Chapter 2

Stress and strain relationships

for elastic behaviour
Subjects of interest
• Introduction/Objectives
• Description of stress at a point
• State of stresses in two dimensions (Plane stress)
• Mohr’s circle of stress – two dimensions
• State of stress in three dimensions
• Strain at a point
• Hydrostatic and deviator components of stress
• Elastic stress-strain relations
• Strain energy
• Stress concentration
• Finite element method
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Objectives

• This chapter provides mathematical relationships to

understand relationships between stress and strain in a
solid which obeys Hook’s law.
• Stress and strain at a point and in three dimensions
will be understood.

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Introduction
Force
Elastic behaviour
Solid
Plastic behaviour
Force

Two dimensional
Stress-strain
relationship
Three dimensional

Note: if solid is metal, we need to include metallurgical factors.

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 Description of stress at a point
• Stress at a point is resolved into normal and shear components.
• Shear components are at arbitrary angles to the coordinate axes.

z • The normal stress σx acting on the

plane perpendicular to the x direction.
σz (this also applies to σy and σz.)
τzx τzy • The shearing stress has two
τyz ∆z components and need two subscripts;
τyx ∆z
σy τxz τyx σy - The first subscript is the plane in
y
τyz τxy which the stress acts.
σx
∆x
- The second subscript is the direction
∆y in which the stress acts.
x
Ex: τyz is the shear stress in the plane
Stress acting on an element cube.
perpendicular to the y axis in the z
direction.
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Sign convention for shear stress

• A shear stress is positive if it points in the positive direction on

the positive face of a unit cube. (and negative direction on the
negative face).
• A shear stress is negative if it points in the negative direction of
a positive face of a unit cube. (and positive direction on the
negative face).

+y +y

-x +x -x +x

-y -y
(a) Positive shear (b) Negative shear
stresses. stresses.

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Stress components

• In order to establish state of stress at a point, nine quantities

must be defined; σx , σy , σz , τxy , τxz , τyx , τyx , τzx and τzy .
• If stress are slowly varying across the infinitesimal cube,
moment equilibrium about the centroid of the cube requires that

τ xy = τ yx , τ xz = τ zx , τ yz = τ zy …Eq. 1

• Nine stress components can now reduce to six independent

quantities σx , σy , σz , τxy , τxz , and τzy , which can be written as

 σ x τ xy τ xz 
 
σ ij = τ xy σ y τ yz 
τ  …Eq. 2
 xz τ yz σ z 

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 State of stress in two dimensions
(Plane stress)
Definition: Plane stress is a stress condition in which the
stresses are zero in one of the primary directions.

• In a thin plate where load will be on

the plane of the plate and there will be
no stress acting perpendicular to the
surface of the plate.

• The stress system consists of

two normal stresses σx and σy
and a shear stress τxy.

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 Stress on oblique plane
• Consider an oblique plane normal to the plane of the paper
crossing x and y axis.
• The direction x’ is normal to the oblique plane and y’ direction is
lying in the oblique plane.
• The normal stress σ and shear stress τ are acting on this plane
and A is the area on the oblique plane.
• Sx and Sy denote the x and y components of the total stress acting
on the inclined face. The direction cosines between x’ and the x and
y axes are l and m, hence l = cosθ and m = sinθ.

Summation of the forces Al = area to x

Am = area to y
x direction S x A = σ x Al + τ xy Am
y direction S y A = σ y Am + τ xy Al

or S x = σ x cos θ + τ xy sin θ
S y = σ y sin θ + τ xy cos θ
Stress on oblique plane (two dimensions)
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 Stress on oblique plane
• The components of Sx and Sy in the
S xN = S x cos θ and S yn = S y sin θ
direction of the normal stress σ are

• The normal stress acting on the σ x = S x cos θ + S y sin θ

'

oblique plane is given by

σ x = σ x cos 2 θ + σ y sin 2 θ + 2τ xy sin θ cos θ
'

