium
(2.000km). The} arc waves (MWI Short waves (S\\ i

used for some travel for a few travel thousands

hundred miles. National of miles
national broadcasts.
anil local radio stations International radio
Radios old and new often transmit m \l\\ stations live s\\

1930s Radio records

I h is 1936 set was
loin (41cm) tall
LARGEST AUDIENCE Alien attack!
1 .sin (33cm) is for the BBC's World In1938 American actoi and
u ide, and Service, with at least 120 directorOrson Welles
used tubes.
million regular listeners (1915-85) dramatized
around the world. H.G.Wells' War ofAt
LONGEST-RUNNING SHOW Worlds, in which Earth
is Rambling with Gambling on is inv aded b\ aliens.

TODAY WOR-NY(New York), first Thousands of people

Radios can now broadcast in 1925. panicked, bclicv nig
he fitted inside
the program to be ,i

w istWf itches.
i LONGEST-RUNNING SOAP
news bulletin.
is The Archers, fust broadcast
bv he BBC in 1950.
i
L

181
ARTS WD THE Ml- HI A

1884 Nipkow disk is 1897 Cathode-ray tube is invented

Television invented bv Paul Nipkow

(1860-1940), a German
inventor. The spinning
by German physicist Katl Ferdinand
Braun (1850-1918). It is
the forerunner

Television sets convert radio disk is an earlv alternative of the modern 9

to the cathode ray tube. TV receiver tube.
waves into pictures and sound.
A single event can be watched Nipkow disk Cathode ray tube
live by billions of people all over 1884 1897

the world. f
1926 John Logie Baird 1929 Late-night transmissions of 1932 First practical television
(1888-1946), a Scottish Baird's 30-line pictures are broadcast camera is demonstrated by

inventor, demonstrates by the British Broadcasting Russian-born American

televisionby showing the Corporation (BBC). Vladimir Kosma Zworykin
recognizable pictures
first (1889-1982). It is fully

of a human face. He uses 1930 Sound is added to Baird's electronic, unlike Baird's
the Nipkow disk. 30-line television pictures and mechanical camera.
transmitted bv the BBC.

Band's system Vladimir Zworyhin

1926 1929 1930 1931

1950 Color television 1962 First transatlantic 1969 First Moon 1970 Transmission direct from
system is developed by the pictures are broadcast landing seen by
is satellite to high definition
American company (IBS. live from the millions all over television (HDTV) is developed by
communications the world, filmed Japan Broadcasting System (NHK).
1954 Eurovision formed satellite Telstar, in color by the
to share transmission of
programs across Europe.

1960-61 All-transistor
launched by NASA.
<yi Apollo XI crew. 1973 Ceefax, an information
system using the spare lines on
625-line television system,
developed in Britain.
is
a

televisions appear for the first

time in the United States. Telstar satellite First man on the moon

1954 1961 1962 1973

1979 First regular direct 1979 Pocket television 1980 Cable News 1981 Camcorder revolutionizes
broadcasting system set invented by Japanese
is Network (CNN) TV news gathering (see p.187).
(DBS) by satellite is firm Matsushita. It is officiallybegins in June.
launched in Canada. A no bigger than a video This American 24-hour 1986 N1CAM stereo TV
dish is needed to cassette. television channel relies invented and developed by the
receive broadcasts. on satellites for news BBC.
reporting and gives
up-to-thc minute news 1991 Hi- Vision, a high definition
coverage in times TV service, broadcast for eight
is

of crisis. hours daily by NHKof Japan.

Satellite me/vei d/\h Pocket TV set
1979 1981 1991

Television records LONGEST CONTINUOUS

TV SETS OLD AND NEW WORLD'S LONGEST-RUNNING BROADCAST

nEH ,

1
TV technology
rapidly over

1930s
its
has advanced
brief history.

Early sets had small black-and-white

screens but contained so much
TV SHOW
is NBC's Meet the Press, first

shown in 1947.
WORLD'S SMALLEST TV SET
was by GTV 9, Australia,
163 hrs 18 mins, of Apollo XI's
Moon mission (July 19-26, 1969).
FIRST DAILY BROADCASTS
lasting

electronic equipment that they were is Seiko's TV-Wrist Watch, were made by the BBC,
housed in large boxes. launched in 1982. It has a broadcasting from London,
l.Zinch (30.5mm) screen. starting November 10, 1936.
1960s
In the 1960s smaller, color TVs
became common. Transistors
replaced tubes. TV GENERATION
TODAY Americans watch more
» I'ockct-si/cd TVs arc now television than any other
H
'

widely available. nationality. In an average

1 Very f^BMJMMl
HP household the TV set is turned
often use liquid H^^^B on for seven hours a day. By
crystal screens. "M
the time they are 65 years old,
most Americans have watched
more than nine years' worth
of television.

182
 .

TELEVISION

Popular television Making a documentary

SOAP OPERAS ('SOAPS')
Soaps arc dramas with
continuous storylines shown
regular episodes. The
longest-running soap
Coronation Street, first
British TV in 1960.
American soaps of the 1950s
were sponsored by soap-powder
This diagram shows one way of making a
documentary. The two main players are Idea is taken to the
production company that
in the production company, which makes
will make the program
world's the film, and the TV station, which and arrange for it to be
is broadcasts it. The three main stages shown on TV,
shown on of the process are preproduction
The earliest (organization of the shoot),
production (filming) Go ahead
Preliminary research

companies.
and postproduction
(editing).
ML b) into subject and
possible locations
SPORTS PROGRAMS is undertaken.
The biggest ever TV audience Finance committee
was estimated at 26. 5 billion for Treatment Commissioning Committee, which
the 1990 World Cup finals. This written editor includes accountants,
outline is taken Commissioning editor, commissioning editor,
to a TV station. a TV executive, and controller, approves
receives and approves project and budget.
treatment

Preproduction Contract
Rushes Equipment and crew After signing, preparation

If shot on videotape,
lured, interviews set and shooting of
material can be checked up. locations found, documentary can begin.
filming permissions
instantly on playback.
obtained.
[f film has been used,
id Cup finals, I <><>(> pre\ ious day's work, Production
developed overnight, Shooting begins.
SITUATION COMEDIES is \ iewed dailv. Crew go on
(SITCOMS) location.

Sitcoms are comedies showing

the humorous side of
supposedly real-life situations.
NBC's The Cosby Show was the Viewing
highest-rated sitcom in Documentary
American history (1984), and
Bill Cosby was the highest-paid
performer in the world (1991).
Postproduction
CHILDREN'S PROGRAMS Editor and director put

Children's programs show a the program together in Delivery Transmission

its finished version, (Completed film is Program is broadcast
wide range of material suitable adding sound and titles. delivered to TV station. by TV station.
for a younger audience. Sesame
Street, first shown in the US in
1969, is seen in 80 countries.

Inside a television set World tv viewing Television facts

Electron guns fire streams
The TV set's aerial picks up
of electrons (see p.226) that
• By 1993 there were
Country Hours
radio waves and converts them sweep across the inside of the 746,829,000 homes worldwide
per week
into electronic signals. These screen, building up the image. with a TV
set. B\ 2005 there
United States 49 35
signals in turn are converted into will be an estimated billion.
pictures by the picture tube. Italy 28.93 • In 1977 hundreds of bald men
Hong Kong 28.70 invaded an English farm after a
Picture tube is the most
important single component Colombia 23.80 BBC April fool joke suggested
of a TV set. All the air has that water there had hair-
been pumped out of the tube- United Kingdom 23.80
restoring properties.
to allow free flow of electrons..
Canada 23.30
• I ligh definition TV uses twice
Australia 21 98 as mam up each
lines to build

Chile 17.50 frame as ordinary TV; therefore

the picture is much sharper.
China 10.59
• Virtual Vision Sport
World average 19.67
is a TV
s\ stem in
Phosphor strips coat the inside
which the
of the screen. Three diffeieni types of
\ icwer wears
phosphor are used: one w Iir h glows
red whenStruck b\ electrons; one a pair of special
green; and one blue. glasses. I'lu\ Virtual vision

create a color
picture that appears to be 5fi
Coils produce magnetic fields that Shadow mask has slots which
deflect the electron beams, creating ensure thai the electrons lighi ( 1.5m) wide floating in space
a new picture 25 times a second. phosphoi of the correct i oloi aboul I Oft (,sm> awa\

183
ARTS WD l'HK MKDIA

1879 Zoogyroscope (later renamed 1881 Etienne Marey

Movies Zoopraxiscope) is designed by

English photographer Eadweard
Muybridge (1830-1904). It
(1830-1904), French
photographic
pioneer, invents a
projects images of a series of camera, shaped
FILM-MAKING IS A million-dollar
photographs onto a screen, in like a gun, which
industry that makes, and sells, quick succession, creating the takes pictures on a
illusion of movement. revolving plate.
shows movies worldwide. Film
yroscope Etienne Marey
stars attract publicity and often
become household names.

1885 Paper roll film is invented 1895 Projection 1908 Kinemacolour is invented 1920s First studios in India
by American George Eastman system is invented by by Englishman George Albert Smith appear, including Bombay Talkies,
(1854-1932). French brothers August (1864-1959) and demonstrated in Ranjit Film Company, and Prabhat
(1862-1954) and Louis London. It uses two color filters and Film Company.
(1864-1948) Lumiere, two reels of film.
1894 Kinetograph (film camera) and publicly
and Kinetoscope (film viewer) demonstrated for the 1913 Hollywood's first feature film
are marketed bv Americans
Thomas Edison (1847-1931) and I first time in Paris.
Squaw Man, is made by American
directors Jesse Lasky (1880-1958),
W.K.L. Dickson (1860-1933),using Cecil B. de Mille (1881-1959), and
celluloid roll film. Lumiere projector Samuel Goldwyn (1879-1974).

1885 1894 1895 1913

Indian film posters

1920s-30s Picture palaces 1928 Sound is 1929 First 1932 Technicolor

are at thepeak of their recorded onto Oscars process is perfected
popularity, offering movie- the film itself. (Academy and three-color
goers magic and luxury. The first all- Awards) include Technicolor cameras
talking picture Emil Jannings are developed.
1927 The first "talkie" is is The Lights of (best actor) and
The Jazz Singer. The New York. Janet Gaynor
soundtrack to the film is (best actress). 1937 Becky Sharp
recorded on a disk. is the first film to be
made entirely in
Jazz singer poster Oscar three-strip color.
IAIZ SINGE
1920 1927 1928 1932 1937/

1 920s picture palace

1952 Eastman color 1952 Bwana Devil is the first 1953 CinemaScope is 1970 Steadycam is invented. It

takes over from 'Mm 3-D film in Natural Vision developed by Fox studios. This is a camera that remains completely
Technicolor. A (a largescreen wide-screen process forces steady while strapped to a freely
negative three-color T? process using Hollywood to film on location as moving cameraman.
movie is made from ^t natural sets are harder to hide. The Robe is
which Technicolor or color). the first CinemaScope film. 1976 OMNIMAX projection
Eastman color prints is first demonstrated. OMNIMAX
can be taken. films are shown on a huge
domelike screen that towers above
Scene from Eastman color and around the audience.
3-D glasses
movie, Doctor at Large

1952 1976

Popular films Film formats

Three of the most popular types of film One minute of a movie uses over 90ft (27m)
at the movies are science fiction (sci-fi), of film, and a full-length feature about
action, and horror. 1.5 miles (2.5km). The standard size used
now is 35mm (standard gauge).
SCIENCE FICTION
The most expensive film This 9.5mm film ivas introduced by
ever made was American the French Pa/he company in 1922 for
sci-fi thriller Terminator 2, amateur films.
starring Arnold The standard 35mm film

Schwarzenegger. The film

cost $95 million.

ACTION
The three Indiana Jones
films were all in the top

ten most successful films

of the 1980s, earning at
least $100 million each. Scene pom an IMAXfibn

HORROR Imax
Count Dracula, the vampire, The IMAX projection system was first
isthe most frequently demonstrated in Japan in 1970. The films
filmed horror character. are shown on giant screens with a full range
Since his screen debut in
of digital sound. 70mm film is used with
1931, he has appeared on
film more than 160 times. special cameras and projectors to create very
Terminator 2 clear, vivid pictures on screen.

184
 .

MOVIES

PREPRODHCTION Producer
Movie makers All the necessary The producer raises money
This diagram shows many of the most important and puts
for the film
arrangements are
people involved in making a movie. The together the creative
made to ensure package: director, script,
producer has overall financial responsibility and
that filming runs and actors. Once funds has
the director has overall creative control.
smoothly. : been raised, filming begins.

9- Director
Liaises with producer
Scriptwriter Production manager over script, hiring of Financing Stars Casting director
Works on story to Controls the budget and stars, and key crew . Once enough money Popular actors arc- \\ orks with the
make it attractive to expenditure; oversees has been raised, important for the director, selecting
stars as well as to practicalities of the shoot filming can begin. success of the film. actors.
financial backers. such as scheduling, travel,
and accommodation.

Location manager Production assistant Cast

Finds suitable Production coordinator Performs a variety of Actors for each
locations and arranges Runs production office and tasks including liaising part in the script.
for their use. makes sure information is between office and set,

circulated to crew and cast. and administration.

PRODUCTION
Director
^?^ Filming begins. The story is shot out of sequence in an order
-j
The director is the creative
"5P decided by the director and other department heads. Fach
force behind the film,
take (uninterrupted sequence of filming) is logged by the script controlling the action and
supervisor. Then sound and film are turned over to editors for bringing the script to life.

synchronization and editing.

Director of photography Production designer First assitant director Sound engineer

Responsible for lighting, Responsible for the overall Controls day-to-day filming In charge of the sound quality
composition, and choice design of the film, including on the set. Ensures schedule of the film. Also supervises
of camera, lens, and film. sets and costumes. of film is on target. placing of
microphones.

Camera operator works camera

during shooting. Boom operator positions and
Focus puller adjusts focus on lens.

Clapper loader checks, cleans and

loads the camera, operates the Second
?
assistant director helps First
operates the microphone
the boom.
known as

clapperboard, and sends and coordinates cast,

assistant director POSTPRODLCTION
Art director draws up the designs
film to the laboratory.
for the sets on the film, supervises crew, and background action.
After all the film has been
Crip lays tracks for their construction, and orders the
shot, the editor cuts up the
dolly (support for camera dressing of the set.

moves in any direction); OTHER SERVICES individual film sequences and

that
Construction manager is
moves dolly, as well as camera and Costume design and costume links them together. Working
in charge of carpenters,
camera equipment. department (buys and maintains closely with the director, the
painters, stagehands.
costumes); make-up department
Caffer is in charge of rigging and
(applies general and special effect
editor then adds the sound. The
Set dresser
setting the lights. finished version is sold for
places the many objects around the set make-up); transport; catering; stills
Best boy assists the gaffer. that give it the appearance of reality. photography (for publicity shots). distribution to theaters.

MOVIE FACTS Most oscars won

Famous directors Akira Kurosawa (born 1910),
• Movie screens are coated with
Fritz Lang (1890-1976), Austrian Japanese director of Rashotnon ( 1950) Name of film Oscars
director of Metropolis (1926) and and Hakuchi ( The Idiot) 95 1 1
minute plastic prisms that
F»ry(1936). make (he screen as bright Ben Hur (1959) 11
Ingmar Bergman (born
1918), Swedish director of
as possible. Before their Gone with the Wind (1939) 10
Sergei Eisenstein
(1898-1948), Russian, Smultronstallet ( Wild introduction, large screens
West Side Story (1961) 10
directed Battleship Potemkin Strawberries} 1957. were sprayed with water to
(1925) and Octobei (Ten Days improve reflection. Gandhi (1982) 9
Frederico Fellini (1920-
That Shook the World) 192s.
1993), Italian, directed// The Last Emperor (1987) 9
• First feature film was Tie Story
Alfred Hitchcock Bidone (The Swindle) 1955.
(1899-1980), British director of the Kelly Gang, made in From Here to Eternity (1953) 8
Satyajit Ray (born 1921),
of The Lady Vanishes (1938), Australia in 1906.
Indian director of TheApU On the Waterfront (1954) 8
DialM for Murder (1954),
Trilogy (1955-1959).
and Psyche (1960). • Longest film ever made is The 8
Orson Welles (1915-1985), ( jar for
Insomnia (1987),
American who directed net (1972)
Contemporary poster advertising
directed by American J.l I.
the film Metropolis Citizen Kane (1940). Amadeus(l984)
Timmis. Lasts 85 hours.

1S5
ARTS AND THK MEDIA

1832 Phenakistoscope 1908 Emile Cohl 1914 Earl Hurt! (1880-1950)

Animation isinvented by Belgian

Joseph Plateau
(1801-83). Images
(1857-1938), French
animator, draws
cartoons. His
and J.R. Bray (1879-1978),
American animators, draw-
cartoons on clear celluloid
Animators bring to life, on painted in technique requires sheets. The background does
sequence on the 16 pictures to make not have to be redrawn for
film, drawings (cartoons), or disk seem to move one second of every frame (shot) of an
when it is spun. screen time. animated sequence, only the
objects (animation). Computers moving parts.
Phenakistoscope
can now create many effects
1914
similar to traditional animation.

1919 Walt Disney WALT DISNEY'S 1928 Mickey Mouse 1930s Len Lye (born 1939 Tom and Jerry,
(1901-66) meets Ub Iwerks stars in Disney's Steamboat 1901), New Zealand created by Americans Bill
(1901-71). These American Willie, the animated
first animator, makes short Hanna(born 1910) and
animators refine and develop cartoon with synchronized films by drawing Joe Barbera(born 1911),
the celluloid-sheet sound. Disney himself abstract images directly appear in their first
technique. Disney Studios' provides Mickey's voice. onto the film itself, thus cartoon, Puss Gets the
Multiplane technique adds The cartoon causes a skipping the Boot. They receive the
realism and depth to their sensation. photographic process. first of their seven
cartoons. Oscars in 1943 for Yankee
Dooetle Mouse.
Mickey Mouse Len Lye

1919 1928 1939

Steamboat Willie

1952 Norman 1991 Creature 1990s Computer

McLaren (1914-87), Comforts, graphics may be used to
Canadian animator, created by enhance or manipulate
photographs real people Aardman hand-drawn images, as in
frame by frame in his Animation (UK) Aladdin (1992). Some
short film Neighbours, to and featuring animators save time by
clay zoo animals,
make them look like using them to draw the
wins an Oscar.
animated robots. intermediate images
between the key, hand-
A gorilla from drawn positions.
Norman McLaren Creature Comforts Aladdin

1952 1991

Animation types CARTOONS Animation facts Top box office hits

ANIMATION Walt Disney achieved huge • First ever motion-picture cartoon
The twin Brothers Quay, born in popularity and won a special Film Production
film was Humorous Phases of Funny
Philadelphia in 1947, bring strange, Oscar for the first feature- company and date
dead objects to life in their animated length cartoon, Snow White Faces (1906), made by American
and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). Stuart Blackton (1875-1941) for Who Framed Disney, 1 988
films. Street of Crocodiles, made in ]986, J.
Roger Rabbit?
features eyeless dolls. The brothers Vitagraph. The cartoon required
were influenced by Czech animator, 3,000 drawings. Snow White and Disney, 1937
Jan Svankmajcr (born 1934). The Seven Dwarfs
• First animated film nominated for
The Jungle Book Disney, 1967
an Oscar for best picture was the
Disney production of Beauty and Bambi Disney, 1942

the Beast (1991). Fantasia Disney, 1940

• Since the 1930s cartoon characters Cinderella Disney, 1950

have been drawn with only three Lady and Disney, 1955
fingers instead of four. This looks the Tramp
just as realistic and is much quicker
The Little Mermaid Disney, 1989
for the animators.

MORPHING Virtual reality

This computer technique is Virtual reality is a three-
used either to transform a dimensional computer-
person or object into something generated world. The specia
different, or to create animation headset contains
in a live-action film. The miniature TV screens
The points of both objects, hand
illustration shows part of a and spider, are plotted on the computer. When the two that provide stereo
morphing sequence. sets of points coincide the transformation is complete. vision. If you wear the
headset and move
around, the virtual-
reality world
moves with you.
The data glove
allows you to
operate tools in the
The outline of The mid-pomt The spider is
virtual world.
the spider is just visible. of the morphing process. almost complete

186
 VIDEO

1929 Phonovision is 1956 First working 1965 l-irst portable-

Video introduced by John

Logic Baiid (1888-1946),
Scottish inventor. This
video recorder, the
\ R1000, is introduced

l>\ \nipc\ ( Corporation

video camera
introduced by Japanese
company Sony. It has a

THE TERM VIDEO refers to video system uses 12

inch disks with pictures
of California. bulky separate unit
containing the recording
video eassettes, video recorders, recorded onto them. equipment, and records
and video cameras. Many TV Phonovision ilisli
in black and white.

programs, advertisements, and

music videos are shot on video.
1929 1956
7FT 1965

1970 First video 1972 First domestic 1976 VHSsystem, launched 1981 Camcorder is invented
cassette is part of the video recorder is the b\ Japanese company It is a camera u ith a built-in

U-Matic system, made N1500, brought out by JV( proves more

!,
recorder, which records onto
In Sony. Philips of lolland. It is the
I commercially videotape instead of film.
first \ ideo recorder to have- Successful than
its own tuner and timer. its rival Betamax. 1990s CDTV uses pre-
recorded ideo disks similar
v
1975 Laser Video Disk to music (!l)s. instead of
introduced by v ideo tapes.

Sony/Philips.
An early camcctnJL ( 1)1 Yd,
Son) 1970 I Main 1972 1975 1976 1981
video cassette

Video facts • A basic VCR contains over Electronic news gathering

• Approximately 25% of all 2,500 components, compared to Electronic news gathering
video sales in the world are of about 360 that make up a color (KNC) teams use
On location
animated films. TV set. professional video cameras
abroad
• Japanese companies account • Laser video disks spin to record onto video
cassettes. Unlike film,
ENG
films
crew
new s
-' ' ^^
forover 80% of worldwide video approximately fifty times faster
story.
videos do not need to
recorder (VCR) production. than a long-playing record.
European models revolve 1,500 be processed before
broadcasting.
times a minute, and American *^*^^^
Top video spenders and Japanese disks 1,800 times a Customized van
Country US $ Billions
(
'assette taken to van Transmitting
minute.
containing microw &\ e station
US 11.0 • US has the most video rental transmitter. Pictures Signals received
Japan 2.6 outlets in the world (55,000 in
beamed home via nearby from van sent
ttansmitting station. on to satellite.
UK 1.4
1992). Japan is second with
11,500 stores.
Canada 1.2
• There are 230 million homes
France 0.7
around the world with at
Germany 0.7 least one VCR. The US has

Australia 0.7 the most, with 65 million. Satellite

Signals beamed down to
studio receiver dish.
Video cameras
Early v ideo cameras were
carried on the shoulder
and were connected by
Tnpod
cables to separate
recording equipment Studio
(called a portapak) TV station can broadcast
immediately or tape
pictures for latCl use
This camcorder films and
At home
\ iewer watches the
records in one unit. It is
Video news footage taken
small enough be heldto in
recorder
the palm of the hand.
In the ENG team.

The 1956Ampex VR1000

Video recorders video recorder weighed
The VR 1000 was 3.7 ft (1.1m) high 1,4651b (665kg), the same .is

and used tape

a small car,
which was 4 nines w idcr
than that of tod.iv "s \ ( M<s
TIIK FIRST MUSIC VIDEO
Video records was for Bohemian Rhapsody In
F VSTEST VIDEOTAPE ON SALE
Queen, in 1975.
was the wedding of 1R1 Prince
1 1

Andrew to Sarah Ferguson on BBST-SI i\<; \ IDBO

1 1

JuIn 23, 1986. The fulK edited is Disney's animated feature

and packaged tapes were film Beauty and me Beast 1 1992):

available in Virgin Megastore, 20 million copies sold, earning
Modem recorders like tins
one are only slij4.l1 1 larger
IlOndon, 5 hours 41 minutes $135 million in the fust six
ly

than the cassette inside. after the event. months after going on sale
ARTS AND THK MEDIA

59 B.C. Romans produce the A.D. 618 Newsletter reporting on

Newspapers Acta diurna (daily acts). They

report on the social and political
events of the day.
court affairs is circulated by
servants in Peking, China,
civil

1440-50 Printing by movable type is

NEWSPAPERS KEEP everyone touch with in
invented by Johannes Gutenberg
local, national, and world events for a (c.1398-1468) of Germany. This leads
to more printed material being
small price. They give more information produced and a growth in readership.
on a wider range of topics and more detail
than TV news.
618 1440
Johannes Gutenberg

1513 Newsbooks, 1620 One of the first 1600s-1800s In Japan 1645 Oldest
forerunners of newspapers, papers to be printed people pay a small fee continuously
produced. One surviving from movable type is a for the news to be published weekly
copy from England, The Dutch newspaper, read aloud to them. newspaper, the Post-
Treat Encountre, dated called Corantos It is known as och inrikes tidningar, is

September 1513, gives a (currents of news). It yomiuri and

(sell published in Sweden.
four-page eyewitness
account of the Battle of
contains extracts from
foreign journals.
m^m read). Kawara-ban
(tile-block printing)
Flodden Field. broadsheets are also
In japan, the news is
Corantos produced. read out loud for a fee.

1513 1620 1645

1703 Oldest surviving 1704 The Boston News-letter, 1766 Sweden 1842 The Illustrated London News, 1858 P. J. Reuter (1816-99),
daily newspaper in newspaper in the
first official becomes the first containing sketches by artists from all over of Germany, starts a foreign
the world is the Wiener LIS, appears. It replaces country to guarantee the world, is established. news agency. It is
Zeitung (Viennese newsletters that had previously freedom of the press. now one of the
newspaper), Austria. been sent from London. biggest in
1833 First the world.
ITZilfiPalltof !1ad>ri*t The Boston News-letter
Da bit Jlti)al)! b« fctmn (fubfaibrnun successful penny
nod) f<br gttillJt ifl« foitbt <J) mid) gtjajun-
9tn bit $frau<g.abr mrinrc 3 fluinmrrn
paper, the Sun,
Hi
X'if
r

gut bin 1. 3ancc 1789 in BtrfdjirtMn.

ff ubfmotionlbiUet* iinb nod) iinmrr
The Bofton News-Letter. appears in New
EnbUgyb aatbwUf.
qfqtn 2)({Qblung 4 Sufatfn , octr 18 fl.
fttiin. JToncnl bto fern. $n*bcrg. in bet 5 a»
Iin,i|.|icn 3.'iiberlflg«I)anMu<i9 am bol>m »;ar[
by
York.
™ P.J. Reuter
ill baben. fljun bin 13. Juni 1788.
tfapfllnmfrr Mp(jrr,
3n nrirtl. Z>itnptn 6t. Dtfljcftflt. 1703 1704 1766 1833 1842 1858

Wiener Zeitung *

1878 77/*? Hindu is 1903 First tabloid, the 1910-20s American publisher, 1955 The Village Voice is published
one of the first Indian Mirror, launched in Britain.
is Edward Scripps in New York. This, along with other
newspapers to be The paper was half the size (1854-1926), pioneers alternative newspapers, brings a new,
established. of other newspapers, had the collection and i radical approach to news reporting.
shortened articles, and was ownership of M
reasonably priced. Later, it popular working- 1970s Computers and advanced
THE HIND 07 became the Daily Mirror. class newspapers. technology replace typesetters and
By the 1920s, there printers. This leads newspaper owners
are about 6,000 to lay off large numbers of employees.
newspapers in the IIS. Edward
The Minor Scripps

1878 1903 1910 1920 1955 1970

The Hindu

Newspaper facts • First newspaper to achieve a circulation

Newspaper words
• Sweden sells 574 newspapers for every of one million was the French paper Le Petit
1,000 people: the highest sales in the world. J'on nuil, in 1886. Broadsheet Newspaper with a large format,
usually 24in x 15in (61cm x 38cm).
Circulation Number of newspapers sold
Countries with the most Best-selling newspapers each issue.
Editor Person with complete control over
daily newspapers in the world the contents of a newspaper.
Country Number Feature A non-news article.
Newspaper Country Average daily
Hard news Up-to-the-minute news.
US 1,657 circulation
Editorial Article giving newspaper's
India 1,423 Yomissi Shimbun Japan 8,700,000 own opinion.
Popular press, or tabloids. Newspapers aiming
Germany 766 Asahi Shimbun Japan 7,400,000 to provide lively news and entertainment for a
CIS 726 mass readership. Also called tabloids, since they
People's Daily China 6,000,000
usually have a smaller format than broadsheets.
Turkey 364 Quality press Newspapers aiming to provide
Bild Zeitung Germany 5,900,000
Brazil 364 serious news, information, and analysis. Also
The Wall Street Journal US 1,818,562 called broadsheets, since they
Argentina 227 usually have a large format.
USA Today US 1,494,929
China 222 Softnews Background news or
New York Times US 1,141,366 news that is not up-to-the-minute.
Sweden 169 Syndication Group of publishers
Los Angeles Times US 1 ,089,690 who sell the reprint rights to articles
Greece 124
Washington Times US 813,908 or comics all around the world.
Japan 124 Tabloid Newspaper with a smaller format,
UK 112 New York Daily News US 764,070 about half the size of broadsheets.

188
 Sports
This factual survey covers every major sport from baseball to weight
lifting, identifying Olympic sports and giving tables of Olympic events.
For each sport, special clothing, and equipment are clearly illustrated,

and all dimensions, weights, and distances are included. The section
features rules and record breakers, glossaries to explain specialized
terms, and amazing facts and comparisons.

Sports • Olympic Games • Track Events • Field Events • Weight lifting

Gymnastics • Combat Sports • Court Games • Basketball • Rugby • Football

Cricket • Baseball • Stick Games • Golf • Water Sports • Swimming

Equestrian • Winter Sports • Wheeled Sports • Target Sports

In this section the official measurements, whether

in metric or imperial, are given for each sport.

189
 m

SPORTS

e.3000-1500 B.C. <-,""iv e.1500 B.C.

Sports Wrestling and

boxing are
practiced by the
^jp]

fi
/-

f
Hunting, archery,
wrestling, fighting,
and organized
The first sports, such as early Mediterranean
civilizations.
running are
practiced in ancient
hunting and running, grew out Bull sports Egypt.
feature in Minoan festivals in Crete. Bull-leaping is An Egyptian nobleman hunts
of a need for survival. Today, Acrobats leap over the backs of running bulls. practiced in Crete. for birds with a curved stick.

people take part in sports for

3000-1500 B.C. 1500 B.C.
fitness and enjoyment.

e.776 B.C. First c.200 B.C. c.20 B.C. Sumo c.A.D. 400 Religious ball game,
Olympic Games held Chariot racing is wrestling tlachtli, is

at Olympia, Greece. popular in Rome, develops in Japan played by

They last one day, with where the Circus from Chiao-Li, Aztec Indians
1
sacrifices to the gods Maximus arena a form of of Central
followed by a single- holds 200,000 wrestling used America.
race, a sprint of 630ft people. Gladiators by the Chinese ayers use
(192m), the length of
the stadium. Coroebus,
fight to the death
inamphitheaters
army in training their elbows,
knees, and
Hi
a cook, wins the race. such as the Colosseum, Rome. Chariot racing, Rome Sumo wrestler. Japan hips to hit a I. *,
rubber ball. ft.

776 B.C. ,
O'/ 200 B.C. 20B.C A.D. 400

_J Aztec ball court

Early lacrosse
c.l 100 Knights take part 1200s Tennis 1400s Calcio (kick), a form 1811 First outdoor
in jousting tournaments in played by the clergy of football, is played in gymnasium is

England and France to and royalty in Skating, Florence, Italy. Each side 1777 People surfing opened by
practice for warfare. France. Holland has 27 players. off the islands of Tahiti German teacher
Skating on and Oahu are seen by Friedrich Jahn
frozen canals 1636 Lacrosse develops Captain James Cook (1778-1852),
popular in from baggataway, (1728-79), British inventor of
Holland. played by the American explorer. Surfing was rings and
Bowls played Indian Huron tribe in present- later banned by parallel bars.
in English day Ontario, Canada. The word missionaries who
Friedrich Jahn
gardens. crosse describes the stick used. thought it immoral.

1200 1636 1777 1811

1823 Rugby is born when c.1829 1839 First Grand 1843 First cross- 1860 First British Open
William Webb Baseball, National steeplechase is country ski race held in Golf Championship held at

Ellis, a pupil at derived from held at Aintree, England. Tromso, Norway. Prestwick, Scotland.
Rugby School, the English lumping the Brook at the 1846 Soccer rules drawn 1861 First hockey club
England, picks game of (Wand National, 1839 up at Cambridge formed in London.
up the ball and rounders, is
University, England.
runs with it first played 1865 Gloved boxing
during a game in the US. 1847 Tenpin bowling is develops from bare-
of soccer. born in Connecticut. knuckle fighting using
1 \ ill i a Ninepins had been the Marquess of
Webb Ellis Early ha banned, so a pin is added. Quecnsbcrry's rules.

1843 1846 1847 1860 1861 1865

1866 First show-jumping 1877 First cricket Test 1877 First Wimbledon lawn tennis 1882 Judo developed
event is held in Paris. Match held between England championships held in England. by Jigoro Kano
and Australia in Melbourne. (1860-1938) in Japan.
1874 American football is J
England
bornwhen teams from McGill
University, Canada, and
& -» ta •% --i. J** nickel learn
1886
1891 Basketball
invented in
Harvard, US, play a game that Massachusetts, by
is half soccer, half rugby. Canadian Dr. James
Naismith, who hangs
1876 Modern badminton
two peach baskets on a
rules are drawn up in
veranda for goals. Dr. James Naismith (1861-1939)
->oona, India. Wimbledon

1877 1882 1891

1895 Volleyball devised by 1903 First Tour de France 1930 Soccer's first 1970 South Africa is 1980-1990s Commercial sponsorship becomes
William G. Morgan in multistage bicycle race. World Cup is held in expelled from the Olympic increasingly important in sport. Satellites bring live
Massachusetts. 1924 First Winter Olympics Uruguay. movement because of international sports to worldwide TV audiences.
First motor race held, staged at Chamonix, France. apartheid policy. Regular mass
1960 First
Paris-Bordeaux-Paris. marathons, with more
Paralympics is held 1972 At the Munich
than 15,000 entrants,
1896 First modern forhandicapped Olympics, Germany,
are staged. Some
Olympic Games held in people in Rome, Italy. Palestinian terrorists
marathons include
Athens, inspired by Baron Canadian hockey kill 1 1 members of
lie wheelchair events.
Pierre de Coubertin 863- ( 1 learn,winners at the first the Israeli team.
1937) of France. Winter Olympics, 1924.
The London marathon

/ 1895 1896 /_£> /l903 1970 1972

Z AV
190
 OLYMPIC GAMES

Olympic games
EVERY FOUR YEARS, athletes from all
over the world meet to compete in the
Summer Olympic Games. About 7,000
competitors take part in more than
20 different sports.
COO OLYMPIC SYMBOL
The Olympic symbol is made up of five
CROWNING
GLORY
In the ancient
()l\

MEDALS
mpic Games,
winners were
crowned with
a sacred olive wreath.

Individuals and teams

compete lor gold first ( I.
Gold
medal
from the
silver (second),and 1984
interlocking rings, standing tor Europe, bronze (third) medals Games
Asia, Vfrica, Australia, and America. in the modern Games.
Summer Olympic venues
Date Place Country Olympic flame
1896 Athens Greece This flame symbolizes the
Winter Olympic venues
athlete's strive for perfection. Date Place Country
1900 Paris France
A torch is carried by a series of 1924 Chamonix France
1904 St. Louis, Missouri US runners from the site of the
1928 St. Moritz Switzerland
1908 London Britain ancient Olympics in Greece to the stadium
where the current Games are to be held. 1932 Lake Placid, New York US
1912 Stockholm Sweden
1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen Germany
1920 Antwerp Belgium
Paralympic venues 1948 St Moritz Switzerland
1924 Paris France
Date Place Country 1952 Oslo Norway
1928 Amsterdam Netherlands
1960 Rome Italy 1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo Italy
1932 Los Angeles, California US
1964 Tokyo Japan 1960 Squaw Valley, California US
1936 Berlin Germany
1968 Tel Aviv Israel 1964 Innsbruck Austria
1948 London Britain
1972 Heidelberg Germany 1968 Grenoble France
1952 Helsinki Finland
1976 Toronto Canada 1972 Sapporo Japan
1956 Melbourne Australia
1980 Arnhem Netherlands 1976 Innsbruck Austria
1960 Rome Italy
1984 New York US 1980 Lake Placid, New York US
1964 Tokyo Japan
1988 Seoul South Korea 1984 Sarajevo Yugoslavia
1968 Mexico City Mexico
1992 Barcelona Spain 1988 Calgary, Alberta Canada
1972 Munich Germany
1996 Atlanta, Georgia US 1992 Albertville France
1976 Montreal Canada
2000 Sydney Australia 1994 Lillehammer Norway
1980 Moscow USSR
1998 Nagano Japan
1984 Los Angeles, California US L PARALYMPICS
1988 Seoul South Korea
R7| Disabled people compete in the WINTER OLYMPICS
'A. 17 Paralympic Games, which are 1 Intil 1994, the Winter (James were
1992 Barcelona Spain i4|A held every four years. Events held in the same sear as the ,

1996 Atlanta, Georgia US

tiE~ ~JM\ include cycling and judo. The
Winter Paralympies have
Summer Olympics. Events include
Tffr- skiing, figure and speed skating, and
been held since 1976. hockey.
2000 Sydney Australia ] ice

CLASSIFICATION OF SPORTS (^\/~V^ This symbol is shown next ""

One way of classifying the many different types of
to Olympic sports tenured
sports is to put them into three basic groups, which
^vlyvly^ all

can then be subdivided further. Classification in the pages follow ing.

RACING IPPONENT |
ACHIEVEMENT

TA
Body Extension of Outside
KM
Team Court Combat Power Display Target
c
power body power power source

Examples
Running Cycling Motor racing Baseball Tennis Boxing Long jump Gymnastics
Hurdles Skiing Motorcycle racing Football Badminton Judo Javelin Show jumping
Swimming Rowing Yacht racing Ice hockc\ Squash fencing Weight lifting Figure skating

191
SPORTS

H Track events
Track facts
Olympic and world championship
track events
Event Current Olympic record
Male (M) Female (F)
• The standard crack circuit, or lap,
measures 4()()m and has 8 lanes. Sprints 1 00m 9.92 sees 10.54 sees

• Races up to one lap in length are 200m 19.73 sees 21.34 sees
run in lanes.
400m 43.50 sees 48.64 sees
• Races over 1 10m run counter- Middle distance 800m 1 min 43 sees 1 min 53.50 sees
clockw isc.
1500m 3 mins 32.53 sees 3 mins 53.96 sees

Long distance 3,000m - 8 mins 26.53 sees

SHOES
-*
Track-racing shoes arc tight-fitting, 5,000m 13 mins 5.59 sees
lightweight, and have a maximum of
10,000m 27 mins 21 .47 sees 31 mins 5.21 sees
1 1 spikes.
Road-racing Relays 4x1 00m 37.40 sees 41 .60 sees
shoes do not
li.n e spikes. 4x400m 2 mins 55.74 sees 3 mins 15.18 sees

Hurdles 100m - 12.38 sees

Sprinting shoe
110m 12.98 sees -
PISTOL
A starting pistol is fired 400m 46.78 sees 53.17 sees

'^^J into the air to signal the

beginning of a
automatically triggers
race. It

Spikes help the

Steeplechase

Marathon
3,000m

42.195km
8 mins 5.51 sees

2 hrs9 mins 21 sees

-

2 hrs 24 mins 52 sees

an electronic timer. shoes frtip the
track. Walks 10km - 44 mins 32 sees
.., 20km 19 mins 57 sees -
STARTING BLOCKS 1 hr

Starting blocks provide the runner !

-
50km 3 hrs 38 mins 29 sees
with a firm base from which to push
off.The blocks 'World championship event only
arc fixed to p
the track just
behind the 1500m
starting, or scratch, line.
Starting blocks are used
in races up to 4()()m.

STARTING POSITIONS
()nl\ the 100m race has a straight
start. The 200m. 400m, and 800m
races are staggered. Longer races
start from curved lines.

Straight start J 5*

999 Sprint
On your marks The athlete
moves to the starting blocks.
She presses against them
H ith the balls of her feet. She
places her hands behind the
starting line.

100M
999 Relay
• Each of the four team members
4 \
In this relax race.
an athlete
stretches back hi
runs one stage, or leg, of a relay. hand to take the
baton from his
• A baton is carried by the first
teammate.
runner and passed on to the next u ithout looking
team member in a takeover zone. behind
him.
• A dropped baton must be picked
Up b\ the runner who dropped it.

192
 TRACK EVENTS

• An athlete is not
disqualified for
knocking dow n
hurdles.

• An athlete's rear
leg must not trail

around the outside

of the hurdle.

Hurdle heights
Event Height

100m (F) 0.838m • At present, only men compete in STEEPLECHASE HURDLE

the steeplechase. These hurdles arc placed on
110m (M) 1.067m the three inside lanes of the
• Athletes must make 28 jumps over track. They are much heavier
400m (M) 0.914m than standard hurdles and will
hurdles and 7 over the water jump.
stand firm when struck b> the
400m (F) 0.762m
• Athletes can place their feet and athletes' f'ect.

hands on the hurdles when

999 Marathon
• Marathons are run mainly on
jumping over them.

WATER JUMP
Wooden bar is 3 96m wide

roads, but often start and finish The water jump is the fourth jump in each lap. The hurdle
the same height as the other hurdles, but sinks down into
is
in the stadium.
the ground on the far side.
• Distances, in miles and
kilometers, are shown to the
runners during the race.

• Refreshments may be taken

every 3 miles (5m).

STEEPLECHASE TRACK
One water jump and four hurdles are placed
on the three inside lanes of the track.

Athletes clearing the tuatei jump.

•
xXV
A
Race walking
race walker must maintain unbroken
• The
straighten for a
leg must

Marathon race, 1988 Olympit contact with the ground, so his rear foot moment, while
must not leave the ground until the front the foot is on
one has made contact. the ground.
Marathon origin
The marathon originated in
490 B.C. when a Greek
By rotating In
messenger, Pheidippides, ran
24 miles (39km) to report the
hips, the
U/alkei can
Record breakers
mi nasi' the POUR-MINI II- Mil I

Athenian victory over the length i>l his was first broken in 19.S4 b\ Rogei
Persians at the Battle of stride
Bannister (bom 1929), of Britain.
Marathon.
II N-SECOND 100M
was first broken in 1968 l>\ Jim
Leg kept straight
I lines (bom 1946), of the I S

Y0\ v.isi i\di\ mi \i

world record breaker in track
events isWang an (born
i l
(
'7l >. of
( Ihina. The 14-year-old girl set a
women's 5,000m walk record at

&> ban. ( ihina, in 1986

193
SPORTS

INFIELD
Field events The positioning of the field areas varies
from stadium to stadium, but, generally,
events are held inside the track (the infield).

Field facts Shot put

Hammer and discus Pole vault ,
Javelin

• Field events include all the major athletic

jumping and throwing sports.

• At the Olympic Games, men and

women compete in all field events
apart from the hammer and pole
vault, which are for men only.

Throwing events
• Athletes must not touch
any point outside the
throwing area until their
throw has landed.

• A white flag is shown for a

correct attempt, a red flag High jump

signals a foul.
Long jump Triple jump

Olympic throwing events

Javelin THROWING THE JAVELIN
Event Weight Current Olympic The arm
record
• The javelin isthrown from behind a athlete stretches his throwing
behind him, to give him extra power. The
curved line at the end of a run-up
Javelin (F) 0.6kg 74.68m javelin must land tip first, but it does not
track, and must land within a 29° arc. need to dig into the ground.
Javelin (M) 0.8kg 89.66m
JAVELIN
Discus (F) 1kg 72.30m The javelin looks like a
spear. It has a long shaft
Discus (M) 2kg 68.82m
a cord grip, and a

Shot put (F) 4kg 22.41m metal tip.

Shot put (M) 7.26kg 22.47m The length of the men's javelin is
260-270cm; the women's javelin
Hammer (M) 7.26kg 84.80m measures 220-230cm.
Sharply-pointed
metal tip

• The discus
Discus
is thrown
DISCUS
The discus has a meta
The athlete usually
takes one or two
swings before starting
^ Cord grip

rim, with a metal

from a circle and must land to lum.
weigh: at the center.
within a 40° arc.
The width of the men's
discus is 219-221mm; the
width of the women's discus
• Though any holding and
is 180-182mm.
throwing techniques are
allowed, the discus is usually THROWING THE DISCUS
held and thrown with one hand. The athlete stands with her back to the
throwing area and turns one and a half
times before releasing the discus.

Shot put SHOT PUTTING THE SHOT

• The thrown, or put,
shot is
The shot is a The athlete ptits the shot with a single pushing
smooth metal action. She must not let the hand holding
from a circle and must land
ball. The the shot fall below its starting position
within a 45° arc. men's shot is

slightly larger
• Only one hand is used, and
than the women's
the put must not start from
Her body straightens
behind the line of
on faring the throwing
the shoulders. area.

Record breakers
SIX WORLD RECORDS,
including a long jump record of
8.13m that lasted 25 years, were
HAMMER set in 45 minutes by Jesse
The hammer
ball that attached to
is a meta Hammer THROWING THE Owens (1913-80) of the US in
is
• The hammer thrown is HAMMER 1935 in Michigan.
a handle by a length of
from a circle surrounded by The athlete throws the
Although
steel wire.
hammer using both OLDEST FEMALE ATHLETE
the hammer weighs a safety cage and must land ever to win an Olympic title
hands. The head of the is
the same as the men's within a 40° arc. hammer may touch the Lia Manoliu (born 1932) of
shot, the different
ground during the first
Romania, who was 36 years old
throwing technique The hammer weighs few swings.
means that it can travel thesame as the when she won the discus at the
much men \ shot.
Mexico
farther. 1968 Olympics in City.

194
 FIELD EVENTS

JUMPING EVENTS
Olympic jumping events • In all jumping events, athletes
Event Current Olympic record may take any length of run and
High jump (M) 2.38m may place markers to help judge
their approach.
High jump (F) 2.02m

Pole vault (M) 5.90m

Long jump (M) 8.90m

Long jump (F) 7.40m

Triple jump (M) 18.17m

Triple jump (F) new event in 1 996

QS& Combined events

DECATHLON Most high-jumpers use a
technique called the "Fosbury
• Men compete in the Decathlon, w hich flop," in which the athlete
covers ten events. jumps backward over the bar.

High jump
Events • The crossbar is raised for each round by
First day Second day a minimum of 2cm.
1 00m race 1 1 0m hurdles • The high jump has a fan-shaped
Long jump Discus run-up area.

Shot put Pole vault

High jump Javelin I in /ml/ vaulter tucks

400m race 500m race

Pole vault himselt under thepole
1
• The crossbar iiniil it straightens, "ml
is raised for each round
then rotates in come
by a minimum of 5cm. dawn facing the l>m

HEPTATHLON • The pole vault has a straight run-up

• Women compete in the
with a sunken box at the end.
Heptathlon; it covers seven events.
• Poles may be of any size or

Events material, but are usually made

of fiberglass.
First day Second day

100m hurdles Long jump VAULTING OVER

The athlete must make an accurate
High jump Javelin
run-up, to ensure that the pole is
Shot put 800m race placed in the correct position for
takeoff. As he pushes off from the
200m race On leaving the ground,
ground, the pole bends with the
athletesmay not climb
weight of his body. He levers
ooo MODERN PENTATHLON himself over the bar, feet first.
,;
the pole (by
the lower
moving
hand about
the upper ha ml).
• Men and women compete in the i*^ 11
Modern Pentathlon, though only
men
five events.
in the Olympics; it covers
999• The athlete
Long jump
makes a straight run-up to
TECHNIQUE
The athlete
The athlete throws
forward en \hf lands.
hei legs

leaves the take-

Events a wooden takeoff board which is sunk
off board in an
into the runway. upright position.
Fencing (Epee)
• Just beyond the takeoff line is a soft
She increases
Freestyle swimming - 300m (M) and the distance she
200m (F)
substance that records foot faults.
tra\ els In
• Jumps are measured to the nearest mark leaning back in
Pistol shooting
midair before
in the sand made by any part of the body.
Cross-country running - 4,000m (M) landing.

and 2,000m (F)

Riding
Q99 Triple jump
• This event uses the same run-up and THREE STAGES
TRIATHLON landing area as the long jump. Hop The athlete must Step The .lump The athlete
land on the same toot athlete inusi throws Ins .urns and
• Men and women compete in the • The athlete must use a hop, step, and that was used foi land on the legs forward, read)
Triathlon; it covers three events.
jump action. takeoff. other loot foi landing.

Events
Course Events
Swimming Cycling Running

Short Course 1.5km 40km 10km

Long Course 3.8km 180km 42.2km

195
SPORTS

Weight lifting DISK WEIGHTS

Glasses of
weight lifting
The cast-iron disk weights range
• Weight lifters compete in • Men and women compete in from 0.25kg to 25kg. By adding a
Category Weight (in kg)
Male Female
different classes according to weight Lifting, but only men combination of disks, any weight
take part in Olympic events. can be added 1 54 46
their body weight.
to the bar.
• There are two types of 2 59 50
BAR
lifts: the snatch, and the The weight lifting bar is made 3 64 54
clean and jerk. progressively heavier during
4 70 59
\ each round of a competition.
GEAR K Disks of varying weights 5 76 64
The weight lifter must 'i are loaded onto the bar,
wear a one-piece with the heaviest on 6 83 70
\
costume. Ho may ^ the inside. 7 91 76
wear a T-shirt
underneath if he 8 99 83
w ishes. A wide belt The rubber- or plastic-
covered disks one color- 9 108 Over 83
ni.iv be worn to
coded according to weight.
support the back. 10 0ver108 -
Red Yellow
(25kg) ,05kg)

Power lifting
Power lifters can lift much
heavier weights than weight
lifters because they do not
have to raise the barabove
their heads.

TYPES OF POWER LIFTING

1.5kg
(Not a current
Squat The bar rests on a stand and the
official weight)
liftersquats below it. He must stand up
and lift the bar across the shoulders.
Snatch • On completing a lift, the
Bench press The lifter lies on a bench
• The weight lifter must lift the weight lifter must hold the with the bar resting on a stand above
bar in a single movement until position until the referee his chest. On the instruction "press,"
the bar above the head and
is signals to replace the bar. the lifter must push the bar up until
both arms are straight.
the arms are fully extended.
Deadlift The competitor the bar
lifts
• Once the bar is above his He must be
from the floor and rises to a standing
completely still,
head, the weight lifter can take and his arms position with the bar resting across the
front of his thighs.
as much time as he needs to and legs fully
stretched, for
straighten his position In the bench press, the
the lift to be
,A athlete lifts the bar out
(the recovery). counted.
i^ of a stand.

Tin- weight lifter

uses chalk to help

him grip t lie bar.

The height if
the bench is

adjustable.

He must not turn his xmists

over until the bar is past
lie may hind or split head height.
his legs during the lift

Weighty matters
Clean and jerk Weight lifters can lift more than 2.5
• In the clean and jerk, the bar is lifted to times their own body weight in the
the shoulders (the clean) and then to full snatch, and more than 3 times their
arm's length overhead (the jerk). own body weight in the clean and

• At the end of the clean, the

jerk. Power lifters can lift more than 5

ifter may rest the bar on the

times their own body weight.
As in the snatch, the
collarbones, chest, lifter can take any
Knees may be length of time over
or fully bent arms,
Split or bent. Ihc recovery position.
and may change
his grip.
The lifter must not let the bar
i A i Snatch

touch his body until it has

reached his shoulders. Clean
and jerk
During the clean Ihc
_ Power lifting

must not let his

lifter Record breakers
elbows or upper arms
FIRST MAN TO CLEAN AND JERK
touch his knees or thighs.
more than three times his own
body weight was Stefan Topurov
(born 1964), of Bulgaria,
180kg in Moscow, USSR,
who lifted
in 1983.
tmm
196
 1

GYMNASTICS

GEAR
Gymnastics Men weat vests and long pants. They may
wear shorts for the floor and vault
CXX) Artistic
^- ^ r GYMNASTICS
7
exercises. Women wear leotards, and may
wear gymnastic slippers or go barefoot.
• The gymnast must combine Handguards may be worn for the ring
acrobatic agility and muscle power • Gymnasts arc awarded marks out of and bar exercises.
with grace of movement. ten for their performances on various
• There are two Olympic events: pieces of equipment.
Gymnasts use u clialky
gymnastics, and rhythmic
artistic • Women perform four types of powder to keep llirir
gymnastics, which is for exercise, men perform six. 1 ii ii its dry ii'hilr using
women only. the apparatus.

Length: 5m Height: 120cm (maximum)

BEAM
This event is for
women only. The whole The beam is made »/ wood and is

routine should flow smoothly i-nvereii with suede, whirh helps give the
and take between 7(1 and 90 gymnast a good grip.
seconds to complete.

r
\~r The gymnast walks, runs. She wiUperform movements
^TT ASYMMETRIC BARS
This event is for women only.
leaps, and mils along the sin h iis forward and
The gymnast must move from
beam, while keeping hei backward somersaults,
s/ilit\. ami handstands.
bar to bar using swinging and
balance throughout.
circular movements.

VAULT
Both men and women perform
exercises on the vault. Women jump
over the width of the vaulting horse,
men jump over the length.

The horse is

covered m
Smooth lealhel
il is set at Bars are made of
different wood or fiberglass
heights fin
in ale and
/email- clients. RINGS The gymnast
Women's horse The rings are displays great

height: 120cm for men only. si length ill his

length: 160cm The gymnast units and

shoulders as Iw
demonstrates
FLOOR Swings through
swinging liis routine.
This event is for men and women. The The gymnast performs a series movements, and
women's routine is set to music and must of tumbling, leaping and balancing holds positions
10 and 130 seconds. The movements, using the entire
last between 1
for at least two
jinni area.
men's exercise takes from 50 seconds. He
to 70 seconds to complete should not allow
the rings to
svv ing during
the routine.

HORIZONTAL
BAR
This event is for
men only. The
POMMEL HORSE The pommel horse is the same a
gymnast performs
This event is for men
vaulting horse, hill has wnodi'll
handles, or pommels, allai lied continuous
only. The gymnast swings and PARALLEL BARS
supports himself above This event is for men only. The
circular
the pommel horse gvmnast performs \w inging Mis\
movements on a
with his hands. balancing movements on the
steel bar which is
He must make parallel bars.
240cm wide and
sine he does not touch
275cm high. At
the horse with any
least one release
other part of his body.
rom the bar must
be made.

QQQ Rhythmic
T ^-r GYMNASTICS
- 7
Ball The gymnast
bounces, throws,
and catches
the ball.
( '

throws,
Ii i

with two clubs

h s The gymnast
rolls, and juggles

• Gymnasts perform routines

set to music, using small,
hand-held pieces of
equipment, which must be
kept moving at all times.
• Balletic, rather than
Uope The gymnast
acrobatic, movements arc I loop The gymnast rotates lumps and skips while
the hoop around her. and throwing and catching
performed.
throws and catches it.
the rope.

1
I )/
 .

SPORTS

Sa Combat sports ARliA

( lontestants
within the contest area,
must fight
Weight table
Category Male Female

• In combat
use either striking
sports, competitors
(e.g. boxing)
c^p Judo and not step outside the
danger /one.

The contest area is

Bantam

Feather
under 60kg

under 65kg
under 48kg

under 52kg
or holding (e.g. judo) techniques • In judo ("the soft way"), 9-10m x 9-10m.
Light under 71 kg under 56kg
against their opponents. competitors are judged on their Danger zone ,

Light-middle under 78kg under 61 kg

throwing and holding techniques
• Some combat sports, such as
fencing and kendo, use weapons.
• A bout can last for up to Middle under 86kg under 66kg

20 minutes. Light-heavy under 95kg under 72kg

GRADING SYSTEM Heavy over 95 kg over 72 kg
Contestants wear different-colored
holts to show their grade. Black belt is
usually the highest level reached, hut BOUT
there are even higher grades, awarded The competitors arc judged on their
tor length of service. A red-and-white Contest area
techniques. An outright winning
striped beltis worn by rhe sixth,
technique scores an ippon (one poinr).
seventh, and eighth Han. Yen few
people have ever reached ninth and
tenth Dan. An ippon is awarded for
Belt Grade START
Lifting thi' opponent
Competitors
above shoulder height
10th Dan face each other
at a distance of

1st-5th Dan
4m and take
a bow A forceful
lh nwi

An effective
stranglehold m
hamtnerlock
Judo words cm
jp--"%, Dan Leader or teachet. Kyu Student grade.
Dojo Training hall. Senshu Champion
GEAR Gake Hook or block. competitor.
Contestants wear Hajime Referee's call Tsuri Lift up.
loose-fitting pants, to begin. Waza-ari Haifa point.
OTHER MARTIAL ARTS
with a jacket which is Judo-gi Judo jacket and awarded for a less than Karate
held in at the waist trousers. clean technique. Contestants aim punches and
with a cotton belt. kicks at their opponents.

Aikido
The foil
Fencing !»' GEAR Flowing movements are
used to throw the opponent
• In fencing, two opponents
compete bout using one of
in a
\ Competitors must wear white clothes
that give freedom of movement and
maximum protection.
off balance.

three weapons: foil, epee, or saber. Ju Jitsu

As in judo, throws and holds are
• A
bout lasts until the agreed I.

A mask made of used in this self-defense sport.

number of hits have been steel or plastic

made, or until the time i

mesh is worn to
protect Kendo
limit has been reached, tin (lontestants in armor fight
within a
e.g. five hits with bamboo swords.
/
time limit of six
minutes.
\ FENCING BOUT
At the the opponents face each other, 4m
start,
PISTE
The president
apart, at the center of rhe piste.
The fencing area Jit events using ,4

elei iiiniii equipment, padded orders en garde, asks the players if they are ready,
(piste) measures
a metallic overjacket glove is worn then calls allez to start a bout.
14m x 2m.
is worn, lo show when on the sword-
n hil lm\ been scored. holding hand.

Weapons and target areas

In the attack, the fencer
SABER FOIL EPEE threatens the target with
his arm outstretched.
The target The target The target
area is the area is the area is the
upper body ff/ trunk only. whole body.
and arms. The area The area
The area must must be must be
be stmek with struck with struck with In the parry, the attacker's
the point or with the point of the point of sword is deflected by the
the blade edges. the sword. rhe sword. defender's sword.

Max weight: Max weight: „ _ Max weight:

500g 770g.
Blade length:
88cm
^*1
^|
Blade
length:
In
III
Blade length:
90cm In the riposte, the
defender makes a quick
return thrust after the parry.

198
 COMBAT SPORTS

GEAR
989 Boxing
• In boxing, competitors use their
Boxers wear padded,
laced-up leather gloves
Professional boxers
Boxing weights
Categories Professional Amateur
wear shorts only, lb kg kg
gloved hands to punch each other
amateurs wear shorts Mini flyweight/ 105 47.6 -
in specific areas of the body.
and a vest. The shorts straw weight
are loose-fitting and
• Fights can be won on points, or
traditionally made of Light flyweight 108 49 48
because the opponent is counted out, satin. The "belt" of
Flyweight 112 50.8 51
retires, or is judged unfit to continue. the shorts must be a
contrasting color, since Super flyweight 115 52.2 -
Ring hitting below the belt
is against the rules. Bantamweight 118 53.5 54
( lontcsts arc held in a square "ring"
surrounded b\ ropes. Super bantamweight 122 55.3 -
Neutral corner

Boxing bunts are Featherweight 126 57.2 57

lull innl

lightweight; they Super featherweight 130 59 -

provide support fat
the boxei \ ankles Lightweight 135 61.2 60
mill allow him t<>
move quickly Light welterweight/ 140 63.5 63.5
around tin- ring. super lightweight
Blue corner
A gumshield is Welterweight 147 66.7 67
/ worn to protect
the mouth. Super welterweight/ 154 70 71
Hands are bandaged underneath Light middleweight
the gloves for extra protection.
Maximum size: 20ft square. Middleweight 160 72.6 75
He mux mm jut the
Super middleweight 168 76.2 -
Bout
The boxer must aim for the Light heavyweight 175 79.4 81
front or sides of his opponent's
Cruiserweight 190 86.2 -
trunk, and the front or sides
of the head. Points are given
Heavyweight over 1 90 over 86 91
for good hits. and. in
professional boxing, for Super heavyweight - - over 91
defensive moves and style.

Knock-down
The boxer must
In a knock-dow n. a Fighting fit
count often begins. If
a blow
strike
the fallen boxer
The longest boxing fight on record
using the minutes and was
lasted 7 hours, 19
knuckle l><tii <>/
cannot use before the
the glove. count ends, he loses held in New Orleans,
US, in 1893.
the fight. If he rises, Andy Bowen fought jack Burke
and is judged by the
over 10 rounds, and the match was
1
referee to be fit to
continue, the fight finally declared a draw.
goes on.

089 Wrestling
• There are two Olympic-
• In Greco-Roman contests,
wrestlersmust not use their legs or Sumo wrestling SUMO GRADINGS
wrestling events: freestyle and grip an opponent below the hips. • Ritual and tradition pla\ Sumo w rcstlers are graded according to

Greco-Roman. MAT an important part in Sumo skill, not weight. There are ten grades:

• Points are awarded for The contest circle, which includes the w restling. Jonokuchi Nov ice KoiTIUSubi Second
red band, is 9m in diameter. Jonidan Qualified grade junior
successful moves and holds. • Bouts are won by Sandamne Lower champion
pushing an opponent out junior Sekiwake lunioi
GEAR Makushita hampion
of the ring, or by making i

rcstlers wear one-

Leading junior ()/.cki ( lhampion
piece leotards that him touch the ground with
Juryo ( lontender > okozune Grand
leave upper ehest any part of his body other Maegashira Senior champion
and shoulders bare. than the soles of his feet.
One competitor
wears red, and the • Pushes, slaps, and holds
other blue.
are the main techniques.
Wrestlers must Heavy weights
not oil or grease Wrestling weights Rice is thrown The heaviest Sumo w testier
their bodies. ii ji nt the
Category Weight limits in kg beginning
weighs 5511b (250kg): equal
Wrestling boots are qj tin bout. to the total average weight
and lightweight,
tall
1 48
of four teenage l>o\s. This is
have no heels, rings,
2 52
or buckles. about twice the weigh) of
3 57 the hca\ iest world champion
Fall
The main aim in wrestling is to 4 62 boxer, and almost twice the
achieve a "fall," by forcing the ;-,; ,.
• maximum weight
opponent's shoulder blades 5 68
permitted
onto the mat for one
6 74 ,jj
for an Olympic
second, or for as
long as it takes the 82 wrestler. ft
7
referee to say to
8 90
himself tomber
(French 9 100
for fall). Sumo wmtlfi
1ii 130

199
SPORTS

COURT
El Court GAMES Tennis can be played
indoors and outdoors.
The court surface may be
Height

grass, wood, clay, or

Q$P Tennis
• The aim is to hit a ball over
GEAR
Traditionally, clothing is
white, though today the only
artificial.

the net with a racket so that it professional tournament

Doubles sideli
lands inside the court, and that insists on white is

Wimbledon. England.
cannot be returned. Length of
The gear, which is similar
court: 78ft
• A match is divided into sets in all court sports,
is a shirt and
and ends when one player has shorts for men, Singles sideline
won three sets (for men) or two and a shirt and
RACKET The maximum length and width of
sets (for

• Each set
women).
is divided into
I; skirt,
for
or a dress,
women. Tennis racket frames are
made from wood, meta
combination
the strung surface
15.5 x 11.5in.
is

games, and a player must win J^£ BALL

.it games, and have a
leas: six
two-game lead, to win a set.
^^fl£ «c ^ of materials.

Maximum length
Tennis
balls are yellow or
and width of the whole white. They weigh
Wristbands are
• A tie-breaker is used if the set
worn for wiping the
racket is 32 x 12.5in. about 2oz.
reaches six-all: the first player to forehead and Rubber-

M
keeping palms dry. soled shoes
score seven or more points, with The racket
arm is fully
a two-point lead, wins. outstretched The. weight is

Socks are The ball is thrown up The racket arm is bent when hitting thrown forward.
• A match lasts for a maximum cushioned to and the right of the
to bark behind the neck. the ball.
m

+^
of five sets for men and three protect soles leading shoulder.
and heels.
sets for women.
In the follow-through, the
racket arm comes across

SCORING A GAME the body.

After scoring 4 points a player wins SERVING

a game. But, if the players tie at 3 The player serves
points each (that is, 40-all, or deuce), behind the baseline. He
play continues until one player has throws the ball in the air
a 2-point lead. and befote it
hits it

touches the ground. The

ball must clear the net
Scoring a game
Points Score

love
without bouncing and
touch ground in the
opposing service court.
1 t

2
15

30
PLAYING Forehand drive
Backhand
This basic stroke
drive
is
In the follow-
through, the
racket arm
<* t
The player receiving the This the most natural basic
is ess instinctive than is

fully extended.
3 40 serve must let the ball groundstroke in the game. A the forehand drive.
bounce once before
returning it. A return is still
right-handed player
plays it on his
A right-handed
player plays it on his >
good if the ball touches the right side. left side.
net or passes outside the net
post, as long as it 1 The leading r
lands in the
opposing
player's side # #^ -
shoulder is
turned away
from the ball.
The
it is
ball is

to the front
the right foot.
hit once
of

of the court.
I
/>-
The shoulders
turn us the
racket
swings
> ,» > V The racket
swung forward
is

hack. to meet the ball.

Knees are bent. The weight is put
Martina Navratilova onto the front foot.

Record breakers Grand slam

RECORD NUMBER OF
WIMBLEDON SINGLES TITLES Players who achieve the "grand slam" hold, all in

held is nine, by Martina

the same year, the singles titles at these four major
tournaments.
Navratilova, US (born in the
former Czechoslovakia in 1956). Tournament Place Surface Tennis words
MOST SINGLES CHAMPIONSHIPS Ace A service bevond Rally A long series of
Wimbledon London, UK Grass
the reach of the receiver. hits.
won in grand slam tournaments United States Open Flushing Meadows, Artificial Advantage The first Seedings List showing
is 24, by Margaret Court, New York, US material point scored after deuce. where a player is
Australia (born 1942). Let A serve that scrapes expected to finish in a
Australian Open Kooyong stadium, Synthetic the top of the net before tournament.
YOUNGEST MALE CHAMPION Melbourne, Australia grass Straight-sets Winning
landing in the correct
atWimbledon is Boris Becker, court;it is played the match without losing
French Open Roland Garros stadium, Clay
Germany (born 1967), who won Paris, France
again. a set.

the singles title in 1985, aged 17.

200
 1 I

COIk'l GAMES

• Usually, a match is decided SERVING

Q9P Badminton
• In badminton, players hit COURT
by the winner of two games.
The player serves
underhand and must
the shuttlecock below
hit

a
waist level. If it is not
shuttlecock over a high net.
returned, it must land within
• In doubles and men's the service court diagonally
opposite. Only the server can
singles, the first side to score
score points.
15 points is the winner; Arm is beat, and
Ihr racket held
in women's singles, it
behind the shoulder.
is the first player Grip should hi-

courl ii In \nl mil Inn tight,

to score 1
hut mil inn loose
points.
Racket i\ angled
Long service line for singles
downward

SHUTTLECOCK
At top-class level, the Racket o raised directly upward,
RACKET and tin' ami straightens an
shuttlecock is made of a
These are usually made making contact with tht
"skirt" of 14-16 goose
of metal or carbon fiber, and strung shuttlecock.
Feathers fixed in a cork base.
with gut.

TABLE PLAYING
Table tennis I'he chipboard top is usual!) The receiver must return
• In this indoor game, the players dark green.
H ,„_,... ,-„
Width: 1.52m
, the shuttle over the net
use rackets, or bats, to hit a hollow before it touches the
ball across a table over a low net. Height of ground in the serving
15.25cm court. Most badminton
• The first side to score 21 points shots are played overhead.
wins the game, but if the score SERVING
reaches 20-all, the game continues I'he ball must be GRIPS
until one side has a 2-point lead. thrown vertically at There are two main grips used in
least I 6cm from tabic tennis.
• A match decided by the best
is the palm of
flat

of five games (for men), or three the hand, and the

games

BAT
Originally, bats
made of
(for

wood
pimpled rubber lace was
women).

added in the l°-20s to allow

only.
Pimpled
rubber

were
The BALL
The lightweight
Height:
76cm
must not spin.
At the

must bounce on
the server's
side
moment
striking, the racket
must be behind
the end of the
tabic. I'he ball

first.
of

Handshake grip
The bat is held as
though the player
^
Penholder grip
The bat is held as
though the plaser
plastic ball is either holding
is shaking hands. is a pen.
players to give the ball spin. white or yellow.

Squash BALL
There are four varieties of squash ball
• Squash is played using all four
the slower balls arc used in hot
walls of an enclosed court. conditions, and the faster balls arc
USed in cold conditions. SERYIM.
• The ball is hit against the I'he player must stand
front wall first and must be ^^P Yellow dot: very slow w ith at least one foot
returned before it has bounced in the sciv ice bos.

twice on the floor.

^B White dot: slow throw the ball into
the air, and hit it

• A match consists of the best of Red dot: fast at the first attempt.
flic ball must hit
five games; the winner of a game
Blue dof: very fast the front wall above
is the first to score nine points. Width: 21ft
the cut line, but
COURT
below the out-of-court
I'he w concrete w alls of a squash court
hitc,
RACKET line, without bouncing
must be completely smooth. In tournaments,
The head of
squash racket is
a elscw here first.
courts are often made of glass and I'crspcv so
smaller and rounder than that of
that spectators can watch the match from ill
a badminton or tennis racket.
sides of the court. In the US, squash is played
on a narrower court with a harder ball. The servei can use
Jai alai Racquetball any kind «j stroke.