…Eq. 3
• The shearing stress on τ x y = S y cos θ − S x sin θ
' '
the oblique plane is given by
τ x y = τ xy (cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ ) + (σ y − σ x )sin θ cos θ
' '

• The stress σy’ can be found by …Eq. 4

substituting θ + π/2 for θ, we then
have
…Eq. 5
σ y = σ x sin 2 θ + σ y cos 2 θ − 2τ xy sin θ cos θ
'

If stresses in an xy coordinate system

and the angle θ are known, we will get
the stresses in any x’y’ coordinate.
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Stress on oblique plane

• Equations 3-5 can be expressed in terms of double angle 2θ.

σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σx =' + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ …Eq. 6
2 2
σ x σ+ σ= σy x + σσ σ− −
y
+x
x σσ y cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ
y
…Eq. 7
σy ='
x'
−2 2 cos 2θ − τ xy sin 2θ
xy

2 σ
σy =
x +σ y
−
σ2 − σ
x
cos 2θ − τ sin 2θ
y

σ y − σ σx
' xy
2 2
y −σ x
τxy =
' ' τxy =
' '
sin 2sinθ2θ++ττ xycoscos
2θ 2θ
xy
…Eq. 8
2 2

Note: σx’ + σy’ = σx + σy
Thus the sum of the normal stresses

on two perpendicular plan is an invariant quantity and
independent of orientation or angle θ.

Eq. 3-8 describe the normal stress and shear stress on any plane
through a point in a body subjected to a plane-stress situation.
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 Variation of normal stress and shear
stress with θ for the biaxial-plane
stress situation.

1) When τ is zero
give max and

min values of σ.
2) The max and min values of σ and
τ occur at angles which are 90o apart.
3) The max τ occurs at an angle
halfway between the max and min σ.
4) The variation of σ and τ occurs in
the form of a sine wave, with a period
of θ = 180o.
The relationships are valid for any
state of stress.

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 Principal stresses
• When there is no shear stresses acting on
the planes
giving the maximum normal
stress acting on the planes.
• These planes are called the principal
planes, and stresses normal to these planes
are the principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3 which
in general do not coincide with the cartesian-
coordinate axes x, y, z. Directions of principal
stresses are 1, 2 and 3.
Biaxial-plane stress condition
• Two principal stresses, σ1 and σ2.

Triaxial-plane strain condition

• Three principal stresses, σ1 , σ2
and σ3 , where σ1 > σ2 > σ3.

Biaxial stresses Triaxial stresses

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Maximum and minimum principal
stresses in biaxial state of stress
• On a principal plane there is no shear stress; thereby, τx’y’ = 0
From Eq. 5 τ xy (cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ ) + (σ y − σ x )sin θ cos θ = 0
τ xy sin θ cos θ 2 (sin 2θ )
1
1
= = = tan 2θ
σ x − σ y cos θ − sin θ
2 2
cos 2θ 2
2τ xy
tan 2θ = …Eq. 9
σ x −σ y

• Since tan2θ = tan(π+2θ ), Eq.9 has two roots, θ1 and θ2 = θ1 + nπ/2.

These roots define two mutually perpendicular planes which are
free from shear.
• The maximum and minimum principal stresses for
biaxial state of stress are given by
 12
= σ 1  σ x + σ y  σ x − σ y 
2
σ max  …Eq. 10
= ±   + τ xy 
2

σ min =σ2  2  2  


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 Directions of the maximum
principal stress

• The largest principal stress σ1 will σy

lie between the largest normal
stress and the shear diagonal. τxy

• (If there is no shear, σx = σ1, and if σx

there is only shear the principal
stress σ1 would exist along the
shear diagonal. If both normal and σx > σy
Shear σ1
shear stresses act on the element, diagonal
then σ1 lies between the influence of
these two effects. Method of establishing direction of σ1

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 The maximum shear stress in
biaxial stress
• The maximum shear stress σy
can be found by differentiating τxy
Eq. 8 and set to zero.
dτ x ' y ' σx
= (σ y − σ x )cos 2θ − 2τ xy sin 2θ = 0
dθ
σx > σy
σ y −σ x σ x −σ y Shear σ1
tan 2θ s = =− diagonal
2τ xy 2τ xy …Eq. 11
Method of establishing direction of σ1.
Note: tan2θs is the negative
reciprocal of tan2θn. • The magnitude of the maximum
shear stress is given by
This means that 2θs and 2θn are
orthogonal and that θs and θn are
12
 σ x − σ y 
2

separated in space by 45o. τ max = ±   + τ xy 
2

 2  

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 Example: The state of stress is given by σx = 25p and σy = 5p
plus shearing stresses τxy. On a plane at 45o counterclockwise to
the plane on which σx acts on the state of stress is 50 MPa tension
and 5 MPa shear. Determine the values of σx , σy , τxy.
From Eq.6
σx +σ y σ x −σ y σ x = 25(−5 × 10 6 ) = −12.5 MPa
σx =
' + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2 σ y = 5( p) = 2.5 MPa
25 p + 5 p 25 p − 5 p
50 × 10 6 = + cos 90 o + τ xy sin 90 o τ xy = 50 × 10 6 − 15(−5 × 10 5 )
2 2
50 × 10 6 = 15 p + τ xy τ xy = 57.5 MPa

From Eq.8 Since σx + σy = σx’ + σy’

σ y −σ x σ y = σ x +σ y −σ x
' '
τxy =' ' sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2 σ y = −12.5 − 2.5 − 50 = −65 MPa
'

 5 p − 25 p 
5 × 10 6 =   sin 90 + τ xy cos 90
o o

 2 
p = −5 × 10 6 Pa
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Mohr’s circle of stress -
two dimensions
O. Mohr used a graphical method to represent the state of
stress at a point on an oblique plane through the point.
From Eq. 6 σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σx − = cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ …Eq. 6
and Eq. 8 '
2 2
σ y −σ x
τxy =
' ' sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ …Eq. 8
2
By squaring each of these equations and adding, we have
2 2
 σx +σ y  σ x −σ y  …Eq. 12
 σ x ' −  + τ x ' y ' = 
2
 + τ xy2
 2   2 

Eq. 12 is in the equation of a circle of the form (x-h)2 + y2 = r2.

Therefore Mohr’s circle is a circle in σx’ and τx’y’ coordinates
which r = τmax and the centre is displaced (σx+σy )/2 to the right
of the origin.
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 Mohr’s circle
Conventions
• A shear stress causing a clockwise rotation about any point in the
physical element is plotted above the horizontal axis of the Mohr’s circle.
• A point on Mohr’s circle gives the magnitude and direction of the normal
and shear stresses on any plane in the physical element.
• Normal stresses are plotted along
the x axis, shear stresses along the
y axis.
• The stresses on the planes normal
B to the x and y axes are plotted as
points A and B.
E D
• The shear stress is zero at points
D and E, representing the values of
A the principal stresses σ1 and σ2
respectively.
Mohr’s circle for two-dimensional
state of stress • The Angle between σx and σ1 on
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 State of stress in three dimensions

• In general three dimensional state of

stress consists of three unequal
principal stresses acting at a point,
which is called a triaxial state of
stress.
• If two of the three principal stresses
are equal
cylindrical.
• If σ1 = σ2 = σ3
hydrostatic or
spherical.