• In the fast court game of Jai In racquetball, players use ,i

alai, or Pelota, players use- short-handled racquet and a

wicker baskets, called cestas, in hollow rubber ball. The

Top ball speeds
place of rackets. The court is ball can be hit against [ai alai 188mph(302km/h)
long and the ceiling, as wel
narrow and as all four Squash 144mph(23:' ;

has three walls of the •

playing court. Tennis 138mph(22.'-

walls.
Badminton / 124mph (200km/h)
Theplayei
wean n rubbet The fast game
./ racquetball is
glove, which is Tabic tennis 106mph(170km/h)

i
iewn mil" Ihr
i si,
sniiilin

ways
iii

In sijiiash
many
L*
201
SPORTS

The rim of the net COURT

Basketball is 3.05m off the

ground.
The dimensions
for this court are
on international
given
based

GEAR rules. In the US

Players wear brightly the courts are
Facts colored singlets and slightly bigger.
• The aim of basketball throw the
is to shorts.
Singlets
ball into a basket at the opponent's end Backboard Length: 28m
have large
of the court. numbers Three points are
• on the front awarded for baskets
There are ten players in each team;
and back. scored from outside
only five are on the court at any one time. the semicircle

• Players may throw and bounce the ball,

BALL
but must not carry or kick it.
The ball is made of
rubber encased in
• A game consists of two halves of 20
leather, rubber, or
minutes each. synthetic material.

Time rules Basketball world champions

Time limit Action Year Men Year Women
3 seconds A player may remain in the restricted 1950 Argentina 1953 US
area between his opponent's end line
1954 US 1957 US
and the free-throw line.
1959 Brazil 1959 USSR
5 seconds A player may hold onto the ball.

1963 Brazil 1964 USSR

1 seconds The team with the ball must move
from the back court to the front court. The high, padded 1967 USSR 1967 USSR
sides of basketball
30 seconds The team with the ball must try for boots give firm 1970 Yugoslavia 1971 USSR
support.
a goal.
1974 USSR 1975 USSR
1978 Yugoslavia 1979 US
STARTING JUMP SHOOTING MOVING WITH THE BALL
At the beginning of a match When attempting A player who has stopped while 1982 USSR 1983 USSR
the referee throws the to score a basket, a holding the ball may pivot on one
ball up and two ci player holds the foot, at the same time stepping in 1986 US 1986 US
opponents jump ballhigh above his any direction with the other foot.
1990 Yugoslavia 1990 US
to hit it. A player head and throws it A moving player may take one
may tap the ball toward the net. stride with the ball. 1994 US 1994 Brazil
twice after it has
reached its

highest point. DRIBBLING

A player can progress
with the ball by-
dribbling. He can take
as many steps as he
wishes while
The player stands
near the center line
bouncing /\

in his own half of the ball. / \

the court.

Length of court: 18m

Netball
• The aim in netball is to throw
Volleyball the ball into the opponent's net.
• Volleyball is a ball game • The game is played between
played between two teams of
two teams of seven players each.
six players each.
• Each player must keep to a
• The aim of volleyball is to
particular area of the court.
use any part of the body
above the waist to send a
ball over a net, so that
NETBALL POSITIONS
Players wear letters to indicate Wing defense
the opposing team is their positions, and to show which
unable to return it. zone they should stay in.
Goalkeeper

• A team may The player must not hold onto the ball i

for longer than three seconds.

touch the ball up
to three times Handball
before returning Width of court: 9m • The aim is to pass or
it over the net. dribble the ball with the
hands until a goal is scored.
I P AND OVER • It is played between two
Because of the height of the net, players
have to jump up high in the air to hit teams of seven players each.
the ball. Players must not touch or reach
over the net. The ball is smaller than a
• Players may take three
basketball or netball. steps when holding the ball.

202
 RIGHV

Rugby union GEAR INTERNATION VL

Rugby • Rugby Union
and most widely
earliest
is the
Although rugby is a tough
game, players arc not
allowed to wear protective
Rl Gin TEAMS
Each major
international
Facts played form of rugby. clothing, apart from a rugby team has
• The aim of rugby is to score points h\ scrum cap made of its own symbol.
• The game is played by soft leather, shin
placing an oval-shaped ball on or over
amateurs only. guards, and a gum
the opponent's goal line (a try), or by shield. Sweat A uslralia
kicking it over the opponent's crossbar. • There are two teams of bands are also
15 players each. often worn.
• Players may carry, pass, or kick the
ball, but they cannot throw the ball in
BALL
The oval-shaped ball is SHOES England
front of them. usualK made (it leather. Players may near shoes
similar to those worn by
• A game consists of two halves of 40
soccer players, or high
minutes each. sided shoes to support
the ankles
• There are two types of rugby: Rugby
Union (R.U.), and Rugby League (R.L.).

Length: 28cm

Scoring
Type of goal Points Action FIELD hrland ^m^-~~.
R.U. R.L. The field usually has a
grass surface, but ma\ 5m line
Try 5 4 Placing the ball by hand on or over be made of clay or sand
the goal line.

22m line

Dropped goal 3 1 Ball is dropped and kicked over

the crossbar. New
/j-aliiml
Length of field
Penalty goal 3 2 A penalty kick awarded for between the
a foul.
goal lines: 100m

Stoll/intl
Conversion 2 2 A goal kick awarded after a try.
The goal 5.6m wide:
{£.£
is

Goal line the height of the

crossbar is 3m.
PASSING THE BALL
Correct throw
A player can run while Dead ball line
holding the ball, but A scrum is used to restart play,
Width of field: 69m usually after a foul. South
must not pass
forward. He
should, SCRUM Africa

however, pass to the Players from both teams close

front of the receiving up around the balland link
player, to enable arms. The front row must be
the player to run on made up of three players: a

to the ball. "hooker" and two "props"

who stand on each side of Wiilrs
him. The ball is thrown into '|i

the scrum and the hooker w WRU

LINE-OUT hook the ball to his
try to
A line-out is used to
teammates behind him
restarr play after a ball
crosses the touchline,
is "in-touch."At least two
i

Rugby words
BacksPlayers h ho position
players from each team
The scrum must not break up i themselves behind a scrum.
form separate lines at
right angles to the
the ball is cleared. Dummy Pretending to pass the
ball toanothci player, while
touchline. The ball must
keeping possession.
be thrown straight between
the two lines of players. Olympic rugby (ioal ( lombination of a cry and
conversion, worth seven points.
Rugby was last staged at the
Knock-on The ball bouncing
Olympics in 1924. in forward oil the hand or ami of
Paris. There were
Rugby league a player.
Loose-head prop The prop
three entrants:
• Thisgame developed w ho is nearest to where the
from Rugby Union, and PLAY THE BALL RULE Romania, US, and
is ball put into the scrum.
is
A tackled player is allowed to drop France. US won Mark Place at which a free-
played by professionals and
the ball before kicking it in any
amateurs.
the gold meda kick or penalty kick is given.
direction, usually to a teammate
Maid A scrum around a
• behind him. This may be done for
It is played by two teams playei < arr) ing the ball.
five consecutive tackles. After the Punt Dropping the ball .imi
of 13 players each. sixth tackle, the
kickin ii lom hes
team must give Two members
• Rugby League, although of the ound.
up possession. opposing team may Ruck \ scrum around a
very similar, follows slightly stand directly in
playei w ho has dropped
different rules from those of front of the
the ball.
player with
Rugby Union. the Touchdown \ playei grounding
the ball in his own
• One difference is that in
ball.

in-goal area
Rugby League, players can p-and-mulcr \ bill kicked
I

restart the game after a highin the ait. w Inlc players run

tackle with the "play the upheld 10 catch it.

ball" rule.
M'ORTS

L'3 GEAR FIELD Width: 50-1 00yd

Football Players wear jerseys

with numbers on the
back. The soles of
the boots may be-

QxP Soccer
• Soccer, or Association football,
fitted with studs
or bars.

is a ball game played by two

teams of 1 1 players each.

• The aim is to hit the ball into

the opponent's goal, and the team
that scores the most goals wins.

• Players use their feet, head, Goal

thighs, and chest to hit or control area

the ball; only the goalkeeper may

touch the ball with his hands or arms Goal line
Goalpost length: 8yd; height: 8ft

• A game consists of two periods, or

halves, of 45 minutes each.
Soccer balls used in
World cup competitions
FORMATIONS professional play are made of
Thp p[a kn j/s
, Date Host country Winner
Soccer is a flexible game, but most teams rubber encased in leather.
due control „/ ,/„
/;.».'
start with players in a particular formation.
-u 1930 Uruguay Uruguay
ball while
The one shown below is 4-3-3. It uses tour approaching his
DRIBBLING 1934 Italy Italy
defenders, three midfielders, and three opponent
in attack. When dribbling, the player 1938 France Italy
keeps the ball close to his feet,
The 4-3-3 formation to prevent an opposing player 1950 Brazil Uruguay
taking the ball from him.
1954 Switzerland West Germany

1958 Sweden Brazil

1962 Chile Brazil

1966 England England

1970 Mexico Brazil

In order to get round him, 1974 West Germany West Germany

the player may pretend to
go one way. 1978 Argentina Argentina

1982 Spain Italy

1986 Mexico Argentina

He then confuses his
opponent by turning to go 1990 Italy West Germany
in the opposite direction.
1994 US Brazil

DEFENDING GOALKEEPING GOAL SCORING

\defender will often mark, or guard, one The goalkeeper can touch Any player in a team may score a goal, but the main
opponent throughout the game. Defenders must the ball with his hands, but only within his own goal-scorers are called strikers, who must be able to
make strong tackles in order to take possession of penalty area. He is not allowed to pick up a back shoot and head the ball accurately.
the ball from their opponents. pass from a teammate.

Good timing is essential The defender must In careful He slides down For a short pass, a
for a clean sliding not to foul Ins opponent. in front of his goalkeeper will throw or
tackle. opponent and roll the ball underarm.
wins the ball.

MAJOR TEAMS
These are the
basic colors worn
b\ some of the
top international
teams. The flags
arc not part of the
BB BB BB
Republic »/
uniform. Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Cameroon Colombia Denmark England France German")
Ireland

C3
sb ye BO BB BB CC BB B B
Norway Poland Sfm n Sweden Switzerland Romania / ruguay US

204
 FOOTBALL

American football GEAR

There
Helmets are
BALL
The

m>
of physical contact in
is a lot oval-shaped
• American football is played by made of tough
American football, so players wear several plastic. ball is made of
two teams of 1 players each, 1
layers of protective clothing. leather,and has
though frequent substitution is laees and a pebbled
Face mask finish to pro\ ide a
allowed and up to 40 people can
good grip.
play tor each team.

• A team earns points by

POOTBALL LEAGl E
making a touchdown (putting American the major
football
the ball behind the opposing
team's goal line), or by kicking
national sport in the
2H reams in the National football
is

S There are I
S\W%
League (NFL), each with its own
the ball between the goal posts.
distinctive helmet design.
Alt/in tn Inli OIU
• A game consists of four
quarters, of 15 minutes each.

GRIDIRON
The Held is commonly called the gridiron
because the lines make it look like a
cooking grill. The field is marked
out in \ards to show how tar
a team lias advanced. Shirt numbers
End line ^ NFL players are numbered
End zone according to their positions.
Number Position
Yardline
1-19 Quarterbacks, punters, kickers
every '
teveland Browns Dallas Cowboys Denver Broncos
5 yds _^ 20-49 Running and defensive backs
Length: 360ft 50-59 Centers and linebackers

Height of 60-79 Defensive linemen, offensive

Goal line crossbar: 10ft guards, and tackles
Width of goal:
18f16in 80-89 Wide receivers and tight ends

90-99 Defensive linemen

Width: 160ft
OFFENSE
The team that is in possession of the ball is the offense, or BLOCKING
attacking team. They are allowed four attempts, or downs, A blocker may use the
at advancing with the ball by at least 10yd. If they fail to do upper part of his bod\ to
this, their opponents gain possession of the ball. obstruct an opponent who
does not have the ball. Indianapolis < nli\ Kansas < *'v (-Imp I oi Angeles Raiders
The snap is the start 1le may use his arms to
of the down. push, but not grab hold
of,him. Blocking i

used by offensive
and defensive
players.

Los Angeles Rams Miami Dolphins Minnesota

DEFENSE
The team that does not
have the ball uses its
defense players, usually the
biggest men. to try to
Scoring prevent the offense from
ad\ ancing and scoring. \
Score Points Action
defender needs to be a good
Touchdown 6 Taking the ball across the opponent's tackier. He is allowed to New I ngtand New Orleans Saints New York Giants
Patriots
goal line, or gaining possession within push, pull, or grab the
the opponents' end zone. person in possession of the
ball,who is called the
Field goal 3 Place-kicking the ball through the runner. If the defense
goal posts.
manages to get hold of the
ball, it is called a turnover,
Safety 2 Tackling an opponent who is carrying
the ball behind his own goal line. ami possession changes to
the other team. Vew York Jets Pittsburgh Sutlers Philadelpi

Extra point 1 Kicking the ball through the goal

(conversion) posts from a scrimmage, after One point is given for

scoring a touchdown. scoring between the

outer, or "behind"
posts.

Australian football field

•
c
The game
.
or In players.
.
played by two teams
,',''
is

he aim to score goals is

i
'

<>n
'"
"

an o\al-shapcd
•"'"; [

\ ^f Si. Louis ( ordinals Sun l>

1
p^id S x pomts j

by kicking an oval-shaped ball are scored for

between two tall posts. kicking the
ball between
• A playet can kick, punch, and run the two
with the ball, but he must not throw it. central
"goal"
• A game consists of 4 quarters, lasting posts.
Smut, Tampa Baj Wash
25 minutes each.

205
S PORTS

Batsmen and close fielders

Cricket /
wear protective helmets
made of metal or fiberglass.
WICKET
This has three
along w hich two bails
stump
Scoring
Runs Action
Batting gloves give good are placed.
Facts protection, while allowing - u...
1 One run: every time the two batsmen pass
• Cricket is a ball game played In the batsman to grip Bails each other and reach the opposite wicket.
and wield
run teams of 1 1 players each. the bat.
-
1 No ball: bowler steps outside the batting
creases or throws, rather than bowls,
• The reams take turns ro
the ball.
bar and field. Width
of 1 Wide: a delivery is too high or wide of the
• During each "innings," the ream wicket: stumps for the batsman to play the ball.
9in
up ar bat aims ro score runs between 4 The ball reaches the boundary after
two wickets; the fielding team aims touching the ground.
ro ger the batting ream our.
6 The ball reaches the boundary without

touching the ground.

• A march consisrs of one or two
innings per side. Maximum length
of bat: 3ft 2in
GEAR
Traditionally, cricketers wear white or BALL DISMISSING THE BATSMAN
cream shirts, long pants, and a sweater. A cricket ball is made of Bowled The ball breaks the striker's wicket
Colored clothing is worn during some avers of cork and wool, Caught A fielder catches the ball after it
one-day matches. covered in red leather has hit the batsman's bat or gloves.
Run out The wicket is broken by
/+/ ;'/. Shoes have the fielding team before the
PI PI n
rlfcLD
The playing field surrounding the
f^f yQ* spiked or Wicket-keeper's
gloves are
batsman reaches the popping
tC23 rubber soles
crease.
pitch can be any length. Below heavily padded
|_
eg pads are worn by b a smen anc wicket-keepers.
t |
Leg Before Wicket (Ibw)
and are larger
are the major fielding ^ ^^^^^^^^^^ than The batsman obstructs a
positions for a
"~
batsmen's delivery that would
right-handed Sightscreen Lon 9 le 9
gloves. otherwise have touched the wicket, without
batsman. Deep fine leg
pre\ louslv playing the ball with his bat.
Fine leg Stumped The wicket-keeper breaks
Third man the batsman's wicket while the
Backward Deep square leg
sho rt le 9 Square leg batsman is outside his ground
Wicket-keeper Leg slip .
when receiving a ball.
Slips. Short
*
Batsman Hit wicket The batsman breaks
square leg
Deep mid-wicket his wicket while playing a shot.
Boundary line Forward Mid wicket
short leg

Gully C
Silly point

I
Backward point

Silly mid-off
Silly mid-on
PITCH
Record breakers
Point
Mid-on
The pitch is
MOST WICKETS
Mid wicket Short extra cover taken is 19 for 90 runs bv Jim
Cover the area
Extra cover between the Laker (1922-86) for England
two wickets, againsr Australia in 1956.
The onside, or > extra cover
Long on which are
legside, is the
FIRST BATSMAN TO SCORE
side of the field placed 66ft
behind the batsman as apart.
SIX SIXES
he stands waiting to in one over was Sir Garfield
receive a delivery: the Sobers, West Indies (born 1936),
offside is the area to the
front of the batsman.
forNotringhamshire against
Glamorgan, at Swansea, Wales,
The ball must be bowled
with a straight arm, not
in 1968.

Bowling thrown.

• Bowlers take turns to bowl "overs"

Popping crease
of six (or eighr) balls ar alternate wickets.
Bowling crease
• They must have part of the fronr foot behind
Return crease
the popping crease while making a delivery.

BOWLED OVER
Bowlers often rub the ball on their trousers
to makethe ball shiny on one side. This gives Cricket words
the ball extra sw ing, or movement, in midair. Bouncer A fast delivery, pitched short,
Bowlers use various techniques to achieve that reaches the batsman atshoulder
results. While a fast bowler uses speed and height ot above.
sw ing, a spin bowler w ill depend on spin to Bye Run made when the ball passes the
confuse the batsman. wicket untouched by the bat.
Close field Fielders close to the batsman.
Batting In this forward defensive stroke, the batsman brings his left The stroke is
Deep Part of the field near the boundary.

• The aim of the leg forward. controlled with his Delivery A bowled ball.
left arm. Duck A zero score.
batsman is to guard his
Extras Runs made without the bat.
wicket and to make runs. Follow-on The team batting second may
be asked to bat again if their total falls
BATTING STEADY
short of their opponent's.
The batsman holds the bat
with both hands, lie must be Leg-bye Run made when the ball is

able to read unintentionally deflected off the batsman's

a deliver) well,
keep his eye firmlv on the ball.
body in the process of playing a stroke.
and decide in an instant Maiden over An over in which no runs
how to play the stroke. are scored.

206
 BASEBALL

Maximum length: 42in

Baseball I
BAT
The catcher's face
mask
thick wire
foam
is made
and
of

Facts Hard plastic // Hats arcmade of wood, for top-class padding

• Ball game played by two helmet /j aluminum. The barrel must

play, or
Catchei be smooth and well rounded.
Face
teams of nine players each.
BALL Each wears a
• The game is similar to
The ball is made of
fielder
large leather glove
cricket in that teams take cork or rubber and is
turns to bat and field. co\ ered in cow hide

• The aim of the batting

or horsehide.
Major leagi i s
There arc two major baseball leagues in
side is to score runs
the 1 S. Each team has its own symbol.
around the four bases.
• A match AMERICAN **£/»*
nine innings.
B
consists of

Padded
LEAGUE A
chest-
protector Third base Baltim
GEAR Orioles Huston Red So*

%%4
Players must not wear any emblems
that may be mistaken for a baseball. The
numbers on each shirt must be at least
FIELD
The playing field
6in high. The catcher wears more
is made up of an
protective clothing than any other player. Batta
infield and outfield,
( alifomia (Jurago eland
known as fair territory; an\
Indians
Angels While Sox
other area is foul territory.

Pitching
• The pitcher tries to
throw the ball through
the strike zone; he must
not pitch the ball directly
at the batter.

• He may rub the ball

with his hands, but must
not shine it on his clothes

or rub it on the ground.

• He may throw the ball

to a base before he pitches

Batting
• The batter must stay within the
batter's box on receiving the ball.

• Each ball, or pitch, delivered

to the batter is either
a strike or a ball.

STRIKE ZONE
This is the area over home plate and
between the batter's armpits and knees
If the ball falls inside this zone and the
batter fails to hit it, it is a strike.
A ball is called when a pitch,
thrown outside the strike zone,
is not struck at by the batter.

After four balls, the batter

may walk

Running
• If a runner
to first base.

is

base that already has a runner

approaching a
Record breakers
A PERFECT NINE INNINGS GAME
(which means the pitcher allows
the opposition no hits, no runs, ami
does not allow a player to reach
^ a^0
Houston Los \

Dodgers
Montrwal

on then that runner must go first base) was first achieved bv

on
it,

to the
play).
next base (force Lee Richmond (1857-1929) of the
US for Worcester against ( !lc\ eland
i»
in 1880.
• A runner must touch
Pittsburgh
ft \1, ts Philadelphia
base before the fielder
MOST HOME RUNS I'hillits

touches him or the base

in a season is (>1 b\ Roger Maris
,ius
with the ball.
(1934-85) of the New York Yankees y**" 6IANTS
• A
runner may run to a in 1961. This beat the record of 60

base while the ball is that anothci Yankee, Babe Ruth St, I "iiis San D x

pitched to a batter (a steal). (1895-1945), set in l

(
>_>7. Cardinals Padm
 .

SPORls

PITCH
Stick games Hockey is

on grass or on
usually played outdoors,
artificial surfaces.
Olympic hockey
champions (men)
Width:
60yd i-
Year Country
Hockey GEAR 1908 Britain
• Hockey has players on Players wear a shirt and skirt, or shorts,

A
1 1

and guards on their shins and ankles. 1920 Britain

each team; the aim is to shoot a
The goalkeeper wears extra protective
ball with hooked sticks into the 1928 India
clothing.
opposing team's goal. Goalkeeper's gear 1932 India

• Goals may be scored only Helmet with 1936 India

face mask
from within the striking, or
1948 India
shooting, circle.
Length: 1952 India
• A game consists of two 35- 100yd
1956 India
mintite halves. SB
Goal height: 7ft Shooting circle; goals 1960 Pakistan
STICK Goal width: 12ft can only be scored
1964 India
Hockey sticks arc steam from inside here.

bent, so that the grain of 1968 Pakistan

the wood follows the bend.
Kickers" are worn West Germany
This helps strengthen the 1972
stick. The ball may be
over boots
protect the
to
Olympic hockey 1976 New Zealand
struck with the
the stick only.
flat face of feet when
kicking the
champions (women) 1980 India
hard ball. Year Country
The weighs between
stick 1984 Pakistan
12oz and 28oz for men, and 1980 Zimbabwe
up to 23oz for women. 1988 Britain
1984 Netherlands
1992 Germany
BALL 1988 Australia
The ball is
1992 Spain
traditionally
white and is Ice hockey penalties
made of cork and
Type Minutes in "Sin Bin"
twine, with a leather casing

Ice hockey Minor 2

BULLY • Ice hockey has six players, Major 5
The bully is a distinctive
feature of hockey. It is with up to 14 substitutes. 10*
Misconduct
used to restart the game
after certain stoppages.
• The aim is to send a disk
Match Rest of game"
A player from each side called a puck, into the
'Substitutemay replace immediately.
stands over the ball. opponent's goal. "Substitute may replace after 5 minutes.

They tap the ground

and each other's sticks • There are three
alternately three times periods, of 20
Goalkeeper's stick
before attempting to minutes each.
play the ball.
Outfielder's stick

Olympic ice-hockey ICE HOCKEY STICKS

Lacrosse champions
Puck is traditionally
black and made from
The outfielder's stick has a

• Players use a net on the shaft with an angled blade. The

vulcanized rubber. goalkeeper's stick is heavier
end of their stick (crosse) to Year Country
Width: 29-30m and has a wider blade.
carry and pass a ball and try 1920 Canada There are four
opposing face-off circles.
to send it into the
1924 Canada
team's goal. Goal width: 2.53m
1928 Canada Goal height:
• The men's and women's
1.22m
games are played under 1932 Canada
different rules. One of the 1936 Britain
main differences is that
1948 Canada Length: 60-61 m
physical contact is allowed in

the men's game, but not in 1952 Canada

RINK
the women's. Women \ lacrosse
1956 USSR The rink is an ice
surface surroundc
1960 US wooden boards.
Lacrosse rules 1964 USSR
Men's lacrosse Women's lacrosse
1968 USSR Hockey speeds
10 players per side; nine 1 2 players per side; one
1972 USSR Ice hockey is the fastest team game in the
substitutes allowed. substitute allowed.
world. The puck is hit at speeds of up to
No 1976 USSR
Shoulder-to-shoulder contact physical contact
118mph (190km/h). A hockey ball is hit at
and body-checking allowed. allowed.
1980 US speeds of
Time: four 15-min periods. Time: two 25-min periods.
1984 USSR up to lOOmph ^
Playing field usually measures No measured boundaries.
1988 USSR
(160km/h). , W C
100m x 55m.
1992 CIS
Crosse measures: Crosse measures:
1-1 ,8m. 0.9-1. 1m. 1994 Sweden

208
 GOLF

H Golf
FACTS
Wood
Woods,

shots.
numbered
or drivers,
arc used tor long
They
1—9.
are
Iron
Irons arc used for
a

The
arc
variety of shots.
steel
numbered
heads
Putter
Putters arc used
mainly on the
putting green.
I nlike the other
Striking distances

240yd (219m)
I heir large heads 10. The lower clubs. thc\ have
• A standard golf course has ma\ be made numbers hit the two striking fates
IS holes of various lengths from wood, ball farthest They are the 215yd (196m)
(a round). plastic, and lightest of the
3 iron
or light lowest. clubs.
• There are two main types metal. 190yd (174m)
of competition: stroke play 5 iron
and match play.
CLUBS
Players maynot start or play a round of golf with more 170yd (155m)
• In stroke play, the than 14 clubs. Most players use three or four woods,
7 iron
nine or ten irons, and one putter.
player who v 150yd (137m)
completes a
round in the
r- BALL
few est strokes wins the Golf balls arc covered in

match; in match play the more than 400 dimples.

They help the ball travel
winner is the one who wins
fartherand straighter
90yd (82m)
the most holes in a round. Golf bag through the air.
and trolley

TEES
Tees are small, usually Major golf tournaments
plastic, pegs on which
Tournament First held
COURSE the ball is placed for the
Courses first shot to a hole. British Open 1860
vary in length _

from LOO to 600yd The fairway a closely mown

is
US Open 1895
(90-550m). The length ground which
strip of
stretches from tee to
US PGA 1916
determines the "par" of each
green, along which
hole: the average number of strokes US Masters 1934
the players
needed to get the ball into the hole.
attempt to Ryder Cup (male team event) 1927
play the
ball. Curtis Cup (female team event) 1932
The teeing ground, from
the first stroke is made, i

smooth, level area.

SWING TECHNIQUE
Flagstick
The swing is one continuous,
smooth action.

The upper bod^

turns astin arms

tudng up and back

(the oaaiswing),

As the club is
brought down, ih< weight
is moved from the

baefi {<"<( i" the limit /out

Long shot
In a qualifying match in
Penns) Ivania, in the c.uh 1900s,
one entrant drove her hall into a
rivet at the 16th hole. She set
out in a boat to reach it. am)
Fourball Two play against two, each lolc \ complete section, from tee
Golf words player having one the lower score
ball,
I

to putting green; t In round hole into finally completed the hole in

Approach Shot played to the green of each pair being their score at a hole. which the ball is played, !(>(> shots. JM
from the fairway or rough.
Foursome Two play against two, ParThc standard si ore fbi i
hole oi

Birdie A score of one stroke under each side ha\ ing one ball and taking round 8 holes) mi a course, based on
( I

-
par for a hole. alternate strokes at each hole. w h.u a top playei would be expected
to shoot, and allowing for two putts. j.-^*^ fit
Bogey A score of one stroke over par landieap Number of strokes a playei
I

for a hole,
may subtract from his (ii hei score for a Tee Tin ground that marks the start JET
Kagle A score of two strokes undo round; enables players of different of a hole; a peg on w hit h the ball is

par for a hole. compete on equal terms.

abilities to pm loi the first stroke of a hole.

209
 ,

SPORTS

H HI Water SPORTS Safety helmets are

Olympic rowing events

IXV Rowing worn by canoeists

on rough or rocky
courses.
• Rowing is a racing sport for
In nits containing one, two, four, or

eight rowers, sometimes with a

cox to steer.

• In sculling, each rower uses two

Wetsuits give __
oars instead of one. protection in

wet weather
• Races in major championships,
and in cold
or regattas, take place in lanes water; they
are worn by
over a distance of 2,000m.
sailors and
• In head-of-the-river, or windsurfers

processional, races, crews start at Rowers wear

intervals and race against the singlets or
T-shirts, and
clock.
shorts.

BOAT
Rowing boats used in racing vary in
length depending on the event, but
the basic design remains the same.
WATER SPORT GEAR
Competitors must wear safety
equipment for most water sports.
Lifejackets are worn for yachting,
water skiing, and powerboat
racing. Buoyancy aids are less
bulky than lifejackets and ate
worn in canoeing.

He leans forward and He straightens his legs, He leans bad:, arms

bends his knees as he and then his bark when bent, and pulls the
SCULLING TECHNIQUE pulls the oars through the oars are at right nnisup out of the
The rower holds the blades just above the water. angles to the boat. water
the water.

'
Boats are made
from wood or
reinforced plastic.

ROWING TECHNIQUE
The rowers lean forward, legs Their barks straighten as they pull the blades through the water. They lean bark, arms bent, as they pull the oars
ate bentand arms are straight out of the water.

Canoeing Kayak Stern Olympic canoeing events

• There are two main types of Type of Length (max.) Event
competition boats: the kayak boat
Male Female
and the Canadian canoe.
K1 5.20m 500m, 1 ,000m, slalom 500m, slalom
• The kayak has a closed deck
K2 6.50m 500m, 1 ,000m 500m
The paddler sits inside, with
legs outstretched underneath K4 11m 1 ,000m 500m
the deck. The paddle has a C1 5.20m 500m, 1 ,000m, slalom —
blade at each end. —
C2 6.50m 500m, 1 ,000m, slalom
• Most Canadian canoes have
K=Kayak, C=Canadian. 1 =singles, 2=twos. 4=fours
an open deck. The paddler sits
or kneels in the canoe and uses Thwart

a single-bladed paddle.
WHITEWATER
LONG-DISTANCE RACING RACING
SPRINT RACING In 5,000m and 10,000m races, canoeists paddle There are two types
Sprint races take place on around buoys at each end of the course. Marathons of Whitewater
water that is as still as range from 5km to 200km and more in length. racing. In wildwater
possible. Kayaks race in Competitors avoid obstacles, such as locks or racing, paddlers are
lanes, usually over distances waterfalls, by timed over a course
of 500m or 1,000m. Some carrying their that includes
courses have windbreaks canoes along obstacles such as
to limit the effect of the bank rocks and rapids
crosswinds. (portage). slalom, paddlers
negotiate
Men's K2 rare - Canoe marathon multiple gates.
Slalom

210
 WATER SPORTS

vu.'in
099 Sailing
• There arc two types of yacht
n pes

racing: inshore and offshore.

• Inshore racing takes place
just off the coast on courses
marked by buoys. Offshore
racing takes place across
the sea or ocean.
• One-design events
are for boats of the
One-person dinghy Two-person boat with Catamaran Two-person dinghy Ocean-going yacht
same class. Handicap e.g.Optimist class. trapeze e.g. 470 class e.g. Tornado class e.g. King Dutchman
I e.g. 12m class
events are for boats of National origin: US. National origin: France National origin: I K National origin: National origin:
different designs. Netherlands Europe

Powerboat racing
Windsurfing Windsurfing words • Motorboats range from big
• Windsurfing, or boardsailing, is Boom Double, or wishbone, boom
powerboats with cabins to small
used for steering, changing speed,
a comparatively new sport that inflatable dinghies fitted with
and maintaining balance.
has developed in the last 20 years. Daggerboard Removable outboard motors.
fin used to stop board from
• The sailboard is a simple craft
slipping sideways
steered by means of the sail. through the water.
The two main types of
•

Freestyle Competition or
powerboat racing are inshore
• There are three main types
exhibition in which tricks arc- and offshore. There are several
of competition: course racing, Window performed. classes, depending on size and
slalom, and wave performance. Funboard Board designed type of engine.
winds and
for sailing in strong

SAILBOARD performing spectacular

The sailboard is made up of the rig flying jumps.
(consisting of the sail, mast, and boom) Skeg Kin that helps keep
connected to the board by a universal board on course.
joint. The sailor supports the rig by LJphaul Rope used to pull rig
holding the boom. out of the water.
Uphaul
I'u'in-tiulh'd iMntvrboat

Surfing Universal joint

• Surfers paddle out to sea on

'

Tube" rides are performed by

Water sport comparisons
lightweight boards, and "ride"
riding in the hollow oj the wave. Water sport First Olympics Top speed
the waves back to shore.
km/h mph
• Any type of board may be
Sailing 1900 69 43
used, but most competition
boards have three fins on the Rowing 1900 2V 13
tail (trifins). 2 3
Powerboat racing 1908 166 103
SURFING MOVES Canoeing 1936 20* 12
GEAR Surfers perform moves. Judges assess
a variety of
-
and timing, and award
surfers for srylc, grace, Whitewater canoeing 1972
points, depending on the difficulty of the wave,
Windsurfing 1984 82 51
for various aspects of the ride.

Water-skiing - 230 143

/// a "imn, " the surfer turns mid
tuts back through thr wove. (1) Average Olympic record speed for an eight over 2km (2) Only inclusion (3} Much higher

speeds have been reached by boats specially designed tor record breaking (4) Average
Olympic record speed tor a K4 over 1 km

Wetsuits are
worn in

Water-skiing
• The water-skiertowed
behind a motorboat, which
needs a speed of at least 19mph
(3()km/h) to keep the skier
upright. Competitions are
divided into three sections.
Lifejacket
conditions.
cold
Speedy skis
The world water-skiing speed record
is more than 124mph (200km/h),
SLALOM
which is more than three times the
is
Skiers negotiate a scties of
buoys while crossing the boat's speed of the boat. A skier w ill cross
wake. There are six buoys on from side to side behind the towing
each run, or pass, with a gate at
motorboat, and so tan travel
each end. Each successive pass
is made with a faster boat speed
much faster.
to amaximum of 36mph
(SHkm/h) lor men or 34mph
(SSkm/h) for women.

Ramp JUMPING TRICKS

This performed
is Points ate awarded for a
from a ramp and is variety of moves, such as a

judged on distance. backward turn, perl d

while being towed.

J_
SPORTS

Swimming and diving Olympic events

Event Men Women
GEAR Swimming
999 Swimming
• There are four strokes in
Swim cap
POOL
Length: 50m
Freestyle 50m
100m
200m V
si

Starting block
competitive swimming: Goggles are worn
(

400m
freestyle (swimmers always use
to protect the eyes
«» mm «»
800m
from chemicals in
1500m V
the front crawl), backstroke. the water.
Backstroke 100m
breaststroke, and butterfly. 200m si V
Women and Breaststroke 100m V
• ( lompetitors dive from men wear light, 200m V
starting blocks in all events tight-fitting nylon Butterfly 100m V V
racing suits.
(except for backstroke), and 200m si

race in lanes. Individual 200m si V

medley 400m si V
• They are timed to one- Freestyle relays 4x1 00m si si

thousandth of a second by 4x200m

Medley relay 4x1 00m
touching sensitive pads at the
end of the race. Diving
1

Springboard V
Highboard
Racing facts
• Swimmers must not leave
i
/////// Synchronized swimming
Solo
their starting blocks until the Width of each lane: 2.5m
Duet
STROKES
starter fires the gun or, as in
Front crawl Water Polo V
relay races, until the previous This is the fastest stroke and is used
swimmer in their team has in freestyle races.
The mlimmer moves his frg3 up His arms a ml legs He keeps his body as straight
touched the electronic pad. ami down from the hips. move alternately. and flat as possible.

• Rules govern the style of

each stroke (except for
freestyle), including the turns
made at the ends of the pool. Breaststroke Her arms move together, circling from an outstretched Her legs move togethei with

This is the slowest stroke. Arms and around and under the chin.
position a frog/ike kick.
• In the individual medley
legs stay underwater.
race, competitors swim each
quarter with a different stroke
in the following order:
butterfly, backstroke, Backstroke
This the only racing stroke in which Her arms pull alternately Her body is kept as straight
breaststroke, and freestyle. is

the swimmers start in the water.

in a "windmill" motion. as possible.

999 Diving
• Competitive diving is a
Butterfly The swimmer uses a strong, double- He uses an up-and-down
which contestants are
sport in Like the breaststroke, this is a arm pull to propel himself through "dolphin kick" of the legs.

awarded points by judges. symmetrical stroke. the water.

• There are two divisions of

diving: springboard and
platform, or highboard, diving.

Forward dive
TYPES OF DIVE
The backward, twist, inward
six types of dive are: forward,
and armstand. Within these six groups, there are
reverse,
ooo
\J\Jr Synchronized swimming
Forward dives may
many different starting positions and varieties of moves in
be performed from a • This sport
the air, making a total of more than 100 recognized dives. is a kind of
run-up in standing
position. "water ballet," in which
Backward dive Armstand swimmers perform artistic
dive
In ///r starting
movements under or on th
In the layout
position, the diver Armstand water to music.
position, the body
in a si keep his body dives are
should not be bent • There are solo, pair
straight and his liead made from the
at the hips or knees.
up- his arms swing platform only. (duet), and team (four to
upward just before
leaving the platform
Reverse dive
eight swimmers) events.
III. il/.'r/ in springboard.
miisi keep
his feet to
mill Ins tins pointed A reverse dive (body Water polo
facing away from
board or platform) in • This is played
the pike position
7 per side in water.
Twist dive
lie must keep his
Only the goalkeeper
body as straight as The diver performs a Inward dive is allowed to stand
passible when twist in midair.
An inward dive in to play the ball,
•if; the water.
the tuck position
touch it with both
IZZ1 hands, or punch it.

212
 EQUESTRIAN

SHOW-Jl MPING COIRSK

Equestrian
4 i
vXV Show jumping
• Riders take their mounts around
COMPETITION AfTAREL
Riders musi wear a hard hat or trash helmet,
I
r Triple bars
a course ami formal ilros tm show jumping and Gate
of obstacles such as gates, walls, fences, and
a water jump.
dressage competitions.
Riding
^^^. I
—^
\
Bridie, made
adjustable
4 ^ _ I

hat . . fl B I L
f

lengths of
\ Start ,

• Penalty faults are given for errors such as a

__^ I leather

refusal,knocking off a pole, or taking longer Jacket Wall

than the specified time.
Finish

Show-jumping faults J
Error Faults

Fence (or part of fence) down 4

JUMPING TECHNIQI I

Foot in water 4 When jumping, the rider should bend forward from
the hips and look up. On landing, the body must
Refusal 3
Straighten up to take weight off the horse's front legs.
2nd refusal 6

3rd refusal Elimination

Fall (horse or rider) 8

Exceeding time allowance 1/4 per second

Taking jumps out of sequence Elimination

''""""«
>Three-day Polo
QS& Dressage
• Riders take their mounts • Riders take their
EVENT
mounts
• Polo is a game played l>\ two
teams of four players. The aim
through an official test made up through three different is to hit a ball between the
opposition's goalposts with a
of a variety of paces, disciplines over three days:
long stick called a mallet.
movements, and figures. day one, dressage; day two,
• Marks are awarded for the
speed and endurance; day
three, show jumping.
quality of the test performance.

• Speed and endurance is

made up of four phases

(see table).
Clearing ci watei /um/i in the three-da) evt nl

Speed and endurance

Phase Distance Details Polo

A Roads and tracks 16-20km Trot or slow canter Harness racing

• The horses pull their drivers
B Steeplechase approx. 3.5-4km 9 or 1 fences
around an oval track on light,
Trot
C Roads and tracks 16-20km Trot or slow canter two-wheeled "sulkies." Most
D Cross-country up to 8km 28-32 obstacles races are 1 mile long.

Horse racing Major horse races

• Flat races are for horses of 2
years old and over; most are Race Course Distance Type
from 5 furlongs to 1.5 miles Preakness Pimlico Park, US 1 mile, 1f Flat

long, with no jumps.

Belmont Belmont Park, US 1 mile, 4f Flat

• Hurdle races are for 3-year-

Derby Epsom, England 1 mile, 4f* Flat
olds and over; they are from 2
to 3.25 miles long.
Breeder's Cup Location varies, US 1 mile, 2f I- lat

St. Leger Doncaster, England 1 mile, 6f, 132yd Rat Han

• Steeplechases have fences
instead of hurdles. They are for Irish Derby The Curragh, Ireland 1 mile, 4f Flat Record breakers
4-year-olds and over, and are 2,400m
ONI \ rHREE-TIME WINNER
Arc de Triomphe Longchamp, France Flat
from 2 to about 4.5 miles long. of the Grand National horse race
Kentucky Derby Churchill Downs, US 1 mile, 2f Flat in England is Red Rum. who won
Melbourne Cup Melbourne, Australia 3,200m Flat
it m 1973, 1974, and 19
MOST wi\s l\ HORSI R \< i\<;
Grand National Aintree, England 4 mile, 4f Steeplechase ">
is8,833 in 40,350 races b) I

Cheltenham Gold Cup Cheltenham, England 3 miles, 2f Steeplechase jockey Hill Shoemakei (bom
1931 who rode Ins fust winnet
I, in
Champion Hurdle Cheltenham, England 2 miles Hurdle
March I949and retired in l^H).
'i turiong (220yd); 8 furlongs one le

213
 1

SPORTS

Winter sports SKIS

Alpine skis vary
length depending on
in
Olympic
competitions
ski and sled
Crash Goggles
Women
Q99 Skiing
• There two basic groups:
arc
helmet the event and the
skier's own
preference. Nordic-
Competition

Alpine ski racing

Slalom
Men

V V
skis are narrower and
alpine, which Giant slalom V V
lighter than alpine skis.
Super giant slalom V V
includes downhill
Alpine combined
and slalom racing, and Alpine .
(downhill and slalom) V V
nordic,which includes cross- ski
Downhill V V
country and ski jumping.
Freestyle
• Alpine skiing comes from Ballet V V
the Alps; nordic skiing comes Moguls V V
Aerials V V
from northern Europe.
Nordic
GEAR BOOTS 5km V
Ski racers wear one-piece outfits Alpine boots are attached to the ski, 10km V V
made of spandex, which give but have a mechanism that allows 15km V V
little wind resistance. them to come off in a Nordic
fall. 30km V V
boots are smaller and made of leather. 50km V
|p#i 4- The heel lifts free with each stride. 4 x 5km relay V
SKI POLES 4 x 1 0km relay V
Poles should be made of a strong, light material 1
such as aluminum. The basket stops the pole Nordic combined
from sinking too deep into the snow. Nordic ski
poles are longer than alpine poles.
Giant-slalom course
The gates are wider on
ir Open gate
Individual
Team
V
V
a giant-slalom course.
Each on Ski jumping
Alpine skiing :
poles.
flag is set a pair
70m hill V
RACING Blind gate
90m hill V
There are four main types: ! 1
90m hill team V
Downhill This is the fastest race, inwhich
skiers follow a set route down the mountain.
Biathlon
Slalom A short race downhill with quick 1 1
10km (M)/ 7.5km (W) V V
turns through a series of "gates," 55-75 for 11 Slalom course 20km (M)/1 5km (W) V V
men and 40-60 women.
Giant slalom This
for
race has fewer, wider M A slalom
represented by
gate is

a
Relay 4 x 7.5km
3 x 7.5km
V
V
gates than a slalom, and it takes place over a
pair of flags that are
longer course. Sled
alternately blue and red.
Super giant slalom Phis is like a downhill 2-man bob V
race with gates; it contains up to two jumps. 4 -man bob V
Nordic skiing Single luge V V
FREESTYLE Double luge V
There are three main CROSS-COUNTRY Toboggan* V
types: RACING
Aerials Acrobatics The cross-country course "Held only on Cresta Run at St.- Morltz, Switzerland (1928 and 1948).
performed in midair after has no steep slopes or
taking off from a ramp, sharp turns, but is a test of
judged on style and stamina, with races OTHER NORDIC COMPETITIONS
technique. ranging from 5 to 50km Ski marathons Long-distance
Mogul racing Skiing Competitors start at (40-1 50km) cross-country events
down a course of large 30-second with mass starts, also called "citizen
round bumps, judged on intervals and racing."
skill as well as time. time decides Nordic combined Two-day event
Ballet Performed to music the placings. with ski jumping (70m hill) on the
on smooth slopes, judged first day and cross-country (15km) on
on grace and skill. Cross-country skier
the second day.
Relays Races between teams of four.
Ski jumping
Biathlon Combination of cross-
Two different ski towers, or ramps, are
country skiing and rifle shooting
used from which skiers are expected to Right
The skier carries his weapon
jump 70m and 90m, respectively.
on his back and stops regularly
Points are awarded for style as
to shoot at targets, incurring
well as distance.
\
time penalties for missing.

Rifle shooting at n biathlon

Gar skiing
To find the best position for skiing in
The "table point' special high-speed events on smooth
is at the end of slopes, a skier
the expected
landing area.
practices on top
of a fast-
moving car.

The "norm point"

Landing
is at the beginning
of the expected
landing area.

Inrun Outrun area

214
 WIYIHR SPORTS

999 Sled racing

LUGE TOBOGGANING
999 Speed skating
• Competitors race
Competitors wear
body-hugging
spandex
down
suits to
TRACK

in pairs against the cut air

A luge is a one- or two-person toboggan « ith resistance.
clock around an oval two-lane track.
no steering or brakes. It is
ridden face-up in a sirring 400m in length.
or lying position.
• Competitors switch lanes
each lap in a changeover
zone.
BOBSLED RACING
Bobsleds, tor two or four men • In short-track speed
attached to a
have metal runners, steering,
skating, a maximum
ami brakes.
of six competitors
Width of lane
race around
4-5m
SKELETON TOBOGGANING a 1 10-meter
Competitors ride face-down on an oval track.
open toboggan. There only one- is Length of track:
The first to
400m
major competition, the Crcsta Run
at St. Morit/. Switzerland.
finish is the
winner. Gl RUNG
• In curling, two teams with four
QQO Figure
\J\X SKATING
players each slide curling stones
across the ice, aiming to get them
• Competitors perform as close as possible to the center
routines to music containing (tec) of a target area (house I.

both compulsory
movements and • Teammates with brooms sweep
moves they choose the ice in front of the stones to
themselves. change their speed and direction.
• A maximum of nine
judges give marks for
technical merit and
artistic impression; 6.0
is the perfect score.

Top male skaters often

wear all-in-one bodysuits
made of stretch material

SINGLES
Solo competitions, for
men and women, have
two parts: a short program
Curling
w ith compulsory
moves and a
long program
Record breaker
(freestyle THREE CONSECUTIVE OLYMPIC
GOLD MEDALS (1928-36)
and ten consecutive world
championships (l )27-.s(>l were won
l

n Sonja lenie. a Norwegian figure

I

skater. She then turned professional

and made several lollywood I

films featuring her grace ami

skills on ice.

Olympic skating events

Men Women
Figure skating
Pairs Together
Ice dancing Together

Speed skating
500m V

ICE DANCE 1 ,000m

Ice-dance competitions have three 1500m
parts:compulsory dances, original set 3,000m
pattern dance, and free dance. 5,000m V

Couples choose their own music anil 10,000m V

movements in the tree dance. During Short-track

their routine, they must not separate 500m V
more than five times, or tor longer
1,000m N
than five seconds. Lifts must not be
3,0a
made above shoulder-height.
5,000m V

Expressiveness is important in ice dancing

215
 i

SPORTS

Wheeled sports Grand

Grand
Belgium
Prix
PRIX CIRCUITS
Circuit

Spa- Francorchamps
Length (km)
6.94
Laps
44
Motor racing Germany Hockenheim 6.81 45
• Competitions arc held for
Straight Japan Suzuka 5 66 53
different types of car on a variety
Italy Monza 5.80 53
of tracks. Races arc held around
Great Britain Silverstone 5.23 59
circuits, on roads, and on grass and
dirt tracks.
San Marino Imola (Italy) 5.04 61
Spam Catalunya 4.75 65
Canada 69
Formula l
Portugal
Gilles Villeneuve 4.43
4.35
• Grand Prix races Estoril 71
RACE CIRCUIT Brazil Interlagos 4.32 71
take place on A Grand Prix circuit has
circuits. corners and straights to test
South Africa Kyalami 4.26 72
the drivers' ear-handling France Magny-Cours 4.25 72
• Drivers and car
skills. Above is a plan of the
Hungary Hungaroring 3.97 77
makers attempt to win points for Start/Finish Suzuka circuit in Japan.
Australia Adelaide 3.78 81
the world championships.
,
Crash helmet Pacific Tl AIDA (Japan) 3.70 83
Monaco Monte Carlo 3.33 78
FLAG SIGNALS
Flags are held out during the race.
Smooth tires called slicks for use in dry weather.
Each color has its own meaning.

w
Body shell

Checkered:
end of race

Yellow: danger

Red and yellow

stripes: oil on course
III
White: service
car on track

Formula i racing car

Black: car must These streamlined cars are made of lightweight
stop in pits
materials to make them go as fast as possible.
Red: all cars
must stop Recent Formula l world
Rally driving CHAMPION DRIVERS
• In rally driving, strengthened sedan cars
Year Driver Country of origin
race against the clock, rather than each
1984 Niki Lauda Austria
Indy car racing other. Thedivided into sections
route is
1985 Alain Prost France
• Most races take place in the US, mainly called "stages," with time-control points
between them. Points are lost for 1986 Alain Prost France
on oval circuits.
exceeding time. 1987 Nelson Piquet Brazil
• The annual championships are decided on
1988 Ayrton Senna Brazil
points. The cars are similar to Formula Rally cars are faster
and stronger than 1989 Alain Prost France
One cars. Turns bank at 9° ordinary cars.
1990 Ayrton Senna Brazil

1991 Ayrton Senna Brazil

INDY 500 1992 Nigel Mansell UK

The most famous circuit is the 1993 Alain Prost France
Indianapolis, which is 4km long. The
1994 Michael Schumacher Germany
Indy 500 race is held over 200 laps of
the circuit.

Record breakers
Pits area
Start/Finish Drag racing • Gars race in pairs. They MOST FORMULA WORLD 1
• Races are held along reach speeds of 300mph DRIVERS' CHAMPIONSHIP WINS
straight'0.25 mile (400m) (485km/h), and need is five by Juan Manuel Fangio
tracks called drag strips. parachutes to slow down. (born 1911) of Argentina.
GO-CARTING
• The simplest go-carts have a DRAGSTER CLOSEST FINISH TO A WORLD
Powerful, A dragster has a lightweight body, CHAMPIONSHIP GRAND PRIX RACE
lOOcc engine and no gearbox. The Airfoil
supercharged
with big wheels that give good grip is 0.014 seconds, when Ayrton
most powerful go-carts are like at the back, and smaller, lighter
small racing cars
Senna (1960-94) of Brazil, beat
front wheels. The fastest dragsters
are called top-fuelers.
Nigel Mansell (born 1953) of UK.
and can reach
Rear slicks
speeds of Lightweight LONGEST ANNUALLY HELD
l.SOmph front wheels RALLY RACE
(240km/h). is the Safari Rally, Kenya. The
race has covered up to
3,874 miles (6,234km).
 WHEELED SI'ORIS

Motorcycle sport World championship Motocross

• There are a variety of competitions for • Motocross. also known as scrambling, is the
different types of hike. They take place-
motorcycle classes "cross-country" branch of motorcycle racing.
on circuits or cross-country tracks. Motorcycle Racing Motocross
• Races take place on tracks that include muddy
500cc V V slopes, grass, and bumps.
Motorcycle racing 250cc V V
• (>rand Prix races take place on circuits. MOTOCROSS BIKE
125cc v V I hesc bikes are adapted to cope with rough ground.
• There are different classes for bikes of
different engine sizes, and a class for 80cc V Swinging arm allows vertical
movement ot wheel
sidecars. Sidecar V V
Mudguard
RACING MOTORBIKE
The bikes arc powerful machines designed
speed, Light
lor
streamlined plastic body
aluminum
RACING SIDECAR
frame
A racing sidecar is a bike and sidecar
molded together to make one piece. The
driver and passenger work together as a
team. The passenger leans over behind the
driver to help with cornering. The
passenger platform may be attached to
either side of the bike.

OTHER MOTORCYCLE SPORT

Cycle sports Speedway Riders race over four Lips of a dirt track. The
• Races range from track sprints held over bikes have no brakes or gearbox so riders slow down b\
sliding their machines through turns.
1,094yd (l,(K)()m) to multistage road races
Trials Riders negotiate a natural course vv ith obstacles
lasting several weeks.
such as boulders, fast-flowing water, loose rocks, and deep
• The bicycles differ according mud, and lose points lor [Hitting a foot down or stopping.

to the type of race. Racing ndecai

Q8P1Road racing
• Races are run on courses set along ordinary
TYPES OF TRACK RACING
Points race Points are scored on
Olympic cycling each lap for crossing the line first,
roads. with double points on the last lap
events Sprint Rulers spend most of the
Men Women
• In stage races, such as the Tour de France,
race jockeying for position before
each stage is a race in itself, and the overall
Track: making a final dash for the line.
winner is the one with the lowest aggregate time.
Sprint V V Individual pursuit Two riders
Time trial V GEAR start on opposite sides of the track,

Pursuit V V
Bicycle riders wear long close-
fitting shorts toprevent thighs
Track and the race is decided on time, or
if one rider catches the other.

Team pursuit V from chafing against the saddle, RACING Team pursuit Similar to individual
Points race V
and a top that allows the body to • Races take place on hard pursuit, but there are two teams of
breathe and soaks up sweat. tracks including tightly banked four riders. Only the times of the
Road:
first three riders in each team arc
wooden indoor tracks and almost
Individual V V counted,
flat asphalt outdoor tracks. Some
Italian pursuit 1 or teams of up to
races are held on closed circuits
five riders. The
leading cyclist in
ROAD-RACING BICYCLE (rodds that have been closed to each team drops out after each lap.
The best bicycles are made of carbon the public). The finishing time of the last rider
tubing to sa\ c weight and arc designed of each team decides the race.
to be as streamlined as possible yet Devil-take-the-hindmost .ast I

reliable anil stable. rider over the line

at the end of

each lap is eliminated.

TOUR DE FRANCE
This famous race covers 3,400km in 24 Time Competitors rule on
trial

one-day stages. Each year the route their own a set distance from
ovei
a standing start, and the ridel vvith
changes. The tour can even leave
the fastest nine wins.
France and stretch over the border
into neighboring countries.

Tour de France OfE-ROAD RACING

route (1990) Color codes • Cyclocross takes place on
Color-coded
iciscvs help
cross-country courses, ami
spectators competitors may carry then
identify leading bikes across obstacles,
riders in the
• Mountain-bike racing
Tour dc France.
includes several different
Yellow top worn Polkadot top is Green top worn including
is
st\ les, trials and
by the rider with the worn by the by the rider with
lowest overall time rider with most most points cross-countrj racing.
aftereach stage points Irom from sprints,
and by the ultimate the climbing
winner of the Tour stages. \ cyclist carrying his Ink,
acros ring a
cyclocross race.
 -

SPORTS

H Target SPORTS
Bowls BOULES
BOWLING TECHNIQUES

• Bowls (woods) are rolled along • In boules, which is

In boules, the boule is

a flat, smooth green, aiming at a similar to bowls, metal lobbed.

target ball (jack). It is similar to balls are thrown at a

£>0.\
the Italian game, Bocri. small wooden target ba

• A point is scored for each bowl • The game can be

that is nearer to the jack than played on any In bowls, the wood must I"'

rolled along (he ground.

any opponent's wood. bare stretch of

WOOD
land, but it is
usually played
T^©
Woods can be on sandy ground.
made of
wood,
PINS TENPIN BALL
rubber, or a Tenpin bowling The pins made are The bowling ball has three

composition from maple wood holes for the thumb and

• This an indoor sport in which
is
material covered with plastic. the two middle fingers.
players roll a ball down an alley
They are knock down pins.
Ballmade of hard
to
weighted, or rubber or plastic
one
LANE
biased, on • Points are scored for each pin The pins are arranged in a triangular pattern at one
side so they curve
when rolled.
knocked down. Bonuses are end of the lane, which is made of plastic or wood.
Jack given for knocking down all ten
pins in one roll (a strike) or two
vXV Archery rolls (a spare).
• Competitors use a bow to
fire a certain number of
TARGET Straw butt

arrows at targets set at

There are five colored
Bull's-eye
Olympic archery
each with an inner
rings,
different distances. and an outer part.
qualifying distances
Scores range Men Women
• The closer to the center from one point j
of the target an arrow for the outer 30m V V

lands, the higher the score. white, to ten

50m V V
points for
the inner 60m V
BOW AND ARROWS gold.
70m V V
The bow is usually made of
fiberglass. The arrow shafts are 90m V
made of aluminum or carbon.

Darts RIFLE SHOOTING

• Opponents take turns to throw Shooting POSITIONS Olympic shooting events
three darts at a board from a distance • Rifles, pistols, and shotguns
are used in shooting sports. Men Women
of 2.4m.
The size of the target varies Free pistol V
• Each player usually starts with a
with the weapon and distance. Rapid-fire pistol V
score of 501 and must reduce it to the
exact score of zero by finishing with a
• Pistol shooting includes rapid-fire Air pistol V V
double or an inner bul which 5 targets
pistol shooting, in
Sport pistol V
are exposed for only 4-8 seconds,
DARTBOARD Free rifle - prone
and free pistol shooting in which - 3 positions
The board is divided
competitors fire at a fixed target.
into different scoring
Air rifle V V
sections, indicated by • Shotgun is double
firing with a
the numbers on the Running target V
barreled gun at saucer-shaped
outer ring. Certain area
targets released randomly from Standard rifle V
count double or treble
^i li
a spring-catapult. Shotgun - Skeet
Double -Trap
Dart
ring Prone - Double trap V V
Snooker
• Players score points by pocketing Black ball (7 points)

balls. A cue is used to hit a cue ball Pool Seven colors

against one of 15 red or 6 colored • Any billiard game played A pool table is smaller
balls, causing it to fall into a pocket. with 15 variously colored ba than a snooker table. ,

on an oblong table with six One black

TABLE
pockets. Seven stripes

Pocket
Brown ball (4 points)
Green ball (3
Chalk is rubbed on '» U»HK">
the tip of the cue to
points)
improve contact with
One white
Cue ball the cue ball.
cue ball — -^
CUE
The cue, used in both snooker and pool,
is a tapered stick with a leather tip. Two-piece cue

218
 H
Science and
Technology
From the atom to the latest in information technology, this
section offers a wealth of scientific facts and figures.

Matter • Atoms • Periodic Table • Energy

Forces and Machines • Electricity and Magnetism • Light and Color
Sound • Electronics • Computers • Mathematics • Weights and Measures
Time • Engines • Space and Time • Natural Science

Physical Science • Weapons

219
SC1F.NCK AND TECHNOLOGY

1 murium, containing

Matter Lead: solid

many types Of matin

EVERYTHING isMADE up of matter. It can be a Droplets of

water
solid, such as wood or iron, a liquid, such as water condensed
from vapor
or oil, or a gas, such as air. Heat or pressure can
change matter from one state into another.

States of matter
Matter exists in three basic forms, called states, depending
on how their atoms and molecules (see p.222) are arranged.

GAS
A gas is a substance that docs not have a fixed
volume but fills all the space it occupies. Gas
particles arc not bound together and move
rapidly and freely in all directions.
Ga<% /u „ ,„/,., /(

to move around

LIQUID
\ liquid has a fixed volume but can change shape-
to the space it occupies. Its particles are in
fit I

contact with each other but can move around

with some freedom. Iji/uiiI /mrllili
to move
,
s

short distances
M .

SOLID
A solid isa substance with a definite size and
shape. A solid's particles are tightly linked by
strong bonds, making a firm structure.
Solid particles, held
in a rigid pattern

Three ICE WATER STEAM

in one Water is solid when Water is liquid when i Water turns to
steam, a gas, when
Types of mixture
its temperature is has a temperature of
Water one it has a temperature
There are two main types of
is below 32°F((TC)- between 32°F (0°C)
of more than 212°F mixture: colloids and solutions.
substance we what we know as ice. and212°F(100°C).
often find in
(lOfTC). In a solution, two or more
its different Liquid fills up substances are broken down into
states.
its container to individual atoms or molecules. A
a horizontal
surface. colloid is a mixture of larger
Ice forms solid
blocks with
particles of one substance,
definite shapes.

V distributed in another.

Emulsion
Changing states Changes oj state
Paint is an emulsion
of oil particles
Evaporation and condensation
dispersed in another
Particles can free themselves from the body of a liquid
iquid, water.
(c\ aporation). Above the boiling point, of the liquid become
all

gas. When the gas cools, it becomes a liquid (condenses) again.

Gel
Freezing and melting Hair gel is composed
A liquid becomes a solid (freezes) below a temperature
of particles of oil
called its freezing point. It becomes a liquid again (melts)
suspended in a solid.
if the temperature rises above the freezing point.

Sublimation Foam
Some substances, such as carbon dioxide, will change Shaving foam is

from a solid to a gas when heated, without becoming composed of

liquid in between. This is sublimation. The reverse bubbles of gas
process, from a gas to a solid, is also called sublimation. suspended in liquid.

Mist
Steam from a kettle

Web feat Liquid glass is a mist of liquid

particles suspended
Some of the Over long periods of time in a gas.
threads in a and pressure, Smoke
spider's web are glass behaves A bonfire gives off a cloud
stronger than a like a liquid. of smoke composed of
steel wire of the Ancient Roman Air speed solid matter ^^ & ^&l.
suspended in air. "^y^jHW^St*
same width. glassware has Each of the billions of air

m
been found molecules that fill a balloon Solution
slightly travels at the average speed A solvent, such as

flattened. of a jet plane. water, makes a solution

by dissolving another
substance, the solute.

220
 MAI i KR

Compounds MIXTURE COMI'Ol M)

Savory sea
Elements
own
world.
that exist
arc rare in the natural
Most substances are
made up of two or more
on their

htm
o A new
220 gallons
typical seawater contains
1.4cu inches (23cu
i leu meter) of

cm) of salt
filings substance,
elements bonded together by mill sill/iu mm (sodium chloride). Seawater
sulfidi
also contains other dissolved
chemical reaction toform a
Iron filingsand sulfur can When iron and sulfur are '
i*r salts.
compound. When iron and be mixed up together, heated together, their
I. -

sulfur are heated together, a but their atoms will not atoms bind to form a new
be chemically bound compound of iron sulfide.
chemical reaction bonds their unless a chemical It is a completely new
atoms into a solid structure. reaction takes place. substance.

Physical properties Combustion (burning)

There is a wide variety of matter, with a A substance burns when it reacts
range of different properties. These with oxygen, releasing heat. A
properties help identify the substance, and candle is made from carbon and Acids and alkalis
also determine to what use it can be put. hydrogen. These elements burn Acids are substances that
to form carbon dioxide and water. dissolve in water to form sour-
Viscosity
tasting solutions. Alkalis
Viscous matter is liquid that Candle flame
docs not flow easily. Friction A candle flame contains dissolve in water to form soapy
between molecules makes a tiny particles of solutions. Both acids and alkalis
liquid viscous. Honey is carbon. As they Burning food can be corrosive. The strength
highly viscous, whereas burn, they Pood dissolved in your blood
of an acid or alkali is measured
water is not. become so hot "burns" as it reacts with oxygen.
that they glow The heat released provides you In its pi 1.

bright yellow. I with the energy you need to live.

Ductility and malleability
Ductile matter can be
draw n out into a w ire. Plastic Caustic soda
pH14
14

Malleable matter can be
molded or beaten into
other shapes.
Elasticity
Elastic matter can be
stretched or squeezed
and returns to
Most synthetic plastics are made from chemicals in oil in
a chemical process called polymerization. To make
PVC, small molecules of chlorethene polymerize to
form a long chain, or polymer.
Inflatable make made of PVC
(polyvinyl chloride).
its

original size and shape.

Density
Two objects of the same
size may
not have the same
mass, so they will not weigh
the same. The denser of the
two weigh more, because it has
will Long chain molecule of

more matter packed into the same space PVC (polyvinyl chloride)

Polyvinyl chloride has a chain of V/

Conductivity molecules, from 70 to a million long.
Matter that transfers heat
and electricity is
conductive. Many
solids have a close-
Key plastics y
knit molecular Name Uses
structure that causes
Polystyrene Packaging, cups, bowls, ceiling tiles
them to be cold to the
touch, because it Polyester Artificial fibers, fiberglass
conducts heat away quickly Warm stone retains heat
Polyethylene Carrier bags, bottles, food wrapping

Antimatter Nylon Artificial fibers, carpets, fishnets

For every type of particle that exists, such as PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) Raincoats, garden hoses, gutters
the electron (see p. 222), there is a
Polyurethane Plastic packaging foam, adhesives
corresponding antiparticle. Just as matter
consists of particles, antimatter consists of Polymethyl methacrylate Substitute for glass
(perspex)
matter and antimatter are
antiparticles. If
brought together, they will violently destroy
each other, to become energy. Degradability
In time, most matter will degrade naturally, breaking
down into simpler substances. Nondegradablc pollution
will remain in rivers, seas, anil in the atmosphere.

t Stomach
J acid pH t

An apple core takes 20 Plasticcan take more than Glass takes more than
iiihr-i olo/t image of subatomit patticlei days to decompose 100 years to decompose 4,000 years to decompose

221
 ,

SCIENCE WD TECHNOLOGY

The below
illustration
Atom facts
Atoms distorts the real sizes of the
atomic components - the
nucleus is very large
compared to electrons, and
• Quarks are
that appears in the novel
named after a word • Scientists have discovered
many particles that are smaller

E\ ERYTHING AROUND YOU is electrons orbit at a great Finnegan's Wake by Irish writer than atoms. They have weird
distance from the nucleus. names, such as gluons, leptons,
made up of tiny particles called James Joyce (1882-1941).
and taus, and properties such as
• Some atomic isotopes ate
atoms. Different atoms make up charm, strangeness, and flavor.
highly dangerous - if stored in
different kinds of matter. They appear briefly when larger
large enough quantities, a
particles are smashed in massive
nuclear reaction can result.
Elements "particle accelerators."
Elements are substances made Fluorine— 19
up of one kind of atom only. Isotopes nucleus

One element is fluorine. Some atoms of the same

Extra
element may have different neutron
Inside the numbers of neutrons. These
diffetent kinds of atoms are
fluorine atom Fluorine— 18
If a fluorine atom could be cut
called isotopes. These two
nucleus
open, it might look like this. nuclei are from isotopes of
fluorine. Fluorine-19 has 10
neutrons, while fluorine-18
Nucleus .
has 9 neutrons.
The central core of the atom is

called the nucleus. consists

of protons and neutrons.
It

The Into the atom

nucleus makes up 99.9% of an What would happen if you could

atom's mass, but only a tiny tear this book in half, and then
part of its volume.
in half again and again - until
Protons
Inner electron shell/ you broke it down into the
Protons are particles
Electrons in a nucleus that
tiniest particles possible?
Electrons arc negatively charged carry a positive
particles. hc\ surround the
I electric charge. The
nucleus in regions called orbitals. Neutrons number of protons
Neutrons are particles m a inan atom is called
Ions nucleus. They have no itsatomic number.
When an atom loses or gains an electron, electric charge. They cling to Fluorine has nine.
m
it

becomes an ion. If it loses an electron, it the protons and to each other, The book becomes.
becomes positively charged and is called a keeping the nucleus together.
cation. If it gains an electron, it becomes
Quarks
negatively charged and is called an anion.
Protons and neutronss
are made up of even
Double bond smaller particles,
Molecules called quarks.

There are only about 100 There are two scraps of paper, which
main types of become...
kinds of atoms, but
quark. Up quarks
millions of different have a positive
substances called charge. Down quark:s

compounds. Most have a negative one.

Proton, with
Hydrogen Neutrons have one Up
substances are made of two Up
atom Molecule oj ethylene (C,H,) and two Down quarks. quarks and wood pulp fibers, which
particular combinations of Protons have two Up one Down become...
atoms, called molecules. and one Down.

Atomic bonding
Atoms form molecules. They do this by bonding (sticking
join to
together). are two main types of bonding: ionic and covalent
There
In each case, the electrons form the bond. molecules of cellulose,
Molecule of which become...
Electron lithium fluoride
IONIC BOND
In an ionic bond,
atoms lose or gain
atoms of the different
electrons to form ions
Forces of of opposite charge.
substances that made
up the molecules, which
attraction These opposite
hlUOrine
Lithium atom I uorine atom
Fluorine can be divided into...
charges attract each
I

loses obHrnn
l^coc electron nainc electron
gains o\artrr,r\ Ions attrPrt each
IrtnS attract PST.h
If an atom's nucleus were the
other, and bond the to become a to become a other to form a
size of a sport stadium, some positive ion, negative ion, molecule of
two ions together.
of its electrons would revolve or cation. or anion. lithium fluoride.

at the distance of a low-

Shared electron protons, neutrons and
orbiting satellite. COVALENT BOND electrons. Protons and
A covalent bond occurs where neutrons are each made
electrons are shared between up of...
atoms. This sharing keeps the
atoms together. One or tuo, or
occasionally three, nuclei arc-
,' " Fluorine atom
attracted to the same atom
Atoms form a
electrons at once. Water and Both fluorine and hydrogen covalent bond,
nitrogen gas arc substances atoms need one electron becoming stable
* T. r\jr. _nJ* TtrC*' with covalent bonds. to become stable. as they do so. quarks

III
 ATOMS

Radioactivity Uses of radiation Alpha rays from the

Large nuclei can be unstable, and they can decay. When they do, ALPHA RADIATION radio-isotope plutonium
charged particles are lost from them. 'I 'his process is called \lpha ra\s are charged particles power heart pacemakers
of two protons and two neutrons.
radioactivity. Most elements have unstable forms, called
Nuclear batteries, which give off
radioisotopes. Some occur naturally, others arc made in nuclear harmless alpha ra\s. power heart
Heart pt
reactors. The most radioactive substances have the highest number pacemakers, because the\ last
of particles in their nuclei. Uranium has 238. much longer than normal ones.