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 Stress in three dimensions
• Considering an elemental free body with
diagonal plane JKL of area A, which is K
assumed to be a principal plane cutting
through the unit cube.
• The principal stress σ is acting normal to σ
the plane JKL. The direction cosines of σ and
x, y and z axes is l, m and n respectively.
o L
In equilibrium, the forces acting on each of its
face must balance. Sx, Sy and Sz are the
components of σ along the axes. J

Sx = σl Sy = σm Sz = σn
Area KOL =Al Area JOK = Am Area JOL = An Stresses acting on elemental
free body
Taking summation of the forces in the x direction results in
σAl − σ x Al − τ yx Am − τ zx An = 0
Which
reduces to (σ − σ x )l − τ yx m − τ zx n = 0 …Eq. 13
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 (σ − σ x )l − τ yx m − τ zx n = 0 …Eq. 13(a) K

Summation of the forces in the other two

directions results in
σ
− τ xy l + (σ − σ y )m − τ zy n = 0 …Eq. 13(b)
L
− τ xz l − τ yz m + (σ − σ z ) n = 0 …Eq. 13(c)
J
By setting the
σ −σ x − τ yx − τ zx
determinant of the
coefficients of l, m and − τ xy σ − σ y − τ zy = 0 Stresses acting on
elemental free body
n=0 − τ xz − τ yx σ − σ z
Will give the solution 3
of the determinant σ − (σ x + σ y + σ z )σ 2
+ (σ σ
x y + σ σ
y z + σ σ
x z − τ 2
xy − τ 2
yz − τ xz )σ
2

which results in a − (σ xσ yσ z + 2τ xyτ yzτ xz − σ xτ yz2 − σ yτ xz2 − σ zτ xy2 ) = 0

cubic equation in σ
And invariant I1 = σ x + σ y + σ z
coefficients I = σ σ + σ σ + σ σ −τ 2 −τ 2 −τ 2
2 x y y z x z xy yz xz

I 3 = σ xσ yσ y + 2τ xyτ yzτ xz − σ xτ yz2 − σ yτ xz2 − σ zτ xy2

Note: σ x + σ y + σ z = σ x + σ y + σ z = σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3
' ' '

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 Determination of the normal stress on any
oblique plane K

• On any oblique plane whose normal

σ
has the direction cosines l, m, n with
the x, y, z axes, The total stress on the L
plane S will not now be coaxial with the
normal stress, and that S2 = σ2 + τ2. J

• The total stress can be resolved

S 2 = S x2 + S y2 + S z2 …Eq. 15
into components Sx , Sy , Sz , so that
• Taking the summation of the forces in S x = σ x l + τ yx m +τ zxn
the x, y, z directions, the expressions S y = τ xy l + σ y m + τ zy n …Eq. 16
for the orthogonal components of the
total stress are given by; S z = τ xz l + τ yz m + σ z n

• The normal stress σ on the oblique plane; σ = S xl + S y m + S z n

Substituting Eq and simplifying τxy = τyx Etc.

σ = σ x l 2 + σ y m 2 + σ z n 2 + 2τ xy lm + 2τ yz mn + 2τ zx nl …Eq. 17

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The maximum or principal shear stress
• Since plastic flow involves shearing stresses, it is important to
identify the planes on which the maximum or principal shear
stresses occur.
• The principal shear planes can be defined in terms of the
three principal axes 1, 2, 3.
τ 2 = (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 l 2 m 2 + (σ 1 − σ 3 )2 l 2 n 2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 m 2 n 2
…Eq. 14
Where l, m and n are the direction cosines between the normal
to the oblique plane and the principal axes.
l m n τ
The principal shear stresses 1 1 σ 2 −σ3
occur for the following 0 ± ± τ1 =
2 2 2
combination of direction
1 1 σ1 −σ 3
cosines that bisect the angle ± 0 ± τ2 =
between two of the three 2 2 2
principal axes: 1 1 σ1 − σ 2
± ± 0 τ3 =
2 2 2
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The maximum or principal shear stress

• Principal shear stresses for a

cube whose faces are the
principal planes.
• For each pair of principal σ1 − σ 3
σ1 −σ 2 τ max = τ 2 =
stresses, there are two planes τ3 =
2 2
of principal shear stress, which
bisect the directions of the
principal stresses.
σ2 −σ3
τ1 =
According to convention σ1 2

is the greatest principal Planes of principal shear stresses.

normal stress and σ3 is the • The maximum principal
smallest principal stress, τ2
shear stress τmax is given by
therefore has the largest
value σ1 − σ 3
τ max = …Eq. 18
2
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 Stress tensor
Stress tensor is used to simplify the equations for the transformation
of the stress components from one set of coordinate axes to another
coordinate system.
• First, we consider the transformation of a x3
vector (first-rank tensor) from one coordinate
system to another.
S = S1i1 + S2i2 + S3i3 when the unit vectors S3 S
i1 , i2 , i3 are in the direction x1 , x2 , x3. S2
x2
Where S1 , S2 , S3 are the components of S S’2
S’1 S1
referred to the axes x1, x2 , x3. x’2

• The components of S referred to the x’1 , x’2 x’1

x1
, x’3 is obtained by resolving S1 , S2 , S3 along
Transformation of axes for a vector.
the new direction x’1.
S = S1 cos( x x ) + S 2 cos( x x ) + S 3 cos( x x ) or 1 = a11 S1 + a12 S 2 + a13 S 3
'
'
1
'
1 1
'
2 1
'
3 1
S
Where a11 is the direction cosine between x’1 and x1 S 2 = a 21 S1 + a 22 S 2 + a 23 S 3
'

a12 is the direction cosine between x’1 and x2,

S 3' = a31 S1 + a32 S 2 + a33 S 3
etc..
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol …Eq. 19 May-Aug 2007
• We could write the equations (from last slide) as
3 3 3
S1' = ∑ a1 j S j S 2' = ∑ a 2 j S j S 3' ∑ a3 j S j
j =1 j =1 j =1

• These three equations could be combined by writing;

3
S = ∑ a ij S j (i = 1,2,3) = ai1 S1 + ai 2 S 2 + a i 3 S 3
i
'
…Eq. 20
j =1

• In greater brevity, the equation is obtained by writing in

the Einstein suffix notation.
S i' = aij S j …Eq. 21

• The suffix notation (j) indicates summation when a suffix occurs

twice in the same term. The summation will take place over j.
• The transformation of the stress tensor σij from the x1, x2, x3 system of
axes to the x’1 , x’2 , x’3 axes is given by
σ kl = a ki alj σ ij

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Rank of tensors

• Scalars are tensors of rank zero, in which their quantity

remains unchanged with the transformation of axes.

• Vectors are tensors of first rank.

• Physical quantities such as stress, strain and many other

quantities are second-rank tensors which transform with
coordinate axes.

The number of components required to specify a quantity is

3n, when n is the rank of the tensor.

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Mohr’s circle – three dimensions
Mohr’s circle in three dimensions show how a triaxial state of
stress is presented.

• All the possible stress

conditions within the body
fall within the shaded area
between the circles.
• The y axis is the shear
stress τ and the x axis is
the normal stress σ.
• σ1, σ2 , σ3 are shown on
the x axis and τ1, τ2 , τ3 are
shown on the y axis.

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 Mohr’s circle for various states of stress
• Mohr’s circle give a
geometrical representation of
the equations that express the
transformation of stress
components to different sets
of axes.
• The introduction of σ2 at a
right angle to σ1 results in a
reduction in the principal
shear stress, but τ2 remains
similar see fig (c).
• The maximum shear
stress is reduced
appreciably when the third
principal stress is
introduced, see fig (d). • Hydrostatic tension σ1 = σ2 = σ3 ,
Mohr’s circle reduces to a point with no
shear stress.
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 Mohr’s circle for various states of stress
Biaxial and triaxial tension stresses
effectively reduce the shear stresses and this
results in a considerable decrease in ductility
of the material, because plastic deformation is
produced by shear stresses.

Triaxial state of stress Reduction in ductility

Brittle fracture
Notch Stress
raiser

Uniaxial tension plus biaxial

compression stresses produce high
value of shear stress and contribute to
an excellent opportunity to deform
plastically without fracturing.