Alpha particle
(two protons,
BETA RADIATION
During radioactive decay, a neutron Once thought to
two neutrons)
can change into a proton, and \ ice be the 2,000-
year-old death
Alpha rays travel at 10°'c versa. Streams ot electrons or positrons
shroud of Jesus
of the speed of light. arc given off in this process - these are
Christ, the cloth
Beta rays beta ra\s. The isotope carbon-14, was carbon
(streams of found in all living things, produces dated and found
electrons or beta radiation as decays. Scientists
it tobe only 600
positrons) can date once-living things b\ seeing years old

Gamma rays how much carbon-14 has decayed.

(electromagnetic This is called carbon dating. ti shttitiil
waves)

Person
Alpha and beta rays
GAMMA RADIATION chemotherapy
are deflected by Thick sheet ( iamma radiation, an (cancel tmab
magnetic and electric of paper electromagnetic wave, travels
fields. Gamma rays at the speed of light, but w ith Cobalt-60
0.04m (1mm)_ produces gamma
are not. much more energy. These
sheet of radiation. Here
w a\ es, like light or radio it

aluminum is being used to

Rays waves, are given off when a
kill cancerous
When large doses of radioactive rays nucleus has too much energy,
Gamma rays body cells It can
enter the human body, they can Not often found on then own. also be used to
travel at
damage tissues and nerve ce thev are given off with alpha sterilize medical
speed of light.
0.59m (1.5cm) I

and beta particles. instruments

sheet of lead

Radiation facts Key half-lives

• Levels of radiation can be • All-out nuclear war would
The half-life of an element is the time it takes for half its atoms
measured with a device called a force people to live underground
to decay into other materials. A strongly radioactive substance has
Geiger counter. A probe filled for months, and possibly years.
a short half-life - it decays quickly.
with gas at low pressure triggers • Exposure to gamma rays can Isotope Half-life Type of decay Use
an electric pulse, heard as a
kill bacteria in food. This
click, when radiation is near.
Radium-221 30 sec Alpha and gamma Cancer therapy
process, called irradiation, keeps
Iron (Fe-59) 45 days Beta and gamma Testing car parts
• About 200 million gamma rays the food fresh for longer, but
pass through the body every many people are afraid of its Carbon-14 5,570 yr Beta and gamma Carbon dating
hour from soil and buildings. possible long-term health risks. Uranium-238 500 million yr Alpha and gamma Nuclear energy

Nuclear reactions Hydrogen isotope

^>
Helium
Uranium-235 nucleus deuterium
There two kinds of nuclear
are nucleus
reaction - fission and fusion.
Both are a release of the
"binding energy" that keeps the
J&m&K. Barium atom

Energy V Nuclear Jusion

reaction

•£
NucUm released
Hydrogen
nucleus of an atom together. flSSiOn nuclei fuse

Atoms are called "stable" if they nudum

have a lot of binding energy,
"unstable" if thev have little.
Krypton 1 1 Neutron ^^S NUCLEAR FUSION Hydrogen

NUCLEAR FISSION
atom .

J ^^) When the nuclei of lighter isotope tritium

fc
[fa neutron hits the nucleus of the unstable
element uranium—235, the nucleus splits into
two lighter nuclei. More neutrons shoot off to
elements are forced together thev
combine and form
heavier nucleus, releasing
a new. / Neutron

energy. In the Sun, hydrogen M

bombard other
Energy is
nuclei in a chain reaction.
released. In nuclear power stations,
V^^ f*
^^J
f nergy atoms fuse together to make H
Cold energy
this energy is used to generate electricity.
Neutron
on 9 I
released helium, and produce the Sun's
heat. Scientists
safe
hope
way of creating fusion on
to find a
Earth.
In 1989, Stanley
Martin Fleischmann claimed
Pons and

to have succeeded in making

Marie curie
Major radiation leaks French scientist Marie Curie
fusion reactions at room
temperature. This chum has
Location Date Effects ( 1867-1 W) pioneered the
since been shown to be false.
Windscale, UK 1957 39 radiation-related deaths by 1979. Area of stuck of
(now Sellafield) 309sq miles (800sq km) contaminated radiation. A
flask that she
Three Mile Island, 1979 Numbers deaths not released -
of significant
US contamination used in hci

Kyshtym, Russia
(former USSR)
1985 Area of 460sq miles (1 ,191sq km) contaminated
experiments
turned blue-
I
after const. mi
Chernobyl, Ukraine 1986 35 died two weeks, and 135,000 were
within
(former USSR) permanently evacuated
exposure to
radioactive ores

z 223
 i

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Atomic number Carbon— 12

Periodic table The number of protons

nucleus defines what element
particular atom This
in the

the
a
n ucleus

Proton - total number

is. is is atomic number
THE ELEMENTS THAT MAKE UP all of the matter atomic number.

around us can be arranged into a table. The table Atomic mass

Carbon occurs with 6, 7, 8, and 9
is arranged in vertical columns, called groups, and neutrons in its nucleus, in addition
to its 6 protons, giving it a mass of
in horizontal rows, called periods. The complete
between 12 and 15.

table includes elements that do not occur

Chemical symbol
naturally but that have been made artificially. Each element has a symbol; it is Neutron - with
used for identification in protons, makes
chemical equations. atomic mass

Table patterns
Wc can tell a lot about an \ 1 Periodic pioneer
element from its position on the Elements on handwritten The first person to arrange the
cards occur naturally.
periodic table. Elements Others have been artificially elements into the shape of a
situated in the same area Hydrogen
produced by scientists. table was Russian chemist,
behave in the same way. Dmitri Mendeleyev
(1834-1907). In 1869, he made
7 i cards for each element, and laid
c them out according to the
v_ property of each element. The
Lithium Beryllium cards formed the periodic table.

jin
SODIUM RUBIDIUM
U n J.2. 2\ There are about Rubidium is typical of elements in its
19,800,000,000,000 tons of i i group. It reacts violently with water
Ko Ma this element in the world's
rW'iA
or even a r catching fire
' >

oceans; most of it is in a Cif immediately. Its salts give a red

Metals
Sodium Magnmum
solution of sodium chloride. flame when heated.
Metals are mostly solids, and
areall good conductors of heat
19 39 20 -fO 48 23 51 2+ 52 35
and electricity. 55 £(, 56 XI 59

Nonmetals
Nonmetals are not good
conductors of heat or electricity, Potassium Calcium
Ml
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr
Chromium
Mn,
Manganese
%Iron
Co
Cobalt
and can be solid, liquid, or gas.

Metalloids 39 59 <fO 91 M 95 42 96 43 97 4+ 101 45 103

Metalloids, also called semi-
metals, are nonmetals that
behave
ways, or in
like metals in
some
some
conditions.
y
Yttrium
2?
Zirconium
M
Niobium Molybdenum
Tc
Technetium
K,w
Ruthenium
i\h,
Rhodium

Noble gases
Noble gases are also called
55 133 56 137 57 139 72 180 73 181 74 m 76 (90 7? 192_

inert gases because they are

not reactive. They are
at room temperature.
all gas Cs
Cesium
3d
Barium Lanthanum
Hf
Hafnium
In*
Tantalum
w
Tungsten
Qs
Osmium
Jr
Iridium

Lanthanides and actinides

These elements are separated 87 223 88 226 89 227 104 260 105 262 106 263 107 262 108 265 109 266
out from the table to give it a
regular shape.
Fr Ra Ac Db Jl Rf Bh Hn Mt
Francium Radium Actinium Dubnium Joliotum RuthiTJorduuti Bohrium Halin Meitnerium

J GROUPS AND PERIODS

—
r_
— CESIUM s
140 141 60 142 61 14 ) 62 152 63 153 64 158
The nucleus of this
element can be made to
|U vibrate at an extremely c. Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd
reliable rate -9,192,631,770
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymnim Prometluum Samarium Europium (iadoffn/um
times every second.
Cesium is used in
atomic clocks, 90 91 231 93 237 94 244 95 243 96 247
.232 92. -238
Groups which are
Each element is similar to a
handful of others. The periodic
table is arranged so that similar
/".'

'
accurate to one
second in
thousands of
Pa u Np Pu Am Cm
Thorium Protactinium Via in urn Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium
elements are put together in years.
vertical columns, or groups.
URANIUM TUNGSTEN
Periods There are two main types, or isotopes, of uranium. Tungsten has the highest boiling point of all
Elements are arranged into Uranium-238 (with 92 protons and 146 neutrons) accounts for the elements. It boils at a temperature of
horizontal rows, or periods. 99% of all uranium. The isotope that is 11,190°F (6,200°C), which makes it
The electron arrangement useful in nuclear reactors, uranium-235 useful for filaments in electric light
around the nucleus (see p. 222) (with 92 protons and 143 neutrons), •& bulbs. Their temperatures would melt
determines the period's length. V " V_^ accounts for onlv about 1%. - "_(.^£-':^3> most of the other elements.

224
 PERIODIC TABLE

Abundant elements Element records Element facts • The element dysprosium is

RAREST METAL • In 1994. elements 104-109 named after the Greek word
The most abundant elements in
rhodium. Just 3 tons are dysprositos, which means
is were renamed by an
the Karth's crust (by mass), in "difficult to obtain."
produced each year, compared international commission.
elemental or compound form with 1,700 tons of gold. Disputes over who had • Helium was discovered by
Element Abundance (%) discovered them first had led to
MOST COMMON ELEMENT analysing light from the Sun.
Oxygen 49 in the Universe is hydrogen; the a temporary system of naming Its name comes from helios, the
Silicon 26 next is helium. by their atomic number. (jreek word for Sun.

Aluminum 7 NITROGEN HELIUM

Iron 4
Nitrogen accounts for over
75% of the Earth's atmosphere
The lowest possible temperature is OK Heavy metal
(-459.69 F/-273.16 C). Helium has the lowest
The densest clement is
Calcium 3 and is essential to plants and boiling point of any element:
animals. It is an 4.23K (-452.07'F/-268.93 C).
osmium; a cube I3xl3xl3in
ingredient in (33x33x33cm) weighs as
FLUORINE and
fertilizers, much as a small car.
Fluorine is very reactive -a plants need it He ..rTT3,
typical property of the elements to help them
I h'!i inn
in its group. It is often added to grow.
water supplies and to
toothpaste in the form of
12 8 \h 1 9 10 20
fluoride ions (fluorine atoms

MERCURY
with an extra electron).
$ lloroti
C
Ctu him Nitrogen
o
Oxygen
F
Fluorine
Ne
Neon
Used in thermometers, nicrcun is

the onlv metal that is liquid at room

temperature. It is very poisonous, and 2& M 32. 17 fy'< IS 40
affects mental health. Body elements
The phrase "mad as a
hatter" arose because
hatters, who used Jl
-27

&
Silicon
f
Phosphorus
s
Sulphur
a
Chlorine
Ar
Argon
Mans elements are essential
thehuman body. Minute
CO

mercury, often amounts of certain elements,

Aluminium
went mad. called trace elements, arc-
75 M- 79 80 important for health.
Z*.

M
59 0.9

C,
615 3<> 6') 31

Ga
TJ

Ge
74

A
Arsenu
&
Selenium
B,r
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
Other elements

Phosphorus
1

1%
%

Calcium 2%
Nickel Coppet /iiu Gallium Germanium
54 132
Nitrogen 3%
118

4*

n
joe 47 log, na_ -f9

JrV
50

&YV
T
Tellurium
I

Iodine
Xe
Xenon
Hydrogen 10%

Carbon 18%

Palladium Cadmium huliimi Tin Antimony

85 210 86 Oxygen 65%

78 135 197 3P\ &X 207 83 JCf) S4 209
79
At Rn
Pi s4 TRT B <& Po

i
Astatine litlilon

I 'lull ii ii in Gold Mercury Thallium Lend Bismuth Polonium

,
PLUTONIUM SILICON
If the element
artificial lire silicon, a Artificial elements
plutonium-239 is not produced and semiconductor, is
Year produced Maker
Element
stored in quantities of less than 0.661b used in electronic
(300g), a spontaneous nuclear reaction devices to provide Technetium 1937 C. Perrier and E.G. Segre
begins, and dangerous amounts of a base for minute
energy are released. integrated circuits. Astatine 1940 DR. Corson
Neptunium 1940 EM. McMillan and P. Abeteon
65 159 66 164 67 765 es 167 69 In' 1 70 1 7-1 71 175
Plutonium 1940 Glenn Seaborg

Tb Dy Ho Tin Yb Lu Americium 1944 Glenn Seaborg

Terbium Dysprosium I lohniuiit Erbium Thulium )t terbium I ulettum Curium 1944 Glenn Seaborg

Promethium 1945 J. A. Mannsky

97 217 98 251 99 25-1 100 257 101 258 102 255 103 256
Berkelium 1949 S.G. Thompson

Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Californium 1950 S.G. Thompson, Glenn Seaborg

K. Street, and Albert Ghiorso
Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendeleinum Nobelium l.iiwieiinum
Einsteinium 1952 Gregory R. Choppin

Fermium 1952 Gregory R. Choppin

fyj.% TECHNETIUM IODINE
This element does not occur Once prepared from seaweed, Mendelevium Albert Ghiorso

naturally; it was the first of many iodine is essential to the

Albert Ghiorso
Nobelium
elements to be made artificially, in human diet. It turns
nuclear reactions. It is used to some into a \ vapoi
iolei Lawrencium 1961 Albert Ghiorso
extent in medical diagnosis. when healed.

225
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The car has a certain The tension in the rope

Energy mass, which gives

a certain weight.
it is a force, which pulls
the car up the slope.
The total energy
expended is the
same as
were
if the car
lifted vertically.

ENERGY and FORCES constantly change the world

Energy takes many forms - the only visible one is
light energy - and people have built many types
t The person
using energy to
produce a force
on the handle
is

of the winch.
of machine to convert and control all its forms.

Energy and force

How can one person lift a heavy car? He or
she can use a force, applied through a
machine such as a winch, but must still Gears magnify the force
provide the total amount of energy produced by the person,
but the rope moves
required to lift the car. Twice as much much more slowly than
energy is needed to lift the car twice as the winch handle.

high, or if the car is twice as heavy.

Energy conversion ENERGY CONVERSION Energy measure

IN A CAR JOURNEY All forms of energy - potential,
Energy can be neither destroyed,
nor can it be created from nothing.
d kinetic, sound, chemical, light,

Whenever anything happens, one heat, etc. - can be measured in

form of energy is simply changed units called joules.

Potential energy
into another. Chemical Energy that is
energy "stored" is Energy of a
Temperature scale Gasoline releases
lots of energy
potential energy. thunderstorm -*
When released, it About 1 quadrillion
Temperature is measured in when ignited is converted into joules of heat and
degrees of Fahrenheit or under pressure. other forms. potential (stored)
Celsius, but also in kelvins (K). energy. •- ..*_.,
Sound energy

#
Radio and loudspeakers Energy released ir
Burning point convert electrical by a lightning
ofwood: energy into sound. strike
523K; 250°C; 100 million joules
482°F

Explosion point
of nitroglycerin:
8rS
Kinetic energy
Heat energy
Movement of
of electrical energy
becoming 100
million joules of
heat energy.

491K;218°C; engine parts

424° F fck Any moving object ,

possesses kinetic generates heat.

energy. The faster
An apple lifted

Sauna bath:
413K; 140°C;
284°F
it moves and the

greater its mass,

the greater its

OtTi 3.28ft (lm)
1 joule of muscle

energy becoming

kinetic energy. a* 1 joule of potential

(stored) energy.

Electrical
Boiling point of
energy
Heat energy (brakes)
water:
Movement of
When brakes are applied,
373K; 100°C; friction between car tires
212°F car's wheels second of a 100- watt
and ground generates heat. 1
recharges battery.
light bulb
Midday heat in Light energy 100 joules of electrical
Death Valley, Car headlights are energy becoming 15
-^^™ California:
poweted by batten.' joules of light energy and
329. 7K;
85 joules of heat energy. **
56.7°C; 134°F

second of Itaipu Dam, Brazil

Ever ready 1
Potential energy becoming
Human body The amount of atomic energy

f.
* temperature:
31 OK; 37°C;
98.6°F
in a kilogram of radioactive ^
uranium-235 would
12.6 million
joules of
electrical
energy.
keep a 100- watt
Body
temperature of
light bulb alight for
spiny anteater: 27,400 years.
295K; 22°C;
71.6°F
Energy units
Other energy units can be
Temperature converted into joules
Freezing point of The particles that make up all
pure water: Unit Joule equivalent
273K; 0°C; 32°F
matter, such as atoms, are
constantly in motion, vibrating Joule (J)

back and forth or speeding Watts (W) 1 J per second

Freezing point of
mercury:
234K; -39°C; -38°F
through space. The temperature
Horsepower (Hp) 2,600,000 J
of matter is the average energy Hot water molecules Hot water
transfer kinetic energy to
of its particles. Matter with more Calories (Kcal) 4,184 J

* Absolute zero: OK; -273°C; -459°F

energy can raise the temperature
of other matter around it.
Ice
ice

molecules
molecules -

have low energy.

ice melts.

Hot water molecules

have more energy.
Kilowatt hour (kWh) 3,600,000 J

226
 .

FORCKS

Circular motion
Forces A moving object will travel in a
straight line, unless a force
Forces words
Acceleration Rate of change of
velocity.
A FORCE push or a pull. A force can start an
IS a changes its direction.
Center of gravity The point on an
object moving, slow it down, or change its direction. Hammer thrower object at which it balances
To make a hammer go in a circle, an
Forces can also change the shape of an object. athlete must supply a force, called
hquilibrium State produced
centripetal force, that constantly pulls
when forces acting on an object
balance, so that there is no
it around in a circle. As soon as the
Gravity athlete lets go. the hammer flies off in
resultant.

One of the most familiar forces is a a straight line. * Momentum Mass of an object
force of attraction between objects, multiplied bv its velocity.

called gravity. Gravity keeps us on Newton Unit of force. One

the Earth and gives us weight. new ton (IN) causes a mass of one
kilogram to move w ith an
Anything with mass exerts gravity,
acceleration of one meter (3.28ft)
and the size of this force depends Moon gravity Earth gravity per second per second.
on the masses of the objects and The Moon exerts Earth's large mass
less gravitational makes things on 9 Resultant Force produced by
the distance between them. It combining two or more forces.
force than Earth its surface weigh
becomes weaker as bodies move beeause it has sixtimes more Velocity Speed and direction of,
farther apart or lose mass. less mass. than on the Moon. Athlete uses centripetal force to tkrvw hammrr. an object.

Adding forces together Pressure

If more than one force acts on an object, the overall Pressure is a measure of how

effect will be the same as one force acting in one "concentrated" a force is. A force
direction. This force is called the resultant. applied over a small area exerts more
BOW AND ARROW TUG OF WAR pressure than the same force applied
The force of an arrow In a tug of war, the over a large area.
fired from a bow is the resultant force is almost

resultant of the two forces zero, because the two forces

PRESSURE AND AREA
If a watering can and trowel are pushed into
that act along the upper and on the rope act in exactly
sand with about the same force, the trowc
lower halves of the bowstring. opposite directions.
sinks farther into the sand. This is because
Opposing forces the force is exerted over a smaller

W.' n area - the trowel's thin blade.

Brain power
The ancient Greek scientist
Archimedes was said to have
Turning forces TURNING NUTS
The spanner is useful for turning a constructed a pulley
Forces can turn objects. The nut beeause its long handle means mechanism that enabled a
greater the force, and the greater that you can apply a force far away
Larger ship that had run aground to
its distance from the turning point, from the nut. This produces a handle produces
stronger turning force (moment). be dragged into open water
the greater the turning force. greater turning force
by just one man.
Newton's laws of motion
In 1687, English mathematician Isaac Newton
(1642-1725) identified three laws that describe the
motion of objects under the influence of forces.

NEWTON S NEWTON'S NEWTON S

FIRST LAW SECOND LAW THIRD LAW

An object will not change its motion

unless a force acts upon it.
A change in an object's motion
depends upon the force acting on it
A frog will stay still unless a force and on the mass of the object. For every force there is an equal
makes it move. the frog was drifting
If force acting in the other direction.
along at a constant speed, it would
continue to do so until a force stopped The frog needs twice as much force to Forces conic in pairs. The frog and the
it, slowed it down, or made it speed up. change its motion twice as much. IK pad push against each other.
i

Machines
A machine is a device that can
change the size and direction of a
force. With a block and tackle, for
example, a person can lift a very
heavy load. This is because the
arrangement of ropes in the block PULLEi WEDGE SCREW WHEE1 VND Wl 1 I I \ I K
11.
andj tackle means that
1 1

the person
Ktlort magnified is The slope requires Effort is magnified b} Effort applied to the Effort applied
of
11 one end

magnified l>\
b.u
•
by the rope and
, ,
,

less effort to lift the the thread, acting as a w heel is magnified h\ .1 i>

needs to pull a long length of rope t | lc wheels in order load than by picking long slope wrapped [he axle, turning it the fulcrum u> hit the
to lift the load a small distance. to lift the load. it up vertically. around the screw w nli greatei force. load .11 the othei end

J J"
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Electricity and magnetism

Pit a pin CLOSE to a magnet, An electron carries negative electric
Current electricity
Electron charge. When millions of electrons flow in a The is the coulomb. One
unit of charge
and it will cling to the magnet. conductor, an electric current is produced.
coulomb equal to the charge of 6 billion
is

Rub a balloon on a sweater and billion electrons. An electric current is a flow

A proton carries a positive charge.
the balloon will cling to a wall. Prolan
Protons lie in the nucleus of the atom.
of electrons. A current of one ampere (see
below) means that a charge of one coulomb
These things happen because Atom Nucleus
/ Normally, atoms have no is flowing per second.
invisible forces are at work - electrical charge - the
charges from the protons in
fi

magnetism and electricity. These nucleus and electrons

the nuclei
around the nucleus
orbiting ai
forces are important, since they cancel each
ea other out.
Direction of

hold almost everything together. ,

Location of one of
electron flow

atom's electrons

Static electricity
When you rub a balloon on a sweater, some electrons get
Electricity words
Ampere The unit of current. If a wire carries
separated from their atoms. This creates an electrical one ampere (1A), one coulomb (1C) of charge is

charge. Charges of the same type repel (push each other flowing along the wire each second.
away). Opposite charges attract. The balloon gains a Volt The unit of voltage or electromotive force.
negative charge. This gives the wall a positive charge, and This ismeasure of how much energy charges
a

the balloon clings to it. have. One volt (IV) means that each coulomb
(1C) has one joule (1J) of energy.
ELECTROSCOPE
An electroscope is an Ohm The unit of resistance. If a wire has a one
instrument for detecting ohm (\Q.) resistance, a voltage of one volt will
electric charge. It has produce a current of one ampere.
two pieces of gold leaf
Watt The unit used to measure power. An
fixed to a brass rod. The
electric current of one ampere (1A) at one volt
leaves separate when an
(IV) will have a power of one watt (1W).
electric charge is

brought near to the rod.

charge -
Small, positively charged
particles move to top of cloud.

Electric facts + +%• + + + + + '+

Shocking cure • The word "electricity" comes + + + + + + + Lightning
The South
bite of the
from the Greek word for Lightning is a
Large, negatively
American Bushmaster snake .
amber, elektron. The ancient charged particles tremendous spark ot
can be treated by a series of move to bottom
Greeks noticed that when electricity, caused by a
short electric shocks at Of Cloud. | •., r i
amber was rubbed with a cloth, buildup or electric
around 20,000-25,OOOV. In charge in clouds. The
small objects would cling to it.
remote areas, car or outboard spark passes between
motors are sometimes used to • A television on "standby"
clouds, or from the
deliver the voltage. uses one-third as much
cloud to the ground.
electrical power as a television
that is switched on.
Many buildings are
fitted with lightning
• The body's nerves carry conductors, which
electric currents to and from reduce the risk of
the brain at speeds of up to lightning striking by
249mph (400km/h). draining electric charge
away from clouds.

Battery Series and parallel circuits Resistance

Inside a battery, chemical Two bulbs one aftet the other in a circuit are said to be "in series." The resistance of a material is a
reactions separate electrons from Each bulb only gets half the energy (voltage), so they shine dimly. measure of how easily electtic
atoms of the chemicals present. In parallel, the bulbs would shine more brightly, since each bulb current will flow through it.

These electrons move around a gets the full voltage - but the current will be doubled. Resistance depends upon the
circuit from the negative to the material, its width and its length.
Wire insulated by
positive terminal. plastic coating Bright bulb

Batten/

Negative
terminal
High resistance from
longer length of lead
Electron flow I

228
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Magnetism
Magnet exerts force
around in an area ^_,
^^
G\ _
| ron ngs and compasses
f j|j
I nlike poles attract
it
snow magnetic lines
called a magnetic If unlike poles - one-
Certain materials exert invisible forces, (Jfi ^Jr f3T\ of force
-
north and one south
similar to electric forces. A magnet will attract are placed together,
objectsmade of iron, and a few other metals. the\ attract each other.

Also magnets will attract or repel other in Ills of attracting m

magnets. Every magnet has two ends, called
Like poles repel
poles, where the forces it exerts are strongest.
If like poles - both
One is called the north pole and the other is
north or both south -
called the south pole. are put together dies
repel each other.
North pole /

South pole Fields a) repding magnets

LODESTONE Lines of force loop around Iron filings show distortion of normal
magnet and splay out from poles. lines of force when two magnets meet

Metal objects,
Earth magnet True North

such as pins, The Karth's metallic core is a

are attracted to
giant magnet, which lines up near
the lodestone.
Magnet to the true North Pole and South
When a magnet odestone is a magnetic roek of iron oxide
that occurs naturally. In ancient times
Pole, moving slightly every year.
attracts objects, the
objects become people used lodestones as compasses and A compass contains a magneti/eel
magnetized and can later to make magnetic compass needles. needle, which always points
attract other objects Each steel ball toward the magnetic north and
acts as a magnet. Lines of
south poles, enabling navigators
magnetic force
DOMAINS tt) find their was. Earth \ magnetii field
Magnets also
Magnetic objects contain small regions,
demagnetized
between 0.1 and 1mm across, called domains
Each domain has two poles, and most of a
by heating
Barking mad
Magnetism facts
magnet's domains are oriented in the same • A wire carrying an electric
direction. If the domains are made to point
Scottish physicist James current straight into this page
in different directions the magnet will lose Clerk Maxwell, who first
would have a magnetic Held
its magnetism explained the relationship
Poles going clockwise around it.
Domain
L-'uniaiM puica
poles not
Ilui in
ill in ik
line ne uy.
inn. up. I ^- / / between electricity and
Striking with a
magnetism, used to talk • Keepers are pieces of iron that
hammer jumbles through his theories with his help a magnet keep its power.
up domains,
Domains are jumbled up In dog, often at noisy parties.
Domains may be aligned by demagnetizing • Near the North and South
unmagnetized iron or steel. stroking with another magnet. the bar.
Poles, the Karth's magnetic field
traps charged particles emitted
Electromagnetism by the Sun. These particles
Magnetic forces are not only produced by react with the Earth's Held to
magnets. Magnetism is also produced by an produce layers of colored lights
electric current flowing through a wire. in the night sky. called Northern
This magnetism can be made stronger by Lights or aurora borealis in the
wrapping the wire around an iron core, North, and Southern fights or
such as a nail. aurora australis in the soiTfh.
Magnetic field

Metal objects
are attracted to
electromagnet. Magnetic fields
Field Strength in tesla (unit of field measurement)
ELECTRIC MAGNET iHnnflrinnj
The magnetism produced by an Weakest measured field 0.000000000008T
electric current is exactly the same as Earth's field 0.00003T
magnetism produced In a magnet - it
has a magnetic field, and a north and
south pole. It can be switched on and
IE|i South
Powerful magnet IT

North Highest field on record 30. 1T

off, however, with the electric current. pole
pole
Flow of current

Electric motor Generator

An electric motor contains magnets A generator is like a motor in reverse.

and coils of wire. When current 'fuming the coil inside the magnet's
passes through the coil, it fieldproduces an electric current.
produces magnetism, which Power stations use huge
makes the coil turn in the generators to produce electricity
Magnetic magnetic field of the magnets. loi homes, schools, anil factories. Permanent
field magna)
Commutator - reverses flow of Magnetic held
Direction Handle turns coil
current at each half-turn, ot magna)
of rotation inside magnet and
reversing the coil's
commutator.
Permanent magnet magnetic field and
keeping coil moving. Bulb lights up when
Direction of current ***
handle is turned
Inan electric motor, the
magnetic fields of the coil and Direction of current reverses at
Battery
magnet interact and force the every halt-turn at lhe handle -
coil to rotate. This rotational Current generated in coil when it
is one brush is always negative,
motion can be harnessed lo Simple direct Simple direct cuts through lines of force of magnet the other positive, producing
provide power for machines. current motm i urrent grneratot direct cuu cm

229
 . . ,

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Normal
Light laws Law of
Light and color Law
The
of reflection
angle at which
refraction
Light changes
speed when it
Angle of
incidence .
Trans-
parent
solid

Without light, WE WOULD not be able to see. light hits a mirror is passes from
equal to the angle one material to
Nature provides our most important light source - that light leave's the another. The
Angle of
refraction
_

minor.
the Sun - and its light, either directly, or by more it slows
down, the Ray passes from
of light
bouncing off our surroundings, enters our eyes and Reflected
more it bends. lessdense medium (air) to
Incident light ray (ray I

a more dense one (glass).

enables us to recognize our world. approaching mirror) light ray

Light action REFLECTION Mirror -flat and

c
When light bounces off a surface, we say it is shiny surface
Light travels in straight lines at )80 million reflected. Fen things we see give off their own
ft/sec (300 million m/sec). It creates light - we sec them only because of reflection. mage appears
behind" mirror.
shadows, bounces or reflects off smooth Flat and shin} surfaces, such as mirrors, reflect
light evenly to form an image, or picture.
surfaces, and bends when it passes through
different transparent materials.
Surface reflection
Most surfaces are
Light speed not flat, even if they
seem to be. When
Knowing the speed of light, astronomers light reflectsfrom
have measured the distance to the Moon an irregular surface,
very accurately by bouncing a laser beam the reflected rays
return at many
off a mirror left there by astronauts, and REFRACTION
different angles.
timing its return journev. Light changes direction when it passes
from one transparent material to
another. This happens because light
travels at different speeds through
Shadow different materials. The change in
direction is called refraction.

SHADOW
Light travels through transparent
substances, such as water or glass, in
straight lines. Nontransparcnt (opaque)
materials, such as wood
allow light to pass through them.
or metal, do not
They
1
cause a shadow to be cast on the opposite Glass - denser
Brightness side from the light source.
substance than air

Light given off by many different light

is
Emerging light ray is\
Angle of light
sources, such as candles and light bulbs. parallel to original ray
ray changes.
Some light sources are brighter than others, but shifted to left.

and will provide better illumination.

Brightness in candela
Lenses HOW LIGHT
IS MADE
Lenses are specially shaped pieces of glass, There two ways of making light -
are
The luminous intensity (brightness) of a light source
is measured in candela (cd). One candela is
or other transparent substances, that focus or incandescence and luminescence.
approximately equal to the brightness of a candle. disperse light evenly. Incandescence happens when something
Lens
gets very hot. Luminescence happens in
Surface: 1lux Convex lens Focus
four major ways.
A block of glass that
curves outward is called Incandescence
a convex lens. Its shape In a light bulb, the fine filament
focuses light on a point.
heats up and gives out incandescent
used in cameras,
It is
light. Other forms of incandescent
Focal length
magnifying glasses, and light are candle flames, or the red
Parallel light
Candle: 1cd microscopes. glow from an electric element.

Concave lens Phosphorescence

w
Illumination in lux A block of glass that Phophorescent paint makes the
Light from a source illuminates a surface placed in its curves inward is called a numbers on clock faces glow in
path. This illumination is measured in lux (Ix). From concave lens. Its shape the dark. The paint stores energy
a distance of lm (3.28ft) away,
source of light
a causes light to diverge when light falls on it. The energy
intensity one candela (led) will illuminate a lsq m (spread out). It is used in is slowly released, as light, so the
110.8sq ft) surface with an illumination of lux. I
wide-angle and Lens / Rays diverge.
paint can be seen at night.
telephoto lenses.
Fluorescence
Fluorescent chemicals in
Eye see Mirror some washing powders make
When comparing areas of different color,
If the light falls on a completely smooth
clothes look brighter in
sunlight. Ultraviolet light
ingood light and using both eyes, the
surface, all the rays are reflected regularly, energy is briefly stored, then
human eye can distinguish surfaces of 10 at the same angle. An image forms, and the released as visible light.
million different
object looks as if it is behind the mirror. Bioluminescence
colors. No machine Eye of observer Some animals, such as the
yet invented can Mirror Image cup and
of
firefly, produce chemicals that
saucer forms
distinguish as behind mirror.
release light energy when
many combined in their bodies.

3
colors.
Triboluminescence
Some substances, such as sugar,
give out lightwhen suddenly
broken apart or crushed.

230
 LIGHT AND COLOR

Electromagnetic spectrum Television waves

Ultraviolet X-rays
Light is part of a range of radiation about 3 28ft (1m)
- 100nm - 1nm
called the electromagnetic spectrum.
Different parts of the spectrum have
different energy - from low-energy
radiowaves to high-energy gamma
Radio waves - up
rays.Wavelengths can be as short as Wavelenath electromaanetic wave
Wavelength of electromagnetic

one nanometer (lnm - one billionth

to0.62 miles (1km) Visible light
400-700nm
-
f^^
**SK^
(number given after type of light)
Microwaves -
of a meter). about 0.37in (1cm)
Color
Sky color Visible spectrum wavelengths
Glass
Tiny particles in the sky scatter Ordinary white light is made up of a range of Color Wavelength (Hertz)
prism
sunlight in all directions as it When white light passes through a
colors. Violet 3,900-4,500
penetrates the Earth's prism, a triangular transparent block, the
Blue 4,550-4,920
atmosphere. They scatter blue prism splits up its various wavelengths and all
Green 4,920-5,770
light better than red, yellow, the colors can be seen separately. This range
and green. of colors is called the spectrum. Yellow 5,770-5,970

Daytime Violet light has shortest Orange 5,970-6,220

Light of longer
wavelength.
wavelength
Red 6,220-7.700
passes through
Prism bends I

atmosphere.
different
wavelengths of
light by different Different colors that
Lasers
amounts. make up white light
Red | jght has
When certain materials are given
emerge from prism at enough energy, their atoms
,
, wavel tn
different angles.
begin to give off light. Inside a
laser, mirrors reflect this light
Rainbow back and forth until it is intense
When white sunlight fallson enough to escape at one end.
BLUE SKIES rain, the colors are split up and Laser light is special because it
During the day, the blue parts reflected inside the droplets, is light of just one wavelength,

of sunlight are scattered in all just as they are in a prism. The and its waves are all aligned with
directions, making the sky look colors form a rainbow. each other. This means it can be
blue. The rest of the light gets very powerful and precise.
through, to give the Sun a
Mirror reflects light. Material produces
yellow appearance. laser light

Some green
Sun appears and vellow
red-orange ,
M 9ht scattered

toobserver

Power supply excites

light-producing material.

Light facts
• Klectromagnetic radiation can
SUNSET RED be thought of as waves. The
In the evening, sunlight passes higher the energy, the shorter
through a longer distance in the the wavelength.
atmosphere. This means that • Bees' eyes can detect
some green and yellow light also A flower looks
ultraviolet light.
S Green
gets scattered. Only orange and Red Blue
and green bright to a bee because the
red light gets through, so the and green
give yellow
White light give cyan petals reflect a lot of ultra\ iolet.
\
Sun looks orange-red.
PIGMENTS LIGHT • The word laser stands for
MIRAGES Any color of paint, ink, or dye can be Beams of light of the "primary" colors
Light Amplification b\
Light is refracted as passes through
it
formed from the three colors of of red. green, and blue, can be mixed to
magenta, cyan, and yellow. Together form any other color. When all the Stimulated Emission of
layers of air at different temperatures.
This can make objects seem nearer they produce black. primaries are mixed, we get white light. Radiation.
than they are and can hot air make
layers look like water. When hot air INTERFERENCE Light and
lies above cool air, objects far away, When light strikes a bubble, i( is

such as ships, can seem to loom upside reflected off both the inside and atmosphere
down. This occurs because light ra\s outside surfaces. The two rays combine Not every wavelength of light
traveling from cool to hot air bend in a process called interference anil
from space reaches the ground.
down and form an inverted image. create beautiful
colors on the Some infrared waves
Observer ij£. thin surface. (l,100-2,300nm) are absorbed
Colors
by carbon dioxide, water vapor,
B|^
vary with and ozone. "Hard" ultraviolet
thickness
of bubble.
waves (about 220nm) are
filtered out b\ ozone. Far infrared -
1.100-2.300nm
Inverted image of ship Effects of atmosphi
seen by observer. I n^ilis i>i light

231
 ,

SCIENCE WD fECHNOLOGY

Tough, elastic strips

Sound covered with membrane

Sol \[) IS PRODUCED BY objects

vibrating. This vibration first
pushes the air forward,
compressing (squashing) it, then
it pulls it back, causing it to

expand. These contractions and

expansions travel through the air Sound wave
as vibrations, called sound waves. When people shout, they Vocal cords Rarefaction Compression
use the vocal cords in their Larynx muscles When expands, the
air When air is compressed,
stretch vocal cords molecules are spread out. all its molecules are
throat to make a sound.
loosely for low This is called rarefraction. pushed together. The
The decibel scale Vocal cords vibrate as air sounds, tightly for The air exerts less airexerts more pressure
The loudness of sound is passes through them. high sounds. pressure than normal. than normal.
measured in decibels (db). A 10-
db sound increase corresponds Sound facts
to a ten/oM increase in loudness. • Sometimes, a sound and its Sound speeds
echo are so close together they Sound travels at different
Decibel stall'

seem to be one long sound. This speeds through different

Ml30db Noise
loud is
this /
is called reverberation. materials.

Material Speed
dangerous!
• You can hear the sound of a
\ m/sec ft/sec
horse's hooves a long time
Rubber 54 177
before it arrives, by putting your
ear to the ground. Sound waves Air at 32°F 334 1,096
• Sound travels quickly, but
travel much through the
faster
Airat212°F 366 1,201
ground than through air.
much more quickly.
light travels
You can work out how far away a Water 1,284 4,213
storm from the time between
is
Mercury 1,452 4,764
the lightning flash and the
Wood (Oak) 3,850 12,631
thunder. Sound travels at about
l,()96ft/sec (334m/s). So a storm Iron 5,000 16,404
90
is about 0.62 miles (1km) away
Glass 5,000 16,404
for every three seconds elapsed.
80

70
Echoes Ultrasound
An echo heard when a sound wave bounces off a hard
is Ultrasound is sound
frequency too high at a
surface. The length of time between the original sound for humans Some
animals can hear
to hear.
60
and the echo depends on how far the sound travels ultrasounds by echolocation and some make
before it bounces back. The farther it travels, the longer ultrasounds. Bats use ultrasound to catch
it is before the echo is heard. Most sounds we hear their food. Depending on their frequency,
40 arrive at our ears as a mixture of direct waves and echoes the sounds they make bounce off flying
bouncing off surrounding surfaces. insects, which the bat can locate and catch.
30 i insect
Ultrasound
waves
20 Listener hears
OdbA one sound only,
sound you because sound
10 can only wave travels
lust hear. quickly from
hands to wall
and back.

Sound man
Wall acts as barrier to
One of the most important contributors Clapping hands
sound wave. Distant
compress air,
toour understanding of how we hear creating sound wave. barriers, such as cliffs or
create separate
sounds was Georg von Bekesy. In his hills, will

echo, heard slightly later.

research into hearing, he examined the
ears of a dead zoo elephant that he had
rescued from
Sonic boom
a glue factory.
A sonic boom happens when the
source of a sound, such as a jet
aircraft, travels faster than the
sound it produces (at about
745mph, or l,200km/h). At such
times, many wave fronts reach
the ears of people standing When aircraft

directly below at the same time, When flying below speed of sound, jet reaches speed of sound,
aircraft compresses air in front of it. air pressure wave at nose
making a very loud noise like a
Near to speed of sound, a wall or produces massive shock wave.
huge clap of thunder. barrier of compressed air forms. This causes sonic boom.

232
 _

SOUND

Frequency
Frequency is the Shattered
number of sound waves If a sound makes an object
per second. The higher vibrate at its natural
Sound wave The loudness of a sound depends on its amplitude. This is the
the number, the higher difference between the point in a sound wave where the air is exerting the least frequency, the vibrations will
pressure, and the point where it exerts the most. build to a greater and greater
the pitch of the sound.
Frequency is measured amplitude. This effect is
in hertz (I I/.).
called resonance, and it can
e\en make an object break.
Soft sound Loud sound
There is not much difference between As j sound i;ets louder, there is a
the low-pressure area of the sound greater difference between areas of
wave and the high-pressure area. high and low pressure.

Low sound High sound

Low-pitched sounds have low The sound waves are closer together -

frequency- fewer waves per second. there are more of them per second.

Waves compressed
moves
'

DOPPLER EFFECT Waves Sonar echo

spread out
A police car's siren becomes behind car S( )NAR (Sound Navigation and
more high-pitched as it as moves
it
Pitch of note Ranging) is a wa\ of using
forward. lowers for
approaches, and less high- [
istener when echoes from ultrasound to
pitched as it moves away. This car passes. detect the presence of objects.
is called the Doppler effect, The echoes are used to form a
and is caused by sound waves picture on a screen.
the sound gets nearer, the
being pushed together in front IAs
waves arc pushed closer together
2 As the sound moves away, the
waves apart and the
are farther Pictures from sound
of a moving source of sound, and are heard at a higher frequency. sound is heard at a lower frequency \\,i\ es of ultrasound can be directed

and spaced out behind it.

into the human body - to an unborn
example. The ultrasound
child, for
Bat
KEY FREQUENCY RANGES Hears:1, 000-1 20.000Hz
echoes off the unborn child, then the
Ultrasound scanner ultrasound equipment picks up the
Various animals and machines make Makes: 10,000-1 20, 000Hz Makes and receives: <=— echo and turns it into electrical
or detect sounds o\cr different
3,500,000- KjSBID
ranges of frequency. The human impulses. These form a picture of the
voice creates sound over a relatively
Human
7,500,000Hz m a Cj bain on a screen.
Hears: 20-20.000HZ
narrow range of frequencies.
Makes: 85-1. 100Hz

frequency settle

Infrasound
^mmv\fwjwmmmm
M
Dog Porpoise
Elephant
Hears: 15-50.000Hz Hears: 150-150.000Hz
•
Hears: 1-20,000Hz
Makes: 450-1 ,080Hz Makes: 7,000-1 20.000Hz
Makes: 12Hz-unknown
J
Nuclear explosion:
as low as 0.01Hz
£\ ( lit OSOU ml s< mi offttUS in womb

Music Recording sound

Musical instruments may make the same notes (sounds of different There are several different ways of recording sound. All recorders
pitch) but they sound different because each one has its own work by turning the sound into some sort of electrical signal, which
quality. Although the main frequency is the same for each, they also can be turned back into a sound later.
produce overtones of other frequencies. These vary for each
Vinyl records Record player's stylus
instrument.
These record signals appear as fits into spiral groove
a wavy groove, They make
Ranges
the stylus vibrate, « hich in
Some instruments
turn creates electrical signals
produce a greater range
that can be turned into sound.
of frequency than others. ,.

(
Contours in groove wall
200-2.650HZ 'asset te tapes
record loudness and
Sounds arc recorded as signals Vinyl record frequency of sound
on a magnetic tape. A pattern
of strong or weak magnetic
Trumpet signals forms on the tape.
190-990HZ
Clarinet 75-1, 800Hz This can be played back.
m tl elei trit al signals lacei
used to make a sound. Magnetic alignment of panicles
on tape records sound
Compact discs - s thinner than a hair
long
Comparison oj
Sounds arc recorded in the
.

instrument ranges ( )\ surface as tins pits,

II

« im h pass undei a lasei beam.

Piano
30-1. 100Hz i ii i ii i i i ii i i ii i ii i n ii urn iii ii hi; Im IK nous from the beam are
<
h
j tinned into electrit .il signals Sequence olmicroscopic
and used tO make sound ( mn/iml tllu .voids sound

233
sell VK AND TECHNOLOGY

1879 Cathode __ 1880 American inventor Thomas

Electronics rays observed by

English physicist William
Crookes (1832-1919), using a
Edison (1847-1931) observes tiny
currents flowing from a lamp
filament. This becomes known
specially designed vacuum as the Edison effect.
Electronics, which is
tube. He finds that the fays,
1882 Edison effect investigated
concerned with the movement which he calls cathode ra\s. are
by Englishman John Ambrose
deflected by magnetic fields
and control of electrons, plays a Fleming (1849-1945)
Thomas Edison
crucial role in the efficient
1879 1882
operation of modern technology.

1906 Use of crystals as 1917 First crystal grown by 1934 Liquid-crystal effect investigated

radiowave detectors means bv German

artificial in detail by John Dreyer at Marconi
i1isu>\ cred independently J. Czochralski (1885-1953). laboratories, UK.
h\ Americans H.H.C. 1918/19 Switching circuits 1938 Mathematical rules for computing
Dunwood\ and devised by British scientists W.H. with electronic circuits formulated.
G.W. Pickard. Eccles and F.W. Jordan.
1940 Electronic computers (using
1933 Electron microscope These first computers
valves) developed.
Early crystal invented by German scientists are as big as buildings.
radio set Ernst Ruska (1906-88) and Max
(c.1920) Image from modern electron microscope
Knoll (1897-1969).

1917 1933 1934 1938

MINIATURIZED TRANSISTOR
Transistor A transistor can permit or prevent a
The transistor, the most current from flowing using a small charge.
important component in
electronics, replaced the valve
1A small, positive electric Aluminum lead
charge is given to a layer of
(below). It can turn a current on conductive polysilicon that is
and off, and it can alter its embedded in nonconductive
silicon dioxide.
strength. If enough transistors
are connected together, their
particular state at any time (on
2 The positive charge
the polysilicon
in
attracts Polysilicon -
Nonconductive
electrons from the base layer silicon dioxide
or off) can be usedby computers
of P-type silicon (see below).
to store and manipulate
numbers, words, and pictures. 3 The flow of electrons
toward the polysilicon
makes current flow from the
N-type silicon point, called the Aluminum Aluminum lead
Audion valve of 1907, lead Polysilicon
source, to another, the drain.
invented by Lee de Forest

Plate (anode)
4 When and
source
current flows between
drain in this way, the
Source + 4- 4- Drain
—
N-type silicon N-type silicon
transistor is switched on. If the
Grid gives off polysilicon is negatively charged, current
weak signal stops, and the transistor switches off.

P-type silicon
Filament (cathode) Semicond uctors
gives off electrons.
Silicon is used for microchips because

it is a semiconductor - it varies in
VALVE conductivity. Different types of silicon
Valves control - N-type and P-type - placed side-by-
the strength and side, allow current flow to be directed.
Circuit symbols
direction of a current. This property directs current in -@- Diode _wv Resistor
A red-hot filament miniature transistors. Speaker
(cathode) in a vacuum (g) Light-emitting diode *
tube gives off streams of electrons.
These are attracted toward a positively
(h) Photodiode
©0 Bulb

LJ
charged plate (anode), but a grid
placed in the flow's path and given its
o\\ n current will copy any variations in
!L Electron-
rich
silicon
N-type
-(Q

-©
N-P-N transistor
m Transformer

its current onto the larger current. Current only flows

P-N-P transistor
M\ Battery

from N- to P-type

Chip result Making a

A single microchip produced in 1994
microchip
contained 9 million transistors. A Thousands of tiny
similar number of transistors in 1950
transistors (above) and
would cover an area larger than eight
other components can
soccer fields.
be put on one tiny slice
of silicon to make a
Design Photography and checking
complete electronic The first stage in making
microchip a Once the circuit has been planned,
circuit - an integrated is to plan and map the thousands of computers check the proposed chip for
transistors and other components that possible design weaknesses.
circuit, or microchip.
the chip needs to perform its tasks. Microchips contain layers of different
Most electronic devices
Modern chips are so complicated that materials, and transparent, enlarged
contain one or more of most of this work is done by plans are used to check that each layer
these silicon chips. computers, not people. fits precisely with all the others.

234
 ELECTRONICS

1897 Electron discovered by English

J.J.Thomson (1856-1940)
physicist

I Cathode
1904 Diode
valve produced
by John Ambrose
Fleming. It is the
1906 Triode invented by
American inventor Lee dc
Forest (1873-1961). His
valve can amplify (make
?' 1907 Electric charge of
electron measured b\
American physicist Robert
Millikand 868-1 '•"
first practical stronger) weak electric
signals and becomes
1912 Electronic circuits
electronic <lc\ ice
Anodes "
Flemings using val\ es dev iscd. This
and conducts crucial to the development
diode leads to broadcasting and
current in one of electronics.
radio communication.
Thomson \ tube direction onlv. Is? dt Forest

1897 1904 1906 1907 1912

1943 Printed circuit 1955 Transistor radios appear. 1973 1 lome \ideo recorders i\ ( K i

boards perfected by produced, with pictures and

1958 First integrated circuit, made
Austrian-bom engineer Paul sound stored on
from single piece of semiconductor
Eisler (1907-92). magnetic tape.
material, produced by American
Modern cin mi board electronics engineer Jack kilbv 1987 Transatlantic
with components (born 1923). optical fiber
telephone cable laid,
1947 Transistor invented by American 1959-60 Integrated circuit
enlarging capacity of
engineers William Shockley
electrical production begins.
(1910-89), John Bardeen (1908-91), and
communications
Walter Bratcain (1902-87).
1968 All-transistor TV set produced. network.

1943 1955 1958 1959 1973 1987

Shockley, Bardeen, and Bratiain, at Hell
Fiberoptic installation
Laboratories, I 'S

LIOl ID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS

Everyday electronics
Liquid crystals have a regular Electronics words
structure. Controlled currents force

J*^
-" Analog
their molecules to allow or prevent the
signal Electrical copy of
passage of light. Liquid crystal displa\s sound, vision, or other form of
information.
can display color images as well as

*^tj pQi black and white. They arc used mainly

for portable electronic items, such as
Cathode Negative
valve or tube.
electrode in a

computers and hand-held games.

Modern car Digital signal Electrical stream of

%
control systems 1 utomatit camera Washing mat hine Medical scanner information in the form of on or off
pulses.

Mobile telephone
E
Radar system
^4
Factor) robot
$
Electronit shavei
Diode Permits
circuit to travel in
only

LED
conducts can be slightly;
combined with other substances
electric current in
one direction

Light-emitting diode.

Semiconductor Substance
it
that

to
control conductivity.

Solid-state I Ising the electronic

Electronics Electronics facts properties of sohds, especially
records • Microchips are the size of a • Fiberoptic cables, made of fine semiconductors, co act as valves.

DENSEST MICROCHIP (1994) fingernail,and yet a drawing strands of glass, transmit Resistor Controls amount of
is a microprocessor measuring showing all their workings in information in the form of current flowing in a circuit.

0.03sq in ( 1 7scj mm), which detail would be bigger than a pulses of light. They are able to Microprocessor ntegrated I

contains 9 millon transistors. detailed map of a major city. carry much more data than decode instructions
circuit that can

traditional copper cables. and manipulate information.

LARGEST VALVES
Transistor Miniature electronic
are about 6.6ft (2m) long and • Filmmakers use electronics to
dev ice that can amplify electric
handle about 10 million watts. generate astonishing special current and turn it on or off.
They are used in military radars effects in their films. Animation,
and particle accelerators. once produced by hand, can now /< viators
mid
be done by computers.
'

, nil

Electronics in special effects - went from

Microchip
Disne) film Iron

Integrated circuit
(chip)

a a tj I

3iF 1 AJtI p r Protective plastic

casing

Silicon slice Chemical and heat treatment Chip with connections Product
.Siliconmetal, which is cheap and The potential microchip is now heated When the silicon slice has been fully Ihe pocket calculatoi
strong, needs be highly refined
to to a high temperature at which the created, it is placed on a plastic base (abo\ euses iust one
i

before it can be used in chips. A pure and onnei u d ads thai Ited ik int. but most
chemicals that will form us several i cal
i i li ^

enough piece, sliced and polished into layers can attach to the etched silicon expand and connect CO othei parts oj a modem appliances contain several,
thin wafers, is treated in a chemical surface. The delicacy of this process circuit. These conductive leads send Othei types of electronic items, such as
process that etches the grid of requires extreme cleanliness. All urn th< hip
i signals and receive liquid crystal displays, may be
components and tracks onto its surface, workers wear gowns and gloves. signals from othei i omponents. included in a final product.
 .

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1945 First electronic general-

Computers purpose calculator, ENIAC

(Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Calculator), built in US.
COMPUTERS ARE AUTOMATIC electronic devices Using valves, it weighs 33 tons,
that can perform by breaking them
complex tasks consumes LSOkVV, and averages
5,000 operations per second. The
down into many simple calculations and doing US Army uses it to calculate
tables for aiming artillery. ENIAC
them extremely quickly. Their ability to store,
manipulate, and communicate information has
had a massive impact on our lives.
1964 BASIC (Beginners All-Purpose 1971 First microprocessor chip, the 1976 Cray-1 supercomputer built. 1979 Application
Symbolic Instruction Code) produced in US. It
Intel 4004, Word processor for personal software for
programming language is created by performs 60,000 operations per second. computers, Electric Pencil, developed. personal
professors at Dartmouth College, US. Apple computer company formed. computers,
1975 Microsoft founded by
BASIC later becomes popular among 1977 Mass-produced personal
Visicalc, appears.
American businessmen Bill Gates A spreadsheet
users of personal computers.
(born 1955) and Paul Allen (born computer, Commodore PET
program, it sells
1965 First commercially successful 1953). They develop DOS, which (Personal Electronic
100,000 copies in
minicomputer. DEC PDP-8, is later becomes the dominant aaaa Transactor), appears.
its first year.
produced in US. It sits on a desktop. operating system for computers.
Early Commodore personal computer

1964 1965 1976 1977 1979

1971

Anatomy of a computer Computer words

Every computer has four basic parts, or units: Applications software Software used
an input unit, such as a keyboard, that feeds for specific tasks, e.g. word processors,
databases.
information into the computer; a central
processing unit (CPU) that performs the Bit Binary digit (a 1 or a 0).

computer's tasks; an output unit, such as a Bug Error in a program.

monitor, that displays the results; a memory Byte Piece of information. One byte
unit for storing information and instructions. contains eight bits.

Database Set of data on computer

Input and output devices accessible in various ways.
These allow the computer to communicate with people
and other computers. The keyboard and mouse are input Hardware Machinery and
devices. The monitor and printer are output devices. components of the computer.
Monitor Internet Worldwide network of
Microprocessor computer networks.
The microprocessor is the central control unit. It Cards for different
carries out a program's instructions and controls the
systems can be added, Megabyte One million bytes.
e.g. modem, sound
information flowing around the computer on the Modem Device that allows computers
card, video card.
Bus and the input and output devices. to exchange information using the
telephone network.
Bus
The Bus links the microprocessor, Operating system The program that

memory, and input and output devices enables the computer to perform
general operations.
RAM (Random- Access Memory) Software The variety of programs
RAM is used to store programs that are used by a computer.
being run. When a computer is switched
off the information in the RAM is lost.
CD-ROM drive
ROM (Read-Only Memory) Compact discs, read using lasers,

When you switch on a computer, a store more data than floppy disks.
program that is permanently stored in
Hard disk
the ROM checks the computer and
The hard disk stores data when
makes it ready for use. The ROM's the computer is switched off. It
program cannot be changed
is usually used to store larger
amounts of data than the RAM.

Floppy disks
These can be used
to transfer data
between computers.

Generations of computer Computer records

BIGGEST COMPUTER LARGEST COMPUTER COMPANY
Generation Dates Characteristic
is the CM-5 "Thinking is American company IBM, which
1st 1944-59 Use valves (vacuum tubes)
Machine" at the Los Alamos employs 220,000 people. In 1992,
2nd 1959-64 Use transistors National Laboratories, US. It its turnover was $62.7 billion.

3rd 1964-75 Large Scale Integrated Circuits (LSI) can perform 131 billion
1975-
operations in a second. With a LARGEST SOFTWARE COMPANY
4th Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSI)
normal calculator, the same is American company Microsoft,
5th Under development "Artificial lntelligence"-based computers
number would take 41,000 years. which employs 16,140 people.

236
 COW I TERS

1947 Transistor, 1948 First stored- 1951 Hark computer 1957 FORTRAN (Formula
essential storage device program computer, game, Nim, played programming
Translator)
forcomputers, invented Manchester Mark 1, built h\ crranti Nimrod
I language invented at IBM.
by American engineers in I i
K. t Ising valves, it ( lomputer at the
1958 Integrated circuit
William Shockley can perform about 500 Festival of Britain.
(microchip) produced by
(I'M 0-89), John Bardeen operations per second and
American engineer Jack
(1908-91), and Walter has the first RAM (see
Kilby (born 1925). His circuit
Brattain (1902-87). Opposite), It fills a room Visible portion "/ Manchester is made on a single piece of
the si/e of a small office. Mark I computet
semiconductor.

1947 1948 1951 1957 1958

"i
ffl Jaik Kdlr\
NU Nt**H I

1981 First portable computer, 1981 IBM launches IBM PC on tin \\ * *XS 1990 IBM Pentium PC produced. It

Osborne l, produced. At the size and personal computer market. IBM holds up to 4.000 megabytes of RAM
weight of a sewing machine, however, it is makes the first massive sales in the Microsoft Windows and can perform up to 1 12 million
much convenient than current
less personal computer market. Hilt screen instructions per second. The
portable computers. microprocessor chip at the heart of the
1984 Apple Macintosh computer computer measures lf>mm by 17mm
1985 Microsoft launches Windows
(orApple Mac) becomes first
lor the l'( !. Windows
Graphical is a and contains 3.1 million transistors. It
successful personal computer with a is designed using a system called
IIser Interface similar to the Apple- \ I. Si
mouse (see opposite) and easy-to-use Mac's, making personal computers (Very Large Scale Integration).
Graphical User Interface (GUI).
much easier to use.

1984 1985 1990

Computer facts Programs /

• All the data that computers use is A program is the set of
Computet
in binary code: a signal of electrical viruses may
instructions that a computer
pulses that is either on ( 1 ) or off multiply in needs to carry out a particular
a computet
(0).Words, numbers, and pictures !s
such as word processing.
task,
memory like
can be expressed as sequences of bacteria. may be written in
Instructions
binary code. • ( lomputer viruses are "machine code," or other
computer languages, such as
programs that destroy stored
™^^^^^^^^"^i BASK: or FORTRAN.
I:lli|. ,
information. may enter A virus
|
omputet \ program may be printed out.
the computer's memory and
1 i

1 copy itself so many times that it

CD-ROM is uses up all the memory, or it
Supercomputers
llsijnl [or
may make Computers designed to operate at the
reference boohs
the computer destroy
highest possible speeds are called
unit inn use all the data in its memory.
sound and supercomputers. \\\ performing
moving images.
• Computers can communicate
several processes at once and b\
with each other over a
being cooled - which causes their
• CD-ROM form of compact telephone line, using a machine
is a components to conduct
disc player modified for computers. called a modem. electricity more efficiently - they
CDs for CD-ROM can store 450 • Computer performance can calculate at a \er\ fast rate.
times as much data as can be held increased by a factor of about a
( X- MP/48 supercomputer, used in study
ni\
on a floppy disk. million between 1950 and 1990. ofparticle physics at CERN, Switzerland.

HOW
Computer
and transfer
A FLOPPY DISK WORKS
users can store data on floppy disks
it to other

Electromagnet
computers.

1'1'he surface of a
Images on screen
A computer screen consists of a grid of smal
picture cells called pixels. Each pixel has a
horizontal and vertical position code and a
color code. The computer's microprocessor
Computer-aided design
Computers
to test new
allow engineers
designs without
having to build prototype
models. They can also be
S
/ inside computer floppy disk is coated
with iron particles. Small generates the picture as a series of these used to help model
bands of these particles codes, lighting complex systems, such
can be made to line up in as weather systems
Up each pixel in
one direction or another
a certain color. Computet model
b\ in electromagnet of
oust airplane
inside the computer.

2( lurrent is passed / tample o/ reen

down a coil,
image, showing
si

Brain drain
magnetizing an iron core enlarged nun with The first all-purpose computer, EN1 \C
and forcing the iron individual pixels.
particles to hue up. If
required so much electricity to process
Horizontal position code
current is reversed, the information that the lights in a nearby
panicles line up in the Vertical position
73 town dimmed each time it was used.
other direction. code
74
Color codes:

3 One
bands makes up
pair of particle
a bit 1

2
White
Black
Red
75 H o

of data. If the bands In 76

3 Green
the pair lie in the same 4 Blue
direction, they represent 77
5 Cyan
the binary number 0. II 6 Yellow
78
not, the pair represents I. 7 Magenta

237
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

One to
Mathematics ten: symbol systems
Different civilizations have used different
symbols for numbers, and some do not include a
Mathematics is the study
of numbers and shapes. zero symbol.
It is a vital tool, not only for scientists and engineers, Number Babylonian Roman Mayan Arabic

but for everyone. Algebra is the branch of Zero <®>

mathematics that uses abstract symbols in One
T
1
• 1

place of numbers, while geometry deals Two

IT II •• 2

with shapes and lines. Three TIT III

... 3

Four TTT IV .... 4

Math tools T
—
Set squares and /...
Five
w V 5

compasses enable M Six TTT

TTT
VI — 6
us to draw shapes
precisely, such as
/.'
Seven TTT VII — 7

circles and
Eight
w
T

TTT
TT
VIII iAi
.
8

squares. Nine TTT IX iii 9

T Tt
Electronic
tools, such as
Ten \ X Si 10

the calculator,
save time.
Negative numbers
Set square Calculator Sometimes it is useful to use numbers less than

zero - negative numbers. For example, if the

temperature on a winter's day falls below zero, it is
Binary system Prime numbers referred to as a negative number, such as -3.
Base 1 Binary
We use a number number number Prime numbers 2 3 5 7
-5-4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5 6
system based on the are those that can 11 13 17 19 i i i i i
i i i i i i i

number ten, but a

1 1
be divided only Number line
23 29 31 37
9-dot matrix, 3-by-3 square
number system can 2 10 by themselves
be based on any 3 11 and one, e.g., 17.
41 43 47 53 Square numbers
number. Computers 12 is not a prime, 59 61 67 71 When a number is multiplied
4 100 by itself, it is said to be
use binary numbers, since it can be
73 79 83 89
based on the number 5 101 divided by 2, 3, 4,
squared. This is usually written
97 101 103 107 as the number, with a small 2
two. Binary uses only 6 110 and 6, as well as
two digits: and 1. by itself and 1. 109 113 127 131 next to and above it. So, three
7 111 2
squared is 3 = 3 X 3 = 9.

Fractions Percentages Decimals Style table

When a cake is halved, each It is sometimes useful to write Numbers less than one can be Fractions Decimals Percentages
piece is equivalent to the whole fractions as percentages. written as decimals. A decimal Vs 0.5 50%
divided by two. This is written Percent means "for each point is used. The number after
V4 0.25 25%
'A, the line meaning "divided hundred." Written as a the decimal point represents a
by." So, J
/t (three-quarters) percentage, becomes 50%,
'/-> number of tenths. So, one-half is Vo 0.1 10%
5
means three divided by four. since half of 100 is 50. written as 0.5 ( /io). Vim 0.01 1%

Mathematical symbols Chaos theory

Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning
The intricate pattern (below)
was created using a simple
+ Add (plus) = Equal to V Square root of
mathematical equation. These
- Subtract (minus) * Not equal to % Percent equations are a product of a
X < < recent field of mathematics
Multiply (times) Less than Less than or equal to
called chaos theory.
f Divided by > Greater than > Greater than or equal to
Fractal (computer-generated imag

Scientific notation Dead right

Very large or small numbers are often written At 20 years of age, Pierre Wi*Kt**&
using a system called scientific notation. Galois wrote his most
Number Number Power of ten Scientific important mathematical mitt
between notation ideas in a letter to a
1 and 10
friend, the night before he
10 1 10 1x10 was killed in a duel. His

2
results are still used today.
150 1.5 10 (=100) 1.5x10*

e
274,000,000 2.74 10 ( = 100,000,000) 2.74 x10 8
3 3
0.0023 2.3 10 ( = 0.001) 2.3X10'

238
 MATHEMATICS

(in
Geometry Square Polygon
With [QUI iijunl which
le '

nit paints
Equilateral triangle
lln\ tit lit equal sides
triangle

A
Triangle
Geometry is the study of lines, suits, all meeting mi quidistant
*
Area (of any triangle) equal udes
iii right angles from I In- it a In jase x height Area = 'h x base x
angles, solid shapes, and surfaces.
Area = length' Area -nx radius' height

PLANE FIGURES
Any two-dimensional
shape, such as a circle,
(flat)

plane
is a
Quadrilateral
Polygon with
/on) sides
Rhombus
Quadrilateral with
siili-s
of equal length
Rc( tangle
Quadrilateral
opposite sides nj
Parallelogram
Quadrilateral with
opposite sides that
^
figure. A polygon is a plane Area = 'h x (a x b) ih tit are parallel ami nf
figure with three or more angles equal length

straight sides.

Area
Trapezium
Quadrilateral with
Area = base x height Area = a x b
^
The area of a shape or surface is a inih two sides parallel

measure of the size (if the surface. For Area = 'k x sum of Pentagon I lexagon gon
parallel sides x Polygon with Polygon wiih n with
example, the area of a soccer field is
distance between them fivt rides six stilts
greater than the area of a tennis court.

SOLIDS I etrahedron Cube Six Octahedron Square pyramid

squares of equal Tetrahedron with Tetrahedi
Solids are not fiat, but three- Polyhedron
suit's as /airs .
ight flat suits square base and
with foui
dimensional (they take up Volume = length' foui triangular
triangles
space). A polyhedron is a solid
suits
us faces

that has plane (flat) faces.

Volume Triangula) prism Sphere Globe-shaped Hemisphere

The volume of a solid is the Solid figure with two Kc( i. iiigul.ti blo< k figure with every point on Hill/ sphere

amount of space it takes up. For triangular ends Volume = length x

its surface equidistant

example, a football has a greater Volume = area breadth x height from tis center

volume than that of a golf ball. of triangular

ends x distance Volume s'/sxix radius
!

between them Apex Surface area = 4 x n x radius'

Cone Circular
Spheroid Two m aim
Circle terms Egg-shaped
base, narrowing to
a point, in apex
/, (

i
Sylindei
mi in i
ted lis n lulu
•
faces,

Arc Part of curve. figure Volume = 'hxKX Surface area = n x diameter x length
radius
2
x height Volume = ir x radius' x length
Circumference Distance around
edge of circle.
Chord Straight line pining any Angle Obtuse angle

two points on edge. An angle measure of

is a
Key mathematicians
Diameter Line from one side of the space between two Euclid (c.300 B.C.). Greek
circle to other, passing through lines, formed when one mathematician, whose geometric
center. proofs in Tie Elements were
line is rotated (turned).
taught ill schools foi 2.000
Pi (7t) Ratio of circumference to The hands of a clock \c.us. I le studied irrational
diameter (approx. 3.14159, same
form an angle between numbers (numbers, such as /2,
for all circles).
each other as they turn. that cannot be written as
Radius Distance from center of fractions or decimals).
Angles are measured in
circle to edge. Round
degrees (°), or radians. angle
Sector Slice of circle between two Gottfried Wilhclm Leibniz
radii. 1646-1716), German
Trigonometry
1

mathematician and philosopher,

Segment Part of circle between
Trigonometry is the study of the relationships between independently invented the
chord and edge.
the sides of a right-angle triangle. theory of calculus, at the same
time as Isaac New ton. He built a
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS nice hanical multiply mg machine.
Pythagoras' Three simple relationships, or ratios, are commonly used in

theorem trigonometry: sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent (tan). The sine of
an angle in a right-angled triangle is given b\ di\ iding the length of Kurl Friedrich Gauss
For any right-angled triangle, the side opposite the angle bv the length of the hypotenuse, (1777-1855), German
the squares of the two sides length of opposite
mathematician and astronomer.
le w rote first majoi book on
adjacent to the right angle (B length of hypotenuse
I

numbei theory, w inch inc luded

and C, below) add up to the length of adjacent a theory of complex numbers.
square of the longest side, or length of hypotenuse I le contributed to man\ areas.
hypotenuse (A). tan = ;
——
length of opposite
length of adjacent
;

Baron A.ugustin-1 <oiris < lauchy

2 alculation
= B- + C (1789-1857), French
ight of the cower, mull iply mat hematic i. in, modernized
(tan) of the angle from the i ,ili ailus. contributed to in area
ithe top of the touei b\ of mathematics called group
stance from the building - theory. le is said to have mi
I

62fi (659m). This gives a theorems named aftei him than

height of 1,814ft (55 >m) am othei mathematician.
. Position of observer

Math facts
• Perfect numbers are those that • The theorem that Greek • The Maya in South \meiii .1 • The mathematical term
are equal to the sum of their mathematician Pythagoras were the first people to invent a "algorithm" is derived from the
factors (a number that divides discovered and that bears his symbol for the number zero name of the u th-centui\ \1.1bu

equally into another number). name was known by Babylonian mathematician al-Khwarizmi.
The first perfect number is six, and Egyptian mathematicians • There is an infinite numbei ol The term "algebra" comes from
since 1 +2 + 3 = 6. hundreds of years earlier. prime numbers. the tide of Ins book.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Weights and measures 5 kite

There are two major systems of measurement.

The metric system, based on the number ten, is
2 kite
the most common and is used by scientists 4 lichen

worldwide. Certain countries, such as the US, EGYPTIAN WEIGHTS

Ancient Egyptians used
use the older imperial system. You can convert a weight called a deben,

between systems using conversion tables (right). made of copper. The

I kite
value of the standard
deben was later

Ancient measures increased, and divided

into ten "kite."

MAYAN NUMBER KNOTS

The ancient Maya of Central America INDUS VALLEY WEIGHTS
used an arrangement of knotted The people of Mohenjo-Daro, a cits of
strings, called a quipu, to record the Indus valley civilization
numerical information. The type and (c. 2500 B.C.), used cubic weights
position of knot and the length and made of a stone called chert. The
color of string were all significant. largest of these weights could not be
lifted by one person alone.
ASSYRIAN WEIGHTS Indus valley

The standard system

first chert weights

of weights arose when

needed to
traders
measure quantities of
goods. Assyrian weights
were made for
(right)
King Shalmaneser III.
Mayan quipu Assyrian ingot wei)

The seven base si units Measurement facts

• The metric system was first • Units used today in the
Quantity Unit Symbol adopted in France in 1791. King imperial system have evolved
SI (Systeme
Internationale d'Unites) Mass Kilogram kg Louis XVI approved it the day over centuries, mainly by
is the standard system Length Meter m before he attempted to flee the custom. The origins of some of
of units for scientists revolution that was unfolding. these units can be found in the
Time Second s
throughout the world. earliest civilizations of the Near
Electric current Ampere A • China was the first country to and Middle East. The metric
There are seven base
units, from which the Temperature Kelvin K use a decimal system. Wooden system commonly used today -
other units are derived Luminous intensity Candela cd rulers divided into units often the SI system - was devised by
(shown below). that date back to the 6th century scientists and adopted in a single
Amount of substance Mole mole
B.C. have been found. period by many nations.

Standards Derived units

To ensure that everyone means the same
Musical measure
This table shows a selection of the derived units in In ancient China, a vessel
thing when stating measurements, several
the SI (Systeme Internationale d'Unites). thatwas used to measure out
units have very precisely defined out
standards. A few are explained below. Quantity Unit Symbol grain orwine was known to
contain the correct volume of
Frequency Hertz Hz
THE STANDARD SECOND goods if it made the right
One second is defined as "the Energy Joule J
sound when struck.
duration of 9,192,631, 770
Force Newton N
periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition Power Watt W
between the two hyperfine
levels of the ground state of Pressure Pascal Pa
the cesium-133 atom."
Electric charge Coulomb C
Cesium clock
Electrical resistance Ohm n
THE STANDARD KILOGRAM
A kilogram of the metal platinum Electric potential difference Volt V
was made as a worldwide Radiation activity Becquerel Bq
standard for the kilogram. It is

kept under carefully controlled

conditions at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures Number terms: great and small
at Sevres, France. Prefixes inserted before a unit signify multiples or fractions of that unit.
Standard kilogram
Prefix Symbol Meaning Prefix Symbol Meaning
THE STANDARD METER tera T One trillion deci d One-tenth
One meter is defined as "the length
equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths, giga G One billion centi c One-hundredth
in a vacuum, of the radiation mega M One million milli m One-thousandth
corresponding to the transition
between the levels 2pl0 and 5d5 of kilo k One thousand micro M One-millionth
the krypton-86 atom."
hecto h One hundred nano n One-billionth
Krypton gas

240
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Length Area Volume Mass and weight

1 inch (in) 1 square inch (in') 1 cubic inch (in') 1 ounce (oz)
2
1 foot (ft) 12 in 1 sq foot (ft") 144 in 1 cubic foot (ft') 1,728 in" 1 pound (lb) 16 oz

1 yard (yd) 3ft 1 sq yard (yd") 9 ft' 1 cubic yard (yd j 27 ft" 1 stone 14 1b

1 mile 1,760 yd 1 acre 4,840 yd' 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) 1 hundredweight (cwt) 8 stones
1 sq mile 640 acres 1 pint (pt) 20 fl oz 1 ton 20 cwt

1 millimeter (mm) 1 sq millimeter (mm) 1 gallon (gal) 8pt

1 centimeter (cm) 10 mm 1 sq centimeter (cm )

1 00 mm' 1 cubic mm (mm ) 1 gram (g)

1 meter (m) 100 cm 1 sq meter (m )

10,000 cm 1 cubic cm (cm )
1 ,000 mm 1 kilogram (kg) 1.000 g

kilometer (km) m 1 hectare (ha) 10,000 m' 1 cubic meter (m 1 ,000.000 cm" tonne 1,000 kg
1 1 ,000 ) 1 (t)

1 sq kilometer (km') 1 ,000,000 m 1 liter (I) 1 ,000 cm

Body measure
Ancient civilizations used
proportions of the body as units Length conversion Area conversion
of measurement because of To convert: Into: Multiply by: To convert: Into: Multiply by:

their convenience. Since the Sq inches Sq centimeters 6.4516

Inches Centimeters 2.54
unit varied slightly according to
Feet Meters 0.3048 Sqfeet Sq meters 0.0929
the size of the person making
the measurement, a master unit, Yards Meters 0.9144 Sq yards Sq meters 0.8361
or standard was often made. Miles Kilometers 1 .6093 Acres Hectares 0.4047

Sq miles Sq kilometers 25900

In ancient Egypt, the cubit
was from the tip of the
Centimeters Inches 0.3937
forefinger to the elbow. Sq centimeters Sq inches 0.155
Meters Feet 3.2808
I J Sq meters Sq feet 10.7639
A royal master Meters Yards 1 .0936
of black granite
Sq meters Sq yards 1.1960
cubit was made Kilometers Miles 0.6214
as a standard. Hectares Acres 2.4

A hand was divided Sq kilometers Sq miles 0.3861

into four fingers. Volume conversion
To convert: Into: Multiply by:

Cubic inches Cubic centimeters 16.3871

Mass and weight conversions
(milliliters) To convert: Into: Multiply by:
The was used as a
foot
unit of measurement in Cubic feet Liters 28.3169 Ounces Grams 28.3495
ancient Greece and Rome.
Cubic yards Cubic meters 0.7646 Pounds Kilograms 0.4536

Stones Kilograms 6.3503

US fluid ounces Cubic centimeters 29.5735
k >l
(milliliters) Hundredweights Kilograms 50.802

US pints Liters 0.4732 US tons Tonnes 0.9072

US gallons Liters 3.7854

Grams Ounces 0.0352

Kilograms Pounds 2.2046

Cubic centimeters Cubic inches 0.0610 Stones 0.1575
(milliliters) Hundredweights 0.0197
US fluid ounces 0.0338
Tonnes US Tons 1.1023

Liters Cubic feet 0.0353

Cubic meters Cubic yards 1.3080 Temperature conversion

Cubic centimeters US fluid ounces 0.0338
To com en To convert ( ielsius
Fahrenheit F) into( < ( '.)
into Fahrenheit
(millilitres)
Two steps = one pace Celsius (°( •), use the i use the
I- 1.

Liters US pints 2.1138 follow ing formula: following formula:

The mile originated in Rome - it consisted of
US gallons 0.2642
1 ,000 paces, each of which was two steps. "C - (°F - 32) -f 1.8 F=( Cx 1.8) + 32

Speed conversion Measuring marathon

To convert: Into: Multiply by: An acre was originally defined as the area of land
that a pair of oxen could plow in one day.
Miles per hour Kilometers per hour 1 .6093
Meters per second 0.4470

Kilometers per hour Miles per hour 0.6214

Meters per second Miles per hour 2.2370

Feet per second Miles per hour 0.6818

-Ml
 .

SCIENCE WD TECHNOLOGY

Dav
Natural time
Time DAIS AND YEARS
The Earth orbits the Sun in one year. At
TIME is THE INTERVAL between one instant and
the same time, the Earth spins on its own
another. People measure time by recording the completes one spin in a single day
axis. It
and 365 'A spins in a year. The quarter day
movements of the Earth traveling in space: one is impractical, so after four years they are

Earth spin is a day and one orbit of the Earth added together. Every fourth year has 366
days and is known as a leap year.
around the Sun is a year. People keep time with
mechanical timekeepers The Earth completes our spin
such as clocks and on its axis in our day.

watches.

'I.oDdon, England:

Standard time 12:00 imnn -

The time measured at

Greenwich, London, is the

standard time for the whole New York, US:
world. For every 15 degrees of 7:00 a. m.
The Earth takes a year to
longitude east or west of travel round the Sun.
Greenwich, the time is one hour
MONTH
ahead of or behind
Greenwich time. *€> While the Earth orbits the Sun, the
Moon orbits the Earth. The phases of
the moon add up to 29.5 days. This
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 9:00 a.m. There are 24 time cycle is the lunar month and is the basis
Time facts zonesaround I he globe. of our present-day months.
• The Earth is slowing down: a
few million years from now leap
Earth
years will not be needed.

• The Sumerians of Time words are on the same meridian.

a.m. Before noon (ante meridiem) Meridian Line of longitude
Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq)
Equinox The two times in a year p.m. After noon (post meridiem)
firstdivided hours into 60
when the Sun crosses the equator
minutes, and minutes into 60 Solstice The two times in the year
and day and night are of equal
when the Sun is farthest from the
seconds in about 3000 B.C. length.
equator. These are the shortest and
They used 60, because it was Local time The time at points that the longest days.
easily divisible by 2, 3, and 4.

c.2200 B.C. Stonehenge stone circles, England, c.1500 B.C. Sundials are used by the Sundial
History of timekeeping may have been used by Neolithic people to tell Egyptians. A shadow cast by the
People originally measured time by the the time. The position of the circles allows the Sun Sun's rays indicates the time ^~~ .^gffi"
position of the Sun in the sky. Later, they to shine through or rise above certain stones. on a marked surface.

began to rely on machines for timekeeping, Stonehenge

Position of the stars is
with mechanical motions that were repeated used by the peoples of
over and over again. Today, people use Babylon, Egypt, and
clocks and watches that can measure time China to tell the time.

in fractions of a second.
1500 B.C.

1335 First mechanical 1364 First known domestic 1386 Oldest 1510 First portable clocks
clock is erected
Milan, in clocks made bv Giovanni Dondi mechanical clock made bv Peter Henlein
Italy. The turret, or tower, (1318-89) of Italy. These early- still working is built at (1479-1542), a German
clock, has no face, but clocks arc small versions of turret Salisbury Cathedral, locksmith. These small clocks
simply strikes the hours. clocks, with the addition of an England. are driven by a spring. I he open
Turret clocks are later hour hand. face has an hour hand only.
The clock in Salisbury
built throughout Europe.
Cathedral is driven l>y a
Early portable rlnrk
revolving dram.

1335 1386 1510

'$, '*/

c.1730 Cuckoo clocks first 1759 An accurate marine 1800s Cheaper clocks are 1880 Greenwich time,
introduced in the Black timekeeper, Harrison 4, is developed in IS b\ American I h time measured at the Royal
Forest, Germany. introduced by Englishman John Tery (1772-1852). Observatory, Greenwich,
Harrison (1693-1776). It can becomes standard time in
1 754 Lever escapement,
w ithstand the changing movement 1840 Electricity is used to drive- Britain. Eour years later it
combined with the balance and temperatures on board ship clocks that in turn control distant, becomes standard time for
spring, gives an accuracy to
and has less than one minute of subsidiary clocks. These clocks are the whole world.
w ithin ten seconds a day .

error after five months at sea.

know n as the master and its slav es.
Early electric clock
( uckoo clock
1730 1754 1759 1800 1840 1880
'*.

242
 .

TIME

Gregorian calendar Ancient Chinese calendar

Most Western countries use the Longest year This calendar, based on the Sun and the Moon, is
Gregorian calendar, which is based The longest year ever was
no longer used in China, but is still in use in some
on the time it takes for the Earth to ., which lasted for 445
Asian countries. It is divided into 24 seasons.
circle the Sun. At first, the Romans days. Lengthened by 90
began their year in March, which is days to bring it in Season Meaning Gregorian date
why September to December arc- line with the solar
UChun Spring begins Feb 5 to Feb 19
named after the Latin numbers year, it became
seven to ten. Later, in about 150 known as the Year Yu Shui Ram water Feb. 19 to Mar. 5

B.C., January became the first of Confusion. Jing Zhe Excited insects Mar 5 to Mar. 20
month of the year.
Chun Fen Vernal equinox Mar 20 to Apr. 5

Qmg Ming Clear and bright Apr. 5 to Apr. 20

^^ v NAMES OF THE MONTHS GuYu Grain rains Apr. 20 to May 5

P January Janus, jjod of gateways LiXia Summer begins May 5 to May 21

Xiao Man Grain fills May 21 to June 5

February Pcbrua, festival of
purification Mang Zhong Grain in ear June 5 to June 21
Hebrew and Muslim Xia Zhi Summer solstice June 21 to July 7
March Mars, god of war calendars Xiao Shu Slight heat July 7 to July 23
These are based on the Moon's cycle.

m April Apcrire, to open

Hebrew months Muslim months

Tishri Muharram
Gregorian date

Sept. to Oct.
Da Shu

LiQiu
Great heat

Autumn begins
July 23 to Aug. 7

Aug. 7 to Aug 23

Chu Shu Limit of heat Aug. 23 to Sept. 7

Heshvan Safar Oct. to Nov.

May Maia. goddess of fertility

Kislev Rabil Nov. to Dec.
BaiLu White dew Sept. 7 to Sept. 23

Tevet Rabi II Dec. to Jan.

Qui Fen Autumn equinox Sept. 23 to Oct. 8

June Juno, goddess of the Moon Shevat Jumada 1 Jan. to Feb.

Han Lu Cold dew Oct. 8 to Oct 23

Adar Jumada II Feb. to Mar. Shuang Jiang Frost descends Oct 23 to Nov. 7

Dong Winter begins Nov. 7 to Nov. 22

l* July Julius Caesar
Nisan

lyar
Rajab

Sha'ban
Mar. to Apr.

Apr. to May
Li

Xiao Xue Little snow Nov. 22 to Dec 7

August Augustus, the first Roman DaXue Heavy snow Dec 22

Sivan Ramadan May to June 7 to Dec.
emperor
Tammuz Shawwal June to July Dong Zhi Winter solstice Dec. 22 to Jan. 6
September Septem, seven
October Octo, eight Av Dhu al-Qa'dah July to Aug. Xiao Han Utile cold Jan. 6 to Jan. 21
November Novcm, nine
December Decern, ten Elul Dhu al-Hijjah Aug. to Sept. Da Han Severe cold Jan. 21 to Feb. 5

c.1400 B.C. Water clocks

c.A.D. 890 Clock candles
are used by die Egyptians. are used by the English
A howl with a hole in the kinj;, Alfred the Great
bottom is filled with water. (849-899). When a candle,
The passing of time is which has hours marked
shown by a drop in the level down its length, has burned
of water, which lines up down to a mark,
with one of the marks that an hour has passed by.
i
1 100s Hourglasses used in 1300s Monasteries use-
navigation, by physicians to simple machinery that
time a pulse, and In teachers sounds hells at regular
and preachers to time lessons intervals to call
and sermons. Sand drains from worshippers to praser. \
the top ulass bulb to the person called a 1 lo< k ja< k
it indicates bottom. Some glasses measure rings the hells.
l.S or 30 minutes as well as up

carved into the bowl. Watei loth to one or two hours. HoutvUus

1400 B.C. A.D. 890

{#/
1100
* 1300

1582 Regularitj of 1657 First pendulum clock is made h\ 1675 Spiral balance c. 1690s
a pendulum's swing I >utch astronomer ( Ihristiaan I luygens spring, giving clocks Vstronomers
is shown by Italian (1629-95). The pendulum controls the an accuracy to « ithin at the Royal
scientist Galileo rotation of the wheels of the clock. two minutes a daw is ( Observatory,
(1564-1642). invented by Grecnv ich,
1670 Long, or seconds, pendulum is
Iluygens. London, measure
Galileo \ ili-sign introduced by William ( llement the stars to
/oi a pendulum 1638- 1704). an English clockmaker.
(e. Huygens 'balance spring determine time

1582 1670 1675 1690

c.1900 First wrist- 1959 First quartz crystal clock 1948 First atomic clock de\ eloped in the I IS. I 070 Atomic eloek is

watches introduced. At Greenwich. The quartz

installed at Itworks by counting the natural \ ibrations of accurate to one second in
first only women wear crystals \ ibrate 100,000 times pei cesium atoms, which vibrate 9,192,631,770 tunes 10,000 years
them, until World War I
second. These vibrations are pci second, lime for the nf) atomu clock 1970s 1990s Digital watches
(1914-18), when the\ controlled, counted, recorded, anil whole world is now are increasingly popular.
become popular with used in establish precise time. The established In using
'fF~~ A microchip changes the
men in the trenches. maximum error is two-thousandths HO atomic clocks
/b.~ ^^K3£J I — numbers eveiy second, so that

Early wristwatch
of a second per da\ from 24 countries. j f // the tune kept is \ei\ pre» isc

,''*>
/ 1900 1939 1948 1970
#
JU
243
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

50 B.C. Chinese 1712 Practical steam 1783 Steam-powered

Engines engineers build water

wheels that use the
energy of moving water.
engine using piston and
cylinder built by English
Thomas
inventor
paddleboat, Pyroscaphe,
sailed up Sadnc River,
France, by French

A\ ENGINE TURNS different Newcomen (1663-1729). engineer Jouffroy

A.D. c.600 Early
d'Abbans (1751-1832).
Willi \ toll/live engine
windmills appear, 1 769 Steam carriage
forms of energy into motion, or French military 1782 Rotative steam engine built by Scottish engineer
converting wind energy built by
kinetic energy. In the last two into mechanical motion. engineer Nieolas Joseph James Watt 7.36—1 81 9). Watt's engine is much more
( 1

Cugnot (1725-1804). efficient and practical than Ncwcomen's engine.

centuries, engine efficiency has
600 ~7. 1769 1782 1783
substantially improved. /££
__
1892 German Rudolf 1897 Ship powered by new steam turbine 1903 Powered flight by American 1907 Supercharger
Diesel (1858-1913) launched by British engineer Charles Parsons brothers, Orville (1871-1948) and Wilbur used on a ear by
invents engine (later (1854-1931 ). revolutionizing marine (1867-1912) Wright, using internal American engineer
named diesel engine) engineering. His ship, Turbinia, unexpectedly combustion engine. Lee S. Chadwick.
w ith fuel that ignites on appears at a British naval review and, at 34.5
1926 Liquid-fuel
compression. When Liter knots, easily outruns the launch sent to stop it.
rocket launched by
built, the engine is more
Queen (19(14), fitted with marine turbine American Robert
efficient than existing
(ioddard
internal combustion
(1882-1945).
engines.
First sustained powered flight of Kitty Hawk
Robert Cod il (nil

1892 1897 1903 1907 1926

Camshaft
Rocker arm
Internal combustion engine controls opening
nu= hp „
.
Channels for

The internal combustion engine, developed

and closing of
£ alve open
cooling water Engine words
valves. Carburetor Device that mixes fuel
in the 19th century, has several advantages Valve
and air before its combustion in the
over earlier types of engine. It does not cylinder.
require stoking, like a steam engine; it is
Catalytic converter Device fitted to
portable, unlike windmills or water wheels; exhaust that converts pollutant gases
and its fuel is highly efficient. into harmless products.

Crankshaft Shaft that turns the up-

FOl'R-STROKE ENGINE CYCLE and-down movement of the pistons
into rotary (spinning) movement.

Inlet valve =Nfc-vA/^== "^ Spark Distributor Device that sends a spark
1 opens. ==
Tr^^7== v_/ ignites toeach cylinder at the right moment to
compressed ignite fuel.
charge.
Flywheel Heavy wheel attached to
Expanding
the crankshaft to smooth out the power
gases force
from individual cylinders.
piston down
cylinder. Horsepower Measure of the power
Piston spins of an engine; one horsepower is equal
crankshaft. to 746 watts.

Internal combustion engine Engine

4 Exhaust
valve
in which fuel is burned (combusted)
inside the cylinder of the engine, e.g.,
opens. Hot gasoline engine.
gases
Dipstick for
escape, Throttle Flap controlling flow of air
checking
pushed out and fuel through carburetor.
level of
by rising bearing where
| ubricating oi |
r.p.m. Revolutions (of the crankshaft)
crankshaft
piston.
runs through per minute.
Cycle
engine block
ompression shake restarts. Exhaust \lml<

Types of engine TURBO JET Steam engine

The first engines harnessed natural forces to Jet engines, used mainly -
Water in a boiler is heated by a coal fire and
produce motive force. In this century, in draw in,
planes, turns to steam. The expanding steam, fed into
compress, and throw out
several new types have appeared. a cylinder, moves a piston back and forth, and
air at high speeds.
the piston turns the train's wheels via a
WINDMILL LINEAR ENGINE connecting rod and crank. Ships were also
The force of the wind Magnetic fields lift the
across the sails produces a
powered by steam engines.
train from the track, and
stronger driving force at shifting fields then propel Steam engines are external
the central shaft. it along the track. combustion engines, since their
Furnace fuel is burned outside the cylinder.

STEAM ENGINE ROCKET Steam is fed into

Water, heated by a
furnace, produces steam.
Expanding steam drives
piston back and forth.
Rocket fuel burns in a the cylinder under
high pressure.
combustion chamber and
a the resultant hot gases
Cylinder
drive the rocket forward.

GASOLINE ENGINE ION MOTOR

Hot gases from an Ionized molecules (sec
ignited gasoline and air p. 222) aremade to rush Water turns to
mixture push a piston. out by an electrical steam in the boiler
moving a crankshaft. process in the motor.

244
 ENGINES

1800 First engine to use 1859 Internal combustion 1883 High-speed internal 188S Motorbike engine
Etienne I enoh \ minimi combustion engine built
high pressure steam built engine built by Belgian- built by Daimler.
combustion engine h\ German Gottlieb W.
by English engineer Richard French inventor Etienne Three-wheeled •
,

Trevithick (1771-1833). Lenoir (1822-1900). Daimler (1834-1900). automobile, built by

( ierman Karl Hen
1852 Steam-powered 1877 Four-stroke internal 1884 Steam turbine
<1K44-192<J>. is
airship built b\ French combustion engine built generator for electricity
the first gasoline
engineer Henri Giffard In German Nikolaus Otto is built by English
driven motor
(1825-82). (1832^-91). engineer Charles
vehicle.
Parsons (1854-1931).

1852 1859 1877 1883 1884 1885

1934 Liquid-fuel 1937 First working 1939 First plane 1962 First nuclear-powered 1979 Catalytic
rocket reaches a jet engine built In with a jet engine, ship, / .S'.V Savannah, converter
height of 1.5 miles British engineer Heinkel//c/7,S'. begins sea trials. developed In
(2.4km), launched 1'rank \\ hittlc ^M built and flown
1970 Bypass
British firm,
by German (born 1907). Mk In German
("turbofan") jet
Ricardo
engineer Wernher engineer Hans ilting
von Ohain. engine used, now
von Braun Engineers, to
(1912-77). Frank Whittle
(right) with
H
Hitf 1948 First
the most common
type of jet engine;
remove harmful
gases from
turboprop Boeing 747 "Jumbo
^| exhaust fumes.
^HBBC airliner. Jet" goes into service. I ss Savannah

1934 1937 1939 1948 1962 1970 1979

Jet engine Inlet

(rotates)
cone Low-pressure
fan 0N tank
High-pressure
compressor
Linear engine
A jet engine sucks in and compresses air using Combustion Exhaust cone A linear engine uses powerful
Fuel chamber
fan blades. When this air is ignited with nozzle magnetism to lift a train off its
High-pressure turbine
kerosene, the hot gases produced thrust the track and propel it forward.
engine forward. Before leaving the exhaust These trains arc called maglev
nozzle, these gases pass over and drive turbines (magnetic levitation) trains,
that are connected to the initial compressor because they glide along just
blades. In a turbofan jet engine, air flows above their tracks.
around the engine, cooling and quieting it.

Bypass air
provides
wrrnriru-^M> jl^fe main

D— thrust.

Outer
drive
Electronic
engine control unit
shaft

MODERN TURBOFAN JET ENGINE - PW 305 CANADA

Turbine spins outer shaft,
Most including passenger airliners, use turbofan engines.
jet aircraft,
driving compressor.
Their main thrust comes from the air that bypasses the engine
Fuel and
HOW air ignited.
itself. Fuel and fan adjustments are controlled electronically.
Maglev train, Birmingham airport, UK
«*~-- - . I |
-----

Rocket engine Most liquid-

Hot rod Engine records
Rockets, the simplest and fuel rockets SMALLEST INTERNAL
use liquid The temperature COMBUSTION ENGINE
most powerful type of hydrogen
inside the cylinders of is the O.lcc model aircraft.
engine, are powered by and liquid
oxygen. an internal combustion
solid or liquid fuel. The LARGEST INTERNAL
engine can reach
fuel burns in a combustion COMBUSTION ENGINES
Casing of 3,100°F(l,700°C)-as
chamber with rocket arc Sulzer ship engines,
hot as molten lava.
one open providing up to 60,000
end, and the Combustion
horsepower, at 100 r.p.m.
escaping hot chamber
gases thrust Extra power /»./.«/„„„
Inlet

the rocket Escaping There are several ways of getting more power from an engine. duct
gases
upward. provide SUPERCHARGERS AND TURBOCHARGERS Supercharged 1935
thrust for Gasoline and diesel engines can be fitted with Avium Speedster
Saturn V rocket
at takeoff T'TT n ilf riltff
rocket. pumps that force the fuel and air _^ ^_
mixture into the cylinders. i^**
This increases the strength of
Engine efficiency the explosion on the power
Turbocharger
An engine with 100 percent efficiency
stroke. Two
types of pump
are used - supercharger and Supercharger Turbochargers ue more
converts all its fuel's energy into useful work. turbocharger. A supercharger driven In a
is belt common today; the\ .ue d riven direct!)
or gears from the engine itself. In the engine's exhaust g ISCs
Engine Type Efficiency

Steam 7% AFTERBURNERS
Afterburners inject extra fuel into the hot jet exhaust,
Internal combustion Gasoline 25-35% giving the engine extra thrust, almost like a rocket.
Diesel 30-40% Jet aircraft such as Concorde use afterburners for ^^
takeoff, ot for sudden, last maneuvers. They use
Power station (oil or coal-burning) 35% nun h more fuel and .lie cxiicineK loud.
Hydroelectric plant 80%
AJteHnirnen <»i n jet-fightei aircraft
SCIENCE WD TECHNOLOGY

Space and time

THE l (NIVERSE IN WHICH we
has existed for a very live is vast, and it

long time. Everything we see or do takes place in space and time.

Objects in space have physical dimensions and mass. Time runs
from the past into the future, never the other way around.

Time slowed down Two

light.
rockets
To
fly past Earth at a speed close to that of
the astronauts aboard, a flash of light sent
The Theory of Relativity
from one to the otherseems to travel in a
(below) describes how space straight line between them. To an observer
and time are shows
related. It on Earth, the flash follows a diagonal line.
that, since thespeed of light Since light travels at a constant speed,
its crossing time for those on Earth
is always the same, time may
must be longer than for those on
speed up or slow down, and board. Time passes at different
space may stretch or shrink. rates for different observers.
To observers on Earth,
a between
light flash

rockets appears to follow a

long path, and take a longer
time to cross space.

s< n
rM To astronauts on rocket, same
n R FFT^ g^. light flash follows shorter route
straight between rockets,
taking a short time to cross.

Jet set
Rockets travel at speed
Relativity states that clocks run faster
close to speed of light.
in weaker gravity. In 1975, this was
proved using two atomic clocks.
One, carried in a plane at Time and space facts
high altitude, ran faster. • The smallest unit of time that
scientists believe we can measure
is called the "Planck time." One
second contains 600,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000 Planck times.
• Gravity has an effect on the
__ Time, like length,
can be divided passage of time. Time runs more
Time periods only a finite
number of limes.
quickly at the top of a mountain, where
Time is usually measured in seconds, or hours and minutes. gravity is weaker, than at sea level.

Time period Example

• In a famous experiment
Solar eclipse of
0.000 000 000 001 second A gas molecule to spin around once during a solar eclipse in 1919, it 1919 showed
was shown that light from a bending of
0.000 000 001 second The time it takes light to travel 1 2in (31cm) in air
light - the first
distant star was "bent." The evidence in
0.000 001 second The duration of a flash of lightning
strong gravity of the Sun has a support of
0.001 second The time takes sound to travel 1 2in (31 cm) in air Einstein's
tiny effect on time and space
it

Theory of
0.1 second Olympic sprinter to run 1yd (0.9m) nearby, not normally visible. Relativity.

second Quartz in a watch to vibrate 32,768 times

1 000 seconds Time for a snail to move 40ft (1 2m) Distances: small and great
The range of distances in the Universe is vast. The table below
1 000 000 seconds 1 1 .5 days
gives a scale of distances in meters.
1 000 000 000 seconds Time for Saturn to orbit the Sun once
Distance Example
1 000 000 000 000 seconds Age of the earliest cave paintings
0.000 000 000 000 001 m The diameter of an atomic nucleus

0.000 000 000 001 m The wavelength of high energy X-rays

Relativity
0.000 000 001 m The diameter of an oil molecule
In 1905, German scientist Albert
Einstein (1879-1955) published the 0.000 001 m The diameter of a single-celled organism

Special Theory of Relativity. shocked the

It
0.001 m The wavelength of microwave radiation
scientific world because it showed that time
0.1 m The diameter of a croquet ball
and space are not fixed things. His General
Theory of Relativity (1915) later suggested 1 m Height of a child

that space is distorted by matter. In this 1 000 m One kilometer

theory, space and time coexist as spacetime.
1 000 000 m The width of Egypt
Space-time can be visualized as a rubber
sheet, which stretches as objects are placed 1 000 000 000 m The diameter of the Sun
upon it. Objects with mass deform real 1 000 000 000 000 m The distance from Saturn to the Sun
space-time in a similar way. The larger the
1 000 000 000 000 000 m 1 /40 the distance to the nearest star
mass, the more space-time deforms. AU/ni Einstein

246
 5

NATURAL SCIENCE

c.350-340 B.C. Greek 1543 Science of

Natural science thinker Aristotle

(384-322B.C.) attempts
system of animal
anatoms developed by
Flemish doctor Andreas
Vesalius (1514-64). His
Thk STUDY OF the origins and classification,
distinguishing
accurate illustrations ot
dissected bodies appear
processes of life is called natural between animals in 1/n Fabrii of the
with blood and Human Body 543
science. Scientific discoveries have 1
(
1.

animals without.
Aristotle Andreas \i\nltu\
helped us to understand and
1543
influence these processes.

1665 English scientist 1677 Protozoa 1701 Asexual 1735 Ssstem of

Robert Hooke discovered by reproduction classification of living
(1653-1703) publishes Dutch naturalist first observed organisms invented b\
Mierographiu, show ing Anionic van bs \iitoine \.m Swedish botanist Carolus
detailed microscopic Lceuwenhoek Lceuwenhoek. Linnaeus (1707-78). His
drawings. He introduced the (1632-1723), using a while watching binomial (two-part)
term "cell" to biology and simple microscope. hydra under a s\s(cm identifies each
helped improve the design of He later becomes microscope Species and shows its
the compound microscope. person to
first (sec p.83). relation to others.
observe bacteria.
Drawing <>/ magnified slice <>/ < ork Hydra Carolus Linnaeut

1665 1701 1735

1749 French naturalist Georges-Louis Buffon (1707-88) suggests 1 779 Process of photosynthesis 1812 Science of paleontology, dossil
thatsome species of plants or animals give rise to others. discovered bv Dutch-born scientist studies) developed b\ pioneer French
Jan Ingenhousz (1730-99). zoologist Georges ier On
769—1832). ( 1

1771 Connection between He showed the connection between

muscle movements and 1805 Term "biology" coined by patterns of rock lasers and patterns
impuses discovered
electrical bs Jean-Baptistc Lamarck (1744-1829) of fossil remains.
Italiananatomist Luigi Galvani and Gottfried Treviranus
737-98), while experimenting on
( 1 (1776-1837). Science of
the leg muscles of a dissected frog. anthropology founded bs German
Fossil iawbotu <>1 <i

Galvani demonstrates nerve impulses. Johann Blumenbach (1730-1840). paleotherium

Diagram of 1749 1771 1805

typical cell

1839 Cell theory founded In 1856 French 1859 Charles Darwin

German scientists Theodor Schwann chemist Louis (1809-82) publishes the
(1810-82) and Matthias Schleiden Pasteur (1822-95) Origin oj Species, w hich
(1804-81), which holds that all living disproves long-held explains his principle of
things are made from cells. Also observed idea that living natural selection and theory
that single egg-cells grow into organisms. organisms could of evolution (see p. 68).
grow from non-
1855 Theory of homeostasis proposed bv French living matter
Cartoon i<j Charles Darwin
how
physiologist Claude Bernard (1813-78), describing (spontaneous
mockingidea ilmi humans
organs interact to maintain steads internal conditions. generation).
Louis Pastew are descended from apes

1839 1855 1856 1859

1860s Science of hereditv

(how characteristics are
1889 Important role of acids
in food digestioti discovered
1937 Chemistry of respiration,
the was that food converted
is
Spiral „l 4* \ •-WAV
inherited) pioneered by b\ German researchers. into energy in cells, discovered
Austrian monk anil botanist Russian scientist Ivan bv German-born biochemist *V\* *> Double-helix
Gregor Mendel
(1822-84). after long
Pavlov (1849-1936) shows
reflex actions can be
that Hans Krebs (1900-81). The
series of chemical reactions that
\ l )NA,
structure ol
the substance
experimentation on conditioned (learned), and arc- he identities is central t< responsible I'm heredity,
pea plants. not just built-in. lis proof
I nearlv all metabolic discos cred bs American .u\>.\

involves teaching dogs to reactions (reactions in British biologists James \\ atson ibotn
Gregoi Mendel

1860
salivate at the ring of a bell.

T~
•_
living organisms).

£2 1937
1928) and Francis Crick (born 1916).

1953

1963 Mechanism bv which nerves 1974 Oldest and most 1979 "Gaia" theory of the living 1984 Genetic fingerprinting, a was
convex, messages explained bs complete skeleton of planet proposed bs British scientist of identifying genetic material,
Australian John Kcclcs (born 1903) and early upright-walking James Lovelock (born 1919), le I developed bs British scientisi Vict
British doctors Andrew Huxley (bom hominid discovered by suggests that the Earth is a living, Jeffreys ai Leicestei I Diversity, I k.
1917) and American anthro- self-regulating organism
1990 I linn. in genome
project begins
V [odgkin
I pologists in Ethiopia. that adjusts itself SO that
in several countries, li aims to map the
(born 1014). This hominid, Lucy, is life w ill continue, with or
position of all he genetic material in
i

estimated to be 3-3. without humans.

human chromosomes. This will enable
million sears old.
James si icnt isis to ci. ulu. uc in hen ted
Bone fragments fr I. Lovelock

1979 1984 1990

247
SCIENCE \M) TECHNOLOGY

c.260 B.C. Flotation principle

Physical science Democritus

discovered by Greek scientist
Archimedes (c.287-2 12
B.C.). He also studied

EVEN BEFORE THE TERM science c.400 B.C. (ircck thinker principles of levers and
Democritus (c.460-^361 B.C.) invented many machines.
was coined, people devised reaches that matter consists Archimedes realizes that the volume
nj his body is equal to the volume
experiments to test their ideas of small, hard, indivisible
of wain spilled from full bath.
particles, called atoms.
about the physical universe.
260

1643 Air pressure 1665 Laws of motion 1701 French scientist Joseph 1712 Successful
discovered and and law of gravitation Sauveur (1653-1716) studies steam engine, with
measured by Italian formulated by English relationship between sound piston and cylinder,
scientist and pupil of mathematician Isaac- waves and vibrations and built by English
Galileo, Evangelists New ton ( 1 643-1 727) in suggests term "acoustics" for engineer Thomas
Torricclli (1608-17). Principia Mathematica. the science of sound. Newcomen
I measures it using
le Also discovers that white 1706 Friction machine to (1663-1729).
mercury barometer. light is made tip of a generate electrical sparks Newcomen 's
Ins invention. spectrum of colors. made by English scientist engine, used for
Mm ins barnmctei hum Newton Francis Hauksbec (1666-1713). draining mines.

1800 Infrared waves discovered 1807-8 Potassium, sodium, magnesium, barium, 1811 Avogadro's
by German-born astronomer calcium, and strontium discovered by Law formulated
William Herschei (1738-1822). British chemist Humphrey Davy by Italian physicist
Infrared is an in\ isible form of (1778-1829). Amedeo Avogadro
electromagnetic wave (see 1803 Atomic theory of matter (1776-1856). This
p.231). Herschei proposed by Englishman John law states that the
discovered I ranus Davy same volume of
Dalton (1766-1844), introducing
performs a
and hundreds of modern ideas about elements any gas contains
public
stars and nebulae.
and compounds made of atoms experiment.
the same number
William Herschei and molecules. of molecules.

1843 Relationship between 1846 Laws of thermodynamics 1869 Periodic Table 1876 Telephone invented in Canada by
heat, power, and work developed by British physicist devised by Russian Scottish-born inventor Alexander Graham
investigated and formulated by William Thomson (1824-1907), later schoolteacher Dmitri Bell (1847-1922). His device uses a thin
English scientist Lord Kelvin. In 1862 he uses Mendelevcx diaphragm to convert the vibrations of the
James Joule them to estimate Earth's age. (1834-1907). It human voice into electrical signals, then
(1818-89). classifies elements reconvert them into sound waxes.
1865 Relationship between
into family groups
electricity and magnetism
b\ atomic weight.
/mile's machine formulated by Scottish
for measuring physicist James Clerk Maxwell
version (1H31-79). mes (Inch Maxuwll

1846

1900 Quantum 1905 Special Theory 1909 First stable 1911 Atomic nucleus discovered by New Xcaland-
theory proposed by of Relativity plastic. "Bakelite," iorn physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937).
German physicist Max published by German dc\ eloped by
1913 Electron shells
Planck (1858-1947), physicist Albert American chemist Leo
around nuclei
stating that energy Einstein (1879-1955). Ilenrick Baekeland
discovered by
consists of small units, Together with Genera/ (1863-1944). This helped
Danish phvsicist
called "quanta." This T/ieo/y (1915), it found plastics industry.
Niels Bohr
leads to theory that revolutionizes the
(1885-1962).
light acts as both a foundations of physics.
I elfphmie receiver
wave and particles.
Albert Einstein made of early plastic lim, slielts

# 1905 1909

1938 Nuclear fission, splitting of 1939 Nature of the chemical 1945 Heating effect 1946 Carbon dating invented I

nuclei to release energy, discovered bond between atoms and of microwaves American scientist YVillard
l)\ German physicists Otto Hahn molecules explained by discovered by frank Libby (1908-80).
(1879-1968) and Fritz American chemist Linus Pauling American engineer
1947 Transistor
Strassmann (bom 1902). (1901-94). crcv Le Baron
invented b\ American
1942 First nuclear reactor Spencer (1894-1970).
^ * Cranium fission rem lam physicists John Bardcen
built In Italian physicist Enrico
when a candy melts in
'
(1908-91), Walter Brattain
his pocket during
Fermi (1901-54). (1902-87), and William
experiments with
Fermi's reactor, built on a squash Shockley (1910-89).
microwaves.
court nt Chicago I University
,<*«r r Replica nj early transistor

/1938 1939 1945 1946 1947

248
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

A.D. 1 100s Compass 1600 English doctor 1620s Modern 1638 Science of mechanics founded
used by Italian and William Gilbert scientific method by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei
Chinese navigators. (1544-1603), in his developed by (1564-1642) in Dialogue Concerning
They independently book lie Magnete, claims '

English philosopher New Sciences. He investigated how force

discover that a tree or that the core of the Francis Bacon causes acceleration and discovered the
floating magnetic Earth is a great magnet (1561-1626). He properties of the pendulum.
needle always with poles at its north advocates experiment
Apparatus to demonstrate Galileo's
indicates north. and south points. Diagram shmtmig dip as the best basis for work tin the paths ofprojectiles
of
compass at different latitudes. knowledge. (objects thrown up and along)

1100 1620 1638

1755 Carbon dioxide 1766 Hydrogen 1779 Oxygen named by 1799 Battery
discovered by Scottish discovered by I-'rench chemist Antoine invented by Italian
chemist Joseph Black English chemist Lavoisier (1743-94), who chemist Alessandro
(1728-99), who calls it Ilenrv Cavendish demonstrates its role in Volta (1745-1827),
"fixed air." (1731-1810), combustion. Also shows air using different
who calls the gas to be a mixture of gases, and metals separated by
1765 First efficient steam
"inflammable air." that water is a compound of salt solutions.
engine built by Scottish
oxygen and hydrogen. Cell
engineer James Watt
(1736-1819). Antoine Lavoisier with wife 1 dilate pile ar battery
Henry Cavendish anil coworker Matie-Annt (collection of ielh/

1755 1765 1766 1799

1830s German chemists focus on carbon 1831 English scientist Michael 1836 Catalysts 1839 Practical photographic
as the basis of the organic
living things.
chemistry of
Carbon takes many forms,
Faraday (1791-1867)
uses magnetism to
^ I discovered by
Swedish scientist
processes invented independently
by Englishman William Fox Talbot
from coal to diamonds. make electricity, a process Jons Berzelius (1800-77) and Frenchman Louis
called electromagnetic (1779-1848). Daguerre (1789-1851).
induction. American Catalysts speed up
Joseph Henry (1797-1878) certain chemical
makes same discovery reactions without
Daguerrotype
I independently.
Faraday*
themselves being
used in the reactions.
image on
copper plate
induction mix

1831 1836 1839

1888 Existence of radio 1895 X-rays discovered bv German 1898 Elements radium and
waves demonstrated by Wilhelm Roentgen
physicist polonium isolated bv Polish-bom
German physicist Hcinrich (1845-1925). chemist Mane Curie (1867-1954) and
Hertz (1857-94). Pierre Curie (1859-1906). She calls the
1896 Effects of radioactivity
Induction motor invented powerful
discovered by French physicist
by ( roan in-born physicist emissions of
Antoine-Hcnri Becquere! (1852-1908). radiation
Nikolai Tcslal 1856-1943).
1897 Electron discovered by "radioactiv its."
1894 Radio communication British

invented by 20-year-old Italian phv sicist Joseph John Thompson Marie anil
I In a,, ,1, lint: Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937). (1856-1940). Pierre Curie

1876 1888 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898

1915 X-ray crystallography, a vvav of 1919 New Zealand-born 1931 Neutron (particle in nucleus) 1935 Nvlon
finding out the structure of crystals, physicist Ernest discovered bv British physicist dev eloped In
invented by British father and Rutherford (1871-1957 James Chadwick (1891-1974). Vrnerican
son physicists, William II. changes one element
1932 First subatomic particle
chemist W allaec
Bragg (1862-1942) and into another. I le 1 1. ( .imthcrs
accelerator built bv British
Law rence Brag converts nitrogen nuclei (1896-1957).
physicists J. Cockcroft (1897-1967)
(1890-1971 ). into oxvgcn nuclei,
and Ernest Walton (born 1905). First pa, tali
Mineral willi Positron, panicle of antimatter,
.i ami, iiitm. limit

crystalline discovered bv American physicist al Mam In \lii

altn/iii \l i ail in Kmesl lliilliii/mil Carl I). iv id Anderson (born 190.5). t uivetxitx, t A

1931 1932 1935

1960 First laser built In American physicist Theodore 1 980s Chaos theory 1983 Existence of two important I9K6 Superconductors, substances
Maiman (born 1927), based on ideas developed bv dev eloped bv Anient .in subatomic particles (W +. /.") with extremely, low resistance to
American physicist Gordon Gould in 1957. mathematicians, based confirmed at CKRN laboratories in electricity, arc developed.
on die iinpredk lability Sw it/.crland.
1964 Existence of quarks, the constituent parts of
of nature. ( Ihaos theory
1990 COBE (Cosmic Background
neutrons and protons, proposed bv Murray (Jell-Mann. Explorer) satellite discovers ripples in
is used to irv in predict
American physicist background radiation evidence in
complex sv steins.
(born 1929). support t»f Big Bang theory of the

Alomit nucleus,
slwwing ttuarks
<£ Fractal: computer-
generated pattern derived
'pun, chaos theory
origin oi the I nivcrsc.

1964 1983 1986

249
SCIENCE WD TECHNOLOGY

c.100,000 B.C. Neanderthal c.2000-1500 B.C. Two-wheeled

Weapons people use sharpened wooden

Weapons ark tools
attacking people and animals.
Technology has made weapons
increasingly efficient in their
ability to wound and
spear point and simple stone ax.
fighting chariot introduced. Provides
fast and stable platform for archers and
spearmen.
c.2800-2000 B.C. Composite
for bow. first effective military c.1000 B.C. Iron sword developed
bow, developed in Middle East. in southern and central Europe. Far
Made of strips of wood, animal superior to weapons made from
horn, and sinew, glued together.
Egyptian battle chariot
bronze, iron is hard and sharp.
/'/nil hand-ax
Viking
100,000 B.C. 2800
kill. sword,
C. 1000

200 B.C.-A.D. 400 Siege weapons 1100 Mace becomes a
used by Roman common weapon of war.
soldiers to batter can smash human bones
down walls of protected by plate armor or
enemies. chain mail.
Crossbow developed and
used for 400 years, a
powerful weapon that can
be used with little
1340-1400 Cannons introduced into 1500 Harquebus developed, a hand-
It Powered by gunpowder, they
warfare. held firearm capable of being operated
firesmall stone balls or large crossbow- by a single infantryman.
type arrows. Large cannons, called
1550 Naval warfare revolutionized
bombards, lay open castles to attack.
as ships are fitted with cannons.
1680 Flintlock musket is dominant
weapon for infantry soldiers for next
140 years. A piece of flint ignites

Bronze marc on modern haft gunpowder in musket's barrel.

Replica of small early cannon

1100 1340 1550 1680

{#/

1836 First effective revolver 1837 Bolt-action, breech-loading 1916 First tank used in war during
developed by American gunsmith rifle developed by Prussian gunsmith Battle of the Somme. Although slow and
Samuel Colt (1814-62). Revolvers can J. N. Dreyse (1787-1867), with
unreliable, the lumbering British tanks
fire several shots in a row before they increased accuracy and firing rate. Soon cause panic among
need reloading. all armies are armed with this type of German troops
rifle. It remains in use today.

1890s Belt-fed machine guns

RAF No. 1 Squadron of 1918
introduced. Allows two people to fire at
great speed. Fires 600 bullets per 1915 Aircraft first used as weapons
minute, over 0.62 mile (1km). when armed with machine guns.

1836 1837 1890 1915 1916

1940s Submarines, with torpedoes, 1945 Dropping of atomic bomb on 1960s Assault rifle introduced in 1980s Attack
become a decisive weapon of war. Japan changes nature of warfare. Now largenumbers. It provides infantrymen helicopter, armed
German U-boats almost defeat Allies a single bomb can destroy a whole city. with a light weapon capable of full with laser-guided
in Battle of the Atlantic (1939-44). automatic fire. missiles and
1950s Missiles become effective
German U-boai submarine machine guns,
weapons delivery system. Inter- US M16A1 assault riflefitted with
proves highly
continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) 40mm grenade launcher effective in battle.
carry nuclear warheads thousands of
It becomes a key
miles; smaller missiles arc used to
element in rapid
knock out aircraft and tanks.
reaction forces.

1940 1945 1950 1980

Tiger antitank
attack helicopter

Rear sight Firing pin Front sight

Automatic pistol Ready... aim...

A pistol is loaded with
In 1830, a musket could fire
cartridges, each containing a
lead bullet and a casing
a maximum of four bullets

packed with explosive.

every minute. A modern M61
Automatic weapons cannon will fire up to 100
When the trigger is pulled, the
In automatic weapons, the force of the bullets every second.
hammer forces the firing pin departing bullet (the recoil) ejects the
into the back of the cartridge, spent cartridge casing from the gun,
igniting the explosive. The allowing a new cartridge into the barrel.

force of this explosion drives

the bullet down the barrel
and it leaves the pistol at Slide ejects used Slide
cartridge case pushes cartridge
high speed. and lets new cartridge intoplace and
spring into the barrel. returns to rest.

Weapons facts
• Powered b\ their own nuclear
reactors, nuclearsubmarines can • "Smart" weapons allow a • In the 19th century, the
remain underwater for months warhead to be guided directly development of rifled barrels
on end. and can fire nuclear onto its target. Some "smart" (with spiral grooves running
missiles over thousands of miles missiles have television cameras inside the barrel) made guns
without being detected. They in their nose, while others use much more accurate. They made
are the deadliest of modern radar or infrared homing to reach the bullet spin in flight, allowing
weapons systems. their targets. it to travel farther and straightcr.

250
Transportation,
Communications,
and Industry
Factual coverage of every major transportation group and major world industries,
plus global communications, including alphabets and major languages.

Cars • Bicycles • Motorcyles • Trains • Boats • Warships and Submarines

Aircraft • Airline Insignia • Communications • Language • Alphabets and Scripts
Energy • Major Industries • Roads • Construction

251
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

changes the gears. These Sun roof Rear-view Windshield

Gear lever
Parts of a car
Cars Muffler
reduces noise
enable the engine
efficient
car slows
speeds while the
down or
to run at mirror
\ The
is
steering wheel
connected to
rods that swivel
two
Most
engine
cars have four wheels, an
inthe front, and room
speeds up. v *£T ^^
THE FIRST mass- made by the
exhaust.
L.
^^t
the front
wheels.
for at least two passengers. This
illustration shows the parts of a
produced car, the
rear-wheel-drive hatchback.
Oldsmobile, Rear light Windshield
appeared less than wipers
Shock absorber Air filter cleans the air before
a hundred years it is mixed with the gasoline.
Rear bumper
ago. Since then, Battery

Fuel tank
carownership Headlight

around the world Half-shafts link the Front bumper

driving wheels to
has grown the differential.
The fan helps
cool water in the
dramatically: there radiator.

The differential contains

probably be
.

will a a set of interlocking

The radiator cools the
water that flows around
gears. allows the rear
billion cars on the wheels
It

to turn at
Drive shaft
transmits the
the engine.

speeds when
road by the different movements of The distributor ensures
The generator produces electricity
the car turns a corner. the engine to that the spark plugs fire in
when the engine is running. This
year 2025. the wheels. a particular sequence.
electricity is stored in the battery.

Gar facts
Types of car • After WWII, British car

Veteran car Hatchback Racing car manufacturers turned down the

chance to make the German

^T\r
Veteran cars are Hatchbacks have a Racing cars are
the oldest rear door that custom-built
Beetle on the grounds that it
surviving cars. lifts upward for racing on
easy There wa^s too ugly and would not sell.
They were for
^fipM a track.

built between access to the are several It has since become the best-
18% and 1903. loading space types (see p. 255) selling car of all time, with more
than 20 million produced.
Vintage car Convertible Tourer
Vintage cars are These are Tourers were Volkswagen
those that open- designed Beetle

were built topped for touring,

between cars. The with room for
1904 and root folds several
1930. back or can be passengers and
lifted off. plenty of luggage
Classic car
Classic cars arc Coupe Custom car
outstanding Coupes have a sloping Custom cars are
• This "motorized orange" was
examples roof. They are adapted by
of design usually their owners manufactured during the 1970s
and two-seater to their by a firm that sold fruit. It had a
engineering cars. personal
Mini engine
preferences.
Sedan Limousine with a
Sedans can These extended designed cars are Off-road car specially
usually carry for comfort and luxury. Some have Off-road cars built
tour television and cocktail cabinet. are designed
chassis
passengers for dri\ ing
and have a on rough and
mink tor lugga terrain. fiberglass
They have four-wheel dri\
skin.
Station wagon Sports car Gull-wing car
Station n Sports cars Thcsc cars ha\ c • The most widely traveled car
wagons arc "" display high upsw inging doors
is the Moon Buggy, which the
similar to performance that, when
sedans. and good open.
* I S astronauts drove on the
with a road handling resemble the Moon in 1971/72. It also has one
large loading space at the rear. \losr ha\ c two scats. wings of a gull. of the lowest recorded mileages,
at only 18 miles (29km).

1891 Frenchmen 1901 First mass- 1906 Charles Rolls (1877-1910, 1910 First ear to he 1913 M
ass production
History of cars Rene I'anhard produced ear, the British) and Henry Royce (see assembled on a moving begins in Britain with
1886 Gottlieb Daimler (184 1-1 90S) and Oldsmobile, is opposite page) introduce their production line. Henry William Morris's sec (

(1834-1900, German) Kmile Levassor (1844-97) produced b\ Ransom 40/50 horsepower Rolls Royce car Ford (see opposite page) opposite page) \h irris
engine to a
fixes an
produce car that establishes Kli Olds (1864-1950, scries, which includes the introduces the Oxford.
a Man IS
horse-drawn carriage. the classic American). Silver Ghost. Model T. Oxfa •1

lavout. Oldsmobile
UnrlH I
W fan**'
?s/

1891 1906 1910 1913

252
 s

CARS

Fastest luxury Famous motor men Car records

WORLD LAND SPEED RECORD
sedan cars Henry Royce Henrv Ford
is 633mph (l,019km/h),
Car Top speed (1863-1933, (1863-1947)
British) was a achieved by American Richard
km/h mph
was the talented Noble (born 1946) in Thrust II.
Aston Martin Vantage 285 177 engineering American At this speed, it would take less
partner of mechanic.
Lotus Carlton 282 175 than 40 hours to drive round
Rolls Royce. He
once said the equator.
BMW 8501 256 159 I le introduced
"There is no mass-production
Mercedes-Benz 600 SEL 256 159 such thing as good enough." into car manufacturing.

Mercedes-Benz 600 SL 256 159 Herbert Frederick

Austin Lanchester
BMWM5 254 158
(1866-1941) (1868-1946)
Aston Martin Virage 5.3 253 157 set up designed
his own cars in Britain
Mercedes-Benz 500 SL 253 157 fitm in from 1896. 'I'll nisi II

Britain after His key

Mercedes-Benz 500 E 251 156
working for inventions
Mercedes-Benz 500 SE 249 155 Wolselcv car included a scm LONGEST PRODUCTION CAR
manufacturers automatic gearbox was the Bugatti Roy ale (below )

William Morris with a length of more than 22ft

Ettore Bugatti
Top car-owning (1877-1963) (1882-1947) (6.7m). The first was produced
countries produced the was an Italian
engineer who
in 1927, but only six were made.
"Bullnose"
Country Total cars registered Morris and built the
played an Classic type
us 141,251,695
important 35 racing car,
Japan 30,776,243 role in the as well as
British motor beautiful touring
Germany 29,190,322
industry. models.
Italy 23,500,000 Kiiehiro Toyoda Alexander
(1895-1952) Issigonis
France 22,370.000
founded (1904-88)
UK 20,923,423 Toyota cars was a
in Japan. His Turkish car
CIS 15,874,700 dream was to designer u ho
Canada 1 1 ,900,000 see as many went to the
ears on the UK in 1922. MOST ECONOMICAL
Brazil 1 1 ,760,459 streets of Japan I designed the
lc PRODUCTION CAR
as on those of America Morris Minor and the Mini. isthe Daihatsu Charade Diesel
Spain 10,787,424
Turbo (below which can
).

achieve 65.9m pg (28km/l) at a

Car facts • William Morris hated
Helping hand steady 56mph (90km/h).
• The luxurious interior of the popular Morris Before indicators were invented,
a 1927 Rolls Royce Minor, which was built ^ drivers used
Phantom was upholstered for 31 years. He
1 called it
2Lt «^This hand hand
«g nals '

in Aubusson silk tapestry. the "poached egg." t5* ,

^^ false

£ y*^r clipped onto the car

mimicked each
World's top car manufacturers door. It signal.

Company Total annual car production

HIGHEST PRICE PAID FOR \
General Motors 5,662,843
Top car-producing CAR THROl'GH PRIVATE SA1 I

Ford Motor Company 4,234,583 countries was over $15,330,000 for a 1962
Ferrari 250 GTO (below) in
Toyota 3,093,692 Country Total annual production
19N9. The vendor had bought
Volkswagen 2,748,152 Japan 9,052,406 the car for $7,665 in 1971.
Peugeot-Citroen 2,227,528 US 6.823,097

Nissan 2,016,626 Germany 4,563,673

Fiat 1,790,631 France 3,409,017

Renault 1,767.516 Italy 1,971,969

1W4 Frenchman Andre 1935 World's lirst parking meter is 1949 The 1958 The Austin 1979 The catalytic converter 1990s New salelv
Citroen (1878-1935) Oklahoma, I'S.
installed, in Citroen 2CV, Mini is launched. introduced. It reduces pollution Features, such .is air bags,
intmi.liii.es front-wheel 1936 Austrian Dr. Ferdinand the people's Itcan seat tour from ear exhausts. arc developed Other safety
Idrivc Urartion avant). This Porsche (1875-1951) is instructed In ear of Prance, people despite its
198H Fastest speed In solar options arc researched; the
;i

development bankrupts nuke "people's is launched. small si/e. powered vehicle experimental !<««> has two
I litler (see p. 404) to .1 is achieved In
( litrocn, \\ ho dies .i year ear" and develops the Beetle. cameras to help the driver
the General Motors Sunrayrrr
k,,cr Ciirotn 2CV \iisini Mini sc\ the road in had
-

1930s (see p.254), which reaches

conditions
Citroen 48.71mph (78.4km/h) I III II

1934 1935 1936 1949 1958 1979 1988

/ / S
253
TRANSPORTATION, COMM1 MICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Marques and makes Motoring words

Automobile manufacturers each have a badge, called Air bag A safety device that fills
marque, to identify their vehicles. Some well-known with air on impact to protect the
marques .ire shown below. driver in a collision.
Antilock braking system (ABS)
ragara
A system that prevents skidding by
detecting if a wheel is about to lock
during braking.

JAGUAR Brake horsepower (BHP) The

power of an engine calculated in
terms of the force needed to stop it.

Catalytic converter A filter that

® TOYOTA
absorbs man\ exhaust pollutants.
Fuel injection (FI) The
introduction of fuel under pressure
into the engine.

Ignition The mechanism that

engine.
starts a car's
direct

Power steering A steering system

that reduces the effort needed to
park and maneuver at low speeds.

VOLVO H-) VAUXHALL Roll bar An overhead bar that

strengthens the car, protecting
passengers if the vehicle ovetturns.
Spoiler An extension that

AMITSUBISHI
MOTORS
rover Group NISSAN
improves a car's road-holding at
high speeds.
Supercharger A mechanism
supplies
at
ait or fuel to
above-normal pressure
increase efficiency.
Turbo charger A supercharger
driven by a turbine powered by the
engine's exhaust gases.
the engine
to
that

Gar facts
• \ndre Citroen (see p. 253) Many in a mini
used many attention-grabbing Since the Austin Mini was first

forms of publicity. He once produced (see p. 253), records have

hired the Eiffel Tower in Paris,
been set and broken for how many
people can squeeze inside one.
and had his name illuminated in
lights down the side. More than
The record currently stands at 24.

250,000 light bulbs were used.

• The car that reached a • A Lincoln Continental • In the early days of driving,
production of one million in the presidential limousine built in Italians drove on the right-hand • From 1865
shortest time was the Volkswagen the US
1968 weighed 5.9 tons
in side of the road in the country, to 1896, British law stated that
Golf. Introduced in 1974, it (5.35 tonnes), more than one- and on the left in towns. One of every car on the road had to
passed the million mark in half of which was protective the last towns to end this have a person running along in

51 months. armor plating. practice was Milan, in 1926. front of it waving a red flag.

Amazing cars
(!ar designers have

produced some
unusual models over
the \ears. Some
have been built
purely to break inda's Genius /•. holds The Peel is one of the The Sunraycer runs on A limousine built in the
the record for low est smallest cars ever solar energy. It has US had 26 wheels and was
records, others as more than 98ft (30m) long.
gasoline consumption. It built, at only 4.4ft special panels that It
experiments in achieved 6,409mpg (1.34m) long. It has no convert sunlight into had a sw imming pool and a
car design. (2.27 l )km/l). reverse gear. electrical energy. helicopter landing pad.

Most expensive cars sold Dashboard Signaling lights are

flicked on and off with

at auction and controls this lever.

Pedals to control the The driver slows

Make Car Price $ down and slops
car's acceleration,
the car with the
Any car 1 962 Ferrari 250 Gran Turismo clutch, and brakes are brake pedal. Small items
Berlinetta Competition GTO 8.853,690 are stored in
situated on the car the glove
Bugatti 1931 Bugatti Type 41 Royale floor. Instruments to compartment.
Sports Coupe 7,665,000
indicate speed, fuel Gear lever
Rolls 1907 Rolls Royce Silver levels, temperature,
Royce Ghost 40/50hp tourer 2,386,706 _ Handbrake
and so on are usually stops the car
Mercedes- 1936 Mercedes-Benz 500 K found on the from moving when
Accelerator controls
Benz Special Roadster 2,222,850 it is parked.
dashboard. the car's speed.

254
 RACING CARS

Racing cars Types of racing car

Racing cars are designed to

compete on a race track. They
range from simple stock cars to
high technology Formula 1 Formula 2
racing cars, which can Formula 1 These are the second most powerful class of
These are the fastest racing racing car after formula 1.

achieve speeds of more than ears. They compete in races

called Grand Prix.
190mph (300km/h).
Motor racing facts
• Ferrari
is the only motor-racing team to

have competed in the Formula world 1

Rally cars
Formula 3
championship every year Rally cars are usually ordinary cars
'These racing ears have engines of up to 2,000cc.
since it started in 1950. with specially strengthened bodies.

• The youngest world

champion racing driver
was Brazilian
Emerson Fittipaldi
(born 1946), who won Indycars
Indycars are similar
his first world
to Formula cars, but 1 Le Mans
championship in 1972,
are larger.They are named after the Indianapolis These racing cars are specially
at the age of 25 years 500, the most famous race in which they compete. adapted sports cars that race at the 24-houi Le
and 9 months. Mans circuit in Trance.

• The oldest world

Emerson Fittipaldi
champion racing driver
was Argentinian Juan Manuel Fangio
(born 191 1). When Fangio won his last US stock cars Dragsters
world championship race in 1957, he was 'These are simple cars that are raced Dragsters race a short distance along a straight

46 years and 41 davs old. around oval dirt tracks. track, at speeds of more than 300mph (4KSkm/h).

Racing records WORST CRASH

Winning formula FASTEST PIT STOP in a motor race occurred at Le Mans in 1955:
It takes 150 Renault-Sport staff to produce (break in a race for refueling or servicing) S3 spectators were killed and more than 100
one of their Formula „ _ was four seconds, made by American Robert were injured w hen a car somersaulted over
engines, ^?'^^S»a^^s^i^^Q. William "Bobby" Unser (born 1934) in the
1
ij the safety barrier, burst into flames, and
including 35 ^Ht^^^ttoti'^*^ fruru^"^ 1976 Indianapolis 500. The
disintegrated. driver also died.
mechanics
COUNTRY WITH MOST LONGEST RATTY
and 25
engineers.
g
1
^^I^tPSaSI}! FORMULA DRIVERS 1 was from Covent Garden, London. IK. to

Ca^M«B from 1950 to 1993 was Great Britain, which the Sydney Opera House, Australia: a
Hfcii IWESVfcw
had 131 drivers (21% of total drivers). distance of 19,329 miles (31.107km).

1907 First track constructed for

History of motor racing motor car racing opens: the
1911 First
Indianapolis
Brooklands Motor Course, I k. 500 race
1895 First motor
takes place in
race with gasoline 1906 First
Indianapolis.
engine vehicles takes Grand Prix in
US.
place, from Paris to Le Mans.
Bordeaux, France, and France, is won
back, The first ear past by Austro- 1929 Bentlej can
the finishing line Hungarian take first, second,
averages l.Sniph Ferencz Szisz third,and fourth
(24km/h) for the race. (1873-1970). places at .c Mans.

1895 1907 1911

I

1929
.^,
'/. '$.

1950 First international 1951 Fangio \\ ins the first of fi\ c 1960s Formula 1 1968 Airfoil wings 1970s Formula ears take 1

Formula race, the I'au Grand

1 World Drivers' Championships. drivers wear helmets are introduced In on a more wedgelike shape.
I'riv is held in Trance. It is won In 1958 First rear-mounted and fireproof overalls, Ferrari and Brabham to
1988 Raised noses are
Juan Manuel Fangio (see above), engines appear in and sit in a more produce downforce introduced on ormula cars.
I 1

Formula cars arc cigar-shaped

I

Formula cars. 1
reclined position. (holds the car fiat on They improve airflow past the
with front-mounted engines. The the track). chassis.
(
cr sits in an upright
l

position.

255
 '

TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Parts of a bicycle
Bicycles The
same.
basic design of
They are made up
all bicycles (bikes) is

of a frame, wheels,
the

Bicycles are riddkn by transmission (cogs,

millions of people around the chains, and gears),

brakes, stem,
world. They range from simple handlebars, and saddle.
'

models with no gears, to This photograph shows the

sophisticated, multigeared parts of a racing bike.

mountain bicycles and racers.

Spoke
Bicycles are the most energy-
efficient of all forms of transport.

Types of bicycle
Racing bicycle
Racing bicycles arc
lightweight, and
fast,
multigeared, with
drop handlebars.

Mountain bicycle
These bicycles are built for
They
off-road cycling.
have thick tires, a Bicycle ownership Gear systems
lightweight frame, and Many bicycles have
a wide range of gears.
around the world gear systems that
This table shows the number enable the cyclist to
BMX (Bicycle of bicycles owned in various
travel quickly or
Motocross) different countries. slowly while pedaling
The BMX bike is A large
Country Bicycles (millions) at a comfortable rate. cog turns
designed for rough-
By moving the gear the wheel
terrain cycling, and is China 300 quickly, allowing
often used for lever, the cyclist lifts the bicycle to
aerobatics and tricks. US 103
the chain from one travel fast downhill

Japan 60 or on flat ground-

cog to another.
Tandem
Tandems are bicycles India 45
fortwo riders, with
Mexico 12
Bicycle records Bicycle facts
two saddles, two LONGEST BICYCLE • There are 800 million
handlebars, and Netherlands 11 72.96ft (22.24m) long.
is bicycles in the world: they
two wheels.
Australia 6.8 Built in 1988, it was ridden outnumber cars two to one.
Bicycle rickshaw by four riders for a distance • The Belgian army added
South Korea 6
Rickshaws arc of 807ft (246m). elbow rests to the bicycles
bicycles adapted to Argentina 4.5
carry two passengers
LARGEST BICYCLE ridden by their regimental
behind or in front, in a Egypt 1.5 (front-wheel diameter) is bands, so that they could
wheeled chair. the Franketicycle, with a play their instruments
Tanzania 0.5
diameter of 10ft (3.05m). while cycling.

History of bicycles
1790 The celerifere, a 1813 The Draisienne is 1839 First bicycle Pedal power
wooden, hobby horse-like built In Carl Von Drais with pedals turning The fastest speed on a bicycle was I52.29mph (245.08km/h),
machine, is built In a (1785— 1 851, German). It the rear wheel is built.
achieved by American John loward in 1985. le was helped by
I I

French man, has a stcerablc It is nicknamed the

_ the Oomptc front wheel "boneshaker." the slipstreaming effect of the leading vehicle.
I J: dc.Sivrac. a nil a

saddle. y
1790

ISol First bicycle with c.1870 The Penny 1879 First 1959 First new 1970s BMX bikes 1990s I luman-powered 1990s Lightweight
pedals on the front Farthing, named commercia bicycle design for 50 are launched. They vehicles (HPVs), such composite materials,
wheel is built. The saddle after two British bicycle, the years - the Moulton appeal particularly as this Winililiirliili XL, arc such as carbon fiber,
is mounted on a spring for coins, is Bicyclette is - is produced. to children. dc\ eloped. Thcv can and new acrody namic
comfort, and there developed. patented. reach greater speeds than shapes revolutionize
braking
, a It prov c ordinarv bicycles. bievclc design.
system for unsafe
the front
i
w heel.

—TZ
1861
5 1879

256
 MOTORCVCLKs

Parts of a motorcycle
Motorcycles The largest to the smallest
in a similarway, with a piston engine and
machines are all built

THE basic DESIGN of a motorcycle telescopic forks. Motorcycle engine sizes range Windshield

consists of a bicycle powered by an from 50cc (cubic capacity) to more than l,000cc.
This Yamaha motorcycle has a l,002cc engine. The throttle is on
engine. Motorcycles range from the handlebars

small-engined mopeds to racing Air scoops feed the

This motorcycle can
motorcycles that can reach speeds reach a speed of air box to supply
167mph (269km/h). the carburetors
of more than 31 lmph (500km/h).