Ex: forming by metal extrusion gives better ductility than simple uniaxial tension.
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 Description of strain at a point
• Deformation of a solid may be made up of dilatation (change in
volume), or distortion (change in shape). This results in displacement
of points in a continuum body. y

• Consider a solid body in fixed coordinates x , Q

y, z with a displacement from point Q to Q’. Q’
y
• The components of displacement are u, v, w. o x
z y+v
• The displacement of Q is the vector uQ = f(u,v,w) x z+w

x+u
• Displacement is a function of distance,
z
ui = f(xi) and for elastic solid and small
Displacement of point Q.
displacement, ui is a linear function of xi.

Note: in other materials the displacement may not be linear with distance,
which leads to cumbersome mathematical relationships.

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 One-dimensional strain
• Consider a simple one-dimensional strain, which has been deform
from the original distance AB to A’B’.
• Displacement u is in one
x dx
dimension (as a function of x).
A B
• The normal strain is given by
u ∂u
u+ dx
∂x
∂u P
dx + dx − dx A’ B’
∆L A ' B ' − AB ∂x ∂u
ex = = = = ∂u
L AB dx ∂x dx +
∂x
dx

…Eq. 22
One-dimensional strain
The displacement in one dimensional case
is given by
u = ex x …Eq. 23

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 Three - dimensional strain
• In three dimensional strain, each of the component u = e xx x + e xy y + e xz z
of the displacement will be linearly related to each of
v = e yx x + e yy y + e yz z
the three initial coordinates of the point.
w = e zx x + e zy y + e zz z
• Three coefficients for ∂u ∂v ∂w
the normal strains, e xx = e yy = e zz or u i = eij x j
∂x ∂y ∂z
…Eq. 24
• Consider an angular distortion of an element in
the xy plane by shearing stresses, we have y
C’
DD ' ∂u BB ' ∂v
e xy = = e = = D D’ C
DA ∂y yx AB ∂x u
exy
∂u ∂u ∂u
e xx e xy e xz ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v
eij = e yx e yy e yz = eyx
B’
∂x ∂y ∂z A
x
e zx e zy e zz ∂w ∂w ∂w
B
Angular distortion of an element
∂x ∂y ∂z …Eq. 25
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 Strain tensor and rotation tensor
• In general, displacement components such as exy , eyx.. produce
both shear strain and rigid-body rotation.
• From tensor theory, any second-rank tensor can be decomposed
into a symmetric tensor and an anisymmetric tensor.
y y y
exy = eyx exy = -eyx exy = γ
eij = 12 (eij + e ji ) + 12 (eij − e ji ) eyx = 0

eij = ε ij + ω ij

…Eq. 26 x x x

where (a) Pure shear (b) Pure rotation (c) Simple shear.
without rotation. without shear.
1  ∂u i ∂u i 
ε ij =  +

Strain tensor
2  ∂x j ∂xi  The general displacement
equations
1  ∂u i ∂u i 
ω ij =  − Rotation tensor
2  ∂x j ∂xi  u i = ε ij x j + ω ij x j …Eq. 27

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 Shear strain

The shear strain γ was defined And the definition of ∂u ∂v

γ xy = +
as the total angular change from shear strain, γij = εij ∂y ∂x
a right angle. is called the
∂w ∂u
engineering shear γ xz = +
γ = e xy + e yx = ε xy + ε yx = 2ε xy strain. ∂x ∂z
∂w ∂v
γ yz = +
∂y ∂z
y …Eq. 28 …Eq. 29
exy = eyx

Since strain is a second-rank

tensor, following the transformation
of stress previously done, the strain
x tensor may be transformed one set of
(a) Pure shear coordinate axes of coordinate axes to
without rotation. a new system of axes by

ε kl = a ki alj ε ij …Eq. 30

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Principal shear strain
Following Eq.17, substituting ε for σ and γ/2 for τ. The normal strain
on an oblique plane is given by
ε = ε x l 2 + ε y m 2 + ε z n 2 + γ xy lm + γ yz mn + γ xz nl …Eq. 31