Signaling
Types of light

motorcycle Exhaust This motorcycle

has upside-down
Motorcycle telescopic forks;
rickshaw the lower section
of the fork slides
These three-
Three-spoke into the upper
wheeled taxis
arc adapted wheels
Radiator
motorcycles.
The fairing (front
enclosure) has
Trail bike Chain
been removed to
Lightweight trail
1992 Yamaha FIR 1000 Exup show the engine
motorcycles arc
designed for
rough terrain. Motorcycle LONGEST STREET-
Fastest production
LEGAL MOTORCYCLE
Custom motorcycle records was motorcycles
These motorcycles 15ft (4.57m) long,
arc LONGEST JUMP FROM
adapted by their built by American (Motorcycles built for general sale)
A RAMP
owners to Gregg Reid.
was 251ft (76.5m), by Motorcycle Speed
individual
SMALLEST km/h mph
specifications. American Doug Danger
on a 991 Honda CR 500. MOTORCYCLE BimotaYB81EFurano 290 180
Moped had a wheclbase of
Mopeds arc 50cc LONGEST WHEELIE Kawasaki ZZ R 1100 286 178
4.25in (10.79cm), a seat
motorcycles (traveling nonstop on
height of 3.75in (9.5cm), Suzuki GSX-R 1100WP 285 177
restricted bv law to the rear wheel) was
30mph (48km/h). a frontwheel diameter of BimotaYBIOBiposto 282 175
206 miles (331km), by
0.75in( 1.9cm), and a
Scooter Yasuyuki Kudoh of
back wheel diameter of
Scooters arc Japan.
0.95in (2.41cm). It was
small-wheeled
motorcycles.
LARGEST MOTORCYCLE ridden over a distance of
Most expensive
PYRAMID 3.3ft (lm). production motorcycles
consisted of 45 riders of
Motorcycle Price US$
Combination the Indian Army
Combination or Bimota Tesi 1 D ES 35.300
motorcycle display team.
outfit motorcycles
arc those with a
They rode eight Bimota Tesi 1 D SR 33,300
sidecar attached. motorcycles a distance
Bimota YB10 Furano 32.200
of 2,625ft (800m).

History of motorcycles 188S Germans Wilhelm Mavbaeh 1846-192") (

Motorcycle
1818 First idea for a 1884 Britain's first and Gottlieb Daimler ( 1834-1900) build a
motorcycle, a steam-driven motorcycle, the motorcycle with a wooden frame anil madness
wheels, powered by Daimler's four-
Velocipedrnisiavaporianiia, Pet/vlcyrle, is patented. Ir
stroke internal combustion
The most people td
i
appears in a is not built until 1XKN.
engine. Daimler's son ride one motorcycle
t— cartoon in
rides 6 miles 10km)
( was 46, in 1 987. All the
ri^ !• ranee.
before the saddle
catches tire.
, ,-

'fcsfii
ri i
members of the lllawarra
Mini Bike Training (Hub,
Australia, rode a motorcycle
1884 1885 for I mile (1. 6km).

1892 First 1901 One of the 1904 Ilarlcv 1907 First TT (Tourist 1959 Triumph 1972 First supcibikc 1990s The KII00.
commercial!) first practical Davidson begin Trophy) race is held in introduce their produced bv londa. I w ill) computerized

produced motorcycles, the mnrorcv le the Isle of Man. K. most famous engine management,
1978 New motorcycle
I

motorcycle is new Werner, is production w ith motorcycle, the is launched bv

speed record set bv
launched. produced. then Sili in (inix 1910 Sidecars become high performance ( icim.in i oinpanv
Donald Vcscu (bom I9.W),
Felloe. popular. llonncv illc. liMW.
w ho reaches ilNmph
(S12km/h) (below I.

1892 1972
1901 1904 1907
1910
1959

11
1978
/

257
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

The pantograph picks up an

Parts of a
Trains train
electric current
overhead cables.
from

This illustration shows the Air-conditioned

A TRAIN IS A SERIES of vehicles Train a Grande Vitesse carriages

pushed or pulled along a track (a (TGV) - the French

railroad) by a locomotive. Trains high-speed train. It An air-powered

runs on specially suspension system
are an efficient method of built tracks with
and large shock
absorbers enable
transportation: they use less fuel gentle grades the train to run

The _____ smoothly.

than cars and trucks require. and curves.
TGV was
introduced
Types of train in 1983. Trains run on "trucks,"
which have four or more
The power cars wheels. The trucks
pull and push swivel to enable the train
the train to go around curves.
The wheels under the
power cars and the
The driver'scab has a leading carriage are
computer checks
that driven by electric motors.
for faults on the train,
and a radio that keeps
the driver in

with the signaling

touch
Bring your own carriage
center and On some of the earliest trains,
other trains.
passengers' own carriages were attached
towagons pulled behind the locomotive.
Passengers sat in them during
The TGV's
the journey.
Diesel locomotive streamlined shape
reduces air resistance,
enabling it to travel at
high speeds.

Train facts
• Steam trains are still used in several
countries, including Zimbabwe, India,
and China.
• The first toilets on trains appeared in
the 1850s, in the US and Kurope. Railroad gauges
The gauge of a railroad is the distance between the two
Rails and switches running rails. Railroads are laid to different gauges in
y welded into one different parts of the world. This table shows some of
continuous track as they
the countries that have the various gauges.
are laid, allowing trains
to run smoothly.
Gauge Countries
Switches, or points, are metric imperial
intersections in the rails
1 ,676mm 5ft 6in Argentina, Chile, India, Pakistan,
that move trains onto a Portugal, Spain
new section of track.
1 ,600mm 5ft 3in Brazil, Ireland, South Australia,
When a switch takes place, one Victoria (Australia)
rail of the track onto which the
train will pass slides up against 1 ,520mm 5ft Finland, former USSR
the far of the track on
rail

which has been traveling.

it
1 ,435mm 4ft 8.5in Canada, China, France, Germany,
Great Britain, Italy, New South
A small gap opens in the Wales (Australia), Scandinavia
near rail of the old track,
(except Finland), US
and the trainmoves
onto the new track. 1 ,067mm 3ft 6in Japan, Queensland, Tasmania,
Western Australia (Australia),
The track rests on South Africa, Zimbabwe
beams of wood
or concrete 1m 3ft 3in Argentina, Brazil, Myanmar, Chile,
called ties or
East Africa, Thailand
sleepers.

1804 First successful steam 1829 Rocket built hy 1830 First public 1890 World's first
History of trains railroad locomotive built In Richard Robert Stephenson steam railroad for electric underground
Pre- 1 9th ccnturv Trevithick (1771-1833, English) for (sec opposite page). It is goods atid passengers, railroad, the City and
Wagons arc pulled .ilmr. tracks the Pen-y-darren the first locomotive to the Liverpool and South London Line.
b\ horses unci humans. ironworks in South incorporate modern Manchester railroad. UK opens (below ).

Wales, UK. tea tu res. UK. opens.

Stones being
honied 1881 World's
along a public
first
track 'g eieen ic
-v^ electric railroad
i

Sag t] opens, in
Germany

1829 1890

258
 TR\I\S

Train records Famous trains

MOST POWERFUL SINGLE-
UNIT DIESEL-ELECTRIC
LOCOMOTIVES
arc 6,600 horsepower, owned l>\

theUS Union Pacific Railroad.

f
LONGEST AND HEAVIEST
FREIGHT TRAIN ROCKET TRANS-SIBERIAN EXPRESS BLUE TRAIN
This steam engine was designed
earl} This service runs from Moscow to The li/rn Train is probabh the most
was 500-carcoal train that
a
In English engineers Robert \ ladi\ ostoek. taking almost eight days luxurious train in the world: it has been
stretched for 4 miles (6.4km) Stephenson (1803-59) and lenrj I to cover 5,777 miles (9,297km) - the described as "a five-star hotel on
and weighed 46,300 tons. It ran Booth in 1X29. It reached speeds of longest regular train journey in the wheels." Introduced in 1939, it runs
on the Norfolk and Western 29mph (47km/h) and heralded the age world. The first through Trans- between the South African cities of
of the passenger train. Siberian train ran in 1914. Pretoria and Cape Town.
Railroad, Ohio, in 1967, and was
hauled b\ six diesels.

THE GENERAL FLYING SCOTSMAN "BIG BOYS"

This train was built for the Western Flying Scotsman -London and North These locomotives were built from
and Atlantic Railroad in 1855. It was Eastern Railway locomotive No.4472 1944 In the American
19-41 to

typical of the steam engines that -was built in 1923. It hauled express Locomotive Company, for the nion I

opened up the American West, with a passenger trains between London, Pacific Railroad. hev were among the
I

cowcatcher on the front, and a large England, and Edinburgh, Scotland, largest conventional steam locomotives
funnel for catching sparks. until 1963. ever built.

Grand Central Terminal, New York

LARGEST STATION
is the Grand Central Terminal
r
i
^
in New York, US, which lias

44 platforms.
HIGHEST STATION
is at Condor, Bolivia. It is
ORIENT EXPRHSS HIAWATHA ETR450 TILTING TRAIN
The luxurious Orient Express was Hiawatha was ,i steam-powered train This Italian tram was introduced in
situated at an altitude of
introduced in 1KK.V It ran between built to prov ide a high-speed passenger 198K. It provides fast passenger service
15,705ft (4,787m). London, Paris, Vienna, Budapest, and serv ice in the began in 1935, and
I S. It on routes between Rome and other
( Constantinople (Istanbul). So main traveled between Chicago and cities in ltal\ It can nit at an angle of
OLDEST SURVIVING STATION .

secret agents used this train that it Minneapolis—St. Paul, taking just five up to 10 and has a maximum speed of
is Liverpool Road, Manchester, became known as the "Spies Express.' hours and five minutes. I55mph (250km/h).
UK, which opened in 1830. It is
now part of the Museum of
Science and Industry.

Major passenger
railroad users
This table shows the
TWENTIETH CENTURY LTD. MALLARD BULLET TRAIN
countries with the highest 1 his luxury train was run by the New- This steam locomotive - London and This is the nickname of Japan's high-
passenger railroad usage. York Central and Hudson River North Eastern Railwav locomotive speed tram, which began running
Railroad. It ran between New York No. 446S - holds the world speed between Tokyo and Kaka in 1965. (

Country Distance traveled

and Chicago from 1902 to 1967, and record for steam traction. In 19.sN it The Bullet Train's aerodynamic shape
(in billions)
had a rear observation car and an reached a speed of 126mph (203km/h), enables it to travel at speeds of up to
km miles
onboard barber shop. pulling a seven-coach train. 130mph (ZIOkm/h).
Russia 410.7 255.2

Train facts • Between 1804 and 1968, more

Japan 390 242
• A high-speed diesel railear than 130,000 steam locomotives
Germany 65.9 40.9 were built in Britain.
introduced in Germany in 1933
France 64.3 40.0 ran at speeds of lOOmph • The fust railway to xer\c
Italy 44.4 27.6 (lnlkm/h) between Berlin and on a train was the IS
inc. lis I

Ilamburg. It was widely known Baltimore ami Ohio Railroad,

UK 33.2 20.6
as the Flying: Hamburger. Steam locomotive works, Newcastle, l A. ist>i in 1853.

189S Klectric 191.1 First diesel-powered 1934 Pioneer Zephyr, 1968 Last scheduled 19X7 World speed record 1990 World speed
traction is railear, built in Sweden, a streamlined dicsel-electric passenger steam for diesel traction is set In record lor .in electric
introduced in the enters service. train, is introduced in the S. I
!
train runs on British British Railways' I ligh- loeoinotiv e i^ set bv
IIS, on a 3.7-mile 1923 Flying Scotsman (see It sets die long-distance Railways: the 21.15 Speed Irani, which achieves the I Kiu li I ( A h
(6km) stretch of above) enters service. nonstop speed record. Preston to averpool,
I 176.4mph (283.9km/h). achieves a speed oi
track in Baltimore. 320mph t5l 5k
Pioneer Zephyi

1895 1913 1923 1934

259
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Parts of a boat
Boats Sailing has its own language, with special

terms to describe many of the features

FROM HUGE OIL tankers to found on boats. This racing yacht shows
simple dugout canoes, boats play most of the parts of a modern boat.

a vital role in the transportation Stay supports

the mast
of people and goods. For many Sheet controls the
centuries, much of the world's position of the sail
relative to the wind
trade has depended on shipping.

Sails
Sails catch the wind to provide power
for boats.

Starboard
(right-hand side)

Mainsail Toerail stops feet from

sliding over the side

Gunwales: the tops of

the boat's sides.

Navigation instruments

Spinnaker sheet

Hull (main body

of the boat)

Blocks enclose
rotating pulleys.

Offshore racing yacht

SERVICE
Types of ship and boat
Boats can be divided into various categories
according to their function: passenger, cargo, sport, ftir H
service, fishing, or military (see p. 262). Police patrol boat Dredger Weather ship
Lifeboat

PASSENGER/CARGO

-*- i^^j**^^,
I Jin) Ferry
Lightship Tug Submarine

SPORT AND LEISURE

Hydrojoil Paddle wheeler Pacific Island canoe
MAINLY CARGO (stemwheeler)
Molorboal Motor cruiser Jet ski

Oil tanker Container sluji

Racing shell Rowboat Kayak Punt

Dhow funk FISHING

Tramp Heavy li/t Factory ship Titicaca reed boat Grand Hanks doty Coracle

c.2450 B.C. 489 B.C. Battle of c.500-c.323 B.C. The age A.D. 400-1200 1000 Vikings land 1492 Italian explorer
History Egyptians develop Salamis: Greeks of the trireme: ancient Greek Viking longships in North America. Christopher Columbus
OF BOATS ocean-going defeat the much warships powered by oars, dominate north (1451-1506) lands in
planked boats, larger Persian with a bronze ram at the bow European waters. c.1240 Centerline the Caribbean.
c.3500 B.C. Early powered bby about forces in a major for piercing enemy ships. rudder introduced
Egyptian boats arc 30 rowers. sea battle. in Europe.
__j, . ,„..... ^
made from bundles Creek
Centerline
rudder
of reeds. trireme

Egyptian reed S.uil.i

sailing boat
% r '

Maria

'&v V
v /v /$/ 1000
¥s
1240
#/
1492

:
260
 BOATS

Famous ships
Sailing words
Aft At or near the stern.
=r±
Beating Sailing into the wind;
wind coming from the bow,
Forward At or coward the bow.
Gangplank Portable bridge for
boarding or leaving the boat.
SANTA MARIA MAYFLOWER BNDEAVOl R
This was the flagship of Italian fins square-rigged sailing ship took Captain James Cook (1728- !

Heave-to To slow or stop a boat

explorer Christopher Columbus 100 Puritans from Southampton, undertook his first scientific and
using the sails and rudder. 1451-1506) on his voyage of discovers England, in 1620, to form the first exploratory voyage in this ship, in
(

Jibing Turning the stem of a boat to the West Indies in 1492. Stuilti permanent European colony in New 1768. During this three-year voyage.
through the wind. Maria was wrecked, and Columbus England. Plymouth, Massachussets is Cook mapped 5,000 miles (8,000km)
Knot Unit of speed used by ships continued on the Nina. now located on the site. of coastline.
and aircraft: one knot = one
nautical

Log The
mph.
record of a ship's voyage.
^
Nautical mile Unit of length used
in sailing: one nautical mile =
6,076ft (1,852m). (One land mile =
5,280ft/l,609m.)
Reaching Sailing across the wind; BOUNTY CUTTY SARk
wind coming from the beam (side).
k()\ TIKI
In 1788, a famous mutiny took place- This was the most famous of the Norwegian Thor leycrdahl (born
I

Running Sailing with the wind on the Bounty. Lieutenant Fletcher clippers. By the time the Cutty Sari 1914) built the raft Koit lit, in 1947 to
Coming from astern. Wind Christian (1764-C.1790) led a revolt was launched in 1869, the Sue/ Canal prove that the Polynesian islands
Tacking Turning against commanding officer William was open and steamships could travel could have been populated from South
the bow of a boat Bligh 754-1817) after the ship had
( 1 east economically. The era of the America. He sailed 3300 miles
through the h collected breadfruit from Tahiti. sailing ship was dravv ing to an end. it). 15km) from Peru to Raroia.
1
ind.

Ship facts
Viking very -^ *
• Japanese companies own
LONG SHIP 3,041 large- and medium-si/cd
The world's largest ship is the ships (those with more than
Norwegian oil tanker Jahre 1,000 gross tons); Greek
Viking, which is 1,503ft (458m) companies own 2,775, and US
Ship records long. It takes five minutes to _^^K^ companies own 1,654.
LARGEST SAILING SHIP walk from one end to the other.
• A large oil tanker carries about
was the France, which measured
29,240,000 gallons 152.925.040 (

418.8ft (127.7m) long.

liters) of gasoline: this is enough
LARGEST CONTAINER SHIPS
areowned by American Shipwrecks and disasters to enable a car to drive around
the Karth nearly 47,000 times.
President Lines. Five of their Ship Date Sh ipwreck/d isaster
ships are 902ft (275m) long. • About 92% of the world's
Armada 1588 Spanish fleet of 130 ships sent to invade England.
These ships are too large for the trading goods arc carried
After losing the battle, the surviving ships fled north
Panama Canal, and are known as around Scotland and Ireland where many were by ships.
Post-Panamax ships. wrecked by storms. Only 60 ships returned to
Spain; about 15,000 sailors died.

Found abandoned and empty,

SlJPERSTORER
Marie Celeste 1872 with no trace of
Large container ships can
the ten people originally on board.
carry about 2,700
Titanic 1912 Struck an iceberg and sank, with the loss of
containers. Stacked. thc\
about 1 ,500 lives.
would stand almost tw ice-

Lusitania 1915 Torpedoed with the loss of 1 ,198 lives. as high as \lt. Everest.

Wilhelm Gustloff 1945 Torpedoed with the loss of more than

7,000 lives.

Dona Paz 1963 Collided with tanker Vector: 4,386 people died.
Elizabeth

LARGEST PASSENGER LINER Queen Elizabeth 1972 Burned and sank in Hong Kong Harbor while

the Norway, which being refitted.

is is 1,035ft
(315.5m) long. The Queen Amoco Cadiz 1978 Spilled 223,000 tons of oil, with drastic
Elizabeth, launched in 1938, was environmental consequences.
1,031ft (314m) long, A^vy- V/viha v^v
1519-22 First c.1700 1838 First crossing of 1850-1859 Heyday of the 1968-69 First nonstop solo 1994 Englishman
circumnavigation Introduction the Atlantic entirely clipper: fast sailing ship that circumnavigation of the world Mike ( tolding (horn

of the world by of the v under steam, by SirittS. transports tea from China to from west to east. 1960) breaks cast-
Portuguese steering •y? Curope and North America. l.\ English
. W( „,,, west (against the
explorer wheel. -f- piev ailing vv ind),
Ferdinand single-handed, non-
Magellan stop round-the-world
Ship's
(1480-1521). record, in Group V
steering w
/>, completing

Ins voyage ui lt<7 d.ivs

1519 1838 1850 1968 1*M

4h

lb\
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Parts of a warship
Warships and Modern warships are
with guns and guided missiles
armed
Navigation/
helicopter control
radar antenna

submarines for attack and defense. Most

equipped with
are also
There ark many types of advanced electronic equipment
for detecting targets.
fighting vessel, from light,
speedy frigates to massive
aircraft carriers and nuclear-
powered submarines. countryA
or state's fighting force of ships
and submarines is called its navy.

Types of warship
The main function of a warship is to
defend its country, sea-lanes, and
shipping from enemy attack.
Submarines
There are two main types
of military submarine:
^ patrol submarines, which
seek and destroy ships,
Aircraft carrier and missile-carrying
The aircraft carrier the largest of all warships. It
is
submarines. Today's
acts as a floating airfield for up to 100 aircraft. It
may have a crew of more than 2,000, plus a flying
nuclear missile-carrying /
submarines are the most Propeller Diesel motor Reactor Junior Torpedo Torpedo
crew of more than 1,000.
compartment space ratings' compartment tube
powerful weapons carriers
of all time. Nuclear-powered submarine

Warship and Famous fighting ships

Cruiser submarine records
The cruiser's speed and endurance arc LARGEST
considered more important than its protection SUBMARINE
(self-defense) and weapons. Cruiser functions is the
van from na\ v ro nav y. Russian
Typhoon
which
class,
VICTORY BISMARCK
The Victory, built in 1765, was This German WWII
measures British Admiral Lord Nelson's battleship, launched in 1939
about 558ft Russian Typhoon (1758-1805) flagship. It had and sunk in May 1941, had
class submarine
(170m) long. 100 guns and a crew of 850. eight 1 Sin (38cm) guns.
Battleship
Before aircraft carriers were built, the battleship FASTEST SUBMARINE
was the most hcav ily armed and armored ship. is the Russian Alpha, which can
There are now very few battleships remaining probably exceed 42 knots (see
in service.
p. 261) when submerged.

WARSHIP WITH THE LARGEST

NUMBER OF HEAVY GUNS
was the battleship Agin court,
WARRIOR YAMATO
The Warrior, built in 1860, was This Japanese battleship,
built in 1914, which had the first iron battleship. This launched in 1940, was the
Destroyer fourteen 12in (30.5cm) guns. British ship was protected by a largest battleship of all time. It

The destroyer was originally intended to defend 4. Sin (114mm) iron belt. was sunk in 1945.
fleets against attack from torpedo boats. Today's
destroyers arc armed with guided missiles. Warship hardship
During the late 18th century,
only about 9% of deaths on
British Royal Navy warships
2^
MONITOR ESSEX
were due to enemy action. In 1862, during the American The US aircraft carrier Essex,
About 50% were caused by Civil War, the US,l/o////o/took launched in 1942, could carry
Frigate
disease, 31% by accidents, part in the first battle between 91 aircraft and achieve a speed
The frigatewas developed during World War II
ironclad warships. of 32 knots.
to escort convoys and protect them from and about 10% by fires and
submarines. Today's frigates perform a variety wrecks.
of functions. -t»

Minesweeper DREADNOUGHT NIMITZ

Minesweepers have special equipment for
This British ship, built in 1906, The US nuclear-powered
locating and destroying mines. The\ are usually was the first modern battleship. aircraft carrier Nimitz was
It was armed with heavy guns completed in 1975. It carries
small craft of 440-880 tons (400-800 tonnes).
and protected by thick steel. 90 aircraft.

262
 AIRCRAFT

The fin slops the back of

Aircraft the plane from swinging

from side to side. .

THE TERM aircraft refers to

all flying machines, including
airplanes, helicopters, and c^s
hot-air balloons. Aircraft
range from simple hang-
gliders to the enormous
Boeing 747, which can carry
more than 550 people.
Spinner

Parts of an aircraft
This small, propcllcred light aircraft shows
Propeller
the features of a typical airplane. Its main
structures are the fuselage, wings,
Nose landing
stabilizer (or tail plane), rudder, one or gear
more engines, and the landing gear.

Primary flight display Landing and taxi Warning

CRT: includes light switches lights
Types of The flight deck horizon, altimeter,
artificial

and
airplane contains the controls
airspeed indicator

Airplanes (planes) are and data-display

powered, heavier-than-air instruments. Today's
aircraft with fixed wings. flight decks, such as
There are many different Jet aircraft
this 1980s airliner
Jet aircraft arc powered In jet
types of airplane; their uses cockpit, have
engines (see Most civil
p. 247).
include warfare, sport, passenger aircraft)
airliners (large cathode-ray tubes
and transportation. and military planes have jet engines. (CRTs). These
display computerized
information on
screens that can be Wing flap
control
changed at the touch Independent
of a button. weather radar

Rolling
Propellered plane Biplane
Flying a To roll, the pilot moves
Propcllcred planes arc cheaper to run Biplanes have two sets of wings, one plane the control column to the
The plane rolls

the ailerons are

when

above the other, braced with wires. left or right, raising

than jet aircraft, and can take off Airplanes have three raised and lowered
easily from short runways. Many Early planes were built in this style the ailerons on one-
main controls: the
wing and lowering
airlines use turboprop aircraft for because two wings were stronger
regional air services. The propellers than one long, single wing. Today's
throttle, which them on the other.
of these planes arc driven by biplanes arc strong enough to controls the speed;
gas turbines. withstand acrobatic displays. the rudder pedals; and
the control column. Control
column

Elevator

Light aircraft Observation plane
Light aircraft arc powered by piston Observation planes arc used In
engines similar to those found in police, rescue services, and armies.
cars. These small airplanes are used They are usually standard light
mainly for leisure and short aircraft, although the Edgeley Optica
business trips. (abo\ c ) is a custom-built model.
Pitching
I o pitch the plane up or dow n. the
pilotpushes or pulls the control
column, raising oi lowering the
ele\ .mil flaps on the tail wing.
Yawing
To make the plane yaw
(swerve) to the left or right, the
pilot sw tvels the rudder bar
with the feet This turns the
upi il'.Iii ruddei on the tail.

Supersonic plane Seaplane

Supers. inic planes are jet aircraft that Seaplanes tan take off from and land
Banking
can fly faster than the speed of sound on water. They arc used mainly in Airplanes have to bank in
(sec p. 236). Their shape is different remote areas with few airfields, such order to nun. The pilot uses
from that of conventional an planes, as northern ( lanada and Alaska,
the control column and the
because air flows in a different way at where the country is undeveloped ruddei pedals together, so
such high speeds. and lakes abound. thai the aircraft rolls .\nJ
saws at the same tunc.

263
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

c.2000 B.C. Accordin 1010 Oliver of Malmesbury

History of flight to legend, Daedalus, (c.980-1066), a
For centuries, people tried to acraftsman , Benedictine monk, attaches 1486-1500
fly. They made elaborate wings, working on the A wings to his arms and Italian artist
labyrinth for King jumps from a towet. He Leonardo da Vine
launching themselves from high
Minos of Crete, travels for a short (1452-1519) sketches
places, often with fatal results.
makes wings for distance but designs for flapping wing
()nl\ during the last 100 years himself and his son breaks his craft (ornithopters), as well
dolus
have humans learned to fly, to escape the island legs. parachutes and helicopters
advancing from simple
1010 1436
machines to jet airplanes.
V, V,
1891-96 The 1896 American scientist Samuel 1903 The
world's first Langley (1834-1906) builds a Samuel world's first
aviator, German tandem-winged, steam-powered Langley power-driven
Otto Lilienthal model, the flew airplane flight is
0. 6 miles
(1848-96), invents Aerodrome. made by the
(1km) in the
a practical hang- Aerodrome. Wright brothers,

1853 Sir George Cayley glider and becomes Orville

builds a full-size glider, which, the firstperson to (1871-1948) and

claimed, carries his
it is
make repeated Wilbur (1867-1912), who fly 853ft
coachman across a small valley. controlled flights. Otto Lilienthal, 1896 (260m) at Kitty Hawk, LIS.

1853 1891 1896 1903

1919 First nonstop flight across the 1920s Vast airships fly people across the 1927 First solo 1928 First flight across
Atlantic is made bv British aviators Atlantic in ocean-liner style. flightacross the the mid-Pacific is made
John Alcock (1892-1919) and Arthur Atlantic is made by by Australian Charles
Whitten-Brown (1886-1948), in a
1924 Hugo Junkers (1859-1935, German)
American Charles Kingsford Smith
produces a pioneering all-metal three-engined
Vickers Vimy Lindbergh (1897-1935).
monoplane airliner.
with Rolls- (1902-74) in a Ryan
1928 World's first
Royce engines. monoplane. Spirit of
modern airport is built
It takes 16 St. Louis.
at Croydon, near
hours.
London, UK.
Atmrk and Spirit of St Lotus
Broom
1919 1924 1927
'#/

1939 First jet-
propelled flight is
made by a Heinkel
He 178, powered by
an engine designed
bv German Hans von
1940 Battle of Britain: 1947 The Bell X-l
the victory of the British experimental rocket
Royal Air Force over the plane, piloted by
German Luftwaffe ensures American Chuck Yeager
that Britain is not invaded. (born 1923), breaks 1952 The world's first jetliner,
GloslerE28/39
the sound barrier. theDe Havilland Comet, comes

1937 First
Ohainfborn 1911).

Heinkel Hel 78
A 1941 Frank
Whittle's jet engine
is used in the Gloster
Bell X-l
into service, halving international
flight times. Two years later
withdrawn following crashes due
it is

experimental jet E28/39. to metal fatigue.

engine is designed by
British engineer Frank
1939 1940 1941 1952
Whittle (born 1907)
(above right).

Other aircraft GLIDER MICROLIGHT

Gliders are unpowered A microlight is basically a powered
types planes with a wide hang glider. It has a small engine
wingspan and an open fiberglass car,
HOT-AIR BALLOON measuring up to called a trike, that can
Hot-air balloons are 82ft (25m). hold a crew of two. The
used mainly for They use trike is suspended on
recreation. Modern hot- currents of hot, rising air a strong frame.
air balloons use propane (thermals) to stay aloft, and Pilots steer by
burners carried above are controlled with a shifting their
the balloon's basket to rudder, elevators, and weight against the frame.
heat up the air. ailerons (see p. 263). Microlights can reach speeds of
up to lOOmph (160km/h).

AIRSHIP HANG GLIDER HELICOPTER

Modern helium or
airships are fdled with Hang gliders are Helicopters are powered, lifted, and
hot air. Their long, thin shape keeps them made of material steered by rotating blades. They take
stable. Airships can be steered, and many stretched across a off vertically, fly slowly and hover,
have swiveling propellers to assist with simple frame, forming and move in any direction. This
takeoff and landing. Airships are wings. The pilot hangs maneuverability makes them
sometimes used for beneath the wings in a ideal for functions such as
advertising, with harness or body-bag and crop-
messages steers by shifting weight from spraying,
displayed side to side. Hang gliders are traffic
on their not powered: the pilot relies on surveillance, and
sides. thermals for lift. rescue.

264
 HISTORY OF l-LIOHl

1783 French brothers Montgolfia brothers' 1844 First design for 18.52 First
bill Inn li
Joseph and Ftienne a complete airship is built
Montgolfier (1740-1810; 1804 British baronet mechanically powered and flown In
1745-99) launch a balloon Sir George Caylev airplane: William Ilenri Giffard
from Versailles, France, (1773-1857) invents the Henson (1X12-8K. (1825-82. French).
rt ith rooster, a sheep,
li practical airplane: he British i
designs the It is a cigar-shaped

tnd aduck on board. A few builds a model glider Aerial Steam

Aerial Steam Carriagt balloon powered
reeks later, they tl\ a new that provides the basis i arriagi and makes a 20ft (6m) by a steam engine. Giffard's
:>alloon carrying two men. Cor later aircraft design. design model version. unship

1783 1804 1844 1852

1907 First helicopter flight is 1909 First flight across the 1909 Baroness 1914-18 WW
I: tirst use of aircraft

made by French mechanic Paul English Channel is made by de Laroche in war. The airplane becomes a
Cornu (1881-1944). He lifts off Louis Blenot (1872-1936, (?-1919) is the weapon; there is a huge increase in
the ground for 20 seconds. French), who flies from first woman to speed, range, and strength.
Paul ('.mini \ France to England in a make a solo flight
helicoptei monoplane.

Bleriot's monoplane,
the Blenot Type XI

1907 1909 1909 IUW German

biplanes

1 930 British aviator Amy Mollison 1932 American aviator 1936 First practical 1937 The airship Hindenburg
Inee Johnson) (1903-41) flies solo Amelia Earhart (1898-1937) helicopter, the Locke is destroyed in an accident,

'rom England to Australia in Gypsy Mnlh. is the first woman to fly solo Achgelis FW-61, flics killing 35 people.
across the Atlantic. Macchi
M72
1933 World's first modern
airliner, the Boeing 247, is
1934 Italian Macchi M72
floatplane sets the world
launched.
speed record
mm at 440m ph
(708km/h).

1932 1933 1934

I960 The Hawker PI 127 1965 The Lockheed 1970 The first wide- 1979 First 1986 First nonstop
nakes the first hovering trials SR71 Blackbird spy bodied jet, the Boeing 747 1976 human-powered round-the-world flight, by
plane sets a new world "Jumbo comes into aircraft, the Americans J. ^ eagei born
ping jet thrust. It is the Jet," The Anglo- i

speed record of 2,070mph up to 550 Gossamet Albatross, 1936) and I). Rutan (bom
Iredecessor of the Harrier, the service. It carries French supersonic
crosses the 1952). in RhIiih in
jnly VTOL (vertical takeoff (3,331km/h). passengers, and makes airliner Concorde goes into
I

international jet travel

English Channel.
and landing) aircraft to speeds
service, reaching
— enter service. Bin, kin nl commonplace. of l,550mph (2,494km/h).

Bight: Gossamer Albatross,

designed b\ American Paul
Macready (burn 1925)

1965 1970 1976

Aircraft facts Aircraft records Worst air disasters

• One of first airline services was LARGEST AIRCRAFT WINGSPAN
Year Incident Number of
provided by German Zeppelin is that of the Hughes H4 Hercules
people killed
airships. They carried a total of which
flying boat Spruce Goose,
measures 319.9ft (97.51m) across. 1977 Two Boeing 747s (KLM and Pan Am)
35,000 passengers between Lake
on the runway at Tenenfe,
collided
Constance, Berlin, and other cities. Canary Islands. 583
• The world's first electrically 1985 A Japan Boeing 747 crashed en
Airlines
powered aircraft, the MB-K1, flew in route from Tokyo to Osaka. 520
1973, in Germany. 1974 A Turkish Airlines DC- 10 crashed
at Ermenonville, France, immediately after
take-off from Paris. 346

Winged thing 1985 An Air India Boeing 747 exploded in mid-air

off the Irish coast, en route from Vancouver
In the 1890s, Horatio
to Delhi.
Phillips (1845-1926,
British) built a Hughes IN I In i iibs /lying boat Spi uce ( loose 1980 A Saudi Arabian Airlines Lockheed Tristar
caught fireduring an emergency landing.
plane with 20 SMALLEST BIPLANE
sets of w ings. is Humble Bee Two, which is just
It looked like 8.7ft (2.(>4m) long, and weighs LARGEST AIRLINER
a \cnetian 3961b (179.6kg). is the Boeing 747-400,

blind. w huh has a \\ ingspan ol

HEAVIEST AIRCRAFT
is the Antonox An-225 \Iriva [Dream), 21 ft (64.4m). It can carr\
I

which weighs 661 tons (600 tonnes). up to 567 passengers,

265
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

This fighter carries a crew of

Parts of a fighter F-15E Eagle
Types of Modem fighter planes are
two: the pilot, and the weapon
systems operator.
warplane equipped with The crew can escape from
ejector seats if the aircraft is in
sophisticated electronic danger of crashing.
instruments for detecting
The large, transparent
and attacking enemy canopy gives the crew a
aircraft and ground good range of vision.

targets. This fighter An infrared heat-sensitive

Fighter camera enables the crew
Fighter planes arc designed to
can fly at more than to fly in the dark.
win air superiority so that other, l,852mph (2,980km/h), at a
Radar
slower such as bombers
aircraft, height of 60,000ft (18,288m). antennae
and observers, can operate over The rotary cannon can fire detect other
battle zones. Fighters also attack more than 6,000 rounds of aircraft.

enemy bombers. ammunition per minute. Four air-to-air missiles The plane's fuselage is made of
for shooting down composite plastic materials and
Terrain-following radar
^CT^3 Aircrew enemy aircraft. light metal alloys.
enables the plane to fly at high

^S^^ Aircrew consists

speeds close to the ground.

Bomber of flying crew,

Bombers can carry a wide range of who fly in the King of the aces
weapons and bombs, including planes, and During WWII, German
nuclear weapons, and special
ground crew. Major Erich Hartmann J
bombs for destroying runways.
Armorers ensure (1922-93) shot down
that the planes 352 planes, making >
j.

are adequately The pilot flies Women flying Aircraft The ground him the war's top ./*•' ,*
equipped with the aircraft. He crew do not engineers crew carry out
air ace.
or she carries usually fly check the maintenance
ammunition and flightplans in aircraft in planes after and repair of
bombs. knee pads. battles. every flight. the aircraft.

Famous war planes

FOKKER TRIPLANE VULCAN
Transport aireraft German YVVVI The
Modern armies rely on transport flying ace Vulcan
planes and helicopters to move Manfred von was the
troops and equipment rapidly into Richthofen main British

battle zones. (1892-1918), nuclear attack aircraft in the 1950s and

the "Red Baron," 1960s. Although it was not supersonic,
flew many aircraft. The best-known itslarge delta wing allowed it to fly
was the Fokker Triplane. higher than Soviet fighters.
Air force records
LARGEST AIR FORCE
ever was the US Army Air Corps
^7 (now the US Air Force), which
in 1944 numbered 79,908
SPITFIRE TORNADO aircraft and 2,411,294 personnel.
Helicopter gunship The Tornado NATO's
The Spitfire was the fastest and most is (see p.406)
HEAVIEST BOMBER
Helicopter gunships are heavily
effective British fighter plane of most powerful fighting plane. It is
armed helicopters, with rapid-fire WWII. is the Boeing B-52H
had a Rolls-Royce Merlin
It built in two forms: one carries bombs
machine guns that fire from the engine and could reach a speed of and guided weapons for ground attack; Stratofortress (below). It has a
doorways. They were widely enemy
425mph (684km/h). the other attacks fighters. max. takeoff weight of 488,0001b
used by US forces in Vietnam
(see p.409). (221,353kg) and can carry 12
SRAM thermonuclear short-
range missiles or 24 7501b
MIG 25 (340kg) bombs under its wings,
MESSERSCHMITT-109 The Russian MIG 25 is one of the
and 8 SRAMS or 84 5001b
During WWII, this fighter plane was fastest aircraft in service, reaching

the German Luftwaffe's equivalent of speeds of Mach 2.8 (see p. 236). It was (227kg) bombs in the fuselage.

the Spitfire. developed to counter the threat of

Aerial reconnaissance plane
American supersonic nuclear bombers.
Army commanders rely on airborne
observers to report on the
movements of enemy forces. FLYING FORTRESS NORTHROP B-2
Observation planes are a prime These BOMBER
target for enemy fighters, so hcaviK This US
pilotless remote-controlled aireraft armed bomber is

(RPVs) are often used. US WWII designed to absorb

bombers were designed for or deflect enemy
daylight raids. Fortresses were meant to radar, so thatit can

fly in formation and protect each other, remain undetected

but this strategy failed. They were only when approaching its targets.
TOP WOMAN ACE
safe when escorted by fighters. It is made of composite plastics. was Junior Lieutenant Lvdia
Litvak (1921-43) of the USSR,
VTOL aircraft AVRO LANCASTER MIRAGE who shot down 12 planes
VTOL (vertical takeoff anil This was This plane-
landing) aircraft use the immense the main is used b\
between 1941 and 1943.
power of the jet engine to rise British airforces TOP JET ACE
vertically, or after a short run. bomber around was Captain Joseph McConnell
VTOL craft do not need a long used by th the
}r. (1922-54), of the US Air
runwav and can therefore be RAF during WWII. It world.
hidden near the battlefront. flew mainh at night tc Different models are used as fighters, as Force, who shot down 16 planes
detection In encmv fighters fighter-bombers, and for reconnaissance. in the Korean War.

266
 K
AIRLINE INSIGNIA

Airline AerLJngilS A A£KOUNEASARG£A/rMAS AIRALCERIE ZTy

insignia
MOST COUNTRIES have
J%IR
Irish airlines

FRAN4 w _i ^j r Namibia # air neuj "**-™°

a national airline. Each
airline has its own ^ AUSTRIAN Avianca
distinctive insignia airlanka!/ AIRLINES The Airline of Colombia
(emblem) and colors,
which make its aircraft BahAmasair

easy to identify. A BALKAN

selection of airline BUtUAflAM A.flUHES II British Airways
insignia is shown here.

SWIA mSS? f^^^^^r

Canadian
C anadian Airlines International
Croatia AIRLINES
WE ARE THE C ARI8BEAN

CYPRUS AIRWAYS
^ ELZLflLZA^ZT
Israel airlines ETHIOPIAN
EbvptRm viator"** AIRLINES

* /V/WV/7/V7
Garuda Indonesia
GUttAIR

ICELANDAIR Istanbul Airlines

Spanish airline
Japan Airlines

%J1SJRSEY 13) Kenya

POLISH AIRLINES
Airways
KLM
KIM Royal Dutch Airlines
KOREAN VI

^auda-air Lufthansa
German airlines
*- LUXAIR
Independent airline Lus&mbourg airlines

malaysia Middle East Airlines

NIGERIA
AIRWAYS
LIMITED ® NORTHWEST
A

American
1 R I 1

airline
\ \ ^

J*
isyb*w»wc:
a mw a v m
# a*
Ad
awaA
Philippine
Airlines
Australian tmlnus.
\ ukI inliii i, airlines

sabena
(Week airlines

o
il/IISAS
Pakistan International

snurlin t8t
I

Hiignuill
»*_>i
irlines

V^Ji *,»il***WAI
4
SinGAPORE
Belgian airlines AIRLinES
Scandinavian Airlines System

SOUTH AFRICAN AIRWAY!

swissair^T <5? Thai IKn Agtu.Ks lnli-nvilni.il linuMi
TURKISH AIRLINES
Interna

J£ UZBEKISTAN
Warn airways VARIG
O virgin atla lUlcjff
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Telecommunications
Communications Telecommunications covers
communication by telephone, fax,
FIBEROPTICS
Today, most international
routed through fiberoptic cables,
calls are

which lie on the seabed. A telephone

Developments in communication systems television, and radio. All these
call is carried as a pulse of light along
person can forms of communication need a
have changed people's lives. Today, a a cable that is made up of a few fine
transmitter to send out the strands of pure glass, called
make instant contact, whether by phone or fax,
information, something to carry optical fibers.

with someone on the other side of the world. the signal, and a receiver to
People can travel to distant countries in a matter convert the signal back into an
understandable message.
of hours. Advances in computer technology have
transformed many workplaces.

Postal FIBEROPTIC SUBMARINE SYSTEMS

This map shows the fiberoptic routes existing today; many more are in the
communications process of being built.
Fiberoptic cubl?

One of the earliest, cheapest, and

most reliable forms of communication
is the postal service. Letters and
packages can be sent by air from one
part of the world to another in a
matter of days.

POSTAL PROCESSING
1 Letters and small packages
are dropped in a mailbox.

2 They are collected by mail |

carriers and taken to the local J

post office.

3 Letters and packages arc-

sorted and put in a sack with
others going to the same area.

4 They are transported by road,

rail, or air to their
destination.

5 The mail is taken to a main

A communication satellite COMMUNICATION SATELLITES
receives signals from one Communication satellites send telephone, fax, radio,
post office and is sorted into Earth station and
and television signals from one part of the Earth to the
districts. passes them to
other. They are also used for navigation by aircraft,
another station
6 It is taken to a local ships, and, increasingly, by motor vehicles.
post office.

7 The letters are sorted by street

8 They are then delivered by

foot or truck.

It is now possible to make a Aircraft

phone call during a flight: calls
MAIL SORTING are relayed from the aircraft to the
Most lettet sortin ground via a satellite.

in post offices is

done b\ machine
An operator reads
the address on MOBILE PHONES
a letter and Portable telephones
punches a have become popular in
keyboard that recent years.They can
prints a code of be used in the home,
dots or bars. Other in the car, or out in the
Ships, aircraft, and motor
sorting machines "read street. The phones
vehicles can use signals
the codes and sort the sent from the satellite to have a built-in radio
letters further. plot their position. transmitter anil receiver.

l.i'lln stillllll!

Truck Ship

Morse code A
The form of telecommunication was the
earliest
electric telegraph. An electric current was sent J •
along a wire in long and short bursts, known as
Morse code.

268
 COMMUNICATIONS

Air travel
There arc hundreds of A MAJOR AIRLINE'S WORLD lotl

airline companies
operating throughout
the world, offering
sate, affordable travel
to billions of people.

Air travel
facts
• Chicago International
Airport in the US is the
busiest airport in the
world. Aircraft take off
or land about every
40 seconds.
• London's Heathrow
Airport handles the
most international
flights in the world.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

Airplanes carry a device,
calleda transponder, that
Business communications
sends out a signal when it
The development of communications technology in the workplace-
receives a pulse of radio energy The aircraft
has changed the way many people do their work. Because ol the
from the secondary scanner. replies with a speed of communication possible with the use of fax machines,
This signal tells air traffic signal only when the future
electronic mail, and telephone systems, it is likcK that in
control the aircraft's receives a
it

identity, height, pulse from the more people will be able to work from home.
secondary
and speed.
scanner. At video conference centers, people
VIDEO CONFERENCE can see each other on screen
Instead of spending time and money,
traveling to meetings, people can now
communicate with each other b\ going to
\ideo conference centers. People speak
through microphones ami are able to see
each other on screens. Although not yet

_^£3&££s-£$ w idespread, \ ideo conferences are

expected to become more common in

Secondary radar the future.

system sends out pulses .''^Z&ps-x*. Computer
V
to the aircraft, and receives N screen
signals from the aircraft's transponder.
i .us* Radar antenna spins slowly, Wti/illlllliiliitilllm

scanning for aircraft coming in

different directions.

COMPUTERS
Communication Information can be collected, stored,
processed, and transmitted very quickly
words on computer.
Cable television Tele\ ision
programs delivered b\ a metal or INTERNET
fiberoptic cable. The world's largest computer network
is It enables .ill
called the Internet.
CD-ROM Compact Disc Read-
types of computer to share sen ices
only Memory: a laserdisc used to Text ami illustrations
and communicate directly. .-

storecomputer data. The data can be sent through a

cannot be removed, and new data facsimile (fax) machine.
cannot recorded.
INTERNET SERVICES
lie Whatever is written hi draw n i

Some of the sen ices available on

Database Information stored on the page is transmitted in the same
Internet include:
computer. wa\ as a telephone message. Fax machine
a Electronic mail (E-mail) bins allow
Navigation binding a route messages to be sent from one
between two places. computer to another. Communication facts
CI SeeMeThis
I enables up to eight • A post office sorting machine • ust country to introduce i ai
Network A s\stcm of 1

people to see and hear each other on stents w as Japan,

interconnected pieces of equipment can sort about 36,000 letters na\ igation s\
their computer screens.
thai communicate with each other. an hour. in 1990.
I 'sernet A collection of electronic
Satellite An object held in orbit bulletin boards (called Newsgroups) • • More than 4,000.000.000
A pair of optical fibers can
around a planet. set up by subject matter. It is used tor
hold up to 01,440 telephone messages arc sent In K-m.ul in
new s anil information.
com ersations at an\ one tunc. North America each vear.

Semaphore

^
3 H j I -^ J Kpr M
Semaphore flag signals w ere used
lor signaling between ships
u 00s and by the army.
until m w
the earl} l It

remains quick method of visual

a

signaling and is still used for

passing messages between ships
<
sailing close to each other.

269
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Language Most common

languages
Language is a Language Number of
speakers
system of sounds and
Chinese (Mandarin) 1 ,093 million
signs that people use to
English 450 million
express their thoughts
and communicate with Hindi 367 million

others. There are Spanish 352 million

thousands of languages
There are 845
;
^ Russian 204 million

*
throughout the world. languages in India,
more than any Arabic 202 million
other country in

Common world languages the world. Bengali 187 million

This map shows the distribution of the major Portuguese 175 million

world languages. It shows how European Mandarin Chinese French

nations, when they explored the world, Malay-Indonesian 145 million

English Portuguese
brought their languages to other countries;
Russian Arabic Japanese 126 million
for example, English settlers brought their
language to North America and Australia. Spanish Other

HOW TO SAY "YES" AND "NO" IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES AROUND THE WORLD
Words in brackets are a guide to pronunciation.
Language Yes No Language Yes No Language Yes No

Arabic German Ja Nein Polish Tak Nie

' (Na'am)
U (La'a)

Bengali Greek Ne Ohee Portuguese Sim Nao

^" (Haa) *ii (Naa)

Bulgarian Da He Hebrew
1 " (Ken) N' (Lo)
Punjabi
w (Haan) ^ (Nahi)

Chinese Hindi Romanian Da Nu

(Cantonese) '* (Hai) ** '''* (Mhai) * (Haan)
*' (Nahl)

Chinese
(Mandarin) *~ (Shi) 1 ^- (Bushi)
Hungarian Igen Nem Russian
^a (Dah)
HeT (Nyet)

Czech Ano Ne Icelandic Ja Nei Serbo-Croat Da Ne

Danish Ja Nej Indonesian Ja Tidak Slovak Ano Nie

Dutch Ja Nee Italian Si No Spanish Si No

English Yes No Japanese

^ m ^*-MI Swedish Ja Nej

hi < '

Korean lunz
Finnish Kylla Ei Ml Thai
(Nye) (A-ni-o) (Kha [female]) (Mai kha [female])

Flemish Ja Nee Malay Ya Tidak Thai fV51J liinru

(Khrap [male]) (Mai khrap [male])

French Qui Non Norwegian Ya Nej Turkish Evet Hayir

Sign language
People who cannot hear or speak can
communicate through sign language. B C D E

Signs may stand for whole words as well

as individual letters. There are many
different sign language systems. The
example shown is used in Britain. Q R

270
 SCRIPTS

Alphabets GREEK WORDS

Scripts The letters of an alphabet are signs that
represent sounds. This way of writing
The ancient Greeks based their own
alphabet on the Phoenician one. To
begin with, thev wrote
Scripts ark SETS of symbols that we use was quicker and easier to remember than in almost any /"\ i _
pictogram writing. direction, even
to write things down. One script can be used to v
in
7
AcBbT o
a spiral.

form words in different languages; for example, DEVELOPMENT OF ALPHABETS

The Phoenicians developed the first
the Roman alphabet is used in many European alphabet around 1600 B.C. The Greek
languages, such as English and French. alphabet was adapted by the Etruscans in
about 70(1 B.C. The Romans based their
alphabet on the Etruscans'. The modern
PlGTOGRAMS HIEROGLYPHS
Hebrew alphabet has changed little from Greek
The ancient Egyptians had a system
The were
first scripts

pictograms. Pictures were drawn

of picture writing called hieroglyphs,
meaning "sacred carvings." They were
the original biblical Hebrew, and has
similarities to the Phoenician alphabet.
inscription
©cvo rV&
of an object or idea. These carved and painted on temple walls
pictures were gradually and tombs.
simplified, to make them Phoenician Modern Early Classical Etruscan Classical Modern
Owl Hebrew Greek Greek Roman Roman
quicker and easier to write. Eagle

CUNEIFORM * M A A f\ A A
The first successful pictogram script
2^. 4 2 8 B a B B
was cuneiform, which means Reed Snail

"wedge-shaped." It was invented by ( 1 i 1 r n C C

the Sumerians of Mesopotamia
(present-day Iraq) in about 3000 B.C. Ann - /I Shutter
A "i A A n D D
The script was written on damp clay % pi £ E 1 E E
with a wedge-shaped stylus. After a
while, the pictograms were written Double reed Water /WWVA M i -i «4 F F

sideways and developed into simple, v\ G

stylized symbols.
I T I Z i
Chirk Mouth
O n B H € H H
Bird
<8> B ® e ®
E * <> i i 1 I

Ox
Lion _fc£ J

y 3 » K 3 K K
Present-day scripts The Cyrillic

who spread the

alphabet is named after St. Cyril,
Christian faith to the Slavonic i ? 1 A 4 L L
CYRILLIC (RUSSIAN) peoples in AD. 800.
~v D ~l M *y M M
AEBr4E3K3MlftK.IMHOnPC *i : V N *l N N
* s i. a
Tyoxijtiinmi>Lib'fc3K>Hev V O O O O
HINDI 1 t 1 n 1 P P
There are about 200 Indian scripts
r at M M
in use today. The most widelv known is Hindi
3T 3ff J 5 33^ 9 P ? ? Q. Q
<l i <l p <1 R R
w ar s z *7
S S

t n X T T T T
U
Y V V
BRAILLE
People who are blind or have poor eyesight can read
W
by using braille, invented by Frenchman Louis 4>
Braille (1809-1852). People read texts by touching
a raised pattern of dots with their fingertips.
X X X
f
CHINESE
The Chinese use
This character, "Yong,
u f> of the jive basic
"

strokes.
is mode
n
more than 50,000
First stroke /> Bra die
Y Y
signs, but only a
few thousand Lire
z Z
commonly used. JAPANESE
A character is Second stroke The Japanese adapted Chinese characters so thai thc\ ould
Script facts
I

made up of a write down their spoken language, which in fact belongs to a

combination of different family from Chinese. Japanese, like Chinese, is • The olilcst letter Mill in use is "()," which
up to 26 different written and read in vertical columns from right to left.
has not changed us shape since was pan of
it
strokes, which Third stroke .
<j|
must be made in the Phoenician alphabet in about 1600 B.C.
a particular order.
'
• Children in Japan are taught ss i

Fourth stroke ^9\ characters in their t'iisi si\ years at school.

,
/ f/&\& • The longest alphabet is Cambodian

Fifth stroke Japanese booh (Khmer), with 7-4 letters.

271
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Some heat
Generating electricity
Energy escapes
through the
chimney.
This
station.
illustration shows a coal-fired
Coal is burned in a furnace to heat
power

Industry, transportation, water and produce steam. The steam drives

and homes require energy to a turbine attached to an electricity
generator, which sends electricity down a
power everything from furnaces
network of cables called a grid.
to televisions. Much of this
energy produced by burning
is

such as oil.
fossil fuels,
Renewable energy sources,
such as wind and solar power,
are also playing an increasing
role in energy generation.

Fossil fuels
Coal is crushed in
Oil, coal, and natural gas are a mill, and the
called fossil fuels because they powder is blown
to the furnace.
are made of the remains of long- Transformer
Water from the condenser flows changes the
dead plants and animals. When voltage before
to cooling towers. Here it is it is

burned they release energy, sprayed into the air for cooling Furnace supplied to homes
and factories.
which is used to generate power.
Fossil fuels are nonrenewable
energy sources, because they FOSSIL FUELS IN
Major oil producers RESERVE
will eventually run out.
Country Million tons per year In 1960, itwas estimated
that existing underground
COAL CIS 628
fossil fuels would last for
About 20% of the world's energy is
about 40 years. By 1990,
US 460.3
generated from coal, and its use more reserves had been
is increasing. Saudi Arabia 360.6 found, but the rate at
which they were being
OIL AND NATURAL GAS Iran 171.2
used had increased. In
About 60% of the world's energy 1990, the reserves were
Mexico 160.2
comes from oil and natural gas. Oil is estimated to
still last
the main fuel used in transportation, China 153 about 40 years.
and both oil and gas are burned to / 960 fossil fuel 1990 fossil fuel
produce heat. Venezuela 131.6 consumption consumption

Renewable energy sources HYDROELECTRIC POWER

Hydroelectric power is generated at
Energy facts
Renewable energy sources are those that • Watching color television
dams and waterfalls. Falling water
will not run out in the foreseeable future. drives turbines, which in turn drive accounts for 20% of the average
Most "renewables" are cleaner and less electricity generators. About 7% of British person's energy
harmful to the environment than fossil fuels. the world's energy is provided by
consumption.
hydroelectriciry.
• Worldwide, lighting accounts
WIND POWER GEOTHERMAL ENERGY for about 17% of electricity use.
Wind turbines generate electricity Geothermal energy is generated by
at "wind farms," such as the one at heat energy in the Earth's crust. • The average person in the
Altmont Pass, California (right).
During the 1980s more than
At present, most geothermal UK uses 10 times more energy
energy is generated in
20,000 wind turbines were
each year than the average
volcanically active regions, such
erected worldwide. Scientists as Iceland and New Zealand. person in India.
estimate that by 2030, wind Approximately 20 countries use
power could provide more than geothermal energy for heating, or
10% of the world's electricity. for generating electricity.
Major wood users
SOLAR POWER WAVE POWER Many developing countries
The Sun is a nonpolluting source of Wave power being
is still depend on wood for fuel and
renewable energy. Solar energy is researched and developed. Several energy production.
converted into electricity in experimental generators have
photovoltaic (solar) cells, which been built. Some are sited on Country Wood as
arc used to power various the seashore. Others are % of total energy
devices, including calculators, designed for the deep sea, consumption
space satellites, and telephone where the energy content per
Mali 97
links in remote areas. The Sun's meter of wave can be equivalent
heat is alsoused to heat water in to the power source for 50 single- Rwanda 96
many hot countries. lar electric fires.
Tanzania 94
TIDAL POWER
Tidal power is generated at BIOMASS ENERGY Burkina 94
barrages (barriers) built across Biomass energy derived from
is
Ethiopia 93
estuaries. As the tide rises or organic matter, such as wood and
falls, water is kept
high or at agricultural waste. Biomass power Central African
low tide level inside the plants are being built in many Republic 91
barrage. When the water level countries. They produce little air
differs by about 10ft (3m). water pollution and do not usually Somalia 90
flows through huge turbines. contribute to global warming.

272
 F.NKRM

Nuclear energy M CLEAR ENERGY KISkS

Nuclear energy is generated by the breakdown of Nuclear waste remains danjjerousK
The core is radioactive for thousands of years, and
uranium and plutonium atoms. There are about 350 surrounded by a
has to be buried deep underground or
nuclear power stations around the world, and they thick concrete
at sea. Accidents at nuclear power
shield that
supply more than 5% of the world's electricity. absorbs radiation.
plants, such as the Chernobyl disaster
Nuclear power stations do not emit polluting gases in I kraine in 19Ho. can expose
hundreds of thousands of people to
or contribute to global warming, but
radiation and contaminate millions of
accidents and the disposal of square miles of land.
fuel rods pose serious risks.

Major nuclear
power users
Country % of total electricity
generated by nuclear
power
France 729
Lithuania 60
The tuel rods
are embedded in a Belgium 59.9
material that slows
down the neutrons There are Fluid
Slovakia 49.5
(see pp 226-227). about 90.000 circulates
called a moderator fuel rods in through the core Hungary 46.4
the nuclear to carry away heat
reactor core- produced by nuclear fission. South Korea 43.2

Sweden 432
Switzerland 39.6
Major energy consumers Energy consumption of various
Spain
This table includes commercially traded household products in the us 36.4

Taiwan 35.4
fuels (oil, coal, gas, etc.) only, fuels such Household product % of homes Typical energy
as wood and animal waste are excluded, as with product consumption
(kilowatts per year)
figures are unreliable. Renewable energy
Country Consumption as % of Freezer (frost-free) 11.7 1,820
facts
world total
Refrigerator (frost-free) 67.3 1,591 • The amount of sunshine that
US 24.6
Aquarium/terrarium 5-15 200-1 ,000 falls on roads in the S m one- I

CIS 16.8 year contains twice as much

Color television 96-99 75-1 ,000
energy as all the coal and oil
China 8.4
Electric stove or oven 56.8 650 used worldwide in a year.
Japan 5.4
Computer 10-20 25-400 • Owing to strict energy
Germany 4.3
efficiency standards, new
Dishwasher 43.1 165
Central Europe 4.2 houses in Sweden use at least
Iron 20-40 20-150
three times less energy than the
Canada 3 17-50
Clock 100 average British home to keep
France 2.6
Video recorder 60-70 10-70 warm in winter .

Alternative vehicle energy

Great LENGTHS Oil will eventually run out, and in the meantime vehicle
The world 's largest wind turbines h; ive exhaust fumes are polluting the atmosphere. It is
blades up o 164ft (50m) long. () ie therefore important that clean, renewable energy
hundred p eople could stand side by side sources are developed. Those
on a single blade. being researched include
compressed natural
Mm gas, electricity,
hydrogen,
mjq rjfit

• Tokyo, Japan, has

n ui Svvdixh viUag

more than
#fr ethanol 1.5 million solar collectors for

itlirj
Wmm0^
TiVfi rfl At, nn AIL)" (grain
alcohol),
domestic water heating.
• \botit 90% of Israel's
and domestic hot water is supplied
methanol b\ solar heating.
(wood alcohol) Hydrogen powen d i
</>

Oil 37 9°,
Oil facts • One day's world oil supply
H()\V THE
• About 500,000 different took 10,000 years to fossilize.
materials can be made
1

WORLD
• More than 500 oil wells arc OBTAINS ITS
from crude oil. The
drilled every week in the
products on the right are
I S.
ENERGY
all made from materials • If all the barrels of oil This diagram show s

derived from crude oil. produced worldwide in one the percentage of

They include wax, da\ were laid end to end, each energy source
Nuclear
plastics, fertilizers, and they would stretch twice currently used 53°„
detergents. around the Equator. worldw ide.

273
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Industry Major industrial producers

All total figures giver are in millions, except where indicated. Where a country
has a large share of tr e market, producer and figure are given in parentheses.
Indus TRY IS AN organized economic
Industry Top producers Total (in millions) World total (in millions)
with the extraction
activity. It deals
Transportation
and use of raw materials, with Cars, buses, and trucks Europe 15 (Germany: 4.5) 45
Asia 14 (Japan: 9.7)
manufacturing and construction, and North America 12
with putting the products of these 2203" 3,207*
Commercial aircraft North America
activities to profitable use. Europe 814*
Ships Asia 814 (Japan: 535)* 1 ,452*
Europe 546*
Classification of industries Bicycles Asia 59 (China: 36) 84
Europe 10
There are three basic types of industry.
Communications
PRIMARY TV and radio Asia 1 72 (China: 42) 253
These industries are Europe 32
concerned with the extraction Telephones Asia 66 107
of basic raw materials. North America 18.7
Examples include Electronic Japan 78,000 81,000
agriculture, forestry, fishing, components North America 480
and mining.
Fuel
Forestry i>itlu\ln Coal Asia 1 ,566 tons 3,806 tons
(China 1,213)
SECONDARY North America 962 tons
These industries convert raw Europe 579 tons
materials into other products.
They can be further divided Crude oil Asia 1 ,206 tons 3,275 tons
into heavy industry, e.g., Saudi Arabia (445)
shipbuilding, and light North America 658 tons
industry, e.g.. textiles and
Construction and
clothing.
engineering
Clothing industry
Cement Asia 648 tons 1 ,265 tons
(China 269)
TERTIARY Europe 256 tons
Tertiary (third-tier) Pig iron for steel making Asia 238 tons 580 tons
industries offer a service Europe 1 36 tons

rather than a product, e.g., Timber Asia 1 ,404.8 cubic yards 4,512.6 cubic
banking and tourism. Today, North America 937.8 cubic yards yards
thistype of industry is

expanding. '
Figures for commercial aircraft and : hips are not in millions.

Cashier at work in
a building society.

Distribution of major industries

Cars, buses, and true ks ^©^ T»

Commercial aircraft

Ships

Bicycles

TV and radio sets

Telephones

Transistors and
semiconductors

Coal

Crude oil
Industry facts %
• Mexico produces one-fifth of • Wind power from
• Japan, which lacks most of the
the world's silver. approximately 1,100 windmills
Cement important industrial minerals,
depends heavily on imports, • British
in Denmark supplies 3% of its
Columbia produces
energy needs.
importing about 95% of its iron about one-quarter of the
Pig iron tor steel
ore, tin, copper, zinc, and lead. marketable timber in North • Gold provides between 40%
making
It is the world's largest importer America. It also supplies the and 46% of South Africa's
Timber of coal, natural gas, and oil. world with chopsticks. export earnings.

274
 INDUSTRY

Oil industry Coal industry

Oil found under the ocean floor or in places that were once
is Coal is valuable as an industrial fuel and for making chemicals. It is

covered by the sea. Complex technology is used to drill deep formed from the remains of decaying plant life, which solidified into
wells and extract oil from the seabed. Despite concerns about coal over millions of years.
pollution and oil wells running dry, there is no sign of decline Shaft mine TYPES OF COM. MINE
in the demand for oil for fuel and for making chemicals.
Drift mine
TYPES OF
OIL RIG
Open -cast
mine

Shallow water Deep water Very deep water Shaft mine Drift mine Strip mine
A jack-up rig is used. Its A tension-leg rig is used. Ships are used. The oil drill Miners tunnel vertically Miners tunnel horizontally if If the coal is near the surface,
legs extend to the seabed. It floats but is chained to comes out through a hole when coal is deep under a coal seam emerges near (he covering layers of ground are
the ocean floor. in the hull. the ground. the surface of the ground stripped away to reveal the coal

WAYS OF PROCESSING FOOD

Food industry MILK INTO CHEESE Canning
There many
types of cheese,
arc
Foods are boiled, put in cans, then
The food industry processes but most of them share the
heated to kill any remaining bacteria.
much of our food so that it is same basic stages
The cans are then sealed to prevent air
safe to eat, looks appealing, of production. from bringing oxygen and bacteria to
and will remain fresh for a the food.

longer period of time. Food (mis i'ii an assentbh line

Freeze-dning
can be processed in many Food is fro/en.
different ways. and the water
A tank truck will Freezing
is removed.
transport milk to In fluidized freezing,
the dairy. This kills all
small food items, such as
the bacteria.
peas, pass over vers cold
which cannot
live without
air (-29 F/-34 Qona
conveyer belt. The food
The milk is pasteurized to water.
freezes in minutes.
destroy bacteria. Astronauts m tpace
USe firi-zi-ilniil food.

Pasteurizing
Liquids such as milk are heated to
158 F (70 C) for IS seconds and then
Another type of bacteria is
cooled quickly. This preserves the
added to the milk to produce flavour while killing the bacteria.
lactic acid. The acid thickens
the milk and makes sour. it

Beta carotene, a
ADDITIVES natural coloring The ml/I mi flakes tin
Additives are natural or fulls lis,
from carrots, may
The milk is warmed, and synthetic chemicals that be added to
rennet, which comes from a are added to food to orange |uice to
calf's stomach, is added This prevent it from going bad strengthen color
makes the milk lumpy. Emulsifiers ensure that
too quickly and to make
fatand water remain
food look appetizing.

1 Synthetic combined They are used

The watery
(the whey)
and made
part of the milk
is

info
drained away
food for farm
Salt is added to the
chemicals are
added lo cola to
improve flavor
in

The
such foods as yogurt

synthetic
\
curds, which are pressed chemical -
animals, leaving solid lumps, Colorings and flavorings butylafed '.j
any
to get rid of
called curds.
remaining whey. The
curds are shaped info
Natural color pigments m,i\ break
artificial or natural colorings are used as a
up. so hydroxytoluene
(BHT) - stops 1 ..
molds. They are left in a replacement. Synthetic flavorings, which the corn
fa! in

cool place to ripen into copy natural flavorings, ma} also be used. chips from decaying
cheese

In cookies, bases such as sodium

and ammonium hydrogen carbonate
improve flavor and prevent changes
in acidity and color -

The preservative sodium

nitrite is added to salami

and hot dogs

In rolls, a natural
chemical, such as
vitamin C. stops oxygen
from reacting with fat in

the bread
 RANSPORTATION, COMMl'MCATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Paper industry Motor industry

Paper is made in large factories called paper mills. Wood is ground In the motor industry,
up, mixed with water, and turned into wood pulp. The pulp is then computer-controlled robots
pressed and rolled by machine into a layer of paper. are programmed to carry out
repetitive jobs previously
Most paper comes from softwood trees,
such as spruce and pine. Wood chips are performed by people. Robots
'
heated to a pulp
are used to weld, paint, or
to release fibers.
engine parts. This has
drill

helped improve efficiency in

car factories.
Trees are cut into logs
and transported to a
paper mill.
Cars being
spray-painted by robots.

Ceramic industry
Ceramics may be divided into two groups: materials
Wastepaper is added
and the fibers are reused that are molded into shape before being
to make recycled paper heated, such as pottery and bricks,
and materials that are shaped after
Water is removed from the being treated by heat, such as
pulp by suction cement.

Rollers remove any

remaining water and
compress the paper

Tissue is made from

i %
fibers that are lifted Ceramic head made
by a knife from the from cement mixture.
paper as it rolls
off the machine
POTTERY INDUSTRY
A large roll of Pottery clay is a mixture
paper is
of two clays: kaolin
finally
<•, (china clay), which gives
produced.
PAPER PRODUCTS clay smooth texture,
its

Other paper products, such and which adds

ball clay,

as tissue and cardboard, are strength. The moist clay

made in a similar way is molded, then placed in

The a kiln and heated until it

R
to paper. color,
strength, and texture of hardens.
paper can be changed by
dyeing, printing, and
mixing it with other Detailed decorative work

materials, such as is still done by hand.

wax or plastic.

Electricity facts
• The amount of electricity a Glass industry Industrial words
country produces is closely Glass has many advantages. It is easily shaped,
Automation Repetitive work
related to its industrial activity. rustproof, and cheap to make, and it can be recycled. carried out by machines that need
• Electricity production is little human control.

measured in units, or kilowatt-

Limestone, waste glass Component One part of a
(for recycling), sand,
finished product.
hours. One unit is equivalent to and sodium carbonate
are put into a furnace. Consumerism Economic system
leai ing a hundred-watt light
based on the continued increase of
bulb on for ten hours. goods produced to satisfy increased
• A typical household uses human need.
Depression A period of low output
6,000 units in a year.
Air is blown into in trade and industry.
• The world production exceeds the mold to make the Economy The administration of a
glass inflate into a country's trade, industry, and
12 trillion units.
bubble, which
money supply.
• About 60% of production is expands to fit the
— shape of the mold. GNP Gross National Product. The
used in industry, commerce, and totalvalue of a country's industrial
transportation and for production.
public lighting. Mass production Manufacture of
Once hardened,
goods repeating the same processes
the glass bottle
removed from on a large scale.
Major electricity is

the mold. Nationalize To make an industry

producers To make sheets
operate under state control.
Production line The assembling,
Producer Units of glass for windows
the molten glass poured in several stages, of a product by
produced is

onto a pool of molten tin: this the workforce.

North America 3.774 trillion makes the glass spread out, Robotics Use of computer-
until is as smooth as the molten tin
it
controlled machines that carry out
Asia (mostly Japan 2.7 trillion
jobs previously done by humans.
and the Pacific Coast) The glass is cooled slowly on rollers. _
jStaple industry A country's most
Europe 2.0 trillion When the glass has cooled and important industry.
hardened, it is cut with a diamond-tipped cutter

276
 ROADS

Roads Countries with the

busiest roads
Countries with the
most roads
The FIRST MAJOR road builders
Country Distance traveled by a vehicle Country x 1 ,000km x 1 ,000 miles
were the Romans, who built roads per km road of road of road

x 1 ,000km x 1 ,000 miles

for their armies and messengers. US 6,328 3,932
Portugal 1,716 1,066
Today, networks of roads and Russia 1,588 987
UK 1,140 708
superhighways cover most Japan 1,120 696
1,138 707
countries, linking cities, towns, and Italy

France 811 504

rural areas. More and more cars, Netherlands 896 557
Germany 549 341
buses, trains, and trucks use the Germany 866 538
UK 380 236
roads to transport people and goods. Spain 687 427

Switzerland 628 390

Finland 513 319

Modern roads
Ancient roads Today's roads are built to withstand
The Romans system
created a US 510 317 heavy traffic. First, the ground is

of roads to serve their empire in Sweden 435 270 leveled and trenches are dug. Drains
Europe from about 400 B.C. to are laid to earn, water away. The road is

A.D. 400. The straight, wide composed of several layers of crushed

roads were made up of several stone and soil, with a top layer of
Ditch for drainage
layers. Many of these roads are of water concrete or asphalt and
still in use todav. stone chips.
Crushed stone

Countries with the jj^x Macadam, cement

densest road network -'-
--^;cS- or concrete

Country km miles
,000 sq km)
(per 1
Countries with the most
Belgium 4,205 6,768
superhighways
Japan 3,002 4,830 Country x 1,000km x 1,000 miles

Netherlands 2,478 3,989 of highway of highway

Luxembourg 1,970 3,170 Road network US 84.9 52.8

Different types of road have different uses. Canada 15.0 9.3

Germany 1,900 3,059
Superhighways and two-lane highways link
Switzerland 1,722 2,771
Germany 10.8 6.7
towns and cities. Smaller roads intersect
towns and cities to connect neighborhoods France 7.6 4.7
Denmark 1,643 2,644
and homes. In most countries people drive on Italy 6.8 4.2
UK 1,553 2,499
the right-hand side of the road. In some
Japan 4.9 3.0
countries, such as Australia, Britain, and
SUPERHIGHWAY BYPASS Japan, people drive on the left-hand side.
A wide road, usually
consisting of three
This type of road
carries traffic around
TRAFFIC CIRCLE Road records
This allows traffic to
lanes in each the edges of cities, change direction
EARLIEST LONG-DISTANCE
direction, a avoiding city centers without crossing road, the Persian Royal
superhighway is other lines of Road, was 1,775 miles
specially designed for traffic.
fast-moving traffic
(2,857km) long.
traveling long LONGBST ROAD
distances. isthe Pan-American
Highway. It rims from
Alaska to Brasilia, Brazil,
and is more than 15,000
miles (24.140km) in length.

1 0NGBST N mON \l
IIKillW U
is the Trans-( ianada, at
4,860 miles (7,821km).
HIGHEST ROM)
lies between Tibet and
Xinjiang, China. In places, it

is 1 8,480ft (5,633m) above

CROSSROADS set level.
\\ hen mails meet at a

i rossroads, traffu on L0WBS1 ROAD

,iik in id is stopped is 1>\ the Dead Sea in Israel,
In traffic lights to
at l,290fi (392m) below
give ».t\ i" traffic on
sc.i level.
the othei road.

277
 RANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Construction Bridges holding world record for

longest main span
From EARLY TIMES, people have built all kinds Bridge Country Date Type Length
built m ft
of structures: tunnels and bridges to cross
Ponte D'Augusto Italy 220 B.C. stone arch 30 98
natural barriers; canals for transporting goods
Martorell Spain 218 B.C. stone arch 37 121
and Today, engineers are
for irrigation.
Chaochow China A.D. 617 stone arch 37 121
constantly improving construction methods
Bern Switzerland 1204 stone arch 46 151
and materials to produce canals that link
Scaligero Italy 1356 stone arch 49 161
oceans, and skyscrapers that are more than a
Trezzo over R. Adda Italy 1377 stone arch 72 236
hundred floors high. (destroyed in 1416)

Schaffhausen Switzerland 1755 wooden arch 59 193

Bridges Reichenau Switzerland 1758 wooden arch 73 239

The first bridges were made by Union Bridge Scotland 1820 suspension 137 449
placing tree trunks across rivers
Menai Straits Wales 1826 suspension 177 581
and by laying flat stones on
rocks in the middle of streams. Fribourg Switzerland 1834 suspension 265 869
Today, bridges made of concrete Cincinnati US 1867 suspension 323 1,060
and steel span lakes, rivers, deep
Brooklyn US 1883 suspension 487 1,598
valleys, roads, and railroad lines. il\ iliihhn bridge eland
Forth Rail Scotland 1889 cantilever 521 1,709

TYPES OF BRIDGE Quebec Canada 1917 cantilever 549 1,801

Suspension Ambassador Canada/US 1929 suspension 565 1,854
The deck, or roadway,
suspended from long s George Washington US 1931 suspension 1,067 3,501
cables attached to tall

towers standing near

Golden Gate US 1937 suspension 1,280 4,199
each end of the Verrazano US 1964 suspension 1,298 4,258
bridge. The
cables arc made Humber England 1981 suspension 1,410 4,626
of thousands of
Great Belt East Denmark 1997* suspension 1,624 5,328
steel wires bound
tightly together. Akashi Kaikyo Japan 1998* suspension 1,990 6,529

Arch
This type of bridge is Cantilever
supported by an arch, This is a type of Suspension bridges with longest
propped up by beam Each
abutments. The deck
bridge.
half of
main span
is usually straight the bridge Bridge Country Date Length
and does not balances on built m ft

follow the curve a supporting pier

Akashi Kaikyo, Japan 1998* 1,990 6,529
of the arch. It is at is embedded in
sometimes Hyogo
the river.
built below, Great Belt East Denmark 1997* 1,624 5,328
as well as Cable-stayed
above, the The deck is Humber England 1981 1,410 4,626
arch. supported by steel
Tsing Ma Hong Kong 1997* 1,377 4,518
cables connected to
Bascule towers. Early cable- Verrazano Narrows US 1964 1,298 4,258
This type
is a bridges had pairs of
of drawbridge. but today, single
Golden Gate US 1937 1,280 4,199
Its two sections are also built in the Hoga Kusten Sweden 2000* 1,210 3,970
can be raised at the deck. Its style
an angle to allow between a beam Mackinac Straits US 1957 1,158 3,799
ships to pass thn andsuspension
a
Minami Bisan Seto Japan 1988 1,100 3,609
.It requires fewer

piers than a beam Bosporus 2 Turkey 1988 1,090 3,576

bridge and does
Beam not need Bosporus 1 Turkey 1973 1,074 3,524
Most bridges with a short the heavy
span are beam bridges. Each
George Washington US 1931 1,067 3,501
anchorages of
end of the bridge rests on the s a suspension Kurushima 3, Ehime Japan 1999* 1,030 3,379
ground or on piers. bridge.
Beam bridge - Kurushima 2, Ehime Japan 1999* 1,020 3,346

April 25 Portugal 1966 1,013 3,323

Swing
This type of
Pontoon Forth Road Scotland 1964 1,006 3,300
bridge can be This type of bridge
floats on the water. The Kita Bisan Seto, Japan 1988 990 3,248
swung to one
side to allow
deck rests on hollow Kagawa
concrete blocks, called
ships to pass Severn England 1966 988 3,241
through. pontoons, which lie on
the water. Each pontoon Shimotsui Japan 1988 940 3,084
is anchored to concrete
I/us swing bridge, in the Pontoon bridge,
aWOts, which are buried Istanbul, Turkey Ohnaruto Japan 1985 876 2,874
foreground of the picture, u
in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in the bed of the lake.
'
Planned completion date
England.

278
 CONSTRICTION

Bridge facts Canals Longest ship canals

• The first bridge made of iron ( lanals are manmade
waterways. Most canals
was 1779 Shropshire, Canal Location Date Length
built in in are used by boats to transport cargo and
England.
built km miles
people; others are used to take water to dry
land or drain water from marshy ground. Suez Links the Red Sea 1869 174 108
with the Mediterranean Sea
Some canals, such as the Sue/ Canal in the
Middle East and the Panama Canal in Kiel Links the North Sea with 1895 99 62
the Baltic Sea, Germany
Central America, link seas and oceans.
Panama Links the Atlantic Ocean 1914 81 50
HOW A LOCK WORKS and the Caribbean Sea
A canal lock is used to change the water level. A lock with the Pacific Ocean
is a section of canal, large enough to take one or
more boats, that has large, watertight gates at each
Manchester England 1894 57 35
end. H\ opening and closing paddles, or valves, in
one pair of gates, water is allowed to run into or out
of the lock, ami so raise or lower the water level to Canal facts
Ironbridge, England the same height as that in the next section of canal. • The Chinese were the first
Open gates people to build canal locks along
• The longest bridge in the world
is the Seeond Lake Pontchartrain The narrowboat
JfflV the Creat Canal of China, which
ran from Peking to Hangzhou.
Causeway, in Louisiana. Each of passes through
the open gate
The canal was built during the
its conerete spans measures 56ft
into the lock. 1200s and is still used today.
(17m). The total length of the
• Leonardo da Vinci
bridge is nearly 24 miles (38km).
Land cannot be seen from The paddles, or (1452-1519), Italian artist and
valves, in the
its center.
engineer, designed locks for the
lower gates are
opened to let Languedoc Canal. France,
• The Tay
Bridge in Scotland water out and the which was completed in 1681.
had been standing for just over narrowboat is
It linked the Mediterranean Sea
carried down with
two years when it collapsed the dropping with the Atlantic Ocean.
during a stormy night in 1879. A water level.
• The largest lock in the world is
train was crossing the wrought-
iron bridge at the time, and 75
the Berendrecht lock in Antwerp,
The lower gates Belgium. It is 1,640ft (500m) long
people were killed. can now be Lower water level
, Gates and 223ft (68m) wide. It has four
opened for the
are
boat to pass
II I'll IN opened sliding lock gates.
Bridge words through.
• The Netherlands has more
Abutment Knd support for than 4,971 miles (8.000km) of
an arch. Upper water level
canals.
Aqueduct Water-carrying bridge.
Box-girder Hollow girder, or beam,
TYPES OF DAM
built in the shape of a Dams
box for strength.
People need a constant Arch dam
supply
Caisson Watertight This has a
of water to live. Efficient
structure used for curved shape,
Box-girder preventing water and collection and storage of water with the inside
mud from flowing into foundation is essential, especially in of the curve-
excavations.
countries where there is little facing
Clapper A type Clapper bridge
downstream.
of bridge made
rainfall. Dams are built either
of large slabs of to divert or to store water.
stone placed Buttress dam
over boulders.
Cofferdam Temporary dam
Dam records This has a series
of props, or
used to keep out water while OLDEST KNOWN DAM Canada, at 706,000,()00 buttresses,
people work on a riverbed. in the world is the Sadd cu ft (540,000,000cu m). which arc on
Creep Gradual change in shape el-Kafara in Egypt. It was the side of the
of materials under pressure.
LONGEST SEA DAM dam facing
built out of earth and rock
Form Structure built to form, or in the world is the dow nstream.
in about 3000 B.C.
shape, concrete on a bridge and to Afsluitdijk in the
hold it while
hardens. it LARGEST DAM Netherlands. Built in two
Hangers The wires or bars that in the world is the sections, its total length is
connect the cables to the deck in Embankment dam
a Syncrude Tailings dam in 38.8 miles (62.5km).
suspension bridge. This is made of a

Lift bridge A bridge with a deck huge pile of soil

that rises in the air. like an elevator. or rocks. Like

Pier A support for the middle-
Tallest dams the massive dam.
spans of a beam or arch bridge. the embankment
Dam Location Date built Height
The foundation of the tower on a m ft
dam relies on 1
1 -,

suspension or cantilever bridge. sheer hulk to

Reinforced concrete Concrete- Rogun Tajikistan 1989 325 1.066 hold hack water.
that contains steel rods,
Nourek Tajikistan 1979 317 1,040
bars, wires, or mesh.
Viaduct A bridge carrying a road or ( in nidi; Switzerland 1962 285 935 Massive dam
railroad. '""'"'' Dixence This is built of
^W''/'
Wrought iron Iron i on< te and
it

that is hammered
Inguri Georgia 1979 271 889 relies on us size
into shape. .mil weight to
Vaiont Italy 1961 265 HI ,' I

withstand the
Mica British Columbia, pressure of a

Canada 1973 244 801 huge amoum of

scored watei

279
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

Tunnels Longest road tunnels Tunnel facts

Tunnels have a variety of uses. Many are built • 'The
Channel Tunnel, which
Tunnel Country Date built Length
for transportation purposes: to pass through or km miles Kngland and F ranee, was
links
under obstacles such as mountains, rivers, and St. Gotthard Switzerland 1980 16.3 10.1
completed in 1994. Trains earn,
busy roads. They are also used to carry people, cars, and goods through
Frejus France/Italy 1978 12.7 7.9
sewage, water from reservoirs, and power and the tunnel. It is 32.2 miles
communication cables, and in mining. Mont Blanc France/Italy 1965 11.6 7.2 (51.8km) long.
Mersey England 1934 4.2 2.6
TYPES OF TUNNELS • 'The longest water tunnel in
Road tunnels Kanmon Japan 1958 3.5 2.2
the world is the Delaw are
These .ire built to allow traffic to
pass through mountains, and under Pedestrian tunnel Aqueduct, built in 1944. It is

fixers and hus\ erossroads. Pedestrian tunnels 104.9 miles (168.9km) long,
These allow people to more than twice the length of
cross busy streets safely.
the second longest, the
Train tunnels Orange-Fish in South Africa.
nderground train systems
exist in man\ of the major • 'The fastest rate of
eities of the world. They
tunnel-driving in soft ground,
offer a fast form of
transportation,and save using a tunneling shield, is
valuable space above ground. 1,644ft (501m) in five days, on
the London Ring Main 'Tunnel
Train tunnel
in 1992.

Road tunnel
Longest railroad tunnels
Water tunnel -

Tunnel Country Date built Length

km miles
Water tunnels AlpTransit Link Switzerland 2007* 57 35.4
These are built just
below the surface. Some Seikan Japan 1985 53.9 33.5
earn freshwater, others
earn, sewage.
Channel France/England 1994 51.8 32.2

Northern line England 1939 27.8 17.3

HOW A TUNNEL IS BUILT Daishimizu Japan 1982 22.2 13.8

["unneling shields are used to drive a
tunnel through soft ground. As the shield Simplon 2 Switerland/ltaly 1922 19.8 12.3
moves forward, the front cutting edge
Simplon 1 Swizerland/ltaly 1906 19.8 12.3
bores through roek and earth. Tunnc
lining, fitted behind the shield, prevents Shin Kanmon Japan 1973 18.7 11.6
the walls and roof of the tunnel from
collapsing. In hard ground, huge drilling Appenines Italy 1931 18.6 11.5

machines, called moles, are often used. Japan

Rokko 1971 16.2 10

Skyscrapers Henderson US 1975 15.8 9.8

From early times, people have built A tunneling shield breaking through earth Haruna Japan 1982 15.4 9.6
tall buildings. The Romans built
St. Gotthard Switzerland 1882 15 9.3
apartment buildings 15 floors high. BUILDING A SKYSCRAPER
A skyscraper has an inner frame made of Nakayama Japan 1982 14.8 9.2
Today, advances in construction steel or eoneretc. The frame holds the floors
methods have resulted in many high- and walls (often made of glass) together. 'The Ldtschberg Switzerland 1913 14.5 9
rise buildings, such as the llO-floor building is supported by a foundation -
Planned completion date
usually a pit containing reinforced concrete.
Sears 'Tower in Chicago.

Tallest office buildings

Tallest towers Office building Location Date built Height
Tower Location Date built Height m ft
m ft |

Petronas Tower Kuala Lumpur, 1995* 450 1,476

KTHI-TV North 1963 629 2.064
Malaysia
Mast Dakota
Sears Tower Chicago 1974 443 1,453
KSLA-TV Louisiana 1982 579 1,900
Jin Mao Building Shanghai, China 1998* 418 1,371
Mast

CN Tower World Trade New York 1973 417 1,368

Toronto, 1975 555 1,821
Canada Center

Ostankino Moscow 1967 537 1,762 Empire State New York 1931 381 1,250
TV Tower Russia Building

WTVM& Georgia 1962 533 1,749 Central Plaza Hong Kong 1992 374 1,227
WRBLTV (US)
Mast Bank of China Hong Kong 1989 368 1,207

WBIRTV Tennessee 1963 533 1,749 Sky Central Plaza Guangzhou, China 1995* 364 1,194
Mast
Tuntex and Kaoshiung, China 1996* 347 1.138
KFVSTV Cape 1960 511 1,676 Liquid concrete is / J/»
Chien-Tai
Mast Girardeau pumped to the Concrete is mixed in
upper levels of the a revolving drum to Planned completion dale
(US) '

building. stop it from setting.

280
 SSI Hi

International
World
In this section, the latest computer-generated maps show all the
countries of the world in amazing detail. Data boxes provide up-to-date
statistics, and lifestyle facts, prepared in association with embassies
worldwide, give authoritative information about how people live today.

The Physical World • The Political World • How To Use The Map Pages
All the Countries and Continents of the World • Flags • Mapping
Raw Materials • Farming and Fisheries • Population

Living Standards • Debt and Wealth

281
 1 E N 1

INTKRNATIONAL WORLD

The physical world Severaaya

nilya

aptev Sea sib,,,,,,,

Ktrghti? Steppe
BaMaA ASIA
Aral
Sea ;// tn
nt,i,k s,

Deserr<.]j)J)
ty

Madeim Plutaiii
hltnifls ' '" Sen Syrian

-.£. Iranian
Islands '''

Libia* i
- Pha tea Thar
Desert "v?»
S (/ h a r a "'U,
*W*
abia ri
W •Capr
Sea Ham
^£D£
bme

AFRICA -/,./•!
.1,/ in,,,,
£.
Islands V lMkshaa\seep% \ ndam in
Islands,
• v' w
' i(k. Jfrr-'S <
Man
, I
v
tfii/iffads
I
4 ?s
Git
*r-i
. \ wtnzion ' Tanftflmjka
s>. sfkrrtipe/agp

SP ^''^*
hlaurl-

A T I. A^N-f I C I
ii INDIAN; I 5 i/3C
Stjlrlr«„,

Ck A N J/ i „,.-* ocean)-.
USTRALIA
///.ff

~7
/'.V/:

„\^
0°'

\„\, ,,,/,„„ Hijihl

i,,\t<i„ jt„ t' in,/,,

./

htmid **
South East (:,>/>t~f

./ - < r/wn hdxeard

// < AW, Kerstielefi Islands

- ' Heard &

MiDmmld
/ Islands
'

U S UTHERN C A
Dum 11 11

Davis tea D'Urville Sea

F m b '
Ire A n, e r y

A N TA R C T
i 11

/, r Shell I C A

282
 — —
THE PHYSICAL WORLD

I ~^<C
-7-jz — Ti — »

Midvap Islands '

<

' / *ji~'^i'-,/yiTi ..

I F I C
Sen
(.(inhhuiii i J
r%
|
""

A
OCEAN
' '

r.

o
=
(lafajiagos Jlj
-_
^
v5 •
. ^ m a z o n
Marquesas islands
S () U T H
.,,..
A M K R I C A-

Hastet Island

Juan frinand•:
Island*

V rofig '

——-i- it— *--

'./»/,-'
.SW// V/(, //, w
/////» /»A/wA

A R CTIC \
\\, ,1,1,11 A',,/

x;
83
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

The political world International time zones

THE COUNTRIES OF the world, which number 192, are The world is made up of 24 different time-zones, as
shown on the map below. In each zone, the clocks are
spread over seven continents and vary greatly in size. The
set to a different time of day.Time zones ensure that
Russian Federation, for example, is almost 39 million times noon each country is fixed at about midday, and
in

bigger than the Vatican City. that midnight falls in the middle of the night.
 THE POLITICAL WORLD

Records
CONTINENT WITH MOST COUNTRIES LARGEST COUNTRY
International is Africa, with 54 countries. is the Russian Federation, with an area of
date line 6,592,846sq miles (17,075,400sq km).
When you cross this imaginary
ONLY CONTINENT THAT IS ALSO
a country is Australia.
linefrom east to west, the date SMALLEST COUNTRY
changes. The western side is a LARGEST ISLAND is the Vatican City, with an area of just
da\ ahead of the eastern side. is Greenland, at 839,852sq miles (2,1 75,219sc] km) 0.1 7sq miles (0.44s(| km).

285
 .

HOW TO USE THE MAP PAGES

THE MAPS IN International World are organized into sections, Locator maps
based on continents. There is a section for North America, The red area on the globe
shows the location of the
South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia. At the countries on the page, or spread,
start of each section there is a map showing the whole in relation to the continent.
continent, followed by maps of the countries located on that
continent. This page explains the information and symbols
Language
This spells out a traditional
that appear on and around these country maps. greeting in the main language
of the country.

Data boxes INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Every country in this section has a box
with important statistics about that country. Iceland I
Some of the main countries contain more Iceland, Europe's second-largest
island, has the lowest population
detailed information than others. density in Europe. The remote-
interior can be reached only by Lifestyle pacts
LAtyGl AGE
Ltional greeting
0*11
Flag
1

special vehicle, pony, or small plane. • The Althing, the Icelandic pari
i

landic i-.iW,/» <L/vji.

been in existence since the Uth
The
i

national flag for each country or territory is and is one of the oldest surviving
assemblies in the world.
shown at the top of the data box. OOOsqkm)
• Iceland has the most
Gove Presidential republic
solfatanu (volcanic vents) and
Independence 1944, from British
Area and US control during World War II
hot springs in the world, Mam
of its towns are heated In
The figure shown is the total area of the Currency
I Population 300,000
Icelandic krdna
underground hut water.

country, and includes all inland water Density 7.8 per s<| mile (3 per sq km) • Iceland produces more than a
Official Language Icelandic third of the world's
(e.g., lakes, reservoirs, and rivers). f Major Religions Evangelical roil, and

Lutheran Church of Iceland 9651 oihei

.
E biggest lialiiarfjuriJliiiT'

Protestant and Roman Catholic *'

Government nonreligiouii l'V

The type of government ruling the country at Hot SPRINGS

Deildartunguhver hot springs blo« out fA -
the time this book went to press is described. Wl-AIHKK PACTS 66 gallons ilM) luersl .it hot water *
ever) second. Over a 24-houi period.
ۥ] ,
V^W&\
Some governments, however, are fairly the) produce enough water to fill

unstable and may change at short notice. 105,600 baths.

Independence
This is the date when
country broke freea
Denmark L*Nt;i AGE
A traditional
Norway
DENMARK, WHICH divided into IS greeting in Dat Nokw.Yi MEANS "the way to the
from the control of another power and numerous islands, has a 4,500-milc \sgodfag. north." It is a land of beautiful
fjords (valleys flooded by rising sea
became independent. The date when a (7,300km) coastline. It is the only
Scandinavian country belon^in^ to levels): the longest is Sogne Kjord,
JFESTYLE PACTS
republic was formed, or a state was declared, the Kuropean Community (EC). • Lego was created by a Danish at 1Z6 miles (203 kilometers).
arpcnicr the 1930s.
may also be given. in

.egoland Park is a

HArea 16,o>"s,| miles niniattire. working village i

Area tZ5.058sq miles
(i2V«»h,| km)
Qd Currency (iovernment (
<4<.()7lls,| kin)
lonstituttonal mona
nillion plastic hocks.
'eminent Constitutional monart In
Denmark has one of the lowest private
The paper or metal money used as the system State- founded c. 950
»

iwncrships of cars in Europe, Cyclists ate

Independence from Sweden, 1905
Territories Facroc Islands, Crcen Territories Svalbard archipelago, Jan
of exchange, and in current use in that Currency Danish krone Maycn Island
i Population 5.143,000 Currency Norwegian krone
country, is named. Density 31° per sq mile (123 per s I Population 4.247.546

Official Language Danish
+ Major Religions
Population
Lutheran Church 91 %i Roman Cal
This figure is the number of people registered 2%, other and nonrcligious l'<
in the most recent census as living in the
Density S6 per somite (14 per so. km)
Evangelical OfficialLanguage \\norsk (new
Norwegian) and Bokmaal (older)
+ Major Religions Evangelical
Lutheran and other Protestant 87.9%,
Roman Catholic 0.8%,orhei 1
1 •

populai
country. Most countries round up their
estimated population to the nearest thousand.
Migration and famine will affect these figures.

Density
The average number of people occupying each
square mile or square kilometer of the country
is given. The figure is based on land area only,
not on the total area.

Language
Official
This language, or languages, is used by the
government, and is not necessarily the most Weather Landmark
widely spoken language. This is the country's
Country's Country's
T Major Religions hottest recorded coldest recorded
most recognizable
temperature temperature building or statue
The percentage breakdown of religions
currently practiced by the population is shown. Average annual rainfall
and has been chosen
A religious symbol, such as this cross for in capital city by the embassy or consulate of the
Christianity, appears when a religion is
followed b\ 75% or more of the population. m
)S l
;
(35 O)

61.3 [-"(16.3 C)
^-1
-£-
-7

'/'/' *
-11 .2

K (1.3
1'

C)
(24 C)

& 1
featured country. The map shows the
location of the landmark, with an
illustration similar to the photograph.

Average summer Average winter temperature

temperature in capital city in capital city

286
 Kl."i
Key to maps
Land profile aaoooDO The maps in this section have been created to
Agriculture
This artwork shows how the aoooaoa give an accurate representation of the landscape.
land in a country divides into
areas such as forest or desert, Wetland Colors
how much is built on (urban), The different physical features and climate
and how much is available for /.ones are listed below.
Desert
farming (agriculture). Barren
Snow/ice Hot desert
land indicates areas such as
the bare rocks of mountain
tops, or salt flats. T -' "
Tropical foresl

Coniferous forest Tropical rainforest

Temperate forest
!, Tropical grassland

k
'

Temperate rainforest Mountains

Mediterranean
Wetland
1
vegetation

Neighboring
1 Temperate grassland countries

Cold desert

Symbols
The symbols below appear on the map to
represent places and physical features.

NORWAi Country Borders

Oslo Capital city Disputed borders

Bergen • Major city State borders

Sami Subject talked

Lakes (largest)
(Lapps) about in text

# Hottest place Rivers (longest)

sn II FACTS DENMARK-"' # Coldest place

nerfcil, ilic «..d.
leitherl) town the si: « go,i,a'-at7«mi _+, |,„

^Ji nw nl uiitcn ..\l

midnight lor jus)

V0«
.
.11 i I

unilis in the summci Milium WATER* uis 1

"I •
,1.,
'
Highest point
Name f Heigni
irwa),

viol
.-
» ii

income i

highest proportion
il

!
contribution of
I?'. i

in the world
its

toward foreign aid

'
^Zf"
Store than 50SI ol \.,ra/S i.in l.n
mejers

1
leet

Mongatossan
have a weekend homi
utc new spapers than i

arid, and lm> more 1

, I
1

m othernon I
nglish
'

i' ' '

109
Tables
These pio\ ide cas\ -to-follou
information about the top features
Lifestyle facts Scale Compass point of a country. The} m.i\ list the
These facts give details This shows how distance on This fixes the direction of highest waterfalls, as shown here.
about food, sports, industry, the map relates to miles and North (N and gives the ),
or the most cars manufactured, or
or events that arc unique to kilometers, and can be used position of the country in chief exports.
that country. They have been to sec how big a country is. relation to North.
chosen from information Not all maps arc drawn to the
issued by the country itself same scale.
and realistically reflect life in
that country.

287
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

North and central America

Canada and the United States of America cover most of the
continent of North America. To the south lie Mexico and
the seven small countries of Central America. The western
side of the continent is dominated by the Rocky Mountains,
which run from Canada to Mexico.
Climate zones
Time zones k EY

©ooo
| I
Polar and tundra
Area 9,358,340sq miles Highest point Mount Mountain regions
(24,238,000sq km) Denali, Alaska 20,322ft
Taiga
Countries 24 (6,194m)
Largest Canada U Lowest point Death Valley, 4:00 6:00 9:00 12:00
Temperate forest

Smallest Grenada California 282ft (86m) below Vancouver Mexico City Godthab Greenwich
Dry grassland
1 Population 429,862,000 sea level
Hot desert
Density 52 per sq mile -#- Highest temperature
km)
(20 per sq 135°F (57°C) Death Valley, Top city populations I I
Tropical grassland

Major Languages English, California ] Rainforest

Mexico City,
Spanish, Erench, Amerindian % Lowest temperature -87°F Mexico
and Inuit languages, Nahuatl (-66°C) Northice, Greenland 13,636,127

(Aztec) Los Angeles.

US
5 ALASKA
9,477,926 ,

_ JsLSMAN _ J| a IS) _
New York,
l-'KDKRATION^r
US
'V
Countries, territories, and capitals 8,546,846 Mount Denali !X
20.322ft .-
Chicago, US (6,194m)
Name Capital Name Capital
6,069,974

Antigua and Barbuda St. John's Guatemala Guatemala City Toronto, Bering
Canada S e ii

Bahamas Nassau Haiti Port-au-Prince 3,893,000, *,-,

Barbados Bridgetown Honduras Tegucigalpa

1 :

Belize Belmopan Jamaica Kingston

Canada Ottawa Mexico Mexico City

Costa Rica San Jose Nicaragua Managua

Cuba Havana Panama Panama City

Dominica Roseau St. Kitts and Nevis Basseterre

Continent facts • Surfing as a competitive sport
Dominican Santo St. Lucia Castries • British Columbia began on the island of Oahu in
Republic Domingo
St. Vincent and Kingstown produces 25% of the Hawaii. Surfing waves can reach
El Salvador San Salvador the Grenadines timber sold in North about 26ft (8m) high.
Greenland Godthab Trinidad Port of Spain America. It also supplies the
and Tobago world with chopsticks.
Grenada St. George's Midway Islands (US)

US Washington, DC • Grenada is the only country in

the Western world where spices
such as nutmeg, cinnamon, and
Grand canyon cloves grow in abundance.
'< s

The Grand Canyon was gouged

out of rock by the Colorado
River. The canyon is 217 miles
AGE BREAKDOWN Fewest doctors
(349km) long, up to 19 miles LInder 15 to 65 Over 65 Haiti 1 to 7,050 people
(30km) wide, and mile 1
15 years years years
(1.6km) deep. At its deepest Jamaica 1 to 6,687 people

point it cuts through rock 2,000 Guatemala 1 to 3,999 people

million years old.
Nicaragua Vincent and
St. 1 to 3,800 people
6%
the Grenadines

LONGEST ROADS (see map on pages 292-3) St. Lucia 1 to 3,400 people
Trans-Canada Highway: US 12.3%
St. John's, Newfoundland
to Victoria, B.C. Longest life span
Canada 21%
4,860 miles (7,821km) Female _ 81 79 77 79 78

US 20: Boston, Massachusetts to Newport, Male

Oregon 3,365 miles (5,415km)
Nicarag
45.9%
US Provincetown, Massachusetts to
6:
Bishop. California 3, 24') miles (5,229km)
kn
US 30: Atlantic City, New Jersey to Astoria, 3 Lowest % Greenland
Oregon 3.1 19 miles (5,019km)
Highest 7<

288
 NORTH AND CENTRAL AMKRICA

Cross SECTION Largest lakes

The largest lakes,
except for Lake
Great Basin
Lake Michigan Michigan (US), lie
Lake Huron
partly or completely 23.000sq miles
Coast Range Mississippi
Lake Erie in Canada. (59.570sq km)

Pacific Ocean Rocky Mts. \ / Appalachian Mts.

1
Lake Michigan

u i^^l^ \
1 / Atlantic Ocean
9.843ft
(3,000m)
22,300sq miles
(57.757sq km)
Great Bear Lake
II
Sea level
12,096sq miles
im km)
HHH •14,764ft
-(4,500m)
(31 ,328sq

Great Slave Lake

Length: 3.600 miles (5,800km)
11,031sq miles
(28.570sq km)
A N toroln Set

c Northice

Otter
GREENLAND
Melville I. ( Denmark)

njuri Se'i
Victoria !
J
Wildlife
Arctic Circle
" ' North America has an
Hear hike Godthab amazing variety of animals
«Nuuk) and plants.
(.rem Sla, ;

Fauna
Moose (Alca alces) is the
largest deer in the world. A
male can weigh up 9921b to

A N (450kg). Broad homes help

the moose walk in deep snow.

Fer-de-lance {Bothrops
Solenodon (Solenodon atrox) of Centraland
/ Mnhl:,... cubantu is found onl\
)
South America is one
v _*.,(, l^Oiilariii
(in the island of Cuba. of the world's most ^^f
" /„//> Ne%\ venomous snakes.
Chicago '
York
v
— » Death '* s\
-
Valley U
,

u s
Cr'" -J
•282ft
"'•
(-fiBm) ,'

'^""
"'

# f
Los Angeles 11, ! Illiuhl

3 (1 kl

\I K\ I.C„9_\ Flora
(lit II o) M,
TmpirnffjnnEq
//

J fijlcxicc
City ^H^P M .'
Frangipani
(/'//ii/irnii rubra) is a
II s\l \II()R \k:\h\i,i
\ \
lar^c shrub with ( Cotton (Gossypium
os fragrant flowers. It is hirsuliiiii) is grown in
< I \ UIB^fr
Land profile I'W \M
also known as West the nited States and
I

Mexico, fiber from the

'

Indian jasmine.
Almost one-third of the
continent is agricultural land.

Urban
V (
'oast
plant

redwoods {Sequoia stmpen //*«>) are the

is harvested and

used to make cloth.

tallest

living trees. Thc\ can grow to 300ft (90m) tall.

Wetlands

595 Barren lands Country Production (1993)

Sugarcane
>'. Desert One of the major Guatemala 8.157,094 tons
crops in Central 6,283,167 tons
1
\', Grasslands Honduras
America is sugar-
El Salvador 2,946,475 tons
untlia cane. Sugar is

extracted from Nicaragua 2.91:

2 595 Agriculture the cane, which Costa Rica 2,645.544 tons

grows rapidly in
Panama
the hot, humid
climate. Belize
32.5% Forest

289
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Weather facts
Canada 113 F(45°C) -81.4° < (-6.VC)

Canada is THE second largest 1

1
-W-
•&-
^ -£-
34in (872mm)
r\
kjrf
/0 Canadian dollars
*£
country in the world. Across the
center of the country lie the 66.6°F (19.2°C) 12°F(-11°C)

Prairies, a flat plain used for growing

Land profile The cn tower
wheat and grazing cattle. Most
The Canadian
Canadians live around the Great More than half the land in
National (CN) Tower
Canada is covered by forest
Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. in Toronto is the
tallest free-standing
structure in the world
Area 3,85 l,808sq miles
at 1,821ft (555m) high.
(9,976,140sq km)
Government Federal democracy, with
It was built as a TV
transmitter and was
British sovereign as constitutional
completed in 1975.
monarch
Independence 1931, from Britain Wood and paper exports (1992)

Cb Currency Canadian dollar Canada is the world's largest exporter of Toronto skydome
I Population 27,400,000 forest products. These include lumber for • SkyDome is the world's first stadium with
Density 8 per sq mile (3 per sq km) building, as well as wood pulp for paper. a moving roof. Seating is

Official Languages English, French on four levels and can

Destination Amount tons)
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic
(in
hold 50,000 people.
46.5%, Protestant 41.2%, other 12.3% United States 10,481,595 • The field is covered
Europe 5,376,939 with 106 rolls of
Astroturf, joined
Asia 1,905,778
together with
Lifestyle facts South America 724,393 8 miles (12.8km)
• Canada is such a vast country that it takes of zippers.
Central America 233,258
3 days and 3 nights to travel by train from
N
Toronto to Vancouver - a distance of
2,776 miles (4,467km).
• Dinosaur Provincial Park, on
the banks of the Red Deer
River in Alberta, is one of
the greatest sites for
dinosaur remains in the
world. The Albertosaums is

one of the large dinosaurs that

once roamed around this area.
• Canada produces 75% of the world's
maple syrup. Each March,
sap is collected from
sugar maple trees
and boiled down into Foxe
A maple leaf is
syrup. . _„ N£ J.tL^ei. _X eJ
r t r
J LPl'S I
Bt/sin

the symbol of Canada. \ukon t% Southampton

• Some places in Canada are freezing <_
i

\
Territory % c % N A [)
/,

cold for months on end.

A family can flood A .Whitehorse Yeliowknife
,/gM/lount
their yard and Ungava
19.850ft
H u ds o n Peninsula '

use it as a Gulf of British

Alaska
(6,050m) f- ,
Saskatchew; Bay
hockey rink. J Columbia

Alberta
, •'
i Manitoba
^/ Edmonton &*?
Canadian people Cjfi L.Winmpeg
ChtirtMlr <v /' RedDt"
Many people have settled in Canada. The .Calgary Ontario
largest ethnic groups, after the British and Regin: uebec
Vancouver" Yellow
French, are Italian and German. • '- * • , Grass
• t,
,

Languages spoken % of population Victoria

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA •/.. SafleTr^ Quutu
#
English 66.3 Montreal ^<*
City of Montreal Ottawa * v '

D
French 23.2
This square in Montreal was named Toronto
I 'riTOniariti
Italian 5.9 after Jacques Carrier (1491-1557), the . jj^N Tower
German 1.1 explorer who claimed Canada for the SB
I®
Chinese
French in 1535. Today, Canada is a
0.4
bilingual country, and two-thirds of the
Other 3.1 ~~"-'
people in Montreal still speak French.

290
 GREENLAND

Lifestyle facts
Greenland • Greenland's 55,000-plus inhabitants live in
7 his jisht ng
lies nun
com m unity
(rip, I 'an el on

The world's LARGEST island, the capital, Godthab, 16 small towns, and 66 the southernmost tip of
Greenland.
Greenland is part of Denmark. other settlements. There are no roads or rail

links between areas, so travel is by air or sea.

Almost all of Greenland lies within
the Arctic Circle, and the land is In winter the skidoo, a kind

permanently covered with ice. Most of motorcycle on skis, is used

to travel across the snow.
of the island is uninhabited.
• More than 85% of
Greenland is a massive ice sheet
Area 840,004sq miles with an average thickness of 5,000ft
(2,175,600sqkm) (1,524m). Icebreaker ships are used to keep Along the coast
Government Constitutional monarchy, the sea channels open. Greenland has more than 24,430 miles
as part of kingdom of Denmark (39,515km) of jagged coastline. Most people
• Only low-growing plants with shallow live along the coast and work in the fishing
Qd Currency Danish krone
roots, such as the Arctic rhododendron, industry. In the south, the Gulf Stream
I Population 55,558
Arctic poppy, saxifrage, and bilberry, can
Density 0.4 per sq mile (0.16 per sq km) current helps keep the sea free of ice.
survive the harsh climate.
Official Language Greenlandic, [Danish
+ Major Religions Evangelical Fish exports
Lutheran 99%, Roman Catholic 1% Greenland's fishing rights cover
more than 772,204,OOOsq miles
(2,000,000sq km) of sea. Shrimp
accounts for 80% of the country's exports.
Arctic rhododendron Arclitpoppy Saxifrage Cod, salmon, haddock, and other fish make
(Rhododendron (Papaver (Saxifraga sp. t

lapponicum) lapponii umt up the remaining 20%.

Wildlife
Ma
n Sea
Lincoln Wiindcl Sea Conditions
within the Arctic
SiJL
Circle are harsh,
but the animals
that live there are
Hooded seal (Cystophora Caribou (Rangifer
well adapted to in in ndus) has broad
cristata) lives in the seas
the ice and snow. around the polar ice cap. hooves to walk in snow.

GREENLAND
(Denmark)

L^

Gunnbjorn Fjeld Walrus (Odobenus Polar bear (TAalarctos Arctic fox (A/opt \

12, 146ft (3,702m)

rosmarus) has long tusks maritimus) feeds on seals, lagopus) has fur that
which it uses to haul which it catches through changes from brown to
itself up on to the ice. holes in the ice. pure white in winter.
Wicj:irdc_

Inuit art
400 miles
Kenojuak, a famous Inuit
painter, is shown with her
work. Inuit art also
Inuit facts includes fine carvings
• Large areas of Canada and Greenland are still in ivorv and bone.

inhabited by the original settlers of these lands.

Ihey are called the Inuit, which means "people.'
• Inuit build temporary
The m nam it agreement
snowhouses (correctly A This agreement was reached in ».' and is 1
(
»
(

called illwuigd) when the largest land claim in Canadian history.

Its terms include:
they go hunting. Igloo is
their word for any other
• The hunt receive title to I35,136sq
miles (350,000sq km i of land in 1999.
kind of house.
•The} also have 13,999sq miles (36,257sq
• The main food source for the Inuit is the
km) of underground mineral rights.
f
•Halifax
Bva Scotia
animals they hunt. Hunting is vital to their
• The Inuit are granted $1.15 billion In
•//>, Sabli survival and provides food and clothing. Inuit
Canada in compensation to he paid o\cr
hunt caribou, seal, walrus, and fish. 14 sears (this sum based on aluc W ith \
if

• Some words we interest h\ und of 14-yeai period).

use, such as kayak and
anorak, arc taken from the Inuit language.

291
INTERNATIONAL WORLD
li I II II I o , ,

United states in Circle

of america TEUETTATTT)* 7 7|~ ~A"1 5X5KA~S

THK UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
(LIS) is made up
of 50 states plus
the District of Columbia. Two of Bering .luncau
Jp&Kii/liiik
the states, Alaska and Hawaii, are Sea
m
I.

separate from the others. The US is

G „ll"/-1^,.6,
,.<'' 10 US (hilars
the world's wealthiest country, with ;l" 800km
!/,»"«" 1

vast areas of rich farmland and

supplies of coal, oil, and minerals.
Lifestyle facts
C A N A D
• Alaska was bought from Russia
Area 3,618,784sq miles Mi
in 1867 for 2 cents an acre. Today
- (9,372,610sq km)
the state is rich in oil and other
Government Federal democracy *
1 lelena
natural resources.
Independence 1776, from Britain
Territories Northern Mariana Islands, • Inland storms called tornadoes, M of n tana
_V\
J
»alerr»»^
Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, or twisters, suck up dust as they
• . s. > I tin l/o
United States Virgin Islands, Marshall swirl across the landscape. Newport k.

Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, • The average Oregfln

in n —
Line Islands, Midway
i <j,

Johnston Atoll, American eats I

Islands, Wake Island, Baker and 1101b (50kg) of ;

Howland Islands, Jarvis Island, Kingman meat each year; fin =

Che\eone
Reef, Navassa Island, Palau, Palmyra more than twice L
Atoll as much as the average European. >J * /'Saljl Lake*,
Qd Currency United States dollar
•The US is the major producer
? *£
i^Cart«*n ('iiy "•*
t Population 255,200,000 , i

Density 73 per sq mile (28 per sq km)

of household waste. Every day, the Sacramento » yj \t \ .1 J j > l/rj
-J
average person produces about 41b
OfficialLanguage English
(1.8kg) of garbage.
1" Major Religions Protestant 61%,
• There one television for every
Roman Catholic 25%, Jewish 2%, is 1

people living in the United States.

other 12%
SanjpTe
Hollywood V r1J*. n a

Hollywood is the film capital of ,

N c u M c x ic
America. The fine weather and .os Angeles J
Pnntnix f f ^mk
Weather facts varied landscape attracted film ~
C. Dam
Until
directors from the East Coast to
p^——
135°F(57°C) -79.6 F (-62 C)
^_ 38.4in (976mm) -^ I
& %
a small town called Hollywood
about 1910.
75.2°F (24°C)
-.O;
'Sa*
36°F(2.2°C)
in
fi
/J
-c
Land profile Kaui/t
'/.
/,
More than one-third of the v " /'"" 9 °<?
M/„,
i

country is covered in forest. HonoluMt Molotm ./

"""' A
HAWAII /"««''>
Kii/ioolave A Mauna Loa
.£a& 13,681ft
4 170 "
250km
1
/WiP*'
W
'
1
)

I r

(I 150 miles

The first Americans Hawaiian islands

Major areas of wild lands (1994) The people to live in North America arrived from
first
Hawaii is a group of 20 volcanic-
Large areas of wild land have been set Asia more than 20,000 years ago. This Native American, islands in the Pacific Ocean.
aside as parks and nature reserves. Chief Looking Horse (above), is a member of the Sioux One of the largest active
from a reservation at Wounded Knee in South Dakota. volcanoes in the world,
State % of state Key animal Mauna Loa, is located
Native American facts on the main island of
Alaska 15.03 Moose
• Today 544 tribes of about 1.5 million Native
Hawaii. It last
Idaho 6.98 Cougar Americans live on reservations, which they govern erupted in 1984.
themselves. Two types of
Washington 5.91 Grizzly bear
• The Navajo of Arizona, New Mexico, and lava, Aa and
California 5.81 Mountain lion
Utah is the biggest tribe. People still practice pahoehoe, get
Wyoming 4.91 American buffalo traditional pottery and weaving: Navajo rugs their names
are woven into geometric patterns and are from Hawaiian
Florida 3.78 Manatee
colored with natural dves. words.

292
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

WHEATFIELDS OF NEBRASKA The car indi stry

The United States is the largestexporter The S has more cars on the
I

of wheat and produces more than half the road than any other country
world's corn. This supph of food is grow n (see page 111 for longest
on the open plains, or prairies, which roads). It also has the highest
stretch across the Midwest. ratio of cars, w itli 570 tor
ever) 1,000 persons.

Baseball
Washington, district of Columbia Baseball is America's
Best-selling cars wm\
Washington the capital city of the US. Model Number sold
is It is national sport. The
home which is the
to the Capitol Building, first game between two Ford F- series pickup 565,089
center of government and houses the organized teams was played in
Chevrolet C/K pickup 544.373
Senate and the House of Representatives. New Jersey in 1846.
Ford Taurus 360,448

Ford Ranger 340,184

Honda Accord 330,030

GREAl Ford Explorer 302,201
-I I A I: S
Toyota Camry 299,737

Chevrolet Cavalier 273,617

Ford Escort 269,034

Album hire Dodge Caravan 262.838
llusctts
S-^5 New York : Boston
ftrovincetown
w
Pennsylvania rjiirilj.rd*
|
Rh mi, I

llurrisbur^^^ ';
Amisii
Ircnton
Miiladcljiliwyy*
^ Jersey
The Amish are a Protestant group who came
l^CipStyiolis / • Atlantic ( :il\ to America from Switzerland in the 8th 1

I Dclaw arc century. Members do not

Maryland conform to modern ways
of life: they reject the
Richmond
use of electric lights
and telephones and
drive horses and
buggies rather than cars.

Statue of liberty, new york

• The statue was given to the IS by France
in 1884. It was designed by Augusce
Bartholdi (1834-1904) and shipped across
the Atlantic, packed in 210 crates.
• The statue is 306ft Sin (93.5m) high,
including the pedestal she stands on.
• Visitors can climb 171 sreps up to the
viewing gallery in the head of the statue for
a spectacular view of the New York sk\ line.

300 in Mc
..-^ Architecture
The many different styles of
American architecture reflect
Everglades the diverse climate and
facts conditions of the I S.
• Southern Florida
has a vast area of Plantation homes
cypress swamp called the People who grew rich on the
jmf
profits of the plantations in the
Everglades. It is home
19th ccntuiA built grand
to many rare animals mansions m European styles.
and plants.
Ail deeo st\ le
• The green tree frog Clapboard The ( Ihryslei bu line
Mississippi river I,,, frog
louses the eastern states are often
has sticky suction pad I in «.h designed b\
The Mississippi is one of the built of overlapping wooden boards, \\ illiam * -\u Men
world's busiest waterways. Ships
on its toes that help it
known as clapboard, to keep out rain. (b.1914) in the I920i
grip the slippery branches.
can travel for nearly 1,802 miles
(2,900km) from Minneapolis to • The American alligator grows Major American architect
Frank .loyd Wrighi
New Orleans. The first up (3.6m) long and may
to 12ft
I

(1867 1959) designed

steamboat appeared on the live for 50 years. It propels itself houses that blend with
Mississippi in 1811. through the water with its tail. the landscape.

293
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Blueberries

United states of America: 5

±™°"> Maine
Area
'
Area 56,345sq miles 33,265sq mile
STATES OF THE UNION J (145,933sq km)
Capital Springfield Capital Augusta
(86,156sq km)

The UNITED STATES of America originally Cl Population 11,658,000 li Population 1,222,000

Entry into Union December 3, 1818 Entry into Union March 15, 1820
consisted of 13 colonies on the East Coast, all of * State flower Native violet •X* State flower White pine cone

them ruled by Britain until independence in 1776. Maryland

Today there are 50 states, governed by the federal
IVMpjP Area 10,460sq miles
government in Washington, D.C., each with its laffvBJI (27,091 sq km)
own set of laws. For example, the age
holding a for Capital Annapolis
tl Population 4,694,000
driving licence varies, as does the of states number Entry into Union April 28, 1788
that uphold the death sentence for murder. # State flower Black-eyed susan
..* z*

Indiana Massachusetts
Area 36,185sq miles Area 8,284sq miles
Connecticut (93,719sq km ) (21,456sq km )
Area
5,018sq miles Capital Indianapolis Capital Boston
(12,997sq km) lI Population 5,593,000 £1 Population 5,913,000
The bald eagle is Capital Hartford Entry into Union December 11, 1816 Entry into Union February 6, 178
the national
CI Population 3,239.000 •X* State flower Peony # State flower Mayflower
symbol of the US.
Entry into Union January 9, 1788
* State flower Mountain laurel
Alabama IOWA Michigan
[j^ Area 51,705sq miles
II^V (133,916sqkm) Delaware ££ Area 56,275sq miles
(145,752sq km)
Area 58,527sq miles
(151,585sq km)
Capital Montgomery Area 2,045sq miles Capital Des Moines Capital Lansing
J Population 4,1 18,000 (5,297sq km ) CI Population 2,840,000 J Population 9,273,000
Entry into Union December 14, 1819
Capital Dover Entry into Union December 28, 1846 Entry into Union January 26, 1837
* State flower Camellia J Population 673,000 * State flower Wild rose * State flower Apple blossom
Entry into Union December 7, 1787
* State flower Peach blossom
Alaska
The white house
Area 591,000sq miles
(l,530,690sq km) Florida The White House in

Capital Juneau Washington, D.C., is the

Area
58,664sq miles
J Population 527,000
(151,940sq km)
residence of the
official
Entry into Union January 3, 1959 president and his family. The
Capital Tallahassee
* State flower Forget-me-not (1 Population 12,671,000 3-story, 100-room mansion
Entry into Union March 3, 1845 was designed by Irish-born
* State flower Orange blossom
architect James Hoban
Arizona
Baseball game (1762-1831) and completed
Area 1 14,000sq miles

(295,260sq km)
in 1800. The building is

Capital Phoenix made of white limestone,

J Population 3.556,000 which is how it got its name.
Entry into Union February 14, 1912
* State flower Saguaro blossom

Kansas
Arkansas Area 82,277sq miles
(213,097sq km)
Area 53,187sq miles Georgia Capital Topeka
(137,754sqkm) lI Population 2,513,000
Capital Little Rock Area 58,910sq miles
Entry into Union January 29, 1861 Minnesota
J Population 2,406.000 (152,577sq km )
Capital Atlanta
* State flower Native sunflower
Area
84,402sq miles
Entry into Union June 15, 1836
* State flower Apple blossom lI Population 6,435,000 (218,601sq km)
Entry into Union January 2, 1788 Capital St. Paul
* State flower Cherokee rose Cl Population 4,353,000
./- Entry into Union May 1 1, 1858
* State flower Showy lady's slipper
Cowboy hat
Stretch limo
Surfer
Dixieland jazz band
California Hawaii Kentucky
Area Area
40,4 lOsq miles
I58,707sq miles Area 6,47 lsq miles
(104,662sq km)
(411.049sqkm) (16,760sqkm)
Capital Frankfort
Capital Sacramento Capital Honolulu
CI Population 3,727,000
I Population 29,063,000 CI Population 1,112,000
Entry into Union September 9, 1850
Entry into Union June 1, 1792
Entry into Union August 21, 1959
•X- State flower Goldenrod
* State flower California poppy * State flower Yellow hibiscus
Colorado Idaho Louisiana Mississippi

KArea 1 04,09 lsq miles

(269,596sq km)
Area
89,564sq miles
(231,971sq km) PS9i
[
Area
(123,678sqkm)
47,752sq miles Area
47,689sq miles
(123,515sq km)
Capital Demer Capital Boise Capital Baton Rouge Capital Jackson
I Population 3.317.000 I Population 1,014,000 iCI Population 4,382,000 ll Population 2,621,000
Entry into Union August 1. 1876 Entry into Union July 3, 1890 Entry into Union April 30, 1812 Entry into Union December 10, 181
•X* State flower Columbine * State flower Mock orange •X- State flower Southern magnolia * State flower Magnolia

294
 STATES OF THH I'NION

Missouri South carolin \

KArea 69,697sq miles

(180,515sq km)
Area 77.1 16sq miles
(199,730sq km)
(Capital Jefferson City Capital Columbia
i Population 5,159,000 i Population 3,512,000
Kntry into Union August 10, 1821 Halloween lantern
Entry into Union May 23, 1788
# State flower Hawthorn New Yorft skyline * State flower Yellow jessamine
Vermont
Montana Area 9,614sq miles
Area 147, 046sq miles
New York (24,900sq km)
I
< Capital Monrpelier
(380,849sq km) Area49.1()8s(| miles
Capital lelena I Population 567
I
(127,190sq km)
1 Population 806,000 Entry into I Inion March 4. 1791
Capital Albany -*'$£* *
State flower Red clover
Entry into Union November 8, 1889 I Population 17,950.00(1
* State flower Bittcrroot Mount Rusi
Entry into Union July 26, 1 788 National Monurru m
* State flower Rose
Virginia
South Dakota Area 40,767sq miles
North Carolina Area 77,1 16sq miles
(105,586sq km)
American football Capital Richmond
^^^H Area 52,699sq (199,730sq km)
!— - 1

(136,490sq km)
miles
Capital Pierre
I Population 715.000
I Population 6,098.000
Entry into I Inion June 25, 1788
Capital Raleigh
Entry into Union November * State flower Flowering dogwood
J Population 6,571,000 2. 1889
*
I

State flower Pasqueflower

Entry into LJnion November 21, 1789
* State flower Flowering dogwood Washington
Tennessee Area 68,139sq miles
North Dakota Area 42,144sq miles (176,480sq km)
Nebraska (109,152s(| km) Capital Olympia
Area 70,702sq miles I Population 4.761.000
Capital Nashville
Area
77,355sq miles (183,1 18sq km) Entry into Inion November 11. 1889
I Population 4.940,000
(200,349sq km) Capital Bismarck X- State flower Coast rhododendron
Entry into Union June 1. 1796
Capital Lincoln 1 Population 660,000
•X* State flower Iris
1 Population 1,611,000 Entry into LInion November 2, 1889 West Virginia
Entry into Union March 1, 1867 #
State flower Wild prairie rose
* State flower Golden rod Area 24.252sq miles
Ohio (02.701s(| km)
Nevada Area 41,330sq miles
Capital ( Charleston
Bg^«_
Area
110,561sq miles
1^*^ (l()7,()45st| km)
i Population 1,857,000
Entry into Union June 20, 1863
(110,561sq miles) Capital Columbus
Cowboys roping i attle •X- State flower Rhododendron
Capital Carson City I Population 10,907,000
1 Population 1,111,000 Entry into Union March 1, 1803
State flower Scarlet carnation
Texas Wisconsin
Entry into Union October 31, 1864 •X-

* State flower Sagebrush Area

266,807sq miles Area 56,153sq miles
Oklahoma (691,030sq km) (145,436sq km)
NEW HAMPSHIRE Area 69,919sq miles
Capital Austin Capital Madison
I Population 16.991,000 I Population 4,867,000
Area 9,279sq mile (181,090sq km)
Entry into Union December 29. 1845 Entry into I Inion Ma> 29, 1848
(24,033sq km Capital Oklahoma Cit\
State flower Bluebonnct •X- State flower Wood violet
)
•X*
Capital Concord I Population 5,224.000
I Population 1.107,(100 Entry into Union November 10. 1907
* State flower Mistletoe Utah Wyoming
Entry into Union June 21, 1788
* State flower Lilac Area 84,899sq miles Area 97,809sq miles
Oregon (219,888sq km) (253,325sq km)
Yi'llow taxicab Capital Salt Lake City ( Capital ( Iheyenne
Area 97,073sq miles I Population 1.707.000 I Population 475.000
(251,419sq km) Entry into Union January 1896
4, Entry into I Inion July 10, 1890
Capital Salem •X- State flower Sego lily •X- Stale flower Indian paintbrush
I Population 2.820.000
Entry into Union February 14. 1859
•X- State flower Oregon grape

New jersey State facts • There are more engineers ami

Pennsylvania New Jerse\ than in
scientists in
• Only about 800
'
Area 7,7S7s<| miles Area 45,308sq miles any other state.
J grizzly bears are
(20,168sqkm) (117,348sq km)
left in the US;
• The Stoek
Capital Trenton Capital Harrisburg
i Population 7,750,000 I Population 12.040,000 man\ of them Exchange on Wall u

Entry into Union December IS, 1787 Entry into Union December 12, 1787 roam wild in the Street. New York. $
•X* State flower I'urple \ iolet * State flower Mountain laurel mountain forests of Idaho and is the largest in the
Rhode island world, handling more
Wyoming.
than 1(1(1 million shares a day,
'•&' Area l,212s(| miles • Georgia grows nearly one-half
j • Silicon \ alley, south of San
(3,139sqkm) the US's total crop of peanuts.
Francisco, has one of the world's
Capital l'ro\ idence Over half the crop is used tor
Roatlrunnei largest eoneentr.it ions of high-
i Population 998,000
Entry into Union May 29, 1790
making peanut butter, the resi tech nology industry.
•X* State flower Violet for edible oil and animal iced.
• ( )nc-third of the world's
New memco Choppei bike • Rhode Island is the cherry crop is grown along the
•^ Area 121, 593sq miles smallest state. It shines of I ,ake Michigan.
(314.926sq km) gave its name to a • The I S's top tourist
Capital Sante Fe chicken, the destinations include I )isne)
I Population 1,528,000
Entry into I Inion January 6, 1912
Rhode Island Ra\, World m Florida, with more
* State flower Yucca first bred in 1X57. than JO million v isitois a year.

295
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Lifestyle facts
Mexico • There are more Spanish speakers in

Tills is A land of contrasts, with Mexico than in any other country.

• Beekeeping an important 10 Mexican pesos
snow-capped mountains, a high is

activity, especially in the

central plateau, and tropical rain- Language
south. Mexico is one of the
forests. It is the world's leading world's main exporters of A traditional greeting in
producer of silver. The capital, natural honey. Spanish is bitenos dias.

Mexico City, is the largest city in • Mexicans eat a variety of spicy foods using
Jaguar
the world. Southern Mexico is often chilies.Pancakes, called tortillas, are made
The jaguar
affected by earthquakes. from corn flour and tilled with meat,
. {Pa n thera oncd) lives
vegetables, and cheese.
in the jungles of

•-
I&<'l Area 756,065sq miles
(l,958,200sqkm)
• Many familiar garden
plants, such as poinsettias,
Central America.
Its spotted coat acts
Government Federal republic marigolds, and dahlias, as camouflage.
Independence 1821, from Spain originated in Mexico.
GO Currency Mexican peso • Mexico has more than
iPopulation 88,200,000 6,000 miles (9,650km) of
Density 19 per sq mile (46 per sq km)
1
coastline,and fishing for shrimp is an
Official Language Spanish important industry. Natural bath sponges are
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic harvested off the Gulf of Mexico.
94.7%, Protestant 1%, other 4.3% Silver
Feast day Mexico is rich in
Day of the Dead minerals and supplies
(November is a feast 1 ) one-fifth of the world's
day when food and drink are silver. Some of the silver
offered to dead relatives. Bakers is made into jewelry; it is

Weather facts sell sweets in the shapes of skulls 1

Silver and
also used as a coating for

117 1-I47 C) 25 F<-4 C) and coffins. turquoise photographic film.

^L 36in (929mm) r^r jewelry

-;o':
Elj owl

73 F(22.8 G) 64 F (17.8 C) Desert facts ACAPULCO BEACH

• The largest of all cacti is Tourism is a v ital

Land profile the giant saguaro from the part of Mexico's

More than one-third of Sonoran Desert. It can economy. The

Mexico is desert. -
^
grow to 60ft (18m) high. busy resort of
>
f^ y
U.| l |-,i, ll i.! l
.i
l

l
^
l

.,iMM,i.iil[|
• The tiny elf ow I hides Acapulco, on the
from the heat of the day Pacific Coast, has
q'±.\j.j:j.jjj.xsjL # i
in the cool branches
more than 1,900,000
of the saguaro. -
v isitors ev er\ vear

Guatemala El Salvador Honduras

High mountains and National bird A LINE OF volcanoes Most people work on
volcanoes, tropical forests,
The quetzal dominates El Salvador. small farms growing rice,
Pharomachrus
The
i

and lakes cover Guatemala layers of volcanic ash beans, and corn for
mocinno) is found

More than half the in Guatemala. The

and lava make fertile soil themselves. Cattle are
population are Mayas. male's long tail for growing coffee. raised for beef exports.
feathers help him
attract a mate.
Area 42,043sq miles Area 8,124sq miles Area 43,278sq mile:
(108,890sq km) (21,040sq km)
^^"^ (1l2.090sq km )

Government Presidential Government Presidential Government Republic

republic republic Independence 1821, from
Independence 1821 Independence 1821, Spain
from Spain from Spain Currency Lempira
Currency Quetzal _ Currency Salvadorean Population 5,500,000
i
I Population colon Density 127 per sq mile
9,700,000 i Population 5,400,000 (49 per sq km)
Density 230 per sq Density 676 per sq mile Official Language Spanish
km)
mile (89 per sq Weaving (261 per sq km) + Major Religions Roman
Language Spanish
Official Traditional textiles from Official Language Spanish Catholic 88%, Protestant 12%
Major Religions Roman Guatemala are made in more + Major Religions Roman
Catholic 65%, Protestant 33%, than 325 variations of style and Catholic 82%, Evangelical
other 2% Every Maya village has its
color. 18%
unique style of dress made from
handvvoven textiles.

296
 CENTRAL AMERICA

r
Belize
BELIZE is a land of tropical
1^, jungles, mountains, and
8v swamps. The climate is
ideal for growing citrus
Guadalupe I,

fruits and sugar cane.

8,865sq miles Area

People of Belize Z2,960sq km) (
^fH^lonterrc}
More than half the population Government Parliamentary
I
•<; () of Belize are Creole. All Creoles democracy
are of African descent and speak Independence 19X1.
the English-Creole dialect. from Britain
Cb Currency Belizean
dollar
I Population 194,000
Density 25 per sc| mile
Yin t/tti ii

I', niniiilu (9 per sq km)

Official Language English
Cerros
—
I + Major Religions Roman
Bl'l.l/I
.

Catholic 62%, Anglican 12%,

RBtlmopan
Victoria Peak Methodist 6%, other 20%
3,681ft (1,122m)
845ft MJsOrtfcfij- .>" "

s
-
( ;
alpa
Pico Mogoton
Lake Nicaragua Kjm* (2,107m l

PALENQUE, CITY OF THE MAYA Lake Nicaragua is the only

For many years, Mexico was home to a freshwater lake to contain ocean Managti
series of nativeAmerican peoples. One of animals such as the bullshark. The
the most important groups, the Maya, built lake was once part of an ocean bay that
the city of Palenque in about 500 A.D. was cut off by volcanic activity.
( OSI \ RJI

Chimpo Qtai
12.530ft (3.8191
Cacao plant facts
Volcan BarJ
Ancient sites in central America • Central America is a major 11,401ft (3. 475mT
Site Culture Country exporter of cacao, from which
cocoa and chocolate are made.
Tula Toltec Mexico
• The cacao tree is a tropical
Aztec Mexico
Tenochtitlan

Copan Maya Honduras

plant. Itsprouts long, thin
pods, called cherelles. which
Panama
grow to about lOin (25cm) long. PANAMA FORMS \ land link between
Tikal Maya Guatemala • Each pod contains 50 to 40 beans. In the
the North and South American
Cerros Maya Belize 16th century, cacao beans were considered so
continents. The Panama Canal cuts
valuable the Aztecs used them as money,
through the country, linking the
Caribbean Sea with the Pacific ( )ccan.
Nicaragua Costa rica
MR, One-third ok Costa which Area (29,761 sq miles)
Till-: LARGEST COl in Central Rica,
*. 77,0K0sc| km
America, Nicaragua has large tropical means "rich coast," is covered with
Government Presidential republic
forests and a swampy ( laribbean forests that include mahogany and Independence 1903, from Colombia
shore, called the Mosquito Coast. tropical cedar trees. Currency Balboa
I Population J, 500.000
Density 85 per sq mile (33 per si| kmi
Area 50,193sq miles 1IEBH Area 19,750sq miles Official Language Spanish
(I50,000s(| km) (51,100s(| km) + Major Religions Roman Catholic
Government Presidential republic Government Presidenti; il republic Si>._" Protestant
, . Jew ish 4%, (•>'
< .

Independence 1X21, from Spain Independence 1X21, from Spam others 3.89!
Currency Gold cordoba Currency ( losta Ric; m colon
I Population 4,000,000 i Population 3,200,000

Density <s<s per sq mile (54 per sq km) Density 163 per sq mile PANAM \ CAN \l I \< ITS
Official Language Spanish (63 per sq km) • The canal opened in 1914 and cut the
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic Official Language Spanish sailing distance from New 'lork to San

N09? , Protestant Evangelicals 17%, + Major Religions Roman Catholic Krancisco b\ 8,000 miles (13,000km).
other 39? 909;, other 10% • More than 200 million cubic \ auK S3 < I

million culm meters) of rubble were dug up

w hen the 50-mile (S()-km 1 1 anal W as built.

!97
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

THE CARIBBEAN %_<$&'

THESE islands, also known as the West Indies,

i-
form a 2,000-mile (3,200-km) chain stretching from %
o Nassai
the coast of Florida almost to Venezuela. Tourists
flock to the beautiful beaches: 1.5 million people
each year to the Bahamas alone. M t
tic
>
Strait'-
X \
_rropi£j)t_Ojnccr_
\S :
Cuba Havana
BAHAM
.MAS
Cuba is thk only communist
CUBA
? -
state in the Western Hemisphere,
of
and Fidel Castro has been its leader IsltS
Youth
Camagiiey Turks &
caicos islands
since January 1959. World-famous (UK)
Cuban cigars are a major export. Santiago dcC^Jjji " j^ht-*-
CAYMAN ISLANDS
(UK)
IIA1TL DOMWh
Area 42,803sq miles ov R*pijBLIC
(110,860sqkm)
JAMAICA
Port-au-Princef
"
—^J
<y
Santo°
Dorn n go
Government Communist state i

200 mill "^Kingston

--— Independence 1898, from Spain. US
/ /
troops withdrew in 1902 S t
"

Gd Currency Cuban peso

J Population 10,800,000 Jamaica
Density 251 per sq mile Jamaica, the home of reggae National hero
(97 per sq km) music, is the third largest of the Marcus Garvey
Official Language Spanish Caribbean islands. Most of its (1887-1940) is one
Major Religions Roman Catholic 40%, of Jamaica's
Protestant 1.4%, other 3.5%,
income is derived from mining
national heroes.
nonreligious 55.1% bauxite, the chief source of He founded the
aluminum, and the tourist industry. Universal Negro
Improvement
The smallest bird Association in 1914.
Area 4,244sq miles \nriiA
Cuba is the home of the world's smallest (N'cch.)

bird. The bee hummingbird, known in (1 0,991 sq km) Major tourist destinations NTI'IIKRI AND!

(>uba as the zunzuncito, is just Government Parliamentary democracy, (Figures show visitors per year)
ANTII.I .KS
(N'cth,

2.4in (6cm) long: member of the British Commonwealth

roughly the same size Independence 1962, from Britain
Trinidad & Tobago
as a red admiral butterfly. Qd Currency Jamaican dollar 194,021
i Population 2,440,000
Antigua & Barbuda
Density 598 per sq mile 209,902
(231 per sq km)
Barbados 394,222
Official Language English
'
Bee Hummingbird
Major Religions Protestant 56%,
Jamaica 840,000
Roman Catholic 5%, other and - -spa-
nonreligious 39%
Fed Admiral Bahamas 1 ,560.000 *£v-^- '

Bahamas Haiti Dominica St. lucia

The Bahamas
up of more than 700
islands and cays (small
islands). Only about 30
of these arc inhabited.
arc made The people of this The imperial parrot, THE PITONS, twin volcanic
mountainous country are shown on the Dominican peaks that rise about
French-speaking, and flag, is found only in the 2,600ft (800m) above the
many practice the folk dense tropical forests of lush forests, are St. Lucia's
religion called voodoo. the northern mountains. best-known landmarks.