Similar to stress, the direction of the principal strains coincide with

the principal stress directions. The three principal strains are the
roots of the cubic equation.
I1 = ε x + ε y + ε z
ε 3 − I 1ε 2 + I 2 ε − I 3 = 0
(
I 2 = ε x ε y + ε y ε z + ε z ε x − 14 γ xy2 + γ zx2 + γ yz2 )
…Eq. 32 Where (
I 3 = ε x ε y ε z + 14 ε x γ yz2 + ε y γ zx2 + ε z γ xy2 ) …Eq. 33

γ1 = ε2 − ε3
The maximum shearing
γ max = γ 2 = ε1 − ε 3 …Eq. 34
strains can be obtained from
γ 3 = ε1 − ε 2

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Strain tensor
Strain tensor can be divided into a hydrostatic or mean strain
and a strain deviator.

1) Hydrostatic or mean strain (volume change)

εx +εy +εz ε kk
∆ Where ∆ is the volume strain
…Eq. 35 ε m = = = (change in volume).
3 3 3

2) Strain deviator (shape change)

We can do by subtracting εm from the normal strain

components, thus

εx −εm ε xy ε xz These strains represent elongations

or contractions along the principal
…Eq. 36 ε ij' = ε yx ε y −εm ε yz
axes that change the shape of the
ε zx ε zy εz −εm body at constant volume.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Strain measurement

• Strain can be measured by using a bonded-wire resistance

gauge or strain gauge.
• When the body is deformed, the wires in the strain gauge are
strained and their electrical resistance is altered.
• The change in resistance, which is proportional to strain can
therefore be determined.
• Strain gauges can make only direct readings of linear strain,
while shear strains must be determined indirectly.

c
b
b c

Typical strain gauge

a a rosettes.
60o 60o

Rectangular Delta
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Hydrostatic and deviator
components of stress
Similar to strain tensor, the total stress tensor can be divided into
1) Hydrostatic or mean stress tensor, σm, which involves only pure
tension or compression.
Produce elastic volume changes.
σ kk σ x +σ y +σ z σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3
σm = = = …Eq. 37
3 3 3
2) Deviator stress tensor σ’ij. Which represents the shear stress in the
total state of stress.
important in causing plastic deformation.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Deviator of stress tensor

Since the decomposition of the stress tensor is given by

σ ij = σ ij' + 13 δ ijσ kk …Eq. 38

Stress deviator involves shear stress. For example, referring σ’ij

to a system of principal axes.

2σ 1 − σ 2 − σ 3 (σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 1 − σ 3 )
σ 1' = =
3 3
2  σ − σ 2 σ1 − σ 3  2
σ 1' =  1 +  = (τ 3 + τ 2 ) …Eq. 39
3 2 2  3

Where τ3 and τ2 are principal shearing stresses.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Deviator of stress tensor
• The principal values of the stress deviator are the roots of the
cubic equation:

(σ ' ) 3 − J 1 (σ ' ) 2 − J 2σ ' − J 3 = 0

Where J1 , J2 , J3 are the invariants of the deviator stress tensor.

J 1 = (σ x − σ m ) + (σ y − σ m ) + (σ z − σ m ) = 0

J 2 = τ xy2 + τ yz2 + τ xz2 − σ x' σ y' − σ y' σ z' − σ x' σ z'

J2 = 1
6
[(σ x − σ y ) 2 + (σ y − σ z ) 2 + (σ x − σ z ) 2 + 6(τ xy2 + τ yz2 + τ xz2 ) ]

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Elastic stress – strain relations

The elastic stress is linearly related to elastic strain

following Hooke’s law.

Where E is the modulus of elasticity σ x = Eε x …Eq. 40

in tension or compression.