J (13,880sq
^^ Area 5,359sq miles Area K),714sq miles Area 290sq miles !
W^H Area 239sq miles
km) (27,750sq km) km)
(750sq |^~-™(620sq km)
Independence 1973, Independence 1804, Independence 1978, Independence 1979,
from Britain from France from Britain from Britain
Currency Bahamian Currency Gourde Currency Fast Gd Currency Fast
dollar I Population 6,800,000 Caribbean dollar Caribbean dollar
I Population 300,000 Official Languages French, i Population 83,000 I Population 153.000
Official Language English Haitian, Creole Official Language English Official Language English

298
 THE CARIBBEAN

Best-known
caribbean fruit Dominican Antigua and Barbados
TOURISM is the leading
Guava
The
republic BARBUDA industry in Barbados,
guava is j pear-
shaped fruit with
The Dominican Republic Si (, \\< \\\s once the main
employing almost 40% of
cream or pink flesh. is called Quisqueya in export from these islands.
the workforce. Sugar is an
native Arawak Indian. It is Today tourism is more important export, and a
Papaya the second largest country important, and Barbuda is
traditional local dish is the
The flesh of the in the Caribbean. also an animal reserve.
pawpaw is
famous flying fish.

• Mango
The
orange, like an
apricot's.

juicy mango
green, red, or orange-
pink in color.
is
lr^*^
from Spain
3 Area
(48,730sq
Independence
18,815s(| miles
km)
1865,
o Area 170sq miles
(440sq km)
Independence
from Britain
1981,
m \J/H
1
Area
km)
(430sq
Independence 1966,
from Britain
16(>sq miles

Qd Currency Dominican Qj Currency East Currency Barbados

Republic peso Caribbean dollar dollar

L t e w 1 Population 7,500,000 I Population 63,880 I Population 300,000

BRITISH Official Language Spanish Official Language English Official Language English
VIRQI\ ISLANDS
(I'K)
San Juan ANC;ii||.I.A

IKK)
V ILK)

WIKil'A
& B\RBl l)\
Caribbean music
Grenada
I'l

RICOll S) VIRGIN
'

and dance facts

ISLANDS
(I S)
ST. KI'ITS
fit MAIS • The biggest and On Grenada, the "spice
most famous carnival island,"nutmeg, cloves,
C a r i /, UADKLOII'K
in the Caribbean
il ranee)
cinnamon, and saffron
DOMINICA takes place in
% grow abundantly. Cacao is
Trinidad and
~ ^MARTIMOI also an important export.
» Tobago every
I-.

(France) year.
ft
People spend
^ '
ST. LUCIA
months creating
"""
BARBADOS 1 Area 1 3 1 sq miles
the costumes.
s.
(340sqkm)
SI. VINCENT &
?JCHE GRENADINES. • Calypso music originated in Trinidad, although it is Independence 1974,
popular throughout the Caribbean. Steel bands are from Britain
musicians who play calypso and their drums, called Currency East
pans, are made out of oil drums. The rhythms of calypso Caribbean dollar
TRINIDAD fie
music show a strong African influence. I Population 84,000
TOBAGO
Port of Spain Official Language English
• Reggae music emerged in Jamaica in the 1970s and
developed from earlier Jamaican musical styles. Reggae
has achieved worldwide popularity through the songs of Greatest west indies
Regional weather musicians such as Bob Marley. BATSMEN (1994)
Records
ZL
^^^"^ • Bob Marley (1945-81 was the ) Cricketer Tests Runs
-;oc
most famous Jamaican reggae
I00.4 F (38 C)
% singer, who had hit records around
I.V.A. Richards 121 8,540

G.S. Sobers 93 8,032

the world in the 1970s. He
Averages
believed world peace and
in C.G. Greenidge 108 7,558
6()in ( 1,529mm)
equality among people, and his
H!* d.<3
% songs were a powerful means of
C.H. Uoyd

Haynes
110

103
7.515

7.487
m.h F(27 ci 76°F(24.S°C) %*M' \3 spreading this message.
D.L.

St. kitts and nevis vincent and

St. Trinidad and
kLri™KU^~ated THE GRENADINES TOBAGO
?T- VTNCEOT, the largest o the Trinidad, the twolarger of these
from its sister island, Nevis, by a
2-mile-wide (3 km) sea channel.
,slands of chls natl ° n h '
b,ac * islands, is and natural gas.
rich in oil
!f
volcanic beaches. 1 he Grenadines Tobago has fine beaches and an
group consists of 32 smaller islands. 18-hole championship golf course'.

L^H
m£L
Area
km)
J(360sci
139sq miles Area 131 sq miles
(340sq km)
Area
km)
(5,130sq
1 ,98 1 sq miles

Independence 1983, from Britain Independence 1979, from Britain Independence 1962, bom Britain
Currency East Caribbean dollar Currency East Caribbean dollar Currency Trinidad & fobagodollai
i Population 44,000 i Population 117,000 I Population 1,300,000
Official Language English Official Language English Official Language English

?99
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Climate zones
South America Polar and tundra

THE CONTINENT OF South America is Mountain region

dominated by the Andes, the world's Mediterranean

longest mountain chain, passing through ~~ I Dry grassland

seven countries. Brazil is the largest country, —

I Hot desert

occupying almost half the continent. ^ Rainforest

~~|
Tropical grassland

Time zones
Area Portuguese, Quechua,

© © O
6,840,388sq miles
km) Guarani, Aymara
(17,716,530sq
Countries 12
Largest Brazil 3,286,489sq
SB Highest point
Aconcagua 22,836ft (6,960m)
Mount D
7:00 8:00 9:00 12:00
miles (8,51 l,970sq km) D Lowest point Valdes Lima Caracas Buenos Aires Greenwich

Smallest Surinam 63,039sq Peninsula 131ft (40m) below

miles (163,270sq km) sea level
Fewest doctors Continent facts
1Population 304,325,000 # Highest temperature 120°F • At 13,000ft (4,000m) above
Guyana 1 per 6,200 people
Density 44 per sq mile (49°C) Rivadavia, Argentina sea level, Lake Titicaca is the
(17 per km)s(| sfc Lowest temperature -27° F Chile 1 per 2,383 people world's highest lake. It lies
Major Languages Spanish, (-33°C) Sarmiento, Argentina Bolivia 1 per 1 ,540 people across the borders of Peru and
Bolivia.
Surinam 1 per 1 ,300 people
• The continent of South

Countries and capitals Age breakdown America experiences extremes

I Inder 15 to Over Longest life span of weather. In parts of
Name Capital
15 years 65 years 65 years Female (^ 77 (% 76 (% 75 Colombia, more than 46()in
Argentina Buenos Aires
(11,700mm) of rain falls per
Bolivia La Paz year, while the Atacama Desert,
Male
Chile, is the world's driest place.
Brazil Brasilia
• Both the tomato and the
Chile Santiago
potato originated in South
Colombia Santa Fe de Bogota America. Andean farmers grow
Ecuador Quito potatoes at altitudes of more
than 6,550ft (2,000m).
Guyana Georgetown Uruguay

Paraguay Asuncion Native people ifl^M,

Peru Lima The homes of the Quechua ^Lvl i >. - ^_. -^-" -"JJJwI^.
"
.Hk^A

Indians of Kcuador and Peru are 'nDil Jvl T ~w (i /*« lt^

Surinam Paramaribo
sonic of the highest settlements - .^ft^^s^.. ~^^^Bfe^^5 "?^
Uruguay Montevideo in the world. These Andean |"^ M'HIHl
Venezuela Caracas peoples have adapted physically '^^P ^HJ V9 -

to the low -oxygen atmosphere. wn jfn V*

Qiieclum rhildrni outside llicii stlwnl i^r^ff^^^^^
Top city populations
(Metropolitan Area) Sao Paulo Rainforest area Amazon area Highest waterfalls
2.7 million sq miles
Brazil
The Amazonian rainforest
Buenos Aires 15,199.423 (7 million sq km)
Argentina
is 12.8 times
12.600.000 bigger than
Rio de Janeiro France. /
Lima Brazil
Peru 9.600.528
gngne°
6.404.500
Santiago aoona
Chile aaaan
tTTTTT
4.545.784
'Jill
aaaai anno
anno
Hiil> mann
anna
DflDD
I000D pan
anon pnnu
France area\
World's longest mountain ranges 210,669sq miles (545.630sq km)
Mt. Aconcagua
 '

SOI IH AMKKK \

Sea
Coffee trek
Caracas •*fe"" " /
Coffee is the fruit of the coffee tree.
an evergreen that readies a height
V/ nh Mm,..
x^ /
''
'

of 6-9ft (2-3m). After or while

>r vVENEZUEL> l<Jeprg etoW n ,. ' flowering, the brandies bear green
"cherries" that ripen to reel. The
I _^ \»V Paramaribo
s

if „ -' ' '

r
SFf v % krencik.i i\w cherries split open to reveal two seeds
\i„//„/„i jf - the coffee beans - w Inch are then
(France)
(Col,,,,,!,,.,;
Afogota ' Cayenne
C -5? 7
washed, dried, and roasted.
o: 'f^et?
A' .

4fr -----
^juito *,
Top coffee exporters (1993)

v.cujMoj!.' Rntm I
Country Bags Tons
(Hra/.il)
I-, 111,1ml,, tl,
Brazil 18,501.000 1 ,22 3

Nomii/m I

(Hr.,/,11 Colombia 13.570.000 !

897.501

Ecuador 1.508.000 i
99.737

BRAZIL Peru
1
0001 68
'

Limfr % Wildlife
Rainforests and mountains are home to a huge

^ "i.aPaz
BOLIVIA
ittlillUt
Plateau of
Minn Grosso

y
variety of animals

Fauna
and plants.

i>\k\(;i ay

Sao
O^T-.
I'-.iulo -
ll,,
'
m "' ( ''"
<

1
Jiant
1'notion It«i
armadillo
win 1 in if. 1
Toco toucan
(Ramphastos, toro)
Llama
tl mini •Jnium is
Rivac
vadavia
Asuncion the biggest claw has the largest most important tor

M
luis s bill
a
mh'elii I lit ,in\ li\ inn animal. ol .ill the toucans, transport in the Vndcs
(Chile)"'
Sun \mlimsiol
(Chile) Flora

%
... ; ,„,/, Aconcagua 22: 83611
8361^
960m)
I6.960m)f
I Kl (,l Vi
Santiago'" Buenos Aires
Monlc\ idco

A R (i E \ I I \ \ \
\ it
Opuntia I'm a Monke) puzzle
Uiii 1,1,1111 1 boar pear- (Ptiy/i raimondiil is (Araucaria nniuuiiiiii.
shaped fruits know n an herbaceous plant the ( Ihile Pine, is

as prickb pens. that has 8,000 flowers, native to the Vndes,

Valdes Peninsula
•131ft (-40m) Cross-section
L Wl> PROFILE
Andes
14.764ft
Atlantic
Sarmiento (4,500m)
Ocean t rbanO.5*
(.nil lit Sil
Sea level
Wetlands \'i

Barren land I

liiltlmiil
/ ,,k,
Islands
l
<
; ,11111,1
il ki I
Desert 49
lliiliiti

(.mini,

Slmil aj Milgellilll

iietiti tli I I iii'jii

Pores! 66.5%

Cape 1 1 in n

Vuru ulturc s'V

(Ir.issl.oul 1'",

*.',
>f-*'
W fH
301
 ,

INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Weather facts
Colombia
120°F(49°C) 14"E(-1()"C)
( !oi OMBIA is FAMOUS
producing for
^L 17.4in (444mm)
-&
high-quality coffee - its major cash *p
IBM

crop. Some of the finest emeralds 73°F(23°C) 42°F(6°C)

Ii0,000 pesos
arc mined here and account for
Land profile
90 percent of world output. Almost half of Colombia is Orchid
covered with dense forest. Colombia's national
svmbol is the orchid.
i|^_n Area 401,050sq miles
(l,038,700sqkm) ZZ3MA
£?23j iMlilll.lliillllllll'l
THE WALLED CITY
Government Presidential republic Cartagena, in northern Colombia,
Independence 1819, from Spain CfrjXOXXX&XtXOXX became famous in the 16th
Territories San Andres, Providencia, San century. Spanish ships stopped
Bernado, Islas del Rosario, Isla Fuerce LIFESTYLE FACTS • Colombians are off there to collect South
and Gorgona, Gorgonilla, and Malpelo • Many great writers have great music lovers, American gold.
Currency Colombian peso come from Colombia, The tiple, a
i Population 33,400,000 including world-famous small guitar, is the
Density 83 per sq mile novelist Gabriel Garcia national instrument.
km)
(32 per sq Marquez (born 1928) who . Ni
Language Spanish
Official
_ six em of
won the Nobel Prize for
Colomb ans live on less
+ Major Religions literature in 1982.
;

than half the land area.

Roman Catholic 95%, other 5%
• Colombia is one Almost all live in the west
of the world's of the country.
biggest exporters
of quality coffee. c " r i b b e ii
ii ,y

Ecuador Barranquilla i \
Pico.Ghristobal Colon
18 .£48ft (5.775m)

Ecuador's name comes from its Cartagena* 7 * J/'Q?

Maracaibo d Acas

position on the equator. It is a

ft / '+ \Valencia "4*

I'WAMA!, Pico Bolivar

gj
country of very varied landscape, Walled
16,428ft (5,007m)O>
'. 'V

from low coastal regions to high City

O C
Andean peaks and dense jungle. Mcdellin
VENEZUELA Georgetown ,

Angel (il'YANA
Andagoya Falls Paramaribo Cayenne
"x ^SURINAM*
W^J
1^^^
Area 109,480sq miles
vAfm, , |.() \| |; | x
l
FR| N(;I|
CAIW \

(283,560sq km) \
*. (France)

Government Presidential republic

<?U p
»'

Independence 1830, from Spain I L

Z Currency Sucre Oua«v > ---.--
Kqu
IPopulation 11,100,000 KCCADOR
Chimborazo,
Density 104 per sq mile 20.562ft (6,267m)' i
•(iti! a aqiiil
(40 per sq km)
Official Language Spanish
1" Major Religions Roman Catholic
93%, Protestant and Jewish 7%

•~ Eastern Lowlands

Land profile )

More than 90% % Huascaran

of Ecuador is ^ 22,206ft (6,768m) The Andes
forested or used for farming.
ie Andes mountain range
Lima * Moroclmehu tretches from the top to the
bottom of South
America. It runs
through seven
countries.
Galapagos islands f^requi'pau La 1>J/
The Galapagos islands lie 603 miles (970km) Santa < Iruz, i

off the coast of Ecuador. Many of the Rohorc.

Sajama 21,392 ft

animals there are not found anywhere (6,520m)

else. British scientist Charles Darwin
(1809-82) made important discoveries
I'\R W ;ua^
there concerning his theory of natural
selection (see p. 68).

A R fi K N T NA I

Galapagos tortoise

302
 NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA

Venezuela Weather facts

Bolivia
120T (49°C)
Venezuela is the world's third ; — ?]
,_
1
..
/.-tin
....
(444mm) ^ 1-1 1
(-10*C)
Bolivia is a mountainous country
& h- *
.-".
greatest oil producer. Oil provides 1

with no coastline. Farmers make up

80 percent of export earnings and 73T(23*C 42 I (6 C half of its population; many of them
has made Venezuela one of the are very poor, and grow just enough
Land profile
richest countries in South America. More than half of Venezuela is food for their families to live on.

H
Government
-
Area
(912,050sq

Independence
352, 140sq miles
km)
Presidential republic
1821, from Spain
densely forested.

L
f

Government
Area 424, 160sq miles
(l,098,580sq km)
Presidential republic-
Independence 1825. from Spain
Cb Currency Bolivar Angel falls Currency Boliviano
Cl Population 20,200,000 The Angel Falls, in ft Population 7,500,000

Density 60 per sq mile southeastern Venezuela, Density 18 per sq mile

(23 per sqkm) is the highest waterfall (7 per sq km)
OfficialLanguage Spanish in the world, with a drop Official Languages Aymara, Quechua,
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic of 3,2 12ft (979m) The and Spanish
89%, other 11% falls are named after + Major Religions Roman Catholic
American pilot Jimmy 93%, other 7%
Angel (died 1956), who
found them in 1935.

Land profile
Peru Weather facts
Two-thirds of Peru is jungle.
120°F(49°C) 14*F (-10"C)
Peru contains many spectacular ^L 17.4in (444mm)
J^
ruins. They were built during the -XT;
%
time of the Inca empire (see p. 389), 73°F(23°C) 42 1"
(6°C)
which was destroyed by Spanish
invaders in the 16th century. Nazca LINES Highest track
Huge animal figures The highest section of
and strange shapes ' railroad track in the world, in
DArea 496,230sq miles
(l,285,220sqkm)
were cut into the Peru, lies at an altitude of
ground in southern 15,688ft (4,782m). The track
Government Presidential republic Peru thousands of passes through tunnel on a
Independence 1824, from Spain years ago. The whole the Morochocha branch of
Cb Currency Nuevo sol
design can be seen Peruvian State Railways.
Population 22,500,000
I onlv from the air. Nazca Inn, gjbird figur,

Density 47 per sq mile

(18 per sq km)
condor
Andean condor
Languages Spanish and
Official Kiitlt'tni

The Andean condor is the heaviest

Quechua
bird of prey in the world, with a
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic wingspan of more than
95%, other 5% 10ft (3m). It lives in the
highest parts of the Andes
mountains and feeds on
dead animals. Highest milium! iii llu imrlil

Guyana Surinam French guiana

A FERTILE COASTAL strip of land just Surinam's climate is humid and French guiana is the only
10 miles (16km) wide is where tropical. Its rich wildlife includes European colony South America.in
90 percent of the population lives. jaguars, pumas, and ocelots, plus a It is a part of France, and sends two

Much of the rest of Guyana is variety of reptiles such as iguanas, members to the French National
covered with dense rainforest. rattlesnakes, and boa constrictors. Assembly (parliament).

|^2
'^^^
Area &V>00sq
(214,970sq km)
miles 5
P*S Area
(i63,270sq km)
63,040s(| miles OArea (90,000sq
34,750sq miles
km)
Independence 1966, from Britian Independence 1975, from Currency French franc
(

Cb Currency Guyana dollar Netherlands I Population 18,000 1

I Population 800,000 Currency Surinam guilder Official Language French

Official Language English 1 Population 425,000
Official Language Dutch

303
 I » .

INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Weather facts The ceibo flower

Argentina 117°F(47°C) 16"F (8.8°C)
The ceibo is
(950mm) Argentina's
^L 7.4in
Centrai Argentina
with lush grasslands called the
is covered
EM -;Oc
"a </' $ * I national flower.

72.5°F (22.5°C) 50.4°F (10.2°C

pampas, where crops are grown and
)

cattle and sheep are reared. This Lifestyle facts Palacio del congreso
area produces three-quarters • Soccer is the national sport. Argentina The Argentinian government
of Argentina's income. hosted and won the World Cup in 1978, meets in the magnificent
then won again in Mexico City in 1986. Palacio del Congreso (Congress

• TheArgentinian daily drink is a tea

building) in the rentro ^^^M
Area 1,056, 64 lsq miles (city center) area ^gi
called mate.It is made from a tree
(2,736,690sq km) of the capital, »
used since ancient times by
Government Federal republic Buenos Aires. I
native South Americans.
Independence 1816, from Spain
.'.
Currency Argentinian peso • Gauchos, cowboys who work
iPopulation 32,370,298 on the huge Argentinian cattle
Density 30 per sq mile (1 1.6 per sq km) ranches, are folklore heroes. They " "
J — r.

Official Language Spanish also created dances which feature fast

+ Major Religions Roman complex footwork. Welsh teas
Catholic 90%, Protestant 2%, others 8% Welsh immigrants settled in Patagonia
Patagonia I'ihIii more than 100 years ago.
The region of Patagonia in
Their descendants still
southern Argentina is \s^
follow Welsh traditions,
home to unique
such as eating porridge
wildlife such as the
for breakfast, drinking tea,
pudu, the smallest
and singing Welsh songs.
known deer.

Weather facts
Chile 98.6°F (37 C) 10.4 F(12°C)
(361mm)
araguay Chile returned to being
14.2in
_^ %
-,Oi
V a democracy in 1989: ~<EL
Asuncion 68"F (20°C) 48.7"F (9.3°C)
N elections were held for the
San Miguel
hit, Ypn
Ojos del SaladO
22,573ft
,

(6. 880m)!2
4
J|S Tueunian first time in nearly 20 years.
Lifestyle facts
Santiago ^'
del EsterfM"
1
T • Soccer is the sport with the
largest following in Chile. Skiing
j^^— Area 292,260sq miles
Z MMH (756,950s(| km)
is popular in winter; the world

speed ski record of 106mph

Cordoba*
Government Republic (171km/h) was set there.
C\.Aconcagua ~^ Rosario Independence 1818, from
1\22, 836ft (6.960m)
Spain • More copper is produced in Chile than
Mencloza 1 ill, Miiym.
Santiago, the world.
I HI CI
(i 1 u Currency Chilean peso an\ other country in
Buenos Aires i Population 13,200,000
La Plata
Montevideo • Chileans arc \cr\ well
Density 45.1 persq mile
educated: 94% of the
km)
< ( 1

Official
7.4 per sq
Language Spanish
population can read and write.
s
( )oncepck5n
*% + Major Religions Roman • Chile is famous for its fine
Catholic 80%, others 20% \\ ines. ( Chilean grapes arc also
used to make pisco, a brand's

Paraguay Uruguay
NlNE'lY PERCENT' of Paraguayans Almost' half of Uruguay's
- a mixture of native
arc Mestizo population lives in the capital city,

Guarani Indian and Spanish blood. Montevideo. Much of the city's

Half of the working population is electricity provided by is

employed in agriculture. hydroelectric dams.

Area 157,047sc] miles ^— Area 68,498sq miles

500km (406,750sq km) (1 77,41 Osq km)
1
Independence 1811, from Spain Independence 1N25, from Spain
Currency Guarani Currency Uruguayan peso
i Population 4,300,000 i Population 3,100,000
Official Language Spanish Official Language Spanish

( ll/ll 1 1 III,

304
 I .

BRAZIL

Weather facts
Brazil 105.8 F (41 C) 24.8 i-4 (,,

w
I

63.1 in (1,603mm)
Brazil occupies NEARLY half the
continent of South America and is 22E #|*
lCIOOgi*»»aAiL/
11 F(22.3°C) 68 F (19.8 C) 1,000 cruzeiros
the fifth largest country in the
world. The country supplies 85
Language
Land profile A traditional greeting in
percent of the world's orange juice Tropical rainforests cover Portuguese bom
is rim.
and is the largest producer of coffee. almost 60% of Brazil.
Around 70 percent of the population
is under 30 years of age. Brazilian coffee exports (1992/93)

Destination No. of 1321b (60kg) bags

US 3,744,946
Area 3,286,489sq miles
Italy ,944,648
(8,511,970sq km) Lifestyle facts 1

• More than 1.5 million of Rio de Janeiro's Germany 1,451,188

Government Federal Republic
Independence 1822, from Portugal 5 million plus population live in Japan 1,415,307
Currency Real, formerly cruzeiro shantv towns known asfave/as.
'
r--~VN Belgium/Luxembourg 680,349
IPopulation 153,164,000 . Jll \ * Soccer is Brazil's favorite
Density 47 per sq mile (18 per sq km) sport, and the country has more
Official Language Portuguese than 20,000 soccer teams. The Amazon rainforest facts
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic brilliant Brazilian player, Pele,
• The Amazon Basin lies across the

89%, Protestant 6%, Afro-American known throughout equator. This hot, wet, region contains the
is the world.
Spiritist 2%, other 3% world's largest tropical rainforest, which is
• Brasilia, the capital city since
12 times the size of France.
I960, was built on the Central
• The Amazon River and its tributaries
Plains to help develop inland
areas of Brazil. The modern make up 209? of the world's supply of
freshwater. This powerful river delivers
cathedral is the city's
an average of 204 billion gallons (773
main landmark.
billion liters) of water an hour into the
Atlantic Ocean.

-_ _NebJjna^^f_ Major rainforest

C 9,889ft (3,014m) PEOPLES
Name of tribe Estimated
and terntory population

Tikuna 25.000

Yanomani 7,500

Recife. Guajaiara 7,000

Xavante 5.000

Satere Maue 4,700

Ilit Yanomani Hvi in vine and leaf

{hatched haunts in the forests <>f northern
tirazil and \outfu \ u \ enezuela.

Rainforest wildlife facts

• The rainforest is home to 250
(Jurist the redeemer varieties of mammals, 1,800
The statue of ( r s the
' i i r
species of birds,
Christ the
Redeemer overlooks Rio Redeemei and more than
de Janeiro from Mount 10.000 species of trees
Corcovado. It was designed
• lummingbirds beat their
b\ French sculpror Paul Rio carnival 1

wings 55 times pei second - 200

Lando\\sk\ and was
, The carnival in Rio de Janeiro
times per second during courtship
completed in 1931 is the biggest in the world and
flights. The\ can also hovei in one place,
takes place even year before
or ev en ll\ backward.
I ,ent. The highlight of the
carnival is the parade of the • The
two-toed sloth is the world's slowest
Samba schools. animal. It takes 6.5 hours to on ei |ust

1 mile (1.6km). The sloth also spends 21.5

hours asleep each day.
-
r^'.'V'"'
• The anaconda is the
world's hc.iv iesi snake,
and can weigh up to
507 lb (250 kg).

305
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Europe
Europe the second smallest continent and has a varied
IS

landscape and climate. Southern Europe is mostly hilly or

mountainous and generally warm and dry. The north is wetter
and cooler, with flat plains and thick forests. Europe includes
the western third of the Russian Federation.
Climate zones

oooo
Time zones key
Area 9,246,339sq miles Major Languages Russian,
(23,947,919sq km) German, Turkish, Italian, ~\ Temperate forest

Countries 48 English ~J Mediterranean

Largest Russian Federation Highest point Mount 14:00 15:00 ~J Dry grassland
12:00 13:00
6,592,846sq miles El'brus, Russian Federation Greenwich Berlin Athens Moscow ^~J
Polar and tundra

(17,075,400sq km): European 18,510 (5,642m)

ft I I
Taiga

Russia l,527,349sq miles D Lowest point Caspian Sea Longest rivers I Mountain regions

(3,955,818sqkm) 92ft (28m) below sea level

Smallest Vatican Citv o: Highest temperature

0.1 7sq miles (0.44sq km) 122°F (50°C), Seville, Spain Most popular cities
i Population 747,041,279 sfs Lowest temperature The cities of Europe are popular
Density 80 per sq mile -67°F (-55°C), Ust 'Shchugor, with tourists from all over the
(31 per sq km) Russian Federation world. The most visited cities
in 1993 were, in order, London,
Paris, Rome, Vienna, and Madrid.

Countries, territories, and capitals Top city

populations Moscow, Russian
Paris, Federation
Name Capital Name Capital
9,000,000
France
Albania Tirana Liechtenstein Vaduz 8,252,877
London, aaa&a
UK
Andorra Andorra
la Vella
Lithuania Vilnius
6,803,100
arjaaj
Set
Ctrsa
Luxembourg Luxembourg goggg [

Armenia Yerevan aaaan c

ana
Macedonia Skopje ggggg
Austria Vienna TTTTTT aaa
Malta Valetta aao
Azerbaijan Baku nrjrjrj aaa
Moldova Kishinev or naa dari ng
orj
Belgium Brussels Chisinau St. Petersburg. aoaa
oaaa aa
Russian
Belarus Minsk Monaco Monaco no
Federation nana an
5,035,000 nrjrjrj an
Bosnia & Herzegovina Sarajevo Netherlands Amsterdam

Bulgaria Sofia Norway Oslo

Age breakdown
Zagreb Warsaw
Fewest doctors
Croatia Poland Under 15 to Over
15 years 65 vears 65 vears Turkey 1 to 1 .260 people
Cyprus Nicosia Portugal Lisbon

Czech Republic Prague Romania Bucharest Liechtenstein 1 to 948 people

Denmark Copenhagen Russian Federation Moscow Malta 1 to 900 people

Estonia Tallinn San Marino San Marino United Kingdom 1 to 879 people AsSm
(Portugal)
Finland Helsinki Slovakia Bratislava Ireland 1 to 700 people

France Paris Slovenia Ljubljana

Georgia Tbilisi Spain Madrid

Germany Berlin Sweden Stockholm

Greece Athens Switzerland Berne

Hungary Budapest Turkey Ankara

Iceland Reykjavik Ukraine Kiev

Ireland, Republic of Dublin United Kingdom London

Italy Rome Vatican City Vatican City

Latvia Riga Yugoslavia Belgrade

~J
Highest %

Continent facts • 'The French are the world's • Germany is Europe's leading • The St. Gotthard tunnel in

Most of the world's amber producer of chemicals; these are Switzerland is the world's
• is greatest snail eaters. They cat
found along the Baltic coast of about 27,558 tons each year. used in industry to make paint, longest road tunnel. It is 10.1

Lithuania. Amber, the fossilized Snails, Helix po nutria cosmetics, and medicines. miles (16.3km) long.
sap of ancient trees, is a and Helix aspersa, • The Vatican City is the only •
The largest cotton mill in
precious stone. It is used in arc gathered place in the world where Latin Europe is in Estonia. Cotton is

the treatment of arthritis. from the wild. is the official language. grown in the Baltic States.

306
 ) '

HI' ROPE

Wildlife
Uh The woodlands of 1 K C II C C E \ H
^ Europe provide
-
food and shelter
for a variety of
animals.

European badger
(Mela metes) has strong
front legsand long claws
to digunderground
burrows up to 66ft European hedgehog
(20m) long. ( Erinaceus europaeus)
lias up to 5.000 spines
on its back. Hedgehogs
Jan Mayen hibernate in the cold
(Norwa)
months of winter.

^ Fat
1
roe
Island*

RUSSIAN
FEDERATION
Moscow
hi)
kingdom
BKI.ARl'S
RKI' l'O I. A N n
fi R U \l \ \ V
IRK I. AM)
fcsa
UKRA1.N E
Paris (TAN

o FRANC I

Ii,n Caspian Sea Li

Mt. El'brus
of
Biscay
if 18,510ft
15,462m)
-92ft (-28m)

En
I r/gfef.
Istanbul
- s vjr\ n >

? Seville'
V '/
''hum
ly)

f ,
I R k I'.

RU Z-y <*%.„ 'w&* +&*<&/

r.v k
'i
/ MM ("1>«TS
^ow» y
"
Madeira .MIIImilcN
(Portugal)

Wetlands 0.5*
Land profile
Most of Europe is covered Barren land v '

\\ ith

forestand agricultural land

Cross-section Urban r

Dinanc Alps

Grassland 6'
Atlantic
9 843 «
'

Ocean Bayy
(3,000m) _ |
Bis c
Sea level
Agriculture 37.5%^-*

Length: 2,800 miles (4,500km)

Tundi

Foresi
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Land profile
Iceland
Iceland, Europe's second largest
island, has the lowest population
density in Europe. The remote
interior can be reached only by Lifestyle facts
Language
special vehicle, pony, or small plane. • The Althing, the Icelandic parliament, has
A traditional greeting in
Icelandic \s godmi dagimi.
been in existence since the 13th century
and is one of the oldest surviving
Area 39,769sq miles assemblies in the world. -Ar™
(103,000sq km) Siglufj6rdur
• Iceland has the most solfataras a
Government Presidential republic
(volcanic vents) and hot springs
Independence 1944, from British
in the world. Many
towns of its
Z**AkurevT
and US control during World War II
are heated by underground hot
: Currency Icelandic krona
water.
I Population 300,000
eigarhorn
Density 8 per sc| mile (3 per sq km) • Iceland produces more than a Deildartunguhver
Official Language Icelandic third of the world's
/<W
Reykjavik, //,.:

+ Major Religions Evangelical cod-liver oil, and

Hafnarfjordhur* *K6paN<>;
€;
Lutheran Church of Iceland 96%, other is the biggest
Roman Catholic 3%,
Protestant and ^aK consumer of it.

nonreligious 1%
Hot springs
Deildartunguhver hot springs blow out
Weather facts 66 gallons (250 liters) of hot water
86°F(30 C) -32.8°F(-36 C)
33.9in (860mm) every second. Over a 24-hour period,
JS7 $ thev produce enough water to fill
£? „<7,<7„
% 105,600 baths.
51.8°F(10.6°C 32.4°F (0.2°C)

Denmark Language
A traditional
Norway
Denmark, which is divided into
mxx greeting in Danish Norway means "the way to the
numerous islands, has a 4,500-mile is goddag. north." It is a land of beautiful
KlOfotmri
(7,300km) coastline. It is the only fjords (valleys flooded by rising sea
Scandinavian country belonging to levels): the longest is Sogne Fjord,
Lifestyle facts
the European Community (EC). • Lego was created by a Danish at 126 miles (203 kilometers).
carpenter in the 1930s.
Legoland Park is a miniature,
Area
16,629sq miles working village created from 35 million Area 125,058sq miles
(43,070sq km) plastic bricks.
(323,9()()sq km)
Government Constitutional monarchy Government Constitutional monarchy
• Denmark has one of the lowest private
State founded c. 950 Independence from Sweden, 1905
ownerships of cars in Europe. Cyclists are Territories Svalbard archipelago, Jan
Territories Faeroe Islands, Greenland
encouraged with special lanes, and Mayen Island
Currency Danish krone
Population 5,200,000
I
Copenhagen was the first city to create a Cb Currency Norwegian krone
pedestrian street.
Density 319 per sq mile (123 per sq km) Population 4,000,000
i
Official Language Danish • Denmark has over twice as many pigs as Density 36 per sq mile (14 per sq km)
+ Major Religions Evangelical humans, and Danish bacon is a successful Official Language Nynorsk (new
Lutheran Church 91%, Roman Catholic export product. Danish Norwegian) and Bokmaal (older)
2%, other and nonreligious 7% j^-jfis^—-^.^^ farmers produce three + Major Religions Evangelical
\ •S''^. times more food than Lutheran and other Protestant 87.9%,
I^JjJggj^^j^ is needed to feed the Roman Catholic 0.8%, other 1 1.3%
population.

W 1 \THER FACTS Little mermaid Weather facts

D
Situated by Copenhagen "(-26 C)
95°F(35°C)
->1
&.
_.
-''!" (/iHnmi)
a.<}
^ -1 .2 F(-24°C)

J& harbor, this statue of the

93 F(34°C)

"'
„VL'. --"I
,.,. ,_,.

d3 a
1

r^
15 1

I -w--
% t

"a"*
«*,
4* mermaid from Hans C.
I

fi'
-o- , ,
*<.<<,<)
*pfc

61.3°F (16.3 ( i
34.3°F (1..VO .Andersen's fairy tale was 61.3 F(16.3"C) 25.7°F(-3.5 C)
sculpted 1913 by
in

Land profile Edvard Eriksen Land profile

Almost two-thirds of (1876-1959). In 1964, .
the land is farmed. her head was sawed fflk
off but was soon
replaced.

308
 H

SCANDINAVIA

Sweden Language
A traditional
Weather facts
95 F(35'C) -36.4
TWO-THIRDS OF the land in Sweden greeting Swedish n 31 24.5in (f>.

iscovered by forests, and there are \%goddaz.

in
-XS # *z
l<)()kmiiin 61.7 F (16.S C) ISA (-2 (.i
100,000 lakes. Timber products, I-

including paper, account for nearly Land profile City hall

one-fifth of all Swedish exports. The land is mainly forested or Stockholm's fine City
used for farming. Hall, called the Stadshus,
was built between 1911
I Area 173,730sq miles and 1923. Its Golden
»^B (449,96()sq km) Hall has
Government Constitutional monarchy 19 million
State established 1523 Lifestyle facts gilded tiles.

Currency Swedish krona • Each year 12,000 cross-country skiers take

I Population 8,700,000 part in a race from Salen to Mora in central
Density 54 per s<| mile (21 per sq km) Sweden. The course is 56 miles (90km) long.
Official Language Swedish
+ Major Religions Evangelical
• In 1910, Sweden was the first
European country to establish R E X l
Lutheran Church of Sweden 89%, other
national parks. Animals that can be
Protestant 8%, Roman Catholic 1.7%, 1 lurnnierfcst
other 1.3%
found in the parks include lynx,
bear, and moose.

• Stockholm's waterways \

are so pure that people can safely

Nobel Prizes swim and fish in them. \~>

Alfred B. Nobel (1833-96) was a Swedish

scientistand inventor of dynamite. He
500km
created fund for the Nobel prizes,
a —
awarded each year for sciences, literature, 300 mile

and peace, to those who have given the *~ \rctic Circle

greatest benefit to humankind.

Language
A traditional
greeting in
Norwegian is
The Sami
lOOkmiii'i so daz.
The Sami (Lapps) have
inhabited the arctic regions of
HOLMENkOLLEN Norway and Sweden since
The ski jump
Holmenkollen, outside
at
ancient times. Today, there are
Oslo, is the oldest in existence. The first
about 60,000 and 70% speak the
ski-jump competition was held in
Sami language. About 70,000
1892, and the event continues
reindeer live in Sami territories,
to be held every March.
and the main occupation of the
people is reindeer breeding.
The woven clothes worn by the
Sami are practical and beautiful.

Orebro
""" Norrkoping Sladhus

Linkoping

< iothenburg
-
,
Lifestyle DENMARK'- (ilmitf ,

Yding Skovhoi %,
• In Hammerfest, the world's
northernmost town, the sun Legolani
A 587f1
f£&(179m)
4»
J$L i i

shines at midnight for just over Fane J

Copenhagen" .Malum
two months in the summer. Highest waterfalls
7)tie * little
Mermaid Name Height
• Norway's annual contribution of its
national income (1.1 7%) toward foreign aid
^v Y lx
Utigord
m
800
ft

2.625
is the highest proportion in the world. • More than 50% of Norwegian families
Mongefossen 774 2.540
have a weekend home in the
• Norwegians read more newspapers than v.' .V mountains or by the sea. Ostre Mardola Foss
anyone else in the world, and buy more These second homes are Tyssetrengane
English books than any other non-English- made of wood, and some
Kjellfossen 561 1,841
speaking country. h.i\ e erass-co> ered roofs,

309
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Language
United Kingdom A national greeting in
Slnthtndh.

THE UNITED KINGDOM, also known English is hello.

as Britain, is made up of England,

Wales, Scotland, and Northern
Scottish tartan \iiey Is.

Ireland. London, the capital, has a

Members of a Scottish
population of almost 7 million, and clan have their own
is the political and financial center. tartan. This cloth,
often worn as a
kilt, is woven
SSfegS Area 94,549s(| miles with a crisscross
'
(244,880sq km) pattern. There 10 pounds sterling
Government Constitutional monarchy are more than Ben Nevis
I "isl
Unification 1707, between 2,000 varieties £k 4,406ft (1,343m)

England/Wales and Scotland; 1801, of tartan.

between Britain and Ireland. SCOTLAND
Territories Anguilla, Bermuda, British
.Edinburgh
Antarctic Territory, British India Ocean .Glasgow
Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cayman
Islands, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, „,, Vpbrts
iil|l(
Newcastle Symbols
Hong Kong. Montserrat, Pitcairn Islands, s<»"
upon Tyne
St.Helena and dependencies, South Northern England, rose;
IREI.WI)
Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, .Belfast UNITED Wales, leek;
Turks and Caicos Islands
Cb Currency Pound sterling
KINGDOM Scotland,
thistle; and
1 Population 55,487,000
REPUBLIC OF Ireland,
Mullinga
Density 616 per sq mile (238 per sq km)
IRELAND Manchester
% shamrock.
Official Language English Liverpool

Major Religions Protestant 52.1%, \S,is/i

Roman Catholic 9.2%, Muslim 2.6%, f>'

Sikh 0.9%, Jewish 0.7%, Hindu 0.5%,

other 34% .Birmingham

WALES ENGLAND
,.>'''

Hrrrou ft'"
1

Weather facts Cardiff.*!* London

93T(34 C) 4: .7°F(6.5 C>
^ 23in (593mm) r--v.
*
„| Chan„rt Houses of
Parliament Mp
|

*
iOz '/'/' * 1
Stonehenge

58..VF(14.6°C) 1.4°F(-17°C) hit of

Plymouth Wig/u
<

Land profile Enslisk Ch

Almost three-quarters of the
4
land is farmed. Stonehenge
11 Guernsey

14
71
This prehistoric stone circle in southern
England was completed in about 1600 B.C.
Channel
Islands
(U.K.)
JmA
\

'
f^SSS
Bt*

Lifestyle facts
Republic of Weather facts
1 Irish pun I

• There are more than

IRELAND 86°F(30°C) 10°F(-12"C)
25,000 different names for
the public houses (pubs)
where people in Britain
meet to talk and drink. The most popular
Ireland is a mainly rural country
with a wet and mild climate and rich
54.7'F(l2.6°C)
-x£
30in (762mm)
0*0
S
43.5°F (6.4°C)
~w

name is The Red Lion. grass for dairy farming. Tourists Land profile
• TheEistedfodd is a Welsh arts festival
come to fish in the rivers and lakes. Almost all of Ireland is farmland

held every August. The festival dates back

to 1 176 when competitions were held for
poet-musicians. The winner was awarded a
"'chair," or position, in the royal court.
Pi Area 27,135sq miles
(70,280sqkm)
<^^7Z^i^^%^PPZ^
[f
Government Parliamentary republic
Independence 1921 IrishFree State Book of Kells
granted to 26 counties in southern Ireland. This page is from the
.jmlXlkMi Houses of
Parliament Co Currency Punt Rook of Kells, the four
This palace is the I Population 3,523,401 gospels set down by an
headquarters of the Density 132 per sq mile (51 per sq km) 8th-century Irish monk.
Government.
British Official Language Irish It is displayed in the

Its famous clock

1" Major Religions Roman Catholic 93%, Trinity College Library,
tower has a huge Anglican 3%, other 4% Dublin, where a page is

bell called Big Ben. turned each day.

310
 ,

IBERIAN PENINSULA

Wkather facts Language

Spain 120 "1- <49"C> -4°F(-20°C) A traditional greeting
^\ 17.,Sin (444mm P\
SPAIN IS THE SECOND largest country •i!/.

vrv % in Castilian Spanish is

in Europe, and one of the most

-&
% \

buenos dias.

mountainous. Madrid, the capital, is 66.7°F (19.3°C) 47.3T (8.5°C)

Europe's highest city. Spain's warm Land profile

climate and fine beaches attract Almost half of Spain's land
is farmed.
50 million visitors a year. Flower
The red carnation is the
*&&?>. Spanish national flower.
Area 192,874sq miles
(499,542sq km)
Government Constitutional monarchy Lifestyle facts
*
Independence 1469 Reunification of
Amazing olives
• Spain is the world's third largest
Spain is the world's top producer
Spain against Moorish invaders wine producer. Famous Spanish
of olives and o ive products. jj|»
Territories Canary Islands, Balearic- wines include sherry, first
In one year,
Islands, Ceuta, Mellila, Islas Chafarinas; produced in the town of Jerez.
enough olives
Penon de Velez de la Gomera; Penon de /0^?fl
A^'T^H
Alhucemas
• During the "running of the are grown to 1
'

^^
Go Currency Peseta
bulls" in Pamplona, men
test their courage by
supply every
person in the ^-C^-^X VJ^V^
fjPopulation 39,100,000 "*lvj//

Density 202 per sq mile

running in front of a herd lM^ world with 70 sach.
of bulls.
(78 per sq km)
Official Language Castilian Spanish
""' "f n
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic „
96%, other 4% •LaCorunu^'J 6 "*
„ „ M " a a i « i » - 'Bilbao
m Pamplona*

Alhambra palace Braganca jl^-Valladolid

This beautiful palace of OportfVJ , y '

the Moorish (Muslim)

rulers of 14th-century
Spain sits high above
the city of Granada.
_ Coimbra 5539 fi .

Also a fortress with 3 V

(1998m)

huge towers, Alhambra \ '""

means "red castle."

Portugal Cordoba
^ •
( ''

Alhambra Palaflg*
'""'
Murcia*

In the 15th CENTURY Portugal

was a great seafaring nation with
many famous explorers. Today,
The cockere
Portuguese is the seventh most 125 miles
is Portugal's
spoken language in the world. national symbol. GIBRALTAR M *

Language Weather facts

(UK)
Andorra
A traditional greeting in Portuguese is
120"F(49"C) 10"F(-12"C) Andorra is TUCKED away in the
bom dia. ^L
-xfc-
27. 9in

"A"
(708mm)
#pk
_rs;
A high valleys of the Pyrenees and its
perpetual snow attracts main skiers.
o
70.7°F (21.5°C) 52.7 F(ll.S C
Area 35,502sq miles It is the fourth smallest independent
(91,949sqkm) Land profile state in Europe.
Government Parliamentary republic Two-thirds of Portugal is

Independence 1910, Republic farmland and forest.

declared nArea
Government
181sq miles (468sq km)
Co-principality
Territories Azores, Madeiras, Macao *S333&- '

Qd Currency Escudo (France and Spain)

fiPopulation 9,900,000 Independence 1278. established

Density 280 per sq mile (108 per sq km) Cork facts as a state

Official Language Portuguese • Cork is made from the bark Go Currencies French Franc and
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic of the cork oak tree. Spanish Peseta
97%, Protestant 1%, other 2%. • Portugal supplies more I Population 58,000

than half the world's cork. Densitj 324 per sq mile ( 125 per sq km)
Official language Catalan
• The main product made from
cork is the bottle stopper.

31
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Netherlands Land profile

The Netherland
The DUTCH PEOPLE made their farmed.
fortunes from the sea in the 17th
25 guilders
century with a worldwide trading
Weather facts
network. Today, Rotterdam is the Lifestyle facts 98.6°F (37°C)
world's largest and busiest port. • There are 14 million bicycles between —^L

c
15 million people in the Netherlands. This
is the highest proportion in the world.
Area 14,413sq miles
• If the canals freeze over, the
(37,330sq km)
Dutch take part in a tocht, a
Government Constitutional monarchy
Kingdom established 1830 ^long skating tour. Official tour
routes between villages are
Territories Aruba, Netherlands Antilles
p announced on TV and radio.
Currency Guilder
i Population 15,200,000 • More Dutch cheese is exported than any
Density 1,160 per sq mile other cheese in the world. Half of all milk

(448 per sq km) produced is made into cheese.

Language Dutch
Official
Major Religions Roman Catholic 36%, Flower power
Protestant 30%, Muslim 2.2%, other and The Netherlands
nonreligious 31.8% is the world's
largest
The Hague LJtrecht Arnhem
exporter of
• Rotterdam Rli
Dutch water facts flowers and
• Without protective dunes and dykes, half bulbs. In spring,
the land area of the Netherlands would be fields packed with
flooded by the sea twice a day. brightly colored tulips
attract thousands of visitors.
• Almost 20% of the Netherlands
is made up of inland water. 75km
Windmills once pumped out I H H
water; now, the pumps are electric.

Belgium 100

Belgium combines two cultures:

the French-speaking Walloons and 100 100 Belgium franS

the Flemings, who speak a form of

Weather facts
Dutch. Brussels, the capital, is host
98.6°F (37°C) 0"F (-18°C)
to the European Community (EC). -^ 32in (825mm)
1

1 #
«'
-$
a\ a
$
r*-^
& 1

62.6°F(17°C 36.7° F (2.6°C)

nArea (30,518 sq
1 l,783sq miles
km) Land profile
Od Currency Belgian franc
Government Constitutional monarchy
Independence 1830, from the
Netherlands
Luxembourg
I Population 10,000,000 Luxembourg is a Grand Duchy,
Density 790 per sq mile Lifestyle facts with a Grand Duke as Head of
(305 per sq km) • Belgium is the third- State. Luxembourg City is a major
Official Languages French, Dutch, and biggest producer of international banking center.
German chocolates in the world.
1"Major Religions Roman Catholic
89.5%, Muslim 2.5%, Protestant 0.5%,
Jewish 0.4%, other and nonreligious 7.1%
• Belgians spend more on
food and drink than their European
BArea (2,586sq
998sq miles
km)
neighbors. Brussels has 25 restaurants
Qd Currency Luxembourg franc,
holding a prized Michelin rosette - more
Belgian franc
than twice as many as London, which is
Atom 1 1 \i
Government Constitutional monarchy
eight times bigger.
Erected in 1958 in
Independence 1839, from the
• Bruges is the center of European Netherlands
Brussels, this amazing
space-age structure lacemaking; women I Population 400,000

represents an iron have made exquisite Density 402 per sq mile (155 per sq km)
crystal. The Atomium lace here for centuries. Official Language Luxembourgish
houses a permanent • Belgium has the world's + Major Religions Roman Catholic
scientific exhibition on densest railroad system: there are 95%, Protestant 1%, other 4%
the history of medicine. 5,224 miles (8,408km) of tracks.

312
 WEATHEF FACTS
France 102 F(39 < 11 (-17C)
^\ /.4in (44.4ciii) p*^
France the largest *
1

is of the %£
twelve countries in the Kuropean # '/'/' * |

73°F(23"C) 42*F(6*C)
Community (EC), and its leading
100 French francs
agricultural power. Ninety percent
Land profile
of the land is farmed, and one in The majority of land is farmed and Language
five French people lives and works there are extensive forests. A traditional greeting in French is bonjour.
in the countryside.

n culture
Paris, city of
<^2&Z2ZZ2&h^ Paris is a very successful mix of different
Area 210,669sq miles
architectural styles, from world-famous
(545,630sq km) historic monuments to ultra-modern glass-
Government Republic- Lifestyle facts and-steel structures.
Independence 1789 • France is the world's
Territories Corsica, French Guiana, second biggest producer of The Grand Louvre
Guadeloupe, Martinique, Reunion, cheese and curd. There is museum, France's
Mayotte, St. Pierre &
Miquelon, Bassas a different cheese for
second most
da India, Clipperton Island, Europa every single day of the year. visited monument,
Island,French Polynesia, French houses the world-
• Bicycle races are a top
Southern and Antarctic Lands, Juan de famous Mono Lisa.
New Caledonia, spectator sport in France. The The glass pyramid
Nova Island, Glorioso
Tour de F ranee is the world's over the entrance
Islands, Tromelin Island, Wallis, Futuna
longest bicycle race. It covers was
Cb Currency Franc built in 1989.
2,312 miles (3,720km) and
1 Population 57,200,000
Density 269 per scj mile
takes three weeks. The first race was The Centre Georges
held in 1903. Pompidou, which
(104 per sq km)
Official Language French contains France's
Fastest train
+ Major Religions Roman France holds the record for the fastest train,
National Museum of
Catholic 80%, Muslim 4.5%, the TGV. It reached 320.1mph (515.3km/h)
Modern Art, is the
Protestant and other 15.5% most visited public
in 1990. The fastest recorded journey is
building in the
between Paris and Macon, covered at an
country. The center
average speed of 135mph (217km/h).
was opened in 1977.
Eiffel tower
A.G. Eiffel (1823-
1923) designed this
famous tower. It is Best cellar
984ft (300m) high France, along with Italy
and was built for the is the world's leading
Paris World Exposition wine producer. In
of 1889. 1990, wine production
A XK Mlioiw;
totalled 4,875,000,000
/
!
bottles: enough for a

\ ,aEfi bottle taller than the

•Reims Statue of Liberty.
a Eiffel Tower V.
Pa. Sfras tars
Nancy*

Orleans^
Lc Mans' ^
Monaco
Mulhouse.
.Dijon n THE TINY COUNTRY of Monaco,
"Nantes
FRANC
* Potters
Tours

E
I jtl< (.tuna
JC
IW
M} v
I'l'/I-.UI.
-
^T
\\ I)
which has an orchestra larger than
its army, is the most densek

Macon* populated country in Europe.

;
rJt££'
,,. .- Monl Blanc/*'*
(Jcrmont-rerrund* Lyon* I5,7°*ft *^

Angoulcmc St. Ktienne. nArea 1.95sq km

0.75sq miles

(. I r ii I
Government Constitutional monarch)
i il

Independence 1861, state established

Currency French franc
Population 28,000
I
Density 37,190 per sq mile
Toulouse . Monfpellicr*
Marseille. '|',„,|,„
( 14..vV> pei sq km)
\\fc«/77 R# Official Language French
+ Major Religions Roman ( iatholit
s
'W? r m IV
S^iU"
"

/, i 9595 , othei

1 1 j
313
 »

INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Weather facts
Germany 101°F(39°C) !1°F(-30°C)
THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC of Germany »"
-«n
*
holds a key position in Central
1
'< i

-&- '/'/> * 1

57.7T 37.4°F(3°C) 10 Deutschmark

Europe. A divided country for 41 (14.3"C)

years, reunification with the %

Land profile Language
German Democratic Republic took 0.5
A traditional greeting in German
5.5
place on October 3, 1990. is Guten Tag.
45.5

Lifestyle facts
Area
134,950sq miles • West Germany's soccer team won
(349,520sq km) Brandenburg gate the World Cup championship three
Government Federal republic From 1961, this last town gateway was times: Berne in 1954, Munich
Reunification October 3, 1990 blocked, separating East Berlin from West in 1974, and Rome in 1990.
Territories Ruegen Berlin. On December 22, 1989, the gate was • 40 million Germans travel abroad
Cb Currency Mark reopened. for their vacations every year: this represents
tlPopulation 80,300,000
51% of the population.
Density 596 per sq mile
(230 per sq km) • The
Federal Republic is the third largest
Official Language German producer of cars in the world, after Japan
Major Religions Protestant 36%, and the United States. In 1991, 4.6 million
Roman Catholic 35%, Muslim 2%, others cars were produced, and 2.2 million of these

1%, nonreligious 27% were exported.

• Wurst (sausage) is a traditional
and popular German food.
Fairs and festivals There are about 1,500 varieties.

—
• Since 1810, Europe's best-known beer
festival has been held at Munich. In 1993, t / DENMARK
visitors drank 10.1 million pints of beer. $
• Each spring, the world's biggest trade
A*
fair is held in Hanover. Exhibitors
from 50 countries display the latest
fr'isian Is.
industrial technology. Hamburg
Oderhaff

• Cologne carnival is a five-day . Bremen

festival held seven weeks before O
• Frankfurt Book The most
S )
*'S>

October, attracts publishers and

Fair, held every Easter.
day is Rose Monday, when
important
«^>
i r- -J
Berlin
booksellers from all over the world. chocolates and gifts are S> Hanover
In 1993, there were 252,000
and 8,463 exhibitors.
visitors thrown to the
carnival processions.
crowd from
_> G E R M ANY
Bracken
SffiHsial
Brandenburg
Gate
_

3,747ft (1,142m)
Fairytale castle Essen Dortmund
Neuschwanstein Castle, one of the Duisourg' +.
. Leipzig
Diisseldorf
most fantastic, fairytale castles in
the world, was dreamed up by >— f .Cologne
C3 "' Grosser ,s
King Ludwig II of Bavaria j 1 Bonn M
(1845-86). Sadly,
Wasser Kuppe
(950m)
'
Beerberg
3,222ft (982m) of ^ -.Y-

Ludwig, who had a AS 3,117ft

Frankfurt Bayreuth*
:*

two-story room built

for his gold and ivory €
throne, died before the
/
castle was completed. Nuremberg <

yv **
Bayreuth
TOP GERMAN CAR Stuttgart
Each year, the Bavarian city of Bayreuth #
MANUFACTURERS (1992) is
\v'

hosts a festival in honor of the famous

Manufacturer Number of *
Volkswagen
cars produced

1,549,503
composer Richard Wagner (1813-83).
His operas are staged
built Festspielhaus (Festival Theater).
in the specially :p-
*
Freiburg im
s V Munich
v^
Conslfiita' r> )

Opel 1,071,544 Win" Neuschwanstein

BMW 580,295 S W Tz I •

pitze 9,2'71ft
(2,963m)
Daimler-Benz 531,457

Audi 492,085

Porsche 16,559

Source. German Chamber of Industry 6 Commerce Wagner's Opera

Lohengrin

314
 '

ALPIN'K STATES

Weather facts
Switzerland 100'F (38*C) -23 I- (-30'C) ii
(444mm)
Just ONE-QUARTER of Switzerland ^L 17. Sin
js;
JL
is habitable: the remaining land
-& % Jfl S,/'n\ (rand
73.4°F(23 C) 42.8 F(6 C)
consists of high mountains, forests,
and ice. Every minute, 215 to 325 Land profile Language
square feet of Swiss land are built on. A traditional greeting in French
is bonjour, in German Guten Tag, in
Italian buonaorno.

nArea 15,355sq miles

(39,770sq km)
Top chocolate eaters
Government Federal republic
Independence 1648, from the Holy Lifestyle facts Country Amount per person
kg lb
Roman Empire • The Swiss are famous bankers, and their
Gd Currency Swiss Franc banks attract money from investors all over Switzerland 11.3 25.0

t Population 6,800,000 the world. There is a bank for every 1,600 Norway 7.9 17.4
Density 443 per sq mile (171 per sq km) Swiss people.
Belgium 7.8 17.2
Official Languages German, French, • Watches are Switzerland's best-known
Italian
export. The watchmaking center in
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic *W E /' ,
Ncuchatel developed both the quartz ' ii I. I (.
47.6%, Protestant 44.3%, Jewish 0.3%,
watch and the atomic clock.
others and nonreligious 7.8%
• The surplus of home-produced milk
led totwo important Swiss inventions, baby Steptians
formula and condensed milk. Other Swiss I AT\7.
,

-Qi Dorp,
V
Jet d'eau
milk products are cheese and fine chocolate. .Wels St. Pollen" Menu
The water from the jet d'eau, the famous
fountain situated in the center of Geneva's
harbor, gushes 460ft . Sul/.bur}> \
(140 meters) in the air. li'A
:** —
y

S; ill- „ I'
'
v . Urucl
I,

cGra/

mtfft Klagcnfi

N 1 \

Top ski resorts

miles
Austria hi)

Austria's fink CITIES and beautiful Weather facts Landmark

mountainous landscape - 40 percent 100.4 T(38°C)
2S.2in (640mm
-16.6'F (-27°C) St. Stephan's
^1 r-^ Gathedral, more than
*
'

of the land lies at an altitude of ft

1

ft % 600 years old, is one

more than 3,500 feet - attract about 66.7 F(19.3 C) 32°F(0 C) of Vienna's most
18 million visitors a year. famous buildings.
Land profile
Area 31,942sq miles
Almost two-thirds of the land
is farmed.
Liechtenstein
(82,730 sq km) THIS TINY COUNTRY is ruled b\ a
Government Parliamentary democracy prince. Liechtenstein famous is for
Independence 1918, Republic
its royal art collection and its
declared
Currency Schilling postage stamps. One of the principal
Population 7,800,000
1 Lifestyle facts exports is false teeth.
Density 243 per sq mile (94 per sq km) • Many great composers were
Official Language German Austrian; they include Mo/.art
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic (1756-91),Haydn (1732-1809), Area
62sq miles
85%, Evangelical 6%, Muslim 1.5%, Schubert (1797-1828), and (160sq km)
others and nonreligious 7.5% Johann Strauss (1825-99), who Government Constitutional monarch)
composed the famous Viennese Independence 1866, from the
w alt/.. The HIlie Danube. German Confederation
Language ( Hurrenc) Sw iss Franc

A traditional • Skiing is Austria's national sport. The i Population 2 >.:-<S<> {

greeting in German first ski school was set up at St. Anton am Density 477 pei sq mile s i l -J pel sq km)
HUNDERT SCHILLING (In /en Tag. Official Language lerman <
is
Arlberg, and Austrian Annemarie Moser-
100 Austrian I'roll (b. 1953) is a celebrated woman skier.

315
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Weather facts 1000

Italy 108"F(42*C) 12°F(-11°C)
29in (744mm) r\
This IMPORTANT industrial nation 1 # -^\
-& 'St* % * I

has most of its factories as well as

66.2°F(19°C) 54.1°F(12.3°C)
rich farmland concentrated in the Language
north. The south is mountainous Land profile A traditional greeting in
and farmers grow olives, and grapes More than 68% of Italy is Italian is buon giomo.
for making wine. Italy includes the agricultural land.

large islands of Sicily and Sardinia. Major tourist attractions (1992)

Location People
Excavations, Pompeii ,296,633
Area 11 6,321 sq miles 1

W [

(301,270sq km)
Lifestyle facts
The Palio of Siena is a twice-yearly
Uffizi Gallery, Florence 1 ,020,972

Government Parliamentary republic bareback horse race round Franciscan Abbey, Cassino 956,200
Republic Declared in 1948 the city's main square. The Pantheon, Rome 857,585
Q) Currency Lira palio is the silk banner
Galleria deH"Accademia, Florence 687,428
iPopulation 57,719,000 awarded to the winner.
Density 510 per sq mile (197 per sq km) The Forum, Rome 651,183
• The most popular resort is
Official Language Italian
Venice, with more than 7.5
"I" Major Religions Roman Catholic
million tourists a year. The
83.2%, Protestant 0.3%, Jewish 0.1%, Food facts
city has 1 18 islands, 1 77
nonreligious and atheist 16.4% • There are more than 600
canals, and 400 bridges.
different types of pasta.

Vatican city • More than 4.4

• The Vatican City in Rome is the world's smallest million tons of
independent state. It is the world center for the tomatoes are grown
Roman Catholic religion, and its ruler is the pope. in Italy every year.

• There has been a pope for more than 1,900 years - Many are used to
make
£%to*t
,
since the time of St. Peter, who was the first pope. sauces for pasta dishes.

• St. Peter's is the largest and most important • Genuine mozzarella cheese is

cathedral in the Christian world, first by the

built made from the milk of the water
Roman Emperor Constantine in about A.D.330 buffalo. It is made fresh daily in
many parts of Italy.

Tower of pisa
The leaning tower of San marino
Pisa is made of white Thf: tiny republic of San Marino
marble and was built
is located in the mountains of
between 1174 and
1350. The tower is
central Italy. Tourism accounts for
177ft (54m) tall and 60 percent of the country's income.
eans at an angle of
1 1 .3 degrees from

the vertical. Area 24 sq miles

/• km)
(61 sq
Independence 1631, recognition as a
city state
Currency Italian lira
i Population 20,000
Official Language Italian

Malta
Malta's SEVERAL islands arc in the
Mediterranean. The climate is
warm but there are no rivers and
little rain to provide water for crops.

Mediterranean sea
Pollution problem in
is a

the Mediterranean because

no strong currents wash awa\
waste. The waters are completely
a Area
km)
(320sq
124sq miles

Independence 1964, from

Currency Maltese lira
Britain

i Population 356.000
changed with those of the Atlantic MALTA
onl\ once even lOOvears.
Official Languages English, Maltese

316
 , .

FINLAND AND THE BALTIC SI VI is

Weather facts
Finland
A COUNTRY WITH 187,888 lakes,
Finland also has vast forests of pine
1
91.4 F(33*C)

"-P.-
#
27in(f>H8mm)

'/'/'
^
*
-43 (-4!

#
C)

1
e 100 marftka
68.5 F(20.3 C) 27.1 F(-2.6 C
and spruce. Timber, used to make Language
paper and furniture, provides most A traditional greeting in

of the wealth of the country. Finland

Finnish is hyt M pan. da
also includes part of Lapland. Land profile 0.25
Forests cover 80S? of the 0.5
total area of Finland. 1.5
Area 130,533sq miles
(338,130sq km)
Government Parliamentary republic
Independence 1917, from Soviet
Union
Territories Aland Islands Finnish timber exports (1993)
Cb Currency Markka Europe 78.0%
I Population 4.998,478
9.2%
Density 41 per sq mile (16 per sq km)
North America 6.3%
Official Languages Finnish, Swedish
2.8%
+ Major Religions Lutheran 88.7%,
Finnish Orthodox 1.1%, Roman Catholic 1 .9%

0.7%, other 9.5% South America 1 .8% %>

Lifestyle facts
Helsinki
• Finnish women were the first in Europe to 1 ampere cathedral
get the vote, in 1906. This great cathedral
Turku ,
• The world's longest cross-country ski • Vantaa. was designed in the
A/,,,,,/ ^-' Helsink i .
"-
19th century
race is held in March each year. Skiers " l>\
c "!// // " ""' '
, ;
C architect Carl Engel.
ace from Kuusamoon the Russian < Tallinn a It was laid out in its
>rder to Tornio on the Swedish u; ll,,,, nu,a BSTONIA
present form of a
border, across southern Lapland. V* L.Pripm
Stitmintiii Greek cross w ith a
• Savonlinna Opera central tower.
<0
Festival
^^tiw d (318rti)~~-v
is

the most successful cultural event in Finland.

Riga A ,
Sauna cabin
• V TV \ r*.,i n \
Itwas founded in 1912 by opera singer Aino
I
,,,

''</
The sauna is a national
1,020ft (311m)
Ackte and is held in the courtvard of the traditionand Finns
LITHUANIA
948f1 have at least one a

Estonia Vilnius
(288m)
8
J^
week. There are about
1.4 million saunas in
Much of ESTONIA is flat countryside V Finland: one for e\ cr\
with fields and forests, marshes and > 3.5 people.

lakes. The main industries include

engineering and textiles. Latvia Lithuania
A MIXTURE OF forested hills and Most of lithuani \ is a low-lying
Area 17,422sq miles plains, Latvia is often called plain with many small lakes formed
(45,125s(| km) Amberland because so much amber by Winter temperatures can
glaciers.
Government Presidential republic
can be found on its Baltic shore. fall below freezing for four months.
Independence 1991, from So\ iet

Union
Currency Kroon Area 24,938sq miles Area 25,1 74sq miles
I Population 1,591,000 (64,589sq km) (65,200sq km)
Density 93 per sq mile (56 per sq km) Government Parliamentary republic Government Parliamentary republic
Language Estonian
Official Independence 1991, from So\ iet Independence 1991, from Soviet
Major Religions No figures available. Union I nion
Most people Evangelical Lutheran, sonic Currency Lats Currency I .itas

are RussianOrthodox Population 2,693,000

i Population 3,765,000
i
Density 109 per sq mile (42 per sq km) Density 150 per s<| mile (58 per sq km)
Language Latvian
Official OfficialLanguage Lithuanian
Helping hands Major Religions No figures available. Major Religions No figures available.
In 1989, the Estonians formed a chain across Predominantly Lutheran, also Roman Predominantly Roman (Iatholic, also
their land, and into Latvia and Lithuania. (iatholic and Russian Orthodox Evangelical Lutheran and Reformist
The 400-mile (<»444<m) link symbolized
their bitl for freedom from the Soviet nion. I

tttiMfttHMM^^
317
IM'KKWTIONAL WORLD

Weather facts
Poland 101°F(39 o
An INDUSTRIAL COUNTRY rich in
coal and copper, Poland has large 100. 000 -Jolt
66 F OS.'rC) Z5°F (-3.9°C)
rcvrile, iron, steel, and shipbuilding
Language
industries. Much
of the landscape is Land profile % A traditional greeting in
flat, and about one-third of the Polish is dzien dobry.
1.5
people work on the land.
47
Wawel CASTLE
o&zx*a':cca.xxx:oyxL & ^ Wawel Castle is built on a rocky
HArea 120,726sq miles
(312,680sqkm)
embankment of the Vistula River in the old
capital of Krakow. Many Polish kings are
Lifestyle facts
Government Parliamentary democracy • Poland has Europe's oldest operating salt buried in the castle's underground crypts.
Republic declared 1947 mine at Wielic/.ka, near Krakow. The layers
Currency Zloty of salt go down to 1,073ft (327m).
Population 38,400,000
i
• Education is compulsory
Density 326 per sq mile
(126 per sqkm) between the ages of 7 and 18,

Official Language Polish and 98 percent of Poles can

1" Major Religions Roman Catholic- read and write.

ism, Protestant 0.3%, Muslim 0.01%, • Open-air museums, known

other 4.69% as skansens, exhibit a selection
of typical, old wooden buildings such as Traditional polish food
barns, churches, and windmills. Poland can be extremely cold, so many

Czech republic dishes are planned to be warm and filling.

Krupnik A thick soup made with barley or
The homeland of the Czechs was Prague's clock buckwheat. Also the
The astronomical
name
originally called Bohemia.of Much clock in the Old
of a strong drink.
Pierozki Dumplings
the country is flat farmland. Prague, Town Hall, Prague,
filled with meat,
the capital, has many churches with was installed in 1410.
mushrooms, cooked
gilded roofs, which gave the city the The clock's
cabbage, or cheese.
interlocking circles
name zlata Pra/ia, or golden Prague. Bigos A meat stew using
show phases of the wild boar, hare, or venison
Polish dumplings

Sun and Moon. It and wiejska, a Polish

I
<

|^^J Area 30,450sq miles has run nonstop

sausage. N \N
1

1- _J (78,864sq km) since 1572.

Government Republic
Independence 1992, from former Vitsyebsk
/...l
s
Czechoslovakia UirSSIAN HIM IIATION I
I X'lrtn/l
IMM.KUxmi Wl
Currency Czech koruna i K XI i

\ \

Population 10,302,215 Gdansk l>

i Minsk
Density 339 per sq mile (131 per sq km) L.Smanfc'y Mahilvow
1,135ft
Official Language Czech Szczecin
Hrodna (345m)
Major Religions No figures available
BELARUS
-xx
Poznari
. Lodz
Warsaw w ripH
„ .

Pripytl
Honnel'.
' i

Slovakia
Formerly part of the kingdom of
_X
POLAND Wroclavy
Uarehes

Hungary, Slovakia is a hilly country 2,

of thick forests dominated by the Prague o *#*

Praded^A
J
"t
A Wawel Castle'. Krakow
L viv
.

Kiev
°
O-
-<<.>, 4,895ft (1,492m) Rysy 8,199ft
w ,eMMKa
•YVieliezki
.

Carpathian Mountains. Bratislava, % '

L H BpDi,', (2,499m) j\
Ktitiii-nchmy

K ^/ ('/U J

on the Danube, is the capital city

'•%.

"/o,*„
o/r.s/
|C '
< '
ZSVA Gerlachovsky
^T^A
Peak
8,717ft (2,655m) U K R
and main export point. f SLOYAKtA Hoverla 6,762ft
? Bratislava
A

B
I (2.061m) 1|138f)
A
Ei&(1 ,015m)
Kekes 3,330ft / U^k (347m)
)

Area 18,932sq miles Danube /

MOLDOVA
S Budapest
(49,035sqkm) , . HtiJtitoii

Government Republic -^ s HUNGARY '*> "-.

Chisinau
Independence 1992, from former R M AN 1 A -
ddes
. 1 imiso;ira
( vechoslovakia , .

.Hrasov
Currency Slovak koruna °&*
Population 5,289,600
I loldoveanu Peak
8,347ft (2,544m)
Density 2<S2 per sq mile (108 persq km) ISO miles
Language Slovak
Official **/J <> Buch ares t
Constant a
Major Religions No figures available
'U Lf;.\R\N

318
 \

EASTERN Kl'ROFK

Ukraine Belarus Moldova

Much OF THE Ukraine consists of Agriculture is the main Warm SUMMERS WD mild winters
vast flat plains called steppes. Chief occupation in Belarus, despite poor make Moldova ideal for growing
crops include winter wheat, corn, soil. The capital city, Minsk, fruit, especially grapes. Moldovan
barley, sugar beets, and potatoes. produces agricultural machinery. people are Romanian in origin.

['"-
"
-A

Government
Independence
Area 233,098sq miles
(603,700sq km)
Presidential republic
1991, from
e
Government
Area 80,154sq miles
(207,600sqkm)

Independence
Parliamentary republic
1991, from Soviet
KgfM
'^
Government
"
Area
(33,700sq

Independence
13.012s(| miles
km)
Presidential republic
1991, from Soviet
Soviet Union Union Union
Gb Currency Karbovanets (temporary) Q) Currency Rouble Gb Currency Rouble
1 Population 52,158,000 1 Population 10,295,000 i Population 4,362,000
Density 233 per sq mile (86 per sq km) Density 129 per sq mile (50 per sq km) Density 337 per sq mile 30 per ( 1 s(| km)
Official Language Ukrainian Official Language Belorussian Official Language Romanian
Major Religions No figures available Major Religions No figures available Major Religions No figures available

Ukraine crops
(In thousand tons)
U992)
Romania Hungary
Forests cover about one-quarter Hungary has fertile soil and
of Romania, and lumber is an farmers grow wheat, sugar beets, and
important product. The Danube tobacco. The capital, Budapest, was
River is used for transportation and originallytwo towns, Buda and Pest,
as a source of hydroelectric power. on either side of the Danube River.

Grain Sugar beets Potatoes

Bison
The
Vegetables

Bialowieza
O
Government
Area 91,699sq miles
(237,500sq

Independence
km)
Presidential republic
1881, from Ottoman
Area
(93,030sq km)
35,919sq miles

Government Parliamentary republic

Independence 191S. after collapse of
Forest is the largest Empire Austro-Hungarian monarch
ancient forest in Qd Currency Leu Qd Currency Forint
Europe. It is home I Population 23,300,000 Population 10,500,000
I
to the last 500 or Density 262 per sq mile (101 per sq km) Density 295 per sq mile (114 per sq km)
so remaining Official Language Romanian Official Language Hungarian
European bison. + Major Religions Roman Orthodox + Major Religions Roman Catholic
The bison is the 70%, Roman Catholic 6%, Catholic Eastern 65%, Calvinist 19%, Lutheran 4%, Greek
biggest European Rite 3%, Protestant 6%, other 15% Orthodox 2.9%, Eastern Orthodox 2.6%,
mammal and can other 6.5%
measure 6.6ft (2m).

Facts about Romania and Hungary

• There are about 410,000 gypsies (or
Romanies) in Romania. The gypsies are
thought to have arrived from India (via the
Middle East) in about the 5th century A.D.
• Transylvania, which means "beyond the
forest,"is an area of Romania where music
kharkiv V
and folk art remain untouched. This wayside

I N E cross shows the skill of the

woodcarver.
Dnipropctrovs'k
• Sunflowers are grown in l In GfUert Baths in Budapest
. Donets'k
Hungary for the oil that is
Zaporizhzhya Hand-carved • Hungary is famous for its medicinal
wooden toss
extracted from their seeds. The
waters, and Budapest has 120 hot
t
at least
Kakhovka Rt ten oir
from Romania stems of sunflowers turn so that
the flowers can always face
springs. Every da\ IS million gallons
(70 million liters of water well up to the
»

toward the sun.

ged ofAtoQ surface, allowing thousands of people to
• Peppers are cultivated in enjoy the healing baths.
I lungary and ground into the spice paprika.
• The Danube River rises in the Alps of
The rose paprika of lungary has a special
I

Germany and (lows through eight countries

sweet flavor and is used in stews such as
on its journey to the Black Sea. I he
-f C K gu/yas, or goulash. Paprika is made from the
Danube is also (.ailed the 1 tonau, 1 )anuj,
pods of the pepper Capsicum annuum.
Duna. Dunav, I hinarea, and Duna\

319
 .

INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Weather facts Language

Bulgaria 104 I-' (40.(. C) -13°F(-25°C) A traditional greeting
.'Sin (635mm)
BULGARIA has HIGH mountains and 721 js: in Bulgarian vsdobrd
-XS
more than 600 natural springs. litro.

69 F(20"C) 28°F (-2.2°C)

Grapes grow abundantly on the
fertile plains, making Bulgaria the Lifestyle facts Land profile
world's fourth largest wine exporter, • Rose one of the most
oil is Bulgaria has extensive forests,
precious ingredients of perfume. and the land is mainly used
the major supplier of for farming.
Bulgaria is

Area 42,823sq miles rose oil and has the world's largest
(110,910sqkm) rose gardens at Kazanluk.
Government Parliamentary republic
• Bulgarians nod their heads when
Republic declared 946 1
they mean "no" and shake them
Currency Leva
when they mean "yes."
i Population 9,000,000
Density 207 per sq mile (80 per sq km) • In Gabrovo, Bulgaria, there is a national
Lion
Official Language Bulgarian museum devoted entirely to humor called
The lion is
"t" Major Religions Bulgarian Orthodox The House of
the national
85%, Muslim 10%, Jewish 0.8%, other or Humor and symbol of
nonreligious 4.2% Satire. N
K O M A N >
Bulgaria; it is

Pas**, depicted on
• Ruse
the coat of arms. /??$
BULGARIA Varna
Landmark Gabrovo
St. Alexander >ona Alexan&r Kazanluk • Burgas
*
Nevsky Cathedral, Nevsky Cathedral
Stara Zagoca
Sofia, completed Musala "***
lilpvdii
SJgvqjv
9.597ft-0>.925m)
in 1912, was built
Srrj*.
$g jfS

in honor of the Tirana*

^^ • k.ivahi
Russian soldiers
who died in the • J licssaloniki »
1877-78 Russo- -

Olympus .

Turkish War. ,K2.917m) ,,„„,„/

Larisa
Trikkala^ ^ .1 e H r tl II S r 11
"~

Greece G R E. E G e""
MORE than 1,400 islands surround
'
Parthenon Chios \

Greeee's heavily indented coastline; Patrai*

Athens '
'>

only 154 are inhabited. Greece has * *r\ 3

the second largest fleet of merchant
ships in the world. 1 * %, Kos

Area 50,962sq miles

(131,990sq km)
»/ Sea (if Crete

..Iraki,,,,,
Nicosia
Government Parliamentary democracy
Olympu! :VI'RI S
Independence 1829, from Ottoman Olive S I: A
E A 6.406ft (1

Empire
Currency Drachma
The national symbol of +*Dt r£R RA
Greece is the olive branch.
i Population 10,200,000
Density 199 per sq mile (77 per sq km) Language
Official Language Greek A traditional greeting in Greek is
1" Major Religions Greek Orthodox
kalimera. kaAhmepa
98%, Muslim 1.5%, Roman Catholic and
Protestant, and Jewish 0.5%
Weather facts
II1°F(44°C) 10 1-'
(-12 C)
16.3in (414mm)
Land PROFILE Bra
Even though 80%
of Greece is 82.8° F (28.2 °C) 47°F (8.6°C) Parthenon
mountainous, The Parthenon is a world-

almost two-thirds of 5,000 drachmas Greek music famous classical Greek temple
the land is used tor One of the most important instruments dedicated to the goddess of
farming and grazing. in traditional Greek music is the bouzouki, Athens, Athena. It sits on a hill
which has metal strings. Traditional music- in Athens called the Acropolis,
isplayed at religious festivals and special and was constructed between
occasions such as weddings. 447 and 432 B.C.

320
 SOl'THEAST Kl'ROPK

Turkey Weather facts

109°F(43 C) -33 F (-36 C)
Language
A traditional greeting in
Turkey lies in both Europe and ^L 14.4in (,Vi7mm) p^-

Asia. The two continents arc

73°F(23 C)
-;o,c
Z&l A
32.5 F(0.3 C)
Turkish \s iyi gfitiler.

separated by the Bosphorus, site of

the capital city, Istanbul, and one of Land profile Turkish carpets
the world's busiest waterways. Land use in Turkey is Turkey produces about
predominantly 474 million sq ft

agricultural. (44 million sq m) of

Area 300,947sq miles carpets each year. There
(779,450sq km) are about400 types of
Government Parliamentary republic carpet,produced in centers such as Hercke.
Republic declared 1923 Malatya, Konya, and Kayseri.
Qd Currency Turkish lira Lifestyle facts
1 Population 58,400,000 • Grapes, one of the world's oldest crops, M^k ^^^ * Turkey the world's is

Density 192 per sq mile (74 per sq km) were first grown in Anatolia. Prom here they V^V II leading grower and exporter
Official Language Turkish spread to other parts of the world. |£ ^^ of figs, producing
'J Major Religions Muslim 99%, FM [Jk ^B 56,000-67,000 tons
Orthodox Christian, Roman Catholic, • Turkey's national sport T^mm the fruit every year.
jtfk
Protestant, Jewish 1% is wrestling. Kirkpinar, the — Presh, ripe figs arc-

feast of wrestling, has picked for eating from mid-July, or left to

been held each spring for dry first on the tree branches, and then for a
626 years. further two to four davs in the hot sun.

Pamukkale
Pamukkale, meaning Tulip
"cotton castle,"
Turkey's national
is a
symbol is the tulip.
brilliant-white hillside of
cascading thermal pools
fringed with stalactites.
People have bathed in the
warm, healing waters since
Roman times.

Albania Cyprus
Most Albanians live in remote Cyprus is the largest island in
mountain villages in this tiny, the eastern Mediterranean. It is

V* mountainous country. Albania's home to both Greek and Turkish

> Gaziantep main crops are wheat, barley, communities and, since 1974, has
tobacco, potatoes, and fruit. been split into two parts.

S V H \

^^m
}
JP? Area
(28,750sq
11,1 OOsq miles
km)
Area
(9,251 sq
3,572sq miles
km)
Lifestyle facts Government Presidential republic Government Parliamentary republic
• Greece, with its many mountains, has Independence 1912, from Turkey Independence 1960, from Britain
the greatest number of hill-farms in Europe. Qd Currency Lek Currency Cyprus pound
Goats are ideally suited to the terrain. Population 3,300,000
i I Population 700,000
• In summer the flat roofs of Density 313 per sq mile (121 per sq km) Density 199 per sq mile (77 per si| km)
houses on Greek islands are Official Language Albanian Official Languages Greek and Turkish

used for drying fruit and, in Major Religions Muslim 70%, Orthodox Major Religions Greek Orthodox
winter, for collecting Christian 20%, Roman Catholic 10% Muslim 23%, other groups 4' i

rainwater.

• 8.2 million tourists visit

Greece every year, drawn there by its

Lifestyle facts > jgjajk Lifestyle facts
• Since World War II, Albania • The ancient monuments of Cyprus arc so
ancient sites and sunny beaches. Wf^jSi
has had the fastest-growing important that some have been added to the

Top greek tourist resorts

population in Europe. Good UNESCO World Cultural Heritage list.
(1993)
health care services for mother
• Clothing, footwear, potatoes, grapes, and
Resort Visitors
from
and child receive the highest priority
citrus fruit arc Cyprus' main exports.
Crete 6,573,000 the government.
• The moufflon (Ovis musimon), a
Rhodes 5,650,000 • More than half of the Albanian people-
reddish brown wild sheep, is
Athens 2,500,000 earn their living from farming.
native to ( lyprus. It is the
Corfu :\ oi'o.noo • In 1992, there were only about 6,000 smallest wild sheep, reaching

Source Greek National Tourism Organization telephones in the whole of Albania - one a height of just 29in (74cm).
for every 550 people.

321
 ' A

1\ fERNATIONAL WORLD

Language
Croatia Slovenia A traditional greeting
Part of Croatia runs along the Slovknia IS an industrialized in Serbo-Croat is

coast of the Adriatic Sea and was country with supplies of iron and dobrd iitro.

once a popular tourist destination. steel. It is also a major producer of

Supplies of limestone around Split mercury, which is used in
help support the concrete industry. thermometers.
Regional
lifestyle facts
I Area 21,830sq miles Area 7,818sq miles • The Dalmatian dog is

(56,540sq km) J (20,250sq km)

named after the coastal
Government Presidential democracy Government Presidential democracy region of Dalmatia in I?

Cb Currency Kruna Co Currency 'Polar which was

Croatia, its first

1 Population 4,600,000 I Population 1,900,000 known home.

Density 210 per sq mile (81 per sq km) Density 243 per sq mile (94 per sq km) • Walnuts grow well in the warm summers
Official Language Croatian Official Language Slovene and well-drained soils of Yugoslavia.
+ Major Religions Roman Catholic 76.5%, Major Religions No figures available.
Orthodox 1 1 %, Muslim 1 .2%, other 1 1 .3% Most people are Roman Catholic
• The Dubrovnik region of Bosnia and
Herzegovina is famous for its traditional
costumes of white dresses, embroidered
blouses, and vests.
• The picturesque city of Ljubljana is

surrounded by mountains. Dominated by

a medieval fortress, the city has an opera
<->

house, an art gallery, and a museum.

V r; ,\ R
Zagreb _. j ~*\

C R OAT I Yugoslavia
Made UP OF the republics of Serbia
and Montenegro, Yugoslavia is
mountainous in the south, while the
bosnia and
iilrx kgo\ in a north is flat farmland. The capital,

s n a a i a
Belgrade, lies on the River Danube.
s ,, iii% 5m Sarajevo
'

277ft (1 91 )

• Split £-» 7.310ft (2, 228ait

Area 39,449sq miles

/!r,7-
S YUGOSLAVIA ( 102,1 73sq km)
i%
Government Presidential republic
,
Cb Currency new Yugoslav dinar
fjPopulation 10,580,892
i r 1
— Density 269 per sq mile (104 per sq km)
XI) miles Language Serbo-Croat
Official
Major Religions No figures available

Bosnia and
herzegovina Macedonia
Mining for minerals, such as iron, Once part of Greece, Macedonia
copper, and silver, is an important Civil war is a mountainous region. Farmers
In 1990, Yugoslavia began to break up into
economy.
part of the country's grow wheat, millet, and barley in
independent countries. Serbia resisted this
Farmers grow olives, pomegranates, the upland valleys. Tobacco is the
process, and in 1991 fighting broke out in
figs, rice, and tobacco. both Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. main crop grown for export.
When this book went to press, the borders
in this region were still under dispute.
V i Area 19,741sq miles Area 9,287sq miles
(51,130sqkm) (25,715sq km)
Government Parliamentary republic Government Parliamentary republic
b Currency Bosnian dinar Cb Currency Denar
IPopulation 4,200,000 I Population 1,900,000
Density 212 per sq mile (82 per sq km) Density 192 per sq mile (74 per sq km)
Official Language Serbo-Croat Official Language Macedonian
Major Religions Islam is the dominant Major Religions Christian 64.5%,
single religion, while 50% are Christian Muslim 21%, other 14.5%
divided between Serbian Orthodox and
Roman Catholic
A of Sarajevo

322
 CAI CAMS REPUBLICS

Lifestyle facts • Sweet

Georgia • Vines thrive on the warm,
tea,
and strong, is a popular
served black

Most of Georgia is mountainous. sunny hills of eastern Georgia drink throughout the
where wine and brandy are countries that lie around
The Black Sea coast is popular with produced. the Caucasus Mountains.
tourists. The country has a humid
• Visitors are attracted to Oops for both green an(j
climate that is ideal for growing tea Georgia's health spas, waterfalls black teas are grown on large-
and citrus fruits. and natural caves. plantations in Georgia.

THE black sea Languagb

Area 26,91 lsq miles Tourism major part
is a A traditional greeting in
(69,7()()sq km) of the Georgian Georgian is garmardzobat.
Government Parliamentary republic- economy. Many
Independence 1991, from Soviet Union resorts and spas, Textiles
Gb Currency Rouble with beaches and Georgia is famous for its silk
I Population 5,471,000 forests, attract and textiles. Brightly
Official Language Georgian tourists to the patterned cloth is

+ Major Religions Christian 97%, coast of the Black Sea. woven w ith gold and
Muslim 2%, other 1% silver thread. The
The Black Sea resort <>j Bat'utni
cloth is often
worn as a
headscarf.

Armenia
Armknia a mainly mountainous
is

country, and most people live in the

foothills or around the Ararat Plain.
Crops include orchard fruits such as
peaches, apricots, and cherries.

Area 1 l,5()6sq miles

(29,800sq km)
Government Parliamentary republic-
Lflnkarun
Independence 1991, from Soviet
Union
Gb Currency Armenian dram Azerbaijan
I Population 3,489,000 Oil and natural gas are the most
Official Language Armenian
important products in Azerbaijan
+ Major Religions Armenian Orthodox Wildlife facts
(Christian) 94%, other 6% and Baku, the capital, is the major • The mountains and Chainoi\

industrial center. Fruit, walnuts, and forests of Azerbaijan arc-

hazelnuts are valuable export crops. home to a variety of

Lifestyle facts \\ ildlife, including wild
• Armenia grows rare plants boar,brown bears,
used in perfumery and I Area 33,436sq miles European bison, chamois,
medicine, including geranium,
!

r '

(86,600sq km) anil leopards, although the

rose, peppermint, cinchona
Government Presidential republic- leopard is now very rare.

bark, and basma.

Independence 1991, from So\ iet Union
• The mild winters
Qd Currency Rouble attract birds to the coast of the
• Lake Sevan is a major recreation area and i Population 7,283,000
j^
offers windsurfing, sailing, swimming, and ^l Caspian Sea. \ wildlife preserve
Official Language Azerbaijani
water skiing. 1) Major Religions Shi 'ite Muslims
f f%j(L l
lrov ides a seasonal resting place
P^ for flamingoes, swans, pelicans.
70%, Sunni Muslims 29%, other 1% herons, and hawks.
Main acricultural products T^B*
Pelican
Product Amount (thousand tons)

Vegetables 511.8
Lifestyle facts • Musical tradition is strong in Azerbaijan,
• In the warm climate around Lankaran, The music of the asflUgS, who impro\ ise
Potatoes 353.8
farmers grow oranges, lemons, and figs. songs to their ow n accompaniment on a
Wheat 347.2 stringed instrument called a kobuz, is
• Tight industry in Azerbaijan
Grapes 224.0 extremely popular.
includes cotton and woolen
Meat 158.0 goods, footwear, traditional tf^PftS • \lniosi 'Hi' , ,,t Azerbaijan's electricity is

household items, and produced at hydroelectric powei stations

Berries 134.5
s< > u \ enirs. throughout the country.

$23
 *

INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Weather facts Language

Russian 10Z°F(39°C)
--i
77
— Air, l^^mml
r\
?0
8
• (-68 C) A traditional
greeting in Russian
$'/';&* *
federation | tf
66°F (18.9°C) 16"F (-9°C)
|
is zdravstuuyitye.

3apaBCTByHTe
TlIK LARGEST COUNTRY in the
Land profile
world, the Russian Federation Half the land in the Russian
stretches acrosstwo continents - Federation is forest land. National animal
Europe and Asia - that are The brown bear (Ursus
separated by the Ural Mountains. arctos) is the nationa
symbol of Russia. In
Most people live in the western folklore it is linked
third of the country. with kindness and
wisdom. Bears eat
St. basil's cathedral fruits, berries, and
Area 6,592,846sq miles The 16th-century Cathedral in
St. Basil's bulbs that they dig
(17,075,400sq km) Moscow is a magnificent up with their claws.
Government Presidential republic example of old Russian
Independence 1991, from the former architecture. It is situated
Soviet Union within the Kremlin,
Cb Currency Rouble the original fortress
J Population 149,003,000 at the historic heart
Density 23 per sq mile (9 per sq km) of the city. The
Official Language Russian cathedral was
Major Religions No figures available. completed in 1560
Most people are Russian Orthodox. and has nine great
There is a small community of Jews; also domes. It is now
Muslims and Buddhists open as a museum.

St. Basil 's was built on

the orders of Czar Ivan TV
the Terrible in gratitude for
his military victories.

Lifestyle facts
• Ballet popular form of
is a
Tolstoy
Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) is ,, ' St. Petersburg
R U S S I

entertainment in Russia. The one of the world's greatest

Nizhniy Novgorod
dance company that became novelists. His most famous
the Bolshoi Ballet was founded book, War and Peace, is set
'">, ^iiaa Moscow Chelyabinsk
in 1773. It is famous for classical in Russia during the

ballets such as Swan Lake. Napoleonic Wars. It

examines the feelings <g®>
• From October to March,
Moscow receives an
of the Russians as KAZAKH
the French invade
average of 15 minutes
their country
sunshine per day. Snow can
in 1812.
lie on the ground for up to
five months every year.

• Russians love to eat ice cream, which can

Famous Russian writers
be bought from places marked morozhenoe.
Name Date Key work
Popular Russian food
Alexander Pushkin 1799-1837 Eugene Onegin
Russians have a fattening diet that includes
ST. PETERSBURG Feyodor 1821-81 Crime and potatoes, fats, and sugar. Their caloric
St. Petersburg, formerly Dostoyevsky Punishment intake is 70% higher than that in the US.
called Leningrad, is a
Boris Pasternak 1890-1960 Dr. Zhivago Borscht This pinkish red soup is made
major industrial center.
Vladimir Nabokov 1899-1977 Lolita from beets. can be eaten hot or cold, and
It
The center of the city is
is often served with sour cream.
the Nevsky Prospekt, a Alexander b. 1918- The Gulag
Solzhenitsyn Archipelago Blinis These pancakes are made using
street lined with shops,
buckwheat, filled with meat or cheese, and
cafes, and theaters.
then browned.
• The
former Soviet Union had more than Charlotte Russe This special pudding was
Pastimes half ofall movie theaters in the world, with created for Russian royalty. It

• One of the most famous circuses in the 80 million ticket sales a week. Sergei is made in a mold lined
world is in Russia. The acrobats Fisenstein, a famous Russian film-maker with sponge, and
of the New Moscow Circus from the 1920s, made Battleship Potemkin. filled with both
are highly skilled. icecream and
• Reading is popular in Russia. Men spend
whipped cream.
• Chess popular game;
is a one-eighth of their free time reading a
many people practice book or newspaper. Women spend ,4 plate of Minis served
in Gorky Park, Moscow. _^_^ one-sixth of their free time reading. with red caviar.

324
 RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Siberia facts • South of the tundra, • The Chukchi people live on

• The region of Siberia covers vast expanses of conifers the Kamchatka peninsula and
4.8 million sq miles (12.5 million make up the largest survive by hunting, herding
sq km) of the eastern, or Asiatic, forest in the world. The reindeer, and fishing. The
part of Russia. Its name comes cones of the larch, fir, Siberian husk\ was first raised
from the word sibi which means and spruce trees provide b\ the Chukchi, who used the
"sleeping land." food for animals during dogs as companions and to
• In the north lies the tundra, the long winter. pull their sleds.

where the ground is frozen for

Siberian wealth
much of the year. This is known
Beneath its icy surface, western Gold and diamonds
as permafrost.
Siberia has vast reserves of coal,
During the 1840s,
gas, and oil. The area provides
fuel for the industries of western
• The snowy owl
(Nyctea scandiaca)
V prospectors found gold
glides over the in the area around the
Russia, and gas is piped towestern
tundra hunting for Lena River, in northern
Europe. Today
small mammals. Siberia. the area
A' has four major gold
C fields, as well as 800
1*.
Srcrrnaya >
diamond mines.
Heavy-dut) machinery digs for
Zemlya minerals m nor

Wranzil I

Chukchi

Nc/Ri.'lpjfcichevskaya Sopka
5,584ft (4,750m)

Novosibi Comma inlei

Islands

>"

Ural mountain facts Russian icons

• The Ural Mountains Beautiful icons, yffpaivostok
stretch for 1,300 miles religiousimages Sea of Time difference
J a /in n
(2,100km) from the Kara painted on wood, The Russian Federation covers 10 time-
Sea in the north to adorn Russian zones. This means that when it is morning in
Kazakhstan in the south. churches and homes. the west, it is already early evening in the cum.
• Only 25-125 miles For many years
(40-200km) wide, the Christians were
mountains left Russia open persecuted in the
to attack in its early history. old Soviet Union. / // / * iron shows the
Minimum and Child.

Trans-siberian express Time to get up in I in likiitsk ( retting rc.ich lor bed

The longest railroad line in the world crosses the St. Petersburg Ml \ll.kl\l'

Russian Federation. Started in 1881, the railroad was

vital for the mining and transport of Siberia's minerals.
The journey from Moscow to Vladivostock
takes about 165 hours.
V^
_.
1
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Climate zones
Africa Key
Africa is THE second largest and warmest of 3 Mediterranean

the continents. It is also the only continent I Dry grassland

through which the equator and both tropics I Hot desert

pass. Landscape and vegetation include I Rainforest

rainforest, grassy savanna, and hot desert.

J Tropical grassland

Time zones
Area ll,633,846sq miles Highest point Kilimanjaro,
(30,131,536sq
Countries 54

(2,5()5,810sq
km)

Largest Sudan %7,498sq miles

km)
Tanzania 19,341ft (5,895m)
Q Lowest point Lake Assal,
Djibouti 512ft (156m) below
sea level
o © © ©
12:00
Greenwich
13:00
Libreville
14:00
Cairo
15:00
Addis Ababa

Smallest Seychelles 9 Highest temperature

Continent facts
108sq miles (280sq km) 136°F(58°C) AP Aziziyah, • Western Sahara, with only
• The world's largest desert is
1 Population 637,271,000 Libya 2.6 people per sq mile
rhe African Sahara, with an area
Density 54 per sq mile * Lowest temperature (1 per sq km), is the world's
of 3,320,000sq miles
(21 per sq km) -irF(-24°C)Ilfrane, least densely populated country.
(8,600,000sq km). It is bigger
Major Languages Arabic, Morocco
Swahili, Hausa, Somali, Amharic
than all of Australia. • The earliest evidence of
• Half of all Africans are under humans - the oldest known
15, making Africa the continent
human footprints - were
Countries, territories, and capitals with the world's highest found in the Olduvai
percentage of young people. Gorge, Tanzania.
Name Capital Name Capital
Only 3 out of 100 can expect to • Africa has more countries than
Algeria Algiers Madagascar Antananarivo
live to 65 years of age. any other continent: 54 in total.
Angola Luanda Malawi Lilongwe
Age breakdown Fewest doctors
Benin Porto-Novo Mali Bamako
Under 15 to Over Rwanda 1 to 72,990 people
Botswana Gaborone Mauritania Nouakchott 15 years 65 years 65 years
Equatorial Guinea 1 to 62,000 people
Burkina Ouagadougou Mauritius Port Louis
Burkina 1 to 57,320 people
Burundi Bujumbura Morocco Rabat
Malawi 1 to 45,740 people
Cameroon Yaounde Mozambique Maputo
Zambia Mozambique 1 to 39,500 people
Cape Verde Praia Namibia Windhoek
2%
Central African Bangui Niger Niamey Longest life span
Republic
Nigeria Abuja
Female
Chad N'Djamena
Rwanda Kigali
Comoros Moroni
Male
Sao Tome and Sao Tome
Congo Brazzaville Principe
Kenya 49.9%
Cote d'lvoire Yamoussoukro Senegal Dakar
Kenya 47.3%
Djibouti Djibouti Seychelles Victoria Mauritius 65.2%'

Egypt Cairo Sierra Leone Freetown ~J

Lowest %
^J Highest %
Equatorial Guinea Malabo Somalia Mogadishu

Eritrea Asmara South Africa Pretoria

Great rift valley
Ethiopia Addis Ababa Sudan Khartoum
This valley, the longest crack in the Earth's
Gabon Libreville Swaziland Mbabane crust, stretches for 5,400 miles (8,700km). In
Gambia Banjul Tanzania Dodoma East Africa, the sides of the valley are 4,100ft
(1,250m) high.
Ghana Accra Togo Lome
Guinea Conakry Tunisia Tunis

Guinea-Bissau Bissau Uganda Kampala

Kenya Nairobi Western Sahara Laayoune

Lesotho Maseru Zaire Kinshasa

Liberia Monrovia Zambia Lusaka

Longest rivers
Libya Tripoli Zimbabwe Harare
Zambesi 1.700 miles (2,735km)
Cairo, Egypt 6,452,000
Top city populations
!=s=!bbs==s==s» Niner 2. SOT miles (4,167km)

SjCongo (Zaire) 2,717 miles (4,373km)

326
 AFRICA

Flamingos
Rift valley
R e * lakes, such
h as Lake
I >Turkana,a
cana, are the feeding
' grounds of the lesser
a m i n go ( Phoenk optet its
minor). A large flock can
consist of several
million birds.

CI IM-. VIUSSiM'-

V .

Sll
I.KONK
RRA COM > »/ ( \ R \l.
WlLDLIFE D1VOIRK - I

AFRICAN
I

IIBKRIV RK1M BLIC

Africa's National Parks arc-
AWdjan _S.
home to an amazing variety Delta
O
lliotul
(. \\l>\
KOI ATO mMI
I

of wildlife. '•'"' / "'

'omn
s\o HUH falls K1AV\
M"
_ _ _ _&'«£»
,

Fauna (

" '

^Librevill e - £>_*ft£
/i/a

H
a .. ;
/<«>;/; . .,

imwin
Ml Id \|)l
v
^Kinshasa
3 / M„h, I

/. A I Is E _— Tanganyika

'-_-- Killlllllllii

'ljr\'/AM A

African elephant Giraffe (Giraffa Mountain gorilla

(Loxodonta africana) camelopardaiis) is (Gorilla gorilla)
\ \ (, () I. \
is the biggest the tallest animal. is the largest
land animal. up to 17ft (5m). primate (see p. 102). /AM HI \

An"
Flora '/.
%,
/imiuhwk ^
v
\ wiiiua -v
= '

o
IK) I SWAN \ ^ ~

K ii I ii h a i i

Defer!
Tree senecio Acacia tree (Acacia) Baobab tree s\\ \/ll \\l)
(Senecio), found just isumbrella-shaped (Adansonia digitata)
below the glacier line, and grows mainl\ on grows in and regions
can reach 15ft (4.6m). the African savanna. and can store water.
SOI III Land profile
Mountain Desert \l Kit: \ /
predominantly
Africa is

comparisons comparisons savanna (grassland) and desert.

Everest
<
2 ».02«tt
J i ,1/1, ni I rban 0.5*
1
Gooa Hope
(8,848m)

Kilimanjaro
19,34 lit
(5,895m)

abyan 450,000sq miles

(l,165,500sq km)

Cross-section Ruwenzon Mountains .

; lctoria
Great Rift Valley
eastern)
9 843t1
>
Atlantic Ocean Greal Rllt Valle V <
Indian Ocean
(3.000m) Congo Basin (western)

Sea level

Length: 2,800 miles (4,500km)

327
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Weather facts
Egypt 124 V (51 C) 34 F(IC)
MOST OF EGYPT ^l '
r^
barren desert,
is
-$ <w
'

% $ One Egyptian pound

with 99 pereent of the population
82.8°F (28.2°C) 57.8T (14.3°C)
living by the Nile River. Farmers, Language
called fellahin, grow cotton, wheat, Land profile A traditional greeting in , ,
f f

and vegetables. The Great

rice, Only 4.5 percent of the land
Arabic is Man wasahlan. lU-jlL»l

Pyramid at Gi/.a is one of the seven in Kgypt can be cultivated.

Great pyramids
wonders of the ancient world. The pyramids at Giza were built in about
2600 B.C. to house the mummified bodies

l^^^n Area
c of Kgyptian kings, or pharaohs. The largest
pyramid contains more
l ^^m 386,662sq miles
(l,001,450sq km) Lifestyle facts
than 2 million
stone blocks and
Government Presidential republic • Overpopulation is a problem in Kgypt. took 100,000
Independence 1936, from Britain The estimated birth rate is one baby born men more
Currency Egyptian pound every 24 seconds. than 20 years
Population 54,800,000
I to build.
• Kgypt is the world's leading
Density 142 per sq mile (55 per sq km)
producer of dates, and the fourth Major cotton importers
Official Language Arabic (1992)
largest producer of watermelons. One-third of the world's cotton grown
'J Major Religions Muslim 86%, is in

Christian 13%, other 1% • Tolls from the Suez Canal, completed in and exported from Kgypt.
1869, now bring the Kgyptian government Destination Amount in tons
more than $500 million each year.

Sudan Ethiopia
Japan ^ ;=^=^ 301,181

South Korea ^s !^^>gg|) 167,323

The largest COUN try in Africa, Four out of five Ethiopians work
Sudan includes both swamps and on the land, with coffee as the main Switzerland a* \^^) 103,916

deserts. Sudan exports gum arabic, cash crop. The Blue Nile flows from
used in watercolor painting. Lake Tana in the north. Romania "\ (mR$) 77,585

Italy

Area 967,498sq miles Area 471, 778sq miles

(2,505,810sq km) (l,221,900sqkm)
Locust attack
Independence 1956, from Anglo- Foundation More than 2,000 years;
Massive swarms of locusts
Kgyptian agreement never colonized
sometimes sweep across
Od Currency Sudanese pound Cb Currency Birr
the African continent,
I Population 26,700,000 ft Population 53,000,000
destroying huge areas of
Official Language Arabic- Official Language Amharic
crops in just minutes.
Major Religions Muslim 70%, Christian Major Religions Muslim 40%,
Large swarms can
9%, traditional beliefs 20%, other 1% Ethiopian Orthodox 40%, traditional
weigh up to 50,000 tons
beliefs 15%, other 5%

Somalia Water facts Djibouti Eritrea

Somalia's economy is • Two billion This important trading Farming is difficult in
people in the Eritrea, a hot country with
based on rearing animals port for Ethiopia occupies
world lack access
for use or profit. Bananas, a prime site between the very little rainfall and
to safe water.
a major export, are grown Indian Ocean and the locust plagues. Many
• A family of six
on riverside plantations. needs about Red Sea. people live as nomads.
20 gallons (91 liters) of water a

day for basic needs, such as

Area 246,202sq drinking and keeping clean. [22 I
Area8,958sq HArea36,170sq
miles (637,660sq km]
"
miles (23,200sq km) miles (93,679sq km)
• In Ethiopia 39.5 million
Independence 1960, Independence 1977, Independence 1993, from
people have no access to a safe Kthiopia
formation of Somali Republic from France
supply of water. In Sudan the Currency
Currency Somali shilling Currency Djibouti franc Birr
figure is 14.7 million, in
I Population 8,041,000 I Population 500,000 Population 3,500,000
I
Somalia, 4.8 million.
Official Languages Arabic, Official Language Arabic, Official Language Amharic
Somali
'J

100%
Major Religions Muslim
t • In the Sudan
takes at least 2 hours,
or a journey of 5 miles
(8km), every day to
fetch water. This work is usually
done bv women and children.
it French
*J Major Religions Muslim
94%, other 6%
Major Religions No
People of the
available.
mountains are Christians;
lowland Kritreans are Muslim
figures

328
 NORTHEAST AFRICA
//,
r/ 1 /
r , r „ n
M
-f^lCdh"
$ 1
Tanzania Kenya
Giza« ^(>airo THE main EXPORT crops of Tanzania KENYA LIES ON the equator. It
Pyramids Sauit -

Mt Kathenna
include sisal, which is used to make consists of dry grasslands, which are
/-iS,
•
^*SNj62ft (2,637m) rope. Most of the world's cloves home to wildlife such as elephants,
-r-
grow on the islands of Zanzibar. lions, and zebras. Most people live
inthe highlands of the southwest,
E G V I> T where there is enough rain to grow
Aswan Area 364,901 sq miles
--o;-
IrODR ill
crops and graze cattle and sheep.
< .III!
(945,090sq km)
~<iT
Independence 1961, from Britain
Currency Tan/.anian shilling
.V // //
;'
ii n i Population 27,800,000 Area 224,082sq miles
Official Languages Swahili, English (580,370sq km)
ort Sudan Major Religions Christian 33%, Muslim Government Presidential republic
33%, traditional beliefs 30%, other 4% Independence 1963, from Britain

S U D A I\ Engershatu
Currency Kenva shilling
8.448ft (2,575m) i Population 25,200,000
KkfVkr.A Density 14 per s(| mile (44 per sq km)
1

Khartoum Asmara Official Language Swahili

RasDasfien A...-.J
Major Religions Protestant 38%,
Kl Obcid 15,157ft (4,620m) £3T> Roman Catholic 28%, traditional beliefs
VI
i)
Mousn.-
6.627<ip,020m)
• ( wnKr
I
26%, Muslim 6%, other 2%
/jd;|IM()l I I

Si,b„

Ahaha
AC*
Din & iwa
^Djibouti
Weather facts
Atldis
98.6°F (37°C)
37.8in (959mm)

Siulil
II 1 () 1
-Xfc
3iE
65.5 F (18.6 C) 61.7 I U6.5 C)
'\

Lifestyle facts
Kmyeti A. • Kenya has the world's youngest population
10,456ft (3. 187m> I'. *

I (,\\l)\ with about50% of the people under 15 years

Marghenta Peato K E. N Y A of age.
16,765ft (5,110m)
Kirinyaga
• There are two rainy seasons in Kenya. The
Kampala I

7,060ft (5.200m)
1

"long" rains are between March and Ma\ and

RTsC
"short" rains between October and November,
KWAiSl jjf Nairobi • Kenya produces 80% of
° « /\ Kilimanjaro the world's pyrethrum.
M)l jA ^jA 19,34^ (5,895m) This is a type of
iin\iht
Masai warriors chrysanthemum: the
,1/a.ttf/
» 0W« /
flowers are used for
Dodoma
TANZANM & Mafia I
Masai facts
• The Masai are a tribe
herders who live on the
of nomadic
borders of
making

Land profile
insecticide.

Almost two-thirds of Kenya

Kenya and Tanzania.
'V? is covered in arid grassland.
• They survive on the meat, blood,
and milk of their herds.
V
V
\\* B \Q • Between the ages of 14 and 30, the
I MOZ
young men live in the bush learning the
skills that will make them great warriors.

Uganda Area91,074s(| miles Major national parks and game ri si h\ is

(235,880sq km) Name Size Key animal

One-fifth of
Independence 1962, from Selous Tanzania,
Uganda consists of Britain Tanzania 1 7,375sq miles (45.000sq km)
, .
fyMm^df !j

large lakes and Currency Uganda shilling Tsavo National Park,

swamps. Most i Population 16,876,000 Kenya 8,036sq miles (20,81 2sq km) Iflfs
farmers grow their Official Languages English,
Serengeti National Park,

own food, such as

Swahili Tanzania 5,700sq miles (14,76 sq km) <dS&*
Major Religions Roman Catholic
sweet potatoes, corn, Ruaha National Park,
38%, Protestant 33%, traditional Tanzania 5,000sq miles (12,950sq km) v<
and beans, although beliefs 13%, Muslim 5%, lindu and I

Ngorongoro Conservation
coffee is grown for other 11%
export.
Area, Tanzania 3,202sq miles (8.292sq km)
3
329
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Land profile
Nigeria More than half of

Africa's most heavily Nigeria is grassland.

Nigeria is
10 Naira
populated country, and two-thirds of
the people live in farming villages. Language
liiiliiiliiiiiiiiiiliiliiiiiiliiiiiliiiiiiiiiilii.iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiaM.iiiiiiJnii;
Iliiiii

The most valuable crops are cacao, A traditional greeting in

palm products, and rubber, with oil Lifestyle facts Hausa is ina-kwna.

as the main export. • Although no school attendance is

required, Nigeria has 33 universities with Markets

more than 243,000 students. This scene in
PIm Area 356,669sq
(923,770sq km)
miles
• All twins in Nigeria, boys and
girls, are given the same names.
Benin City shows
a woman buying
Government Transitional government chilies for a hot
Independence I960, from Britain
The firstborn is called Taiwo,
sauce used in
the second is Kehinde.
Cb Currency Naira cooking. She
I Population 115,700,000 • The main ethnic groups in wears a length of
Density 329 per sq mile (127 persq km) Nigeria are the Hausa (north), patterned cloth,
Official Language English the I bo (east), and the Yoruba called zpagne,
(south and west). around her waist.

Senegal
In this flap country, peanuts are
grown to make oil for export. The
MAU
S -L
300km

Dakar, is West Africa's most

capital, 20!) miles

important port.
v
Q
HArea (196,702sq
75,954sq miles
km)
Independence I960, from France;
republic declared
.
Cb Currency CFA franc atrlN-£A-BISS \r
it Population 7,700,000 Bissau
Official Language French B I

G U ! -
J

J
V."'"' t oulu
houlii
AU? v
-'
v Tena Korou

THE GAMBIA Peanut facts Cjontikry

fijalon

4 c
3.450ft (747m)
v ^- :

Gambia is Africa's smallest country, ^A Bintimani

6,390ft (1.948m) t
• Peanuts (or groundnuts)
and stretches for 200 miles (320km) West
r SIERRA,
are a major crop in F reetown
on either side of the Gambia River. Africa. Despite the name,
LEON E Nimba
COTE
The main cash crop is peanuts. it is not a true nut.
5.748ft (1,752m)

• The peanut pod has LIB F. R I A Yamoussoukro

Area 4,363sq miles the unusual habit of Monrovia
(lUOOsqkm) ripening underground. D'lVOIRE
Independence 1965, from Britain; • There are about Abidjan .

1970, republic declared 300 by-products of

Cb Currency Dalasi peanuts, including
I Population 900,000 flour, soap, and
Official Language Fnglish plastics.

GUINEA-BISSAU Guinea Sierra leone

The COAST has a monsoon climate GUINEA IS THE world's second Portuguese explorers in the 15th
with heavy rainfall between May biggest producer of the mineral century named this country, which
and October. Waterbirds include bauxite. Iron ore, gold, and means "lion mountain." Diamonds
pelicans and flamingos. diamonds are also mined here. and bauxite are the main exports.

LJ
^ Area 13,946sq miles
(36,120sqkm)
nArea (245,860sq
94,927sq miles
km)
[

M0^
f^^^ Area
(71,620sqkm)
27, 653s(| miles

Independence 1974, from Portugal Independence 1958, from France Independence 1961, from Britain
Currency Guinea peso Currency Guinean franc Currency Leone
I Population 1,000,000 I Population 6,100,000 i Population 4,400,000
Official Language Portuguese Official Language French Official Language English

332
 WEST AFRICA

Language rhythms
The Ashanti language of West Liberia Cote d'ivoire Burkina
Africa is a tonal language, and a Liberia was founded as a THERE ARK 66 different B( RKINA IS \\ inland
special drum can he played to
home for freed slaves from tribes living in the Ivor} country on the southern
reproduce the tonal pattern of a
word. Drum language, which
the US. High-quality iron Coast. The Dan tribe edge of the Sahara Desert.
has its own vocabulary, can be ore has replaced rubber as carve beautiful masks for Infertile soils mean that
used to send messages from one the country's most use in their traditional lessthan 10 percent of the
village to another. valuable product. ceremonies. land can be farmed.

Talking drums animal skin

Area 43,()()()sq miles nArea124,5()4sq Area 105,869sq
The kalungu, or (HU70sqkm) miles (322,463sq km) miles _'74.2(K)s(| km)
talking drum, is Independence 1847, Independence I960, from Independence 1960.
held together with independent state founded France from F ranee
thongs that link Curreney Liberian dollar Qd Currency CFA franc Currency CFA franc
the two skins. I Population 2,800,000 i Population 12,900,000 Population 9,500,000
i
When the "waist" Official Language English Official Language French Official Language French
issqueezed, the
sound can be
"waisf
changed.
leather thongs
Nigeria weather facts Ancient kingdom
114 F(46°C) 43°F(6°C) OF BENIN
72in (1.838mm)
The kingdom of
Benin, founded in the
forests of what isnow
Nigeria, rose to power
during the 14th
century. Its skilled
craftworkers made
spectacular bronze
heads and figures.

- Ouagadougou

RKINA-BENIN xt
WEST AFRICAN RELIGIONS
Percentages of population
I G E R Muslim Christian Traditional

2,103ft Benin 15 18 67
(641,r.) V Burkina 35 10 55

n Ahuja ; - Cote d'ivoire 23 12 65

* Ige,
Dimlangi^ Gambia 90 9 1
6.700ft
uu
(2,M2nff t^ <
Ghana 12 43 45
j o
Guinea 95 1.5 3.5
Aftgou
3 235f,
'
Guinea-Bissau 38 54
. * s v
f
a/ JL*.
n Porlo-Novo Liberia 14 68 18
/Lome
Accra* ,.
-s
Nigeria 50 40 10
,*/ o) II,,,,,
1
tf

Senegal 90 5 5
Sierra Leone 30 10 60
Helm Togo 15 50

Ghana Togo Benin

Ghana was the: first African THE POPULATION OF Togo has about BENIN HAS \ coastline fringed with
country to win its independence. 30 ethnic groups, many from other saltwater lakes. I ,ake \ illages mu\
Ghana exports more cacao than any parts of West Africa. Nearly half the old palaces make Benin popular
other country in the world. people are under 15 years of age. with tourists.

mArea (238,540sq
92,101sq miles
km)
Area
(56,790sq
21,927sq miles
km)
Area 43,483sq miles
(112,620sq km)
Independence 1957, from Britain Independence 1960, from France Independence I960, from France
Currency ( !edi Currency !KA ( franc < hirrenc) ( I \ fram
I Population 16,()()().()(>() I Population 3,800,000 I Population 1,900,000
Official Language English Official Language French < HTicial .anguage
1 rench I

. , .
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Gabon Cameroon
Gabon LIES across the equator and Tropical rainforests cover
is hot and rainy. About 75 percent of much of the Republic of Yaounde
the country is rainforest. Gabon is Cameroon. The country's main Yaounde is

the capita
the world's fourth largest producer export is cacao, which is used to
city and
of manganese. make cocoa and chocolate. business center
of Cameroon. It also
many schools and
nArea 103,348sq miles
(267,670sq km)
HArea (475,440sq
183,568sq miles
km)
has
research institutes.

Independence I960, from France Independence 1960, from France

Cb Currency CFA
1 Population 1,200,000
franc QD Currency CFA
fl Population 12,200,000
franc Central African
Language French
Official Official Languages English, French republic
Major Religions Christian 60%, Major Religions Christian 53%,
traditional beliefs 39%, Muslim, Hindu, traditional beliefs 25%, Muslim 22%
Timber, coffee, and cotton are the
and other 1% main exports here. Along the rivers,
used for access to the sea, are
hippopotamuses and crocodiles.

Traditional beliefs Living in the rainforest

• Large areas of Central Africa are covered Area 240,534sq miles
• Many Africans follow religious systems
that existed before the introduction of the
in rainforest. The forest is warm and damp ffl (622,980sq km)
and home to wildlife such as chimpanzees, C*= Independence 1960, from France
major faiths, such as Islam and Christianity.
leopards, and a wealth of birdlife. Qd Currency CFA franc
• Many of these traditions suggest that
In the rainforests, there
il Population 3,200,000
natural objects, such as mountains and Languages French, Sango
Official
are groups of people
rivers, have a spirit. Spiritscan be Major Religions Traditional beliefs
commonly known as
good or evil. 60%, Christian 35%, Muslim 5%
pygmies (a name they
• Fetishes are figures thought to be dislike). They survive
inhabited by a spirit. A good spirit by hunting animals and
can be activated by rubbing the
figure's nose or forehead and
gathering wild plants,
nuts, and honey.
Congo
offering a prayer.
• Forest homes are made Almost two-thirds of the Congo
from a framework of poles tied together and is covered with tropical rainforest.
Equatorial thatched with large leaves. No crops are
planted, so there is no need to cut
The coast and swamps contain
coconut palms and mangroves.
guinea down this forest retreat.

RlO MUNI, on the mainland, and the • The main forest people
make up Equatorial
island of Bioko, are the Twa, the BaKa, Area 132,047sq miles
and the Mbuti, who live km)
(342,000sq
Guinea. Most people belong to the
in an area that covers
Independence 1960, from France
Fang, a group known for their Qd Currency CFA franc
parts of Gabon, Congo,
storytelling and music. i Population 2,400,000
Central African
Republic, Cameroon, Official Language French
and Zaire. Major Religions Traditional beliefs
Area 10,830sq miles 50%, Roman Catholic 25%, Protestant
(28,050sq km) 23%, Muslim 2%
Independence
Currency CFA
1968, from Spain
franc
Sao tome and
i Population 400,000
OfficialLanguage Spanish
principe Angola
1" Major Religions Roman Catholic
These volcanic islands lie in the The main products of Angola are
90%, other 10% Gulf of Guinea. About 40 percent of oil and diamonds. The long
the land is planted with cacao trees. coastline also provides good fishing
Most people live in Sao Tome. for sardines and mackerel.

Turtle beach
Thousands of turtles
'
1 Area 372sq miles Area481,353sq miles
come to thesouth shore of (964sq km) (l,246,700sq km)
the island of Bioko, in Independence 1975, from Portugal Independence 1975, from Portugal
January and February Currency Dobra Currency New kwan/a
each year, to lay i Population 124.000 I Population 9,900,000
their eggs. Only OfficialLanguage Portuguese Official Language Portuguese
one in every 100 will + Major Religions Roman Catholic + Major Religions Christian 90%,
84^, Protestant 15%, other 1% traditional beliefs 10%
survn e.
{.lien hull,

334
 .

CENTRAL AIRI(.\

Rwanda
Rwanda is ONE of Africa's most
C //AV) densely populated countries. Chief
exports include coffee, tungsten,
Mt.Toussoro tea, and pyrethrum.
4.364ft (1.330m)
v* ( I \ T R A I.

A I- R I ( .
'

IrI
*— Area 10,1 70sq miles
REPUBLIC (26,340sq km)
Independence 1962. from Belgium
QD Currency Rwanda franc
I Population 7,500,000
Margherita Peak
16,765fl (5,110m)
Languages French. Rwanda
Official
Major Religions Traditional beliefs
50%, Roman Catholics 45%, Protestants.
Muslims, and other
Kansimbi '
.

14.787ft (4,507m)

Gorillas of Rwanda
One of the last remaining sanctuaries of the
mountain gorilla is in
Z A I R K Rwanda. The largest
of all primates,
gorillas live in
female groups
with one
male.

Serra do Moco
8.596ft (2,620m)
Fishing methods
The coasts of Angola are
dotted with fishing villages.
Z A M B I A Burundi
Some fish are caught by Lush I. I A TINY, DENSELY populated country,
using conical traps that I.. K Burundi is only 165 miles (265km)

hang from specially built wide. Nickel, copper, and cobalt are
scaffolding. mined in the southeast.
11 OTS \\ \ \ \
'/A^

Area 10,745sq miles

Regional lifestyle facts km)
(27,830sq
• Sao Tome has the highest literacy rate • A vegetarian dish from the Central African Independence 1%2, from Belgium
in Central Africa (63%) and the Republic consists of spinach or greens Currency Burundi franc
third highest life expectancy in mixed with peanut butter to make a thick I Population 5,800,000

all of Africa. stew. It is served with rice or cornmeal. Languages French, Kirundi
Official
Major Religions ( Ihristian 60' ,

• The wooden masks of Central • Makossa, the music of Cameroon,

traditional beliefs 39%, Muslim l'<
Africa inspired the Spanish artist ispopular all over Africa.
Picasso (see p. 163). Musicians use a thumb piano
.\/«s/,- from Zaire
(san/.a), flute, and

Zaire percussion. Thumb piano*

Zambia
• In parts of Zambia, areas of dense
This country is the world's largest ZAMBIA IS A large, landlocked
forest are burned to clear the land for
producer of industrial diamonds. farming. The ash acts as a fertilizer.
country. The economy relies on road
Minerals, mainly copper, make up and rail transportation through the
80 percent of total exports. port of Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania.
Victoria falls
Victoria Falls lies on
Area 905,567sq miles the border of Zambia Area
290,584sq miles
(2,345,410sq km) and Zimbabwe. (752,610sq km)
Independence I960, from Belgium Water falls 354ft Independence 1964, from Britain
Currency Zaire (108m), and has twice Currency Zambian kwacha
IPopulation 39,900,000 i Population 8,600,000
the drop of Niagara
Official Language French balls.The spray can language English
Official
Major Religions Traditional beliefs 50%, be seen from 40 miles
Major Religions Christian 71
Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 12% (65km) away. traditional beliefs 2891 . othei

335
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Weather facts
South afriga 108°F(42°C) 16° •'(-9'C) : 3>
MOST OF South Africa lies on a 1
-ft-
-,U:
^ s 1 in (784mm) r-».

plateau, or tableland, about 2,953 'S- *:# *¥*

Wrand
feet (900 meters) above sea level. 70.7°F(21.5 C) S7°F(13.9°C) Language
Land is used for grazing and wool is Land profile A traditional greeting in Zulu is

an important export. Minerals, such In South Africa 27% of the kunjani.

as gold, platinum, diamonds, and land is used for

coal, provide most of the wealth. agriculture.

National bird
Area 471,446sq miles l;i:l:;ii!,U.,i,iniKi. l l imL il l i,i!,i,!,ii l i.l,i,lmiHi,!„i iiiJ
; l i
l
|,'i,,iii.! The blue crane is the
(l,221,040sq km) national bird; it lives in

Government Presidential republic Lifestyle facts protected areas throughout

Foundation 1961, declaration of • In April 1994, the first free South Africa.
Republic of South Africa elections were held. These
Territories Transkei, Bophuthatswana, followed years of apartheid, which Precious minerals
Ciskei, and Yenda denied black South Africans any South Africa is the world's leading supplier
t Currency Rand voting power. of gold and platinum. The country produces
iPopulation 39,800,000 • Every year Zulus celebrate 40% of the world's gold, and 72% of its
Density 85 per sq mile (33 per sq km) Shaka Day. Between 1818 and platinum.
Official Languages Afrikaans, English Shaka
1828, a great warrior called
Major Religions Christian 66%, Hindu created the Zulu nation from many black Major platinum markets (1992)
and Muslim 20%, other 14% clans in South Africa. Destination Amount in ounces (grams)
• South Africa has the fourth largest Indian
Japan 1,860,000oz (52,731 ,000g)
community in the world.
Center of government Western Europe 840,000oz (23,81 4,000g)
• South Africa has the
The Parliament Building in Cape Town North America 715,000oz(20,270,250g)
world's deepest gold mine. It
was used for the first time in 1885. The
is 12,392ft (3,777m) deep. Other 385,000oz(10,914,750g)
building provided chambers for the two
Houses of the Cape Parliament, as
well as a large library.
Nelson Mandela
Swaziland Lesotho
took office here as This small country lies within Lesotho is an independent nation
the first black South Africa. It is well watered from within South Africa. The mountain
president of South
four rivers that provide irrigation for slopes provide good pasture for
Africa in Mav 1994.
citrus fruits and sugarcane. cattle and sheep.

Major south African languages

Language Number of speakers Area 6,703sq miles Area 1 l,718sq miles
Zulu 8,541,173 (17,360sq km) (3(),350sq km)
Xhosa
Independence 1968, from Britain Independence 1966, from Britain
6,891 ,358
Gb Currency Lilangeni Cb Currency Loti
Afrikaans 6,188,981
I Population 800,000 i Population 1,800,000
Tswana 3,601 ,609 Official Languages Knglish, Swa/.i Official LanguagesKnglish, Sotho

North Sotho 3.437,971

Major Religions Christian 60%, + Major Religions Christian 90%,
traditional beliefs 40% traditional beliefs and other 10%
English 3,432,042

Savanna facts
Namibia • The springbok, a small Botswana
THIS HOT, DRV country includes antelope, lives on the grasslands.
y The KALAHARI, a semidesert with
If alarmed, can leap 1.5ft
grass and thorn bushes, covers much
it
the barren Namib Desert and part
1

(3.5m) in the air with its back

of the Kalahari. Namibia's main arched. This is called "pronking."
of Botswana. Most of its income
exports are diamonds and minerals. • The trees in the African savanna include
comes from mining diamonds.
several species of acacia. The sweet-thorn
acacia sends tap roots down 213ft (65m) to
Area318,260sq miles seek out water.
w^^md Area 224,607sq miles
(824,290sq km) t.)01,/.5US(| mii;
Independence 1990, from South he oldest surviving Independence 1966, from Britain
Africa tribes of southern Currency Pula
Currency Rand Africa are the San. I Population 1,300,000
I Population 1,500,000 These people now Language
Official English
Language English
Official live in the semi- Major Religions 1 raditional beliefs
t Major Religions Christian 909?, desert regions of 509?, Christian 30%, Muslim and other
traditional beliefs \()7t Botswana and 10%
Namibia.

336
 sorrnKRN urica

Zimbabwe
MOST PEOPLE IN the landlocked
aar w COMOROS
THE THREE MAIN islands of
country of Zimbabwe belong to the Comoros lie between mainland
Shona or Matabele tribes. Main cash Africa and Madagascar. More than
crops are tobacco, cotton, and sugar. half of its food has to be imported.

Area 150,804sq miles Area 861 sq miles

(390,580sq km) km)
(2,230sq
Independence 1980, from Britain Independence 1975, from France
Capital of Zimbabwe
Cb Currency Zimbabwe dollar Currency CFA franc
IIarare, named after the African chief
i Population 10,600,000 i Population 600,000
Neharawe, is the capital of Zimbabwe. It is a
Official Language English Languages Arabic. French
Official
modern city with wide, tree-lined streets.
Major Religions Syncretic (part 'JMajor Religions Muslim 99%,
Christian, part traditional beliefs) 50%, Roman Catholic 0.5%, other 0.5%
Christian 25%, traditional beliefs 24%,
Muslim \%

Madagascar
Matabelk homes The main exports of
Matabele women decorate
Madagascar are coffee,
their homes with bright
cloves, and vanilla. The
geometric patterns.
fourth largest island in the
world, Madagascar has a
varied climate and a wide
range of wildlife.
/-Jsodilo Hills

Brandberg
\fi\ 4.511ft

Oku.
1

i
375m) nArea 226,657sq
miles (587,040sq km)
/>,//„
8.550ft (2.606m)
. Makgadikgadt Independence I960, from
'""'
Windhoek l France
Currency Malagasy franc
.- HJ 1 Jl U.-UU
/) E S E R T
i Population 12,800,000
Gaborone ? Official Languages French,
75 |
" Pretoria Malagasy
Johannesburg, Major Religions Traditional
Vereeniging 50%, Christian 43"
beliefs
Muslim 7%
. Maseru
Bloejnfonlein Sfv
I.KSOIIK
S O I T II

A F RICA M \d\<;as<:ak WILDLIFE FACTS

• Many unique animals evolved
on Madagascar, which is
Parliament 1
Mozambique isolated from mainland Africa.
Building Ci
Cape of^ Mozambique is one of the poorest • Two-thirds of the world's
Good Hope countries in the world. Most farms chameleons live on the island. These
animals can change color
are state owned and exports include
Malawi coconuts, cotton, tea, and sugar.
when threatened.
• Madagascar also home

m
is to
This narrow COUNTRY is only the Indri, the largest of the
100 miles (160km) wide. Tobacco world's lemurs.
Area 309,496sq miles
has recently overtaken tea as (801,590sq km)
Malawi's major cash crop. Independence U 7.S, from Portugal
1

Qd Currency Metical
i Population 16,142,000
Area 45,884sq miles OfficialLanguage Portuguese
(118,840sq km) Major Religions Traditional beliefs
Independence 1964, from Britain 60%. Christian 30%, Muslim 1095
Qd Currency Malawi kwacha
i Population 10,400,000
Languages English, ( !hewa
Official Coconut PE0P1 OFl MADAGASCAR
+ Major Religions Christian 75%, Copra, the dried flesh of the The Fertility rate of women here is one of the
Muslim 10%, other 15% coconut, is used to make soap. highest in the world. More than two-fifths of
shampoo, and margarine. the population is under 15 \e.us of age.

J37
INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Asia Climate zones

Asia is THE world's largest continent
kn £/-^v?.
and includes hot, dry deserts, icy tundra,
2 Mountain regions
and tropical rainforests. Asia also has the
Polar and tundra
~J
largest population of any continent, with
I |
Taiga
60 percent of the world's people.
Mediterranean
~J
Dry grassland I
| Temperate forest

Time zones

©GO©
Area 17,251,315sq miles Highest point Mount § Rainforest
(44,680,7 18sq km) Everest, Nepal/China 29,029ft
I Tropical grassland
Countries 44 (8,848m)
Largest Russian Federation Li Lowest point Dead Sea, H Hot desert

(400m) 12:00 15:30 17:30 21:00

6,592,846sq miles Israel/Jordan 1,312ft
Greenwich Tehran NewDelhi Tokyo
(17,075,400sqkm) below sea level Calcutta, India
Smallest Maldives # Highest temperature Top city populations 10.916,000
1 16sq miles (300sq km) 129°F(54°C), TiratTsvi,
i Population 3,280,232,000 Israel
Density 189 per sq mile sfs Lowest temperature
km)
(73 per sq -90° F (-68°C
) Verkhoyansk

Major Languages Chinese, and Oimekon, Russian

Hindi, Japanese, Bengali, Federation
Punjabi

Countries, territories, and capitals

Name Capital Name Capital Age breakdown
Afghanistan Kabul Myanmar Rangoon
Fewest doctors
15 to Over
Bahrain Manama 65 years 65 years Cambodia 1 to 27,000 people
Al Nepal Kathmandu
Bangladesh Dhaka North Korea Pyongyang Nepal 1 to 20,978 people

Bhutan Thimphu Oman Muscat Bhutan 1 to 9,700 people

Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan Pakistan Islamabad Indonesia 1 to 7,372 people

Cambodia Phnom Penh Philippines Manila Sri Lanka 1 to 7,255 people

China Beijing
Qatar Doha
Hong Kong Victoria
Russian Longest lifespan
India New Delhi Federation Moscow
Female 82 78
Indonesia Jakarta Saudi Arabia Riyadh
Male |
Iran Tehran Singapore Singapore

Iraq Baghdad South Korea Seoul

Israel Jerusalem Sri Lanka Colombo

Japan Tokyo Syria Damascus
Jordan Amman Taiwan Taipei

Kazakhstan Alma Ata Tajikistan Dushanbe

Kuwait Kuwait Thailand Bangkok
Kyrgyzstan Bishkek Turkmenistan Ashkhabad Growing rice
Laos Vientiane About 90 percent of the world's rice is
United Arab
Emirates Abu Dhabi grown in Asia. Rice, along with wheat
Lebanon Beirut
and corn, supplies the basic food
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur Uzbekistan Tashkent
needs for more than half the
Maldives Male Vietnam Hanoi population of the world.
Mongolia Ulan Bator Yemen Sana

Tallest mountains
K2 (Mount Godwin Mount Everest,
Continent facts • All the world's major
Austen), Kashmir/China, Nepal/China,
Lake Baikal in the Russian religions originated in Asia. 28,251ft (8,611m) 29,030ft (8,848m)
Federation is the world's deepest I ht\ include ( hnstianity,
Lhotse, &\ Kangchenjunga,
lake at 5,315ft (1,620m). It is home Islam, Judaism, Hinduism,
Tibet/Nepal India/Nepal,
to the world's only freshwater seal. Buddhism, and Sikhism. 27,040ft A- ^ 28,169ft (8,586m)

l • The world's top five tea

growers are all in Asia - India,
China, Sri Lanka, Japan, and the
• The highest city
in Tibet, which
11.975ft (3,650m)
in
lies at
the w >rld Lhasa,
(8,516m)
/-
^#
r M^W \^V

"*%# *|
4 M
Makalu,
1 ibct/Ncpa
27.766ft
W*,,* | (8,463m)
Baikal seal Russian Federation. above sea level.

338
ASIA
 INTERNATIONAL WORLD

Land profile
Israel Almost halt" of" Israel is desert. jffsS
ABOUT FOUR-FIFTHS of Israelis are
Jewish, and many Jews all over the
50 New shekels
world consider the State of Israel
their homeland. The average age in
i
Israel is very young: 25.6 years. Lifestyle facts • 3% of Israelis live on 270 kibbutzim. These
• Israel produces 95% of its own are communities, often farms, where
food, including delicious oranges, families live together, sharing decisions,
Area 7,992sq miles bananas, and avocados. work, and property.
(20,700sq km)
Government Parliamentary democracy Western wall Dead sea
Independence 1948, from Britain Also called the This inland
Territories Disputes over land with Wailing Wall, this is sea lies
Jordan and Syria a most sacred Jewish 1,300ft
Currency New Shekel place of prayer and (400m)
ft Population 5,100,000
pilgrimage. It is all below sea
Density 650 per sq mile (251 per sq km) that remains of the level, and is
Official Languages Hebrew and Arabic Second Temple of the lowest point
$ Major Religions Jewish 82%, Solomon, built on Earth. Itswater is the saltiest known, and
Muslim 14%, Christian 2%, Druze and about 200 B.C. this allows people to float easily.
other 2%
Lebanon mArea 4,015sq miles
-' Until the outbreak (10,400sqkm)
U * Government Parliamentary
>y of civil war in 1975,
democracy
a'
Lebanon was the Independence 1941, from
trading and financial F ranee
I
center of the Middle QD Currency Lebanese Pound
East. Its fertile inland ft Population 2,800,000
OfficialLanguage Arabic
SYRIA plain yields fruits,
vegetables, grains,
Major Religions Muslim
57%, Christian 43%
and tobacco.

Damascus
Syria The capital of Syria,
This land of rocky deserts and Damascus is the
world's most ancient
ancient cities has been called the
inhabited city. It is
cradle of civilization: the world's famous for its souqs
first alphabet was found in LIgarit. (markets).

Palmyra
Jaffa
Holon ^B Area71,498sq miles Palmyra (city of palms) now lies in ruins.
Gaza > /
(185,180sqkm) It was once a major stopping place for
Strip
Government Republic traveling merchants taking the shortest route

Independence 1946, from France to the Mediterranean.

Cb Currency Syrian Pound
I Population 13,300,000
Official Language Arabic
*J Major Religions Muslim 74%,
Alawite, Druze, and other Muslim
sects 16%, Christian 10%

Regional weather facts

Area 55,433sq miles
Jordan (89,210sq km)
Records

The Arabian Government Constitutional 8.6°F (-13°C)

monarchy & ^
desert covers almost
Independence 1946, from 129.2°F(54°C)
two-thirds of Jordan. Britain
Nomadic bedouin LO Currency Jordanian dinar
Averages
herders were the I Population 4,300,000 Petra
This beautiful, rose-red 19.1 in (484mm)
first desert-dwellers; Official Language Arabic
S\ (\
Major Religions Muslim 93%, city was carved from solid
now their
arc dwindling.
numbers
'J

other (mostly Christian) 7% rock more than 2,000 Lfn * H

years ago. 75.7 I- (24.3 C) 14 F (-10 C)

340
 ARABIAN PENINSl LA
_i I VU&Ai
Iraq Saudi Arabia Mosul . ft

Iraq's STATE religion is This kingdom is the

Islam, and its followers are world's leading produeer
ealled Muslims. From and exporter of oil, and Baghdad
1980 to 1988, Iraq was at holds 25 percent of world
war with Iran. oil reserves.
I R A Q t
> Desert Hasra*
Kl WAIT r K"« ait Cits
Area 169,236sq Area 830,()00sq
miles (438,320sq km) miles (2,149,690sq km) .1 n S u J u d M4 4
Independence 1932, Independence and
from Britain Unification 1932 -
OMAN
BAHRAIN '
Cb Currency Iraqi dinar Cb Currency Saudi riyal Dubai
Riyadh Q V| \!< J>"''-'
i Population 19,300,000 I Population 15,900,000 < Medina Abu Dhabi »
Miisc.ii

Arabic Arab houses SAl DI ARABIA Jabal ash

9.902ft
Sham
(3018m)
Arabic is the religious Most Arabs are of the
language of Muslims all Muslim faith, which says
over the world, whether that women must cover
they are Arabs or not. themselves from
everyone except their
Language families. Muslim houses
A traditional greeting in have a screened balcony
Arabic is ahlan wasahlan. that shields women from
the outside, and also
keeps the house cool.

Kuwait Bahrain Arab headdress

Iraq invaded oil-rich Bahrain is made up of 33 Headcloths are
Kuwait in 1990. The islands in the west of the worn by both men
Iraqis were driven out Arabian Gulf. It was the and women to

seven months later during first Arab nation to strike

protect them from
the sun. Arab
the Gulf War. oil, in 1932. Checkered WhtU Hfudiloth, or Misfa wont