However, during linear extension, i.e., in x axis, the contraction in the

transverse y and z direction causes a constant fraction of the strain in
the longitudinal direction known as Poisson’s ratio v.

vσ x
ε y = ε z = −vε x = − …Eq. 41
E

Note: for most metals v ~ 0.33

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Strain energy σ

When a material is deformed by an external loading,

∆z
work done during elastic deformation is stored as
elastic energy and will be recovered when the load is ∆x
∆y
released.
Strain energy. σ

P
Work is force x distance over it acts, therefore
U = 12 Pδ …Eq. 42

U = 12 Pδ
Where P/2 is the average force from zero.
δ is the extension.
For linear elastic (i.e., x axis) then Hooke’s
extension
law is applied (σ = Eε)

1 1 σ x2 1 2
U o = σ xε x = = ε x E …Eq. 43
2 2 E 2

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Stress concentration
• Discontinuity such as a hole or a notch results in non-uniform
stress distribution at the vicinity of the discontinuity.
stress
concentration or stress raiser.
• The distribution of the axial stress reaches a high value at the edges of
the hole and drops of rapidly with distance away from the hole.

• The stress concentration is

expressed by a theoretical
stress-concentration factor Kt.

σ max
Kt = …Eq. 44
σ nom

Stress distributions due to (a) circular hole and

(b) elliptical hole.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Stress concentration at a circular hole
in a plate
• For the circular hole in a plate subjected to an axial load, a radial
stress is produced as well as a longitudinal stress.
• From elastic analysis, the stresses can be expressed as:
σ a2  σ a4 a2 
σ r = 1 − 2  + 1 + 3 4 − 4 2  cos 2θ
2 r  2 r r 
σ a2  σ a4 
…Eq. 45 σ θ = 1 + 2  − 1 + 3 4  cos 2θ
2 r  2 r 
σ a4 a2  A
τ = − 1 − 3 4 + 2 2  sin 2θ
2 r r 

The maximum stress occurs at point A

when θ = π/2 and r = a
Stress distribution at a circular hole
σ θ = 3σ = σ max …Eq. 46

The theoretical stress-concentration factor = 3

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Stress concentration at an elliptical
hole in a plate

In the case of an elliptical hole in a plate, the maximum stress at the

ends of the hole is given by the equation

 a
σ max = σ 1 + 2  …Eq. 47
 b

a/b stress
There for a very sharp crack normal to the
tensile direction will result in a very high stress
concentration.

Stress distribution at an
elliptical hole

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Stress concentrations for different
geometrical shapes

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Stress raiser in brittle and ductile
materials

• The effect of stress raiser is much more pronounced in brittle

materials than in ductile materials.

Ductile materials Brittle materials

• Plastic deformation occurs when the
• Stress redistribution will not
yield stress is exceeded at the point
occur in to any extent in brittle
of maximum stress.
materials.
stress
• In ductile materials, further increase concentration of close to the
in load produce strain hardening theoretical value will result.
(work hardening).
redistribution
of stress
the materials will not
develop the full theoretically stress-
concentration factor.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Finite element method
• Finite element method (FEM) is a very powerful technique for
determining stresses and deflections in structures too complex to
analyse by strictly analytical methods.
• The structure is divided into a network of small elements
connected to each other at node points. One node has one
degree of freedom (see fig
showing two and three dimensional
element)

(a) Simple rectangular element

(b) Two elements joined to model a structure

Some common elements
used in FEM analysis

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Finite element method

• A finite element solution

involves calculating the
stiffness matrices for every
element in the structure.
• A cumbersome part of the finite
element solution is the
preparation of the input data.
Required data such as topology
of the element mesh, node
numbers, coordinates of the
node points.

Propeller designed by means of FEM analysis

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

References

• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
• Hibbeler, R.C. Mechanics of materials, 2005, SI second edition,
Person Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-186-638-9.
• www.ndsu.nodak.edu
• www.kockums.se
• www.indentec.com
• www.enduratec.com
• www.bactechnologies.com
• www.twi.co.uk
• www.jaeri.go.jp
• www.hghouston.com
• www.ship-technology.com

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